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EXERCISE NO. 5

SKELETAL AND ARTICULAR SYSTEM

GIO: To learn the different bones and cartilages comprising the skeletal system, their
functions and articulations.

SIO:
1. Describe the different functions of the bones.
 Bones have many functions. They support the body structurally, protect our vital
organs, and allow us to move. Also, they provide an environment for bone marrow,
where the blood cells are created, and they act as a storage area for minerals,
particularly calcium. Moreover, bone stores crucial nutrients, minerals, and lipids and
produces blood cells that nourish the body and play a vital role in protecting the body against
infection. ... Bones have many functions, including the following: Support: Bones provide a
framework for the attachment of muscles and other tissues.

2. Discuss the histologic composition of bones.

Cells - which in bone are called osteoblasts and osteocytes, (osteo - bone). There are also
two other cell types: osteoprogenitor cells and osteoclasts.

Extracellular matrix, which is made up of an organic matrix (30%) containing proteoglycans

(but less than cartilage), glycosaminoglycans, glycoproteins, osteonectin (anchors bone mineral
to collagen) and osteocalcin (calcium binding protein). There are collagen fibres (mostly type I
(90%), with some type V). Only 25% of bone is water. Almost 70% of bone is made up of bone
mineral called hydroxyapatite.

Before the extracellular matrix is calcified, the tissue is called osteoid (bone-like) tissue. When

the concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions rise high enough, they are deposited into the
extracellular matrix, and the bone calcifies. Impaired calcification (i.e. in diseases such as
rickets) leads to higher levels of osteoid tissue than normal. Calcification occurs only in
presence of collagen fibres - salts crystallize in the spaces between the fibres, then accumulate
around them.

Bone is resistant to bending, twisting, compression and stretch. It is hard, because it is calcified,
and the collagen fibres help the bone to resist tensile stresses. If you dissolve away the calcium
salts of bone, then the bone becomes rubbery because of the collagen fibres which are left
behind.
one is a modified form of connective tissue which is made of extracellular matrix, cells and
fibers.The high concentration of calcium and phosphate based minerals throughout the
connective tissue is responsible for its hard calcified nature.

3. Describe the role of the different bone cells.

Osteoblasts are specialised fibroblast-like cells of primitive mesenchymal origin called

osteoprogenitor cell that originate from pluripotent mesenchymal stem cells of the bone marrow.
The evidence of mesenchymal stem cells as precursors for osteoblasts is based on the capacity
of bone to regenerate itself both in vivo and in vitro by using cell populations (2). It has been
shown that the bone marrow stroma have the capacity to differentiate into osteoblasts,
chondroblasts, fibroblasts, adipocytes and myoblasts

Osteoclasts are involved in bone resorption that contributes to bone remodelling in response to
growth or changing mechanical stresses upon the skeleton. Osteoclasts also participate in the
long-term maintenance of blood calcium homeostasis. During bone resorption, the osteoclasts
resorb the bone surface forming depressions known as Howship’s lacunae.
Resorbing osteoclasts are highly polarized cells containing four structurally and functionally
distinct membrane domains. In vitro studies revealed the domains are the ruffled border, the
sealing zone, the basal membrane and a new functional plasma membrane domain 

4. Explain the roles of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin in the

calcium level in the blood.

Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone, which plays a key role in the regulation of
calcium levels in the blood. Precise calcium levels are important in the human body, since
small changes can cause muscle and nerve problems.

Parathyroid hormone regulates calcium levels in the blood, largely by increasing the levels
when they are too low. It does this through its actions on the kidneys, bones and intestine:
Bones – parathyroid hormone stimulates the release of calcium from large calcium stores in the
bones into the bloodstream.
 5. Describe the two types of bone.

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two types
differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. ... Osteoblasts are bone-forming
cell, osteoclasts resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells.

6. Classify bones according to:

(a) Shape

Bones can be classified according to their shapes. Long bones, such as the

femur, are longer than they are wide. Short bones, such as the carpals, are
approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. Flat bones are thin, but
are often curved, such as the ribs.

(b) development

Short bones, such as the carpals, are approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. Flat
bones are thin, but are often curved, such as the ribs. Irregular bones such as those of the face
have no characteristic shape. Sesamoid bones, such as the patellae, are small and round, and
are located in tendons.

7. Give examples of above various classifications.

Long Bones
The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The four principal types of bones
are long, short, flat and irregular. Bones that are longer than they are wide are called long
bones. They consist of a long shaft with two bulky ends or extremities. They are
primarily compact bone but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the ends or extremities.
Long bones include bones of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.

Short Bones
Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions approximately
equal. They consist primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by a thin layer of compact bone.
Short bones include the bones of the wrist and ankle.

Flat Bones
Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. Most of the bones of the cranium are flat
bones.

Irregular Bones
Bones that are not in any of the above three categories are classified as irregular bones. They
are primarily spongy bone that is covered with a thin layer of compact bone. The vertebrae and
some of the bones in the skull are irregular bones.

All bones have surface markings and characteristics that make a specific bone unique. There
are holes, depressions, smooth facets, lines, projections and other markings. These usually
represent passageways for vessels and nerves, points of articulation with other bones or points
of attachment for tendons and ligaments.

8. Name the different bones composing the axial skeleton and their common
names.

The axial skeleton is the part of the skeleton that consists of the bones of the head and trunk of
a vertebrate. It consists of 80 bones and is composed of six parts: the skull bones, the ossicles
of the middle ear, the hyoid bone, the rib cage, sternum and the vertebral column, the
bones including the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, ribs, and sternum.
9. Draw and label the important features of the following:
(a) Frontal and lateral view of skull
(b) Vertebrae
- Cervical (atlas, axis, C3 to C6 & C7)
- Thoracic

- Lumbar
- Sacrum.
 10. Name the bones composing the appendicular skeleton with their common
names.

These are the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges.
Embryologically, the appendicular skeleton arises from mesenchyme, a type of embryonic
tissue that can differentiate into many types of tissues, including bone or muscle tissue

11. Draw and label the following:

(a) Upper extremities
- shoulder girdle
 - arm & forearm bones

(b) Lower extremities

- pelvic girdle
- thigh and leg bones
 12. Identify different types of joints according to mobility and examples
for each.

Joints can be classified by the type of the tissue present (fibrous, cartilaginous or synovial), or
by the degree of movement permitted (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis or diarthrosis).

13. Draw a typical synovial joint and label the parts.

14. Enumerate the different types of synovial joints and give typical
examples for each.
Planar joints have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly curved faces. These
joints allow for gliding movements, and so the joints are sometimes referred to as gliding joints.
The range of motion is limited in these joints and does not involve rotation. Planar joints are
found in the carpal bones in the hand and the tarsal bones of the foot, as well as between
vertebrae

In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly hollow end of the other
bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other remains stationary, like the hinge of a door.
The elbow is an example of a hinge joint. The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge
join

Pivot joints consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone.
This structure allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own axis. An
example of a pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck that allows the
head to move back and forth . The joint of the wrist that allows the palm of the hand to be turned
up and down is also a pivot joint.

Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped
hollow of another bone (Figure 5). This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint. This type of
joint allows angular movement along two axes, as seen in the joints of the wrist and fingers,
which can move both side to side and up and down.

Saddle joints are so named because the ends of each bone resemble a saddle, with concave
and convex portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow angular movements similar to
condyloid joints but with a greater range of motion. An example of a saddle joint is the thumb
joint, which can move back and forth and up and down, but more freely than the wrist or fingers

Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a cuplike socket
of another bone. This organization allows the greatest range of motion, as all movement types
are possible in all directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip joints