Nutrition in Plants
Nutrition in Plants
of bacteria are
Nutrition- it’s the
autotrophs. There are
process by which
type of autotrophic
organisms in food
nutrition i.e.
materials.
Phototropism
o Importance of
The organisms use
nutrition carbon dioxide water
It provides a living and energy from soil to
organism with raw make their own food in a
material for: process called
Respiration to produce photosynthesis.
energy in the cells Phototrophic nutrition is
Growth of cells and also called holophytic
tissues nutrition.
Repair of worn out or Chemotropism
damaged tissues such as The organisms called
healing of wounds chemotrophs make their
o Types of nutrition own food using energy
There are two types of from special types of
nutrition chemical reactions.
Autotrophic nutrition – They do not use
This is where the plants sunlight, chemotrops
contain chlorophyll include certain bacteria.
make their own food. o PHOTOSYNTHE
Such organisms are SIS
called autotrophs. This is the manufacture
Heterotrophic of food materials using
nutrition- This is where light energy from the
the organism takes in or sun. It takes place in
ingests food from plants green plants.
or animals. The Importance of green
organisms are called plants
heterotrophs. As source of food and
Nutrition in plants energy
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Plants make their own Leaf blade/lamina-it’s
food and animals depend the flattened surface.
directly or indirectly on Its green in colour and
plants for their food. contains the
Food contains energy photosynthetic tissue
from the sun stored as In dicotyledonous plants,
chemical energy. simple leaves have a
Provides oxygen thick mid-rib which runs
It replaces oxygen in air in the middle.
which is continuously From the mid-rib arises
used up by all living small veins that run into
things for respiration. the lamina forming an
Makes carbon IV oxide extensive network of
available to plants and veins
animals In monocotyledonous
Photosynthesis uses plants, the mid-rib is
carbon IV oxide from absent small veins run
the air and incorporates parallel to each other
it into carbon found in In some plants the leaf is
food substances. attached to to the stem or
It is responsible for the a branch by a petiole
energy stored in coal while in others the leaf is
and petroleum attached directly
Plants and animals that In monocotyledonous
existed on earth millions plants, some leaves are
of years ago were attached to the stem by
converted into fossils. the leaf sheath
The energy they Internal structure of a
contained is stored as leaf
fossil fuels such as X
petroleum and coal. Cuticle
External structure of a It covers the upper
leaf surface of most leaves
It consist of ; and makes them appear
shiny.
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It’s very thin waxy below the upper
transparent coating epidermis.
found on the upper and Palisade cells are closely
lower leaf surfaces of packed with a few air
some plants. spaces between them
Its waxy nature makes it The cells are elongated
waterproof. and lie at right angle to
Functions of cuticle the leaf epidermis. They
To reduce the amount of contain many
water lost from the plant chloroplasts. Their
by transpiration. shapes allow them to
To protect the inner absorb most of the light
tissues from: falling on the leaf.
Infection by micro- They are close to the
organisms that may upper epidermis so as to
cause disease absorb maximum light.
Mechanical damage by The chloroplast can
animals or falling move within the palisade
objects. cells to the side
Epidermis receiving the optimum
This is the layer of cells amount of light.
below the cuticle. It’s Spongy mesophyll
usually one cell thick to It’s composed of cells
allow light to pass located between the
though the cells easily. palisade mesophyll and
The epidermis forms a the lower epidermis.
protective layer over the The cells are irregular in
cells that carry out shape and are loosely
photosynthesis arranged. They have
Palisade mesophyll large air spaces between
Maximum them which allows for
photosynthesis takes air circulation and
place in the palisade gaseous exchange
mesophyll. This is a between the cells and the
layer of cells located air surrounding them.
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Spongy mesophyll cells provide a large surface
are also lined with area for absorption of
moisture to facilitate sunlight and Carbon iv
uptake of oxygen and Oxide
release of Carbon iv Most leaves are thin to
Oxide. They have fewer reduce the distance
chloroplasts than the across which Carbon iv
palisade mesophyll cells. Oxide has to diffuse
Vascular tissues from the stomata to
The network of veins in reach the
the leaves is made up of photosynthesizing cells.
vascular tissues. This The leaves are arranged
tissue has xylem vessels on the stems of some
which supply water and plants in such a way that
mineral salts to the leaf. each leaf is able to
It also has phloem which absorb the maximum
takes away light. This regular
manufactured food arrangement of leaves on
substances from the leaf the stem minimizes
to other parts of the overlapping and
plant. overshadowing. This is
Vascular tissues also called leaf mosaic
provide support for the The presence of air
cells in the leaf spaces in the spongy
Stomata mesophyll allows for
They are found on the faster movement of
upper or lower epidermis gases.
or both. The leaf veins conduct
They allow entry of water and mineral salts
Carbon iv Oxide into the to the photosynthetic
leaf for photosynthesis cells. They also transport
Adaptations of a leaf manufactured food to
for photosynthesis other parts of the plant
The leaf blade (lamina) enabling more to be
is broad and flat to made.
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The cuticle and Cells that have
epidermis are chloroplasts are called
transparent, ensuring photosynthetic cells
penetration of light to
the palisade cells.
Each palisade cell
contains a large number
of chloroplasts and their
arrangement and Each chloroplast is
location next to the surrounded by two
epidermis enables them membranes ie the outer
to receive maximum and inner membranes.
sunlight Inside each chloroplast,
Presence of stomata for are small units called
efficient diffusion of grana (singular granum)
oxygen, water vapour A granum consists of a
and Carbon iv Oxide number of disks placed
Palisade cells are closely on each other like a pile
packed and vertically of coins. One granum is
elongated to allow many connected to another by
to be packed beneath the inter-granular/lamellae
epidermis where they Granum contains
can receive maximum chlorophyll molecules,
light and other photosynthetic
Structure and function pigments for the light
of the chloroplast reactions of
The chloroplast is the photosynthesis
organelle in a plant cell Granum provides a large
where photosynthesis surface area to
takes place. accommodate a large
Chloroplasts are found number of chlorophyll
in the cytoplasm of molecules
palisade mesophyll, Stroma contains
spongy mesophyll and enzymes that speed up
guard cells.
Page 5 of 33
the rate of methylated spirit to a
photosynthesis. naked flame because;
o Activity 1: testing Alcohol boils at a lower
for starch in a leaf temperature than water
Materials (78ºC) so it will boil in
Water bath hot water.
Bunsen burner Take the leaf and dip it
Forceps into the boiling
Droppers methylated spirit. Leave
Iodine the leaf in the hot
Water methylated spirit until all
Ethanol(methylated the chlorophyll is
spirit) removed – the hot
2 test tubes methylated spirit is a
White tile good solvent which
stop watch dissolves and extracts
Procedure (removes) chlorophyll
Take a leaf from a green from the leaf leaving it
plant that has been in the white.
sun for several hours and NB: Alcohol also makes
dip it in a boiling water the leaf stiff and brittle.
bath for 2-3minutes. Remove the leaf from
This treatment: the test tube and dip it in
Kills all the living a beaker of cold water.
tissues in the leaf thus This softens the leaf by
preventing further returning water that was
chemical reactions. removed by ethanol.
Ruptures any starch Take the leaf using a
granules present pair of forceps and
Put a boiling tube half spread it out carefully
filled with methylated onto a white tile.
spirit into the boiling Using a dropper, place a
water (water bath). Do few drops of iodine
not expose the solution onto the leaf
and note the colour.
Page 6 of 33
Results The intensity of light
The parts of the leaf varies with time of day,
containing starch are season and position of
stained blue- black while the plants on the earth’s
those without starch are surface.
stained brown. Photosynthesis takes
Methylated spirit turns place more rapidly on
from purple colour to bright days than on dull
green colour indicating days. Very bright light
presence of chlorophyll destroy chlorophyll and
from the leaf. slows down
Destarching a plant photosynthesis.
When a plant is left in a Plants in environment
dark cupboard for 2days that receive a lot of
(48 hours) and is tested sunlight have thick
for the starch, it is found cuticles or hairy leaves
out that there will be no for protection.
starch; it is found out Expt: To investigate
that there will be no the effect of light
starch. intensity on the rate of
Explanation photosynthesis
The plant cannot Set up the experiment as
photosynthesize in the shown below:
dark. Therefore no starch o X
is formed in the leaves Place the set up first
when the plant is in the inside the laboratory,
cupboard. count the number of
During this period the bubbles released in a
starch already in the minute by the plant.
plant is used up. The Repeat the counting but
plant is then described as with the plant in the
being destarched. bright sunlight. Fill in
Factors influencing the table below:
photosynthesis
Light intensity Light Number
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intensity of bubbles If the temperature is very
produced low (0ºc) the enzymes
in I become inactive and
minute little photosynthesis
Inside occurs.
laboratory If the temperature is
Average =
higher than 40ºC,
enzymes are denatured
Bright Average (destroyed) hence no
sunshine = photosynthesis i.e.
Discussion o X
When the amount of o NB: Compensation
light increases e.g. from point- this is the
inside laboratory to the point at which the
outside in the bright rate of respiration
sunshine, the rate of is equal to that of
photosynthesis increases. photosynthesis. In
This is seen by an most plants
increase in bubbles of compensation point
oxygen gas and oxygen is reached at
leaving the plant) around dawn e.g.
Therefore increasing the X
light intensity increases Respiration rate is high
the rate of and carbon iv oxide
photosynthesis to a release is high
certain level e.g. o A-B- Increasing
X light intensity
Temperature therefore increases
Photosynthesis is an rate of
enzyme controlled photosynthesis.
process. Any changes in Carbon iv oxide
the external temperature uptake increases.
of a plant affect the Compensation point.
activity of the enzymes Rate of photosynthesis is
in the plant cells.
Page 8 of 33
equal to the rate of Boiled water is free of
respiration gases including carbon
B-C- Rate of iv oxide. The rate of
photosynthesis is much photosynthesis will be
higher than the rate of very low. This is by the
respiration therefore rate fact that very few
of uptake of carbon iv bubbles are counted.
oxide is more than the Water that has sodium
rate of release of carbon hydrogen carbonate has
iv oxide Concentration more CO2 dissolved in it.
of carbon iv oxide The rate of bubbles
Activity: effect of formed is high as O2 is
carbon iv oxide on rate produced.
of photosynthesis o ACTIVITY 2
Set up the apparatus as o Set up two
shown below: destarched potted
X plants as follows
o Plant A: put some
Using the elodea plant sodium hydrogen
place boiled but cooled or potassium
water in the beaker. hydrogen carefully
Place the set up in bright on the soil holding
sunshine and count the the plant. Take the
average number of transparent
bubbles that will be polythene bag and
produced per minute. cover the whole
Repeat the experiment plant with it.
using water with some Secure the bottom
Sodium Hydrogen by tying it with
Carbonate (NaHCO3) in elastic band
it count the average o X
number of bubbles of o Plant B: Repeat
oxygen released per the procedure but
minute. place sodium
Discussion
Page 9 of 33
hydrogen Water
carbonate Only about 1% of the
(NaHCO3) the water taken in by plants
plastic container. is used for
Leave the set up in a photosynthesis.
well lit part for several Therefore water shortage
hours. Detach leaves only indirectly affects
from each set up and test the rate of
presence of starch photosynthesis.
o X o Chlorophyll
Discussion A high chlorophyll
Sodium hydroxide content in a plant implies
/potassium hydroxide) a fast rate of
absorb CO2 from the air. photosynthesis cannot
The air in the bag in set- take place in a plant that
up A becomes free of does not have
CO2 after sometimes chlorophyll e.g. the
photosynthesis will not parasitic plant (dodder)
take place without has no chlorophyll hence
carbon iv oxide. As a cannot photosynthesis.
result no starch .test is Activity: To determine
negative. whether chlorophyll is
In set B, NaHCO3slowly necessary for
breaks up to release photosynthesis
carbon iv oxide into the Expose the destarched
air in the polythene bag. variegated plant to bright
Photosynthesis takes sunlight for 3-4hours.
place and produces Detach a variegated leaf
starch. from the plant and draw
This experiment shows it.
that carbon iv oxide is Label the green part and
needed for the white part. Test the
photosynthesis to take leaf for starch. Draw the
place. Set up B acts as leaf after the teat and
the control experiment.
Page 10 of 33
label the yellow/brown These reactions can be
parts and blue black part. divided into main stages.
Discussion The first stage requires
A variegated leaf is one light energy and
whose surface shows therefore it’s called light
two colours e.g. green on stage or the light
some parts and white on dependent stage.
the others. The second stage does
The green plant has cells not require light energy
with chlorophyll so they and therefore it’s called
can photosynthesize and the dark stage or the
form starch. This show a light independent stage.
positive test for starch. The light stage
This parts show positive It takes place in the
test for starch by turning grana. During this stage
from brown to blue chlorophyll absorbs light
black. energy. This energy is
The white part has cells used in various ways.
that do not have Some is used to split up
chlorophyll. These cells water molecules into
will not carry out hydrogen and oxygen
photosynthesis so no atoms This is known as
starch will be formed. photolysis. i.e. photo
The green part of the means light
leaf acts as a control Lysis means splitting ie
experiment because it
has all the conditions
necessary for
Hydrogen produced is
photosynthesis.
used in the dark stage.
The process of
Some of the oxygen
photosynthesis
formed is released from
Photosynthesis occurs
the leaf through the
through a series of
stomata. The rest is used
chemical reactions.
up in the plant cells.
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Some of the absorbed 6H2O +6CO2 light energy
sunlight energy is stored C6H12O6 + 6O2
and is used in dark stage. (Water) (Carbon IV oxide) (Chlorophyll)
Some of the solar energy (Glucose) (Oxygen)
absorbed by chlorophyll End products of
molecules is used in the photosynthesis
formation of energy-
some glucose is used in
rich Adenosine
respiration
Triphosphate (ATP).
Some glucose is
This reaction involves
converted into starch for
conversion of light
storage
energy to chemical
Some glucose is
energy.
converted into sucrose
The dark stage
which is translocated to
It takes place in the
other parts of the plant
stroma. It proceeds
Some other glucose is
whether light is present
used in making cellulose
or not. This process
for the cell wall
involves combination of
Fatty acids and glycerol
carbon IV oxide with
are combined to form
hydrogen atoms to form
oils and fats
simple sugar such as
Amino acids are
glucose. This process is
converted to proteins
known as Carbon iv
Oxygen is used by plants
Oxide fixation eg
in respiration
Excess oxygen is
released into the
The energy required for
atmosphere
this reaction is provided
Chemical compounds
by ATP from light stage
which constitute living
reaction.
organisms
The process of
Cells, tissues and organs
photosynthesis is
are composed of
summarized by the
chemicals which are
following equation.
Page 12 of 33
refered to as chemicals Fructose Ripe fruits
of life
Carbohydrates Ribose Nucleus
They are compounds of Deoxyribose Nucleus
Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO). The Properties of
elements are in the ratio Monosaccharide
of 1Carbon, 2Hydrogen They are soluble in
and 1Oxygen. This gives water to form sweet
Carbohydrates a general tasting solutions.
formula (CH2O)n where When they are mixed
‘n’ represents the with Benedict’s solution
number of carbon atoms and heated, the copper
a molecule of Sulphate is reduced to
Carbohydrate has. red Copper i Oxide
They are divided into; hence described as
Monosaccharide reducing sugars.
They are the simplest They crystallize-
Carbohydrates and have molecules of
a general formula of Monosaccharide link
(CH2O)n where n =6 together to form
hence their chemical complex carbohydrate
formula is C6H12O6. molecules. This process
Examples; Glucose, is called condensation.
Fructose, Galactose, In this reaction water
Ribose and Deoxyribose. molecules are formed.
Functions
Monosaccharid Where Some of them e.g.
e found glucose are used to
provide energy during
Glucose Cell respiration.
cytoplasm, They are building units
blood of for larger molecules eg
vertebrates starch and cellulose in
Page 13 of 33
plants and glycogen in
animals
(ii) Disaccharides Sucrose (Cane -Green plants
It’s a double sugar sugar) -
formed when two Commercially
monosaccharide extracted
molecules combine. The from sugar-
chemical process that cane and
forms a Disaccharide sugar beet
from two Maltose (Malt In
monosaccharide is called sugar) germinating
a condensation reaction. barley
In this process, a water
molecule is formed and Lactose (Milk In milk of all
released e.g. sugar) mammals
Monosaccharide+
monosaccharide→
Disaccharide+water Properties of
Glucose+ Disaccharide
Fructose→Sucrose+Wat Soluble in water to
er produce sweet tasting
solutions e.g. sugar-cane
Condensation juice is rich in sucrose.
Glucose+ Some Disaccharide such
Glucose→Maltose+Wat as sucrose cannot reduce
er copper Sulphate in the
Condensation Benedict’s solution
Glucose+ unless they are first
Galactose→Lactose+Wa broken down to their
ter constituent
Condensation monosaccharide.
Therefore known as
non-reducing sugars.
Disaccharide Where found Some Disaccharide such
as maltose reduces
Page 14 of 33
Copper Sulphate in eg sugar-cane and sugar
Benedict’s solution beet
when heated together NB Reducing sugars
hence known as complex include;
reducing sugars.
-All monosaccharide
Disaccharide can readily
-Maltose (Disaccharide).
be broken to their
(iii) Polysaccharides
constituent
They have a general
monosaccharide
formula of (C6H10O5)n
molecules in a process
where the value of n is
known as hydrolysis
very large
e.g.
They are made up of
Disaccharide+water→2
many monosaccharide
monosaccharide
molecules.
Sucrose+Water→
Examples
Glucose+ Fructose
Starch
Hydrolysis
It’s present as stored
Lactose+Water→
food in plant tissues. It’s
Glucose+ Galactose
formed by condensation
Hydrolysis
of a large number of
Maltose+Water→
monosaccharide (300-
Glucose+ Glucose
1000 Glucose units).
Hydrolysis
Cellulose
Functions It exists as a component
Disaccharides are of the cell wall in plants.
hydrolyzed by enzymes It’s formed by
into monosaccharide condensation of a large
which are then oxidized number of
to release energy. monosaccharide (14000
Sucrose is the main form Glucose units).
in which carbohydrates It’s tough, fibrous and
are translocated in plants insoluble in water.
Some plants store their Because of its fibrous
carbohydrates as sucrose nature, it’s used by man
Page 15 of 33
to make cotton goods resistance to the muscles
and also used to make in the alimentary canal.
paper. This allows easy
Glycogen movement of food in the
It’s present as stored gut and prevents
carbohydrates in animal constipation.
tissues. It’s synthesized Food tests for
from excess glucose. Carbohydrates
It has about 30000 o Test for Starch
glucose units. Requirements
Properties of
Polysaccharides Starch powder
All are insoluble in Test tube
water and do not have a 10cm3 measuring
sweet taste hence cylinder
referred to as non- Iodine solution
sugars. Dropper
Functions of Procedure
Carbohydrates Put a spatula endful of
As a source of energy starch in a Test tube, add
Some Carbohydrates some water and shake.
such as glucose are Add 3-4 drops of Iodine
broken down to provide solution using a Dropper
energy in the cell. and shake.
As part of the structure Observe the colour
in plant cell change and record your
o E.g. cellulose observations.
forms part of the Observations
cell wall in plants.
As roughage in humans o Colour changes to
Foods of plant origin blue black.
such as vegetables and o Test for reducing
fruits are rich in sugar
cellulose and fibre. They Requirements
provide bulk and
Page 16 of 33
o Test tube Non-reducing sugars do
o Glucose solution not react directly with
o Benedict’s solution Benedict’s reagent. They
o 10cm3 measuring are first hydrolyzed into
cylinder monosaccharide.
o Source of heat/hot Requirements
water bath Test tube
o White tile Benedicts solution
Procedure 10cm3 measuring
cylinder
Put 2cm³ of Glucose
Source of heat/hot water
solution in a Test tube.
bath
Add an equal amount of
White tile
Benedict’s solution into
Dilute Hcl acid
the Test tube.
Sodium Hydrogen
Note the colour of the
Carbonate
mixture.
Sucrose solution
Place the test tube in a
Procedure
hot water bath and note
the colour changes. Put 2cm³ of Sucrose
Observations solution in a Test tube.
Add a few drops of
If colour changes to;
dilute Hydrochloric acid.
Green- very little/
Place the test tube in a
traces of reducing sugar
hot water bath for 3
is present in the solution.
minutes.
yellow-average amount
Remove the test tube and
of reducing sugar is
cool it in cold water.
present in the solution.
Add Sodium Hydrogen
Red/orange/brown- a
Carbonate solution drop
lot of reducing sugar is
by drop until fizzing
present in the solution.
stops.
o Test for non-
Add 2 drops of
reducing sugar
Benedict’s solution to
the mixture. Place the
Page 17 of 33
test tube in a hot water in plants
bath and observe the animals
colour change.
o NB (i) Dilute Hcl Solid at Liquid at
room room
acid hydrolyses
temperat temperat
and breaks down
ure ure
non-reducing sugar
to reducing sugar Lipids are compounds of
(ii) Sodium Hydrogen Carbon, Hydrogen and
Carbonate is used to Oxygen however, the
neutralize the acid. number of oxygen atoms
The final colour can be is fewer in lipids than in
green, yellow or carbohydrates.
red/orange/brown which The building units of
indicates presence of lipids are fatty acids and
reducing sugars after glycerol.
hydrolysis. The synthesis of lipid
(b) Lipids molecules requires 3
fatty acid molecules
These are fats and oils.
condensing with one
Fats Oils
molecule of
Found Found in glycerol e.g.
Page 18 of 33
condensation process known as metabolic
e.g. phospholipids, water, which
waxes, steroids and supplements the
cholesterol. requirements in the
Properties of lipids body. This is why
animals like camels
When fats are heated
accumulate large
they readily change into
quantities of fat reserves
liquid while the oils
in their bodies.
solidify if subjected to
They metabolize these
low temperatures.
fats to obtain the
Both fat and oil are
metabolic water in
insoluble in water
addition to the energy
however; they readily
released.
dissolve in organic
As structural
solvents such as alcohol,
compounds
ether and chloroform
forming emulsions and They are constituents of
suspensions. plasma membrane and
Lipids are quite inert protoplasm.
hence can be stored in Oils are storage
the tissues of organisms. materials in some seeds
Functions of lipids e.g. groundnuts, castor
Lipids as a source of seed, maize grain etc.
energy Heat insulation
A given weight of a lipid In animals, fat is
will liberate almost deposited under the skin
twice as much energy as where it forms the
an equivalent weight of a adipose tissue which acts
monosaccharide. as a heat insulator. In
As a source of this way, fats assist to
metabolic water reduce heat loss from the
bodies of mammals.
When oxidized, lipids
Mammals living in
release energy and water
temperate regions have
Page 19 of 33
thick adipose tissue o Grease spot test
which greatly reduces /translucent spot
the heat loss. Also the test
thick adipose tissue in Requirements
some aquatic mammals
helps them to be buoyant Vegetable oil/ olive oil/
in water. melted fat
Protection Filter paper
Water
Fat is deposited around Procedure
the major organs such as
kidney, heart, at the back Rub a little oil/ fat on a
of the eyeball where it filter paper. Let it dry.
acts as a shock absorber. Hold the paper against
Also wax in plant the light and observe
cuticles reduces what happens to the spot
excessive water loss. on which the oil was
Testing for the presence applied.
of lipids Repeat the procedure
o Sudan iii Test with a drop of water and
allow it to dry.
Requirements
Note the difference the
Vegetable oil/ olive oil/ lipid and the water spots.
melted fat Observations
Test tube
If a permanent
Sudan iii dye
translucent spot is
Procedure
formed, it indicates the
Put 2cm3 of oil/melted presence of lipids.
fat in a Test tube and add o Emulsion test
a few drops of Sudan iii Requirements
dye into the oil.
Observations Vegetable oil/ olive oil/
melted fat
A red colour indicates Test tube
the presence of lipids.
Page 20 of 33
10cm3 measuring acids occurring
cylinder naturally.
Alcohol All amino acids contain
Water amino group (NH2)
Procedure which consists of
Nitrogen and Hydrogen,
Put 2cm3 of oil/melted
but the number of carbon
fat in a Test tube
atoms differ from one
Add 4cm3 of alcohol into
amino acid to another.
the oil and shake
Proteins are referred to
thoroughly.
as Nitrogenous
Transfer the contents of
compounds because of
the Test tube into
the presence of Nitrogen
another Test tube about
in their structure.
half full of water.
Proteins are formed by
Observations
the condensation. The
Formation of white process involves
emulsion confirms the combinations of two
presence of lipids. amino acids to form a
o Proteins dipeptide molecule.
During this process,
They compounds of water molecule is
Carbon, Hydrogen and formed. The two amino
Oxygen. They contain acids are joined by a
Nitrogen and sometimes force called a peptide
Sulphur or phosphorus. bond e.g.
Some proteins such as
haemoglobin also
contain elements like
iron.
Proteins are made up
small units called amino Continued condensation
acids. There are about 20 leads to the addition of
different types of amino more amino acids to a
protein chain, resulting
Page 21 of 33
in a long protein chain detergents and organic
known as polypeptide solvents.
chain e.g. Proteins have both acidic
and basic properties
hence are described as
amphoteric. This enables
them to react with acids
and bases. This property
enables proteins to
combine with non-
protein compounds to
form conjugated proteins
e.g. in mucus the non-
The uniqueness of a protein compound is a
particular protein is carbohydrate while in
determined by the type haemoglobin the non-
and sequence of amino protein compound is
acids that it contains. iron.
Properties of proteins Functions of proteins
o Structural
Most proteins dissolve in functions
water but do not form
true solutions. They Proteins form of the
form colloidal structure of animal
suspension where tissue. They are found in
particles remain the form of;
suspended in water o -Keratin in hairs,
Most proteins are horns and feathers
denatured at temperature -Collagen in tendons and
above 40ºC. The heat ligaments
alters the structure of the -Myosin in muscles
protein molecule. o Proteins are
Denaturing can also be functional units in
caused by chemicals plants and
such as acids, bases, animals
Page 22 of 33
Some functional proteins o Proteins are
are; storage products
Enzymes
Plants store excess
These are proteins that proteins in the seed
speed up the reactions in which are used by the
plants and animals cells. seed during germination.
Reactions like Mammals store some of
photosynthesis and their protein in the form
respiration proceed with of casein in milk.
the help of enzymes o Source of proteins
Haemoglobin
About 10 of the known
This protein is found in amino acids cannot not
red blood cells of be synthesized by the
vertebrates. Its function human body and must be
is to transport oxygen obtained from the diet.
from the lungs to the They are known as
other parts of the body. essential amino acids.
Hormones The body is able to
These proteins regulate synthesize non-essential
life processes in animals amino acids using
e.g. insulin which compounds from the
regulates the sugar level various food substances.
in the body. These amino acids are
Antibodies therefore not required in
the diet.
These are proteins that Some proteins that we
provide the body with eat contain all the
the immunity against essential amino acids
diseases. hence called 1st class
Fibrinogen proteins e.g. nearly all
animal proteins and
This protein is important
Soya beans.
in the clotting of blood.
Page 23 of 33
Other proteins lack one Observation
or more of the essential
Purple colour indicates
amino acids. They are
the presence of proteins.
called 2nd class proteins
ENZYMES
e.g. most plant proteins
and a few animal These are organic
proteins. catalysts which are
o As source of protein in nature. They
energy are produced in living
cells.
Proteins are normally
As catalysts they speed
used as a source of
up or slow down the rate
energy in conditions of
of chemical reaction in
starvation.
the body without
Test for proteins
themselves being used
Requirements
up.
Milk /albumen There are two types of
Test tube enzymes;
10% NaOH Intracellular enzymes-
1% CUSO4 they are secreted and
Droppers used within the cells
Procedure which produce them e.g.
respiratory enzymes.
Put 2cm³ of albumen / Extracellular enzymes-
milk solution in a test Are produced within the
tube. cells but used outside the
Into the test tube add an cells which produced
equal amount of 10% them e.g. digestive
NaOH solution and enzymes.
shake. Naming of enzymes
Into the mixture above, Trivial naming- This
add a few drops of 1% method involves names
CUSO4 solution drop by given to the enzymes by
drop shaking well after the people who
each drop. discovered them. The
Page 24 of 33
names end in-in e.g. Enzymes are protein in
pepsin, trypsin. nature. They are
Use of suffix-ase therefore affected by
This is the modern temperature and PH.
method of naming Enzymes are substrate-
enzymes. The suffix-ase specific.
is added to the substrate Enzymes are efficient in
(type of food) or the small amounts since they
reaction which the are not affected by the
enzyme catalyses e.g. reactions they catalyze.
They can be used again
Substrate Enzyme and again.
Carbohydrate Carbohydrase They are catalysts that
speed up the rate of
Starch e.g. Amylase cellular reactions. They
amylase are not used up in the
Sucrose Sucrase reactions they catalyze.
Many of these enzyme-
Maltose Maltase catalyzed reactions are
Protein Protease reversible.
Factors which affect
Lipids Lipase enzyme- catalyzed
reactions
The following are some Temperature
of the examples of Enzymes are protein in
enzymes which catalyze nature hence they are
certain reactions. sensitive to changes in
Reaction Enzyme temperature.
Hydrolysis Hydrolase The best temperature
(optimum temperature)
Oxidation Oxidase of an enzyme is 35-40ºC
Reduction Reductase e.g.
Properties of enzymes
Page 25 of 33
water (ptyalin/salivary
amylase).
Starch solution (2cm3)
Test tubes
Beaker
Water bath
Burner
Iodine solution
Benedict’s solution
From the graph above, Labels
the rate of enzyme Measuring cylinder
reaction increases with Thermometer
increase in temperature Procedure
up to optimum Place 2cm³ each of starch
temperature (35-40ºC). solution into 3 different
Any further increase in test tubes 1-3.
temperature above the
optimum leads to a To each test tube add
decrease in enzyme 1cm3 of saliva/ptyalin
reaction because enzyme.
enzymes are denatured Immerse the 1st test tube
(destroyed). into a beaker of cold
NB Low temperature water (preferably with
does not denature ice cubes)
enzyme but it inactivates Put the 2nd test tube in a
the enzymes. water bath maintained at
Activity1; To 37ºC.
investigate the effect of Boil the contents of the
temperature on enzyme 3rd test tube.
activities Test the contents of each
Requirements test tube with iodine and
Saliva obtained after Benedict’s; solutions.
rinsing the mouth with Record your
observations in the table
below
Page 26 of 33
Test Test with iodine Test with Benedict’s
tube after adding solution after 20 mins
enzyme
Observa Conclusi Observa Conclusion
tion on tion
Cold Blue Starch No Reducing
water( black present- colour sugar absent
0°C) enzyme change-
inactivat Colour
ed remains
blue
Water Brown Starch Orange Reducing
bath absent- sugar
at ideal present
37°C temperat
ure for
enzyme
Boile Blue Starch No Reducing
d black present- colour sugar absent
conte enzyme change
nts denature -Colour
d remains
blue
had been inactivated by
the low temperature
Explanation
(0ºC).
Test tube A- Starch was
Test tube B- Reducing
present because it had
sugar present. Starch
not been broken down to
(polypeptide) was
maltose. The enzyme
Page 27 of 33
broken down by enzyme Dilute Hcl (1cm3)
to reducing sugar Dilute NaOH (1cm3)
(maltose). The Water
temperature was ideal Water bath
for the working of the Burner
enzyme. Iodine solution
Test tube C- Starch Benedicts solution
present because it had Labels
not been broken down Procedure
by enzyme. The Place 5cm3 each of starch
temperature was too solution into 3 test tubs.
high hence denatured the To test tube 1 add 1cm3
enzyme. of dil. Hcl and shake.
PH Add 1cm3 of the enzyme
It refers to the acidity or ptyalin and shake.
alkalinity of a substance. To test tube 2 add 1cm3
Most enzymes have of dil. NaOH and shake.
optimum PH close to 7. Add 1cm3 of the enzyme
However, some enzymes ptyalin and shake
work best in alkaline To test tube 3 add 1cm3
conditions. Extreme of water and shake. Add
acidity or alkalinity 1cm3 of the enzyme
denatures the enzymes. ptyalin and shake
Activity11; To Place the labeled test
investigate the effect of tubes into a water bath
PH on enzyme maintained at 37C for 20
activities mins.
Requirements Test the contents of the
Saliva obtained after test tubes for the
rinsing the mouth with presence of starch and
water reducing sugar. Record
your observations and
Starch solution (2cm3
conclusions in the table
Test tubes
below.
Page 28 of 33
Test tube Test with iodine Test with Benedict’s
after adding solution after 20 mins
enzyme
Observa Conclusi Observa Conclusion
tion on tion
Dil Blue Starch No Reducing
Hcl+starch+pt black present- colour sugar absent
yalin unsuitabl change-
e pH Colour
remains
blue
Dil Brown Starch yellow Reducing
NaOH+starch absent- sugar
+ptyalin ideal pH present
for
enzyme
Water Blue Starch No Reducing
+starch+ptyali black present- colour sugar absent
n unsuitabl change
e pH -Colour
remains
blue
Page 30 of 33
normal substrate for the enzyme molecules thus
active sites. In other blocking the active sites
cases, the inhibitor takes and this prevents the
up the active site of the enzyme from interacting
enzyme permanently. with the substrate.
Competitive inhibitors Such inhibitors include
This is where both poisons such as
substrate and inhibitor cyanides, mercury and
molecules are competing silver-arsenic
for the active sites so compounds.
that the action of the Importance of enzymes
enzyme is slowed down. They speed up cellular
The inhibitor is not reactions so that they
normally affected by the proceed at a pace that is
enzyme so it stays in the appropriate for
active site longer than sustaining life.
the substrate. This type Enzymes control cellular
of inhibition has no reactions and this
permanent effect on the prevents violent
enzyme action. The incidents in the cell.
inhibition they cause can Activity1; To
be overcome either by investigate the presence
increasing the substrate of enzymes in living
concentration or tissues
reducing the Requirements
concentration of the
Test tubes
inhibitor.
Labels
Non-competitive
Measuring cylinder
inhibitors
Hydrogen peroxide
They are called non-
Liver
competitive inhibitors
Muscle tissue
because they do not
Potato
compete with the
Water bath
substrate. They combine
Source of heat
permanently with the
Page 31 of 33
Procedure glowing splint into the
Label 4 test tubes A, B, mouth of the test tube.
C and D. Repeat step III using
Measure 2cm3 of muscle tissue (in test
Hydrogen peroxide and tube B) and a potato (in
put in test tube A. test tube C).
Repeat the same Repeat step III using
procedure for test tube B boiled liver (in test tube
and C. D) and make sure that
Cut a small piece of liver the liver is thoroughly
and place in test tube A. boiled for about 5 mins.
Immediately introduce a Tabulate your results
e.g.
Test tube Observation Conclusion
A-Hydrogen - glowing splint A lot of catalase
peroxide+ raw bursts into flame enzyme present
liver -Vigorous production
of
bubbles/froth/foam
B-Hydrogen -Relights glowing Medium amount of
peroxide+ muscle splint catalase enzyme
tissue -A lot of bubbles present
produced/froth/foam
C-Hydrogen -Relights glowing Little amount of
peroxide+ potato splint catalase enzyme
- low production of present
bubbles/froth/foam
D- Hydrogen -No production of Enzymes denatured by
peroxide+ boiled bubbles boiling
liver
Page 32 of 33
Discussion
Living things contain an
enzyme called catalase
which breaks down
hydrogen peroxide to water
and oxygen. The oxygen
produced relights a glowing
splint i.e.
2H2O2 → 2H2O
+ O2
Hydrogen peroxide catalase water
oxygen
Page 33 of 33