Amazing Science Book 7 Oxford

Darren Forbes . Richard FosberV .
Ann Fullick
Viv Newman o Roger Norris . Lawrie Ryans
STUDENT BOOK
OXTORD
TINIVERSITY PRESS
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Text @ Darren Forbes, Richard Fosbery, Ann Fullick, Viv Newman, Roger Norris,
and Lawrie Ryan 2013
Illustrations @ Oxford University press 2015
*T:;:T[1iT;T::H:HH:':0e4 D,
' 20 I 7
First Edition published in 2018

Essential Science for Cambridge Lower Secondary Stage 7 Student Book
was originally
published in English in 2015 by oxford University Press, Great Clarendon
Street, Oxford,
OX2 6DP' United Kingdom with ISBN 9780198399803. This adaptation is published
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ISBN 978 967 2Ir3 23 2
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the earliest opportunity.
Gontents
ok vl 2.ll Louis Pasteur: the fight against
disease 54
Summary 56
Summative Practice 57
Chapter 1 Living things
Science in Contextl The story
,,
Chapter 3 Habitats and
l.l
of appendicitis
Living and non-living things
environments 60
4
Science in Context! Working
1.2 The characteristics of life J
1.3 Investigating living organisms n field
in the 60
1.4 Looking at cells 9
3.1 Habitats 62
Scientific Inquiryt Cells under an

3.2 Investigating habitats 64
3.3 Abiotic and biotic components 66
electron microscope l3 3.4 Grouping organisms 68
1.5 Cell specialisation ( 1) t4
1.6 Cell specialisation (2) l6
3.5 chains
Food 70
t.7 Animal and plant tissues 18

3.6 Foodwebs 72
3.7 Interactions between organisms 74
1.8 Organs in humans and animals l9 Scientific Inquiryl Biological
1.9 Organs in plants 2l control 77
l.l0 The human systems 23
3.8 Interdependence between
t.l I The human skeleton 24
organisms and environment 78
r.t2 Muscles and joints 26
3.9 Human effects on food chains 80
Summary 28
3.10 Adaptation for survival 82
3.1I Local and seasonal adaptations 84
3.12 Adaptation for extreme
0hapter2 Micro-organisms environments 86
and disease 32 3.13 Underwater adaptations 88
Science in Context! Medicines 3.14 Pollutions 90
for the future 32 3.15 Human population growth 93
2.1 Bacteria 34 Summary 95
2.2 Protozoa 36 Summative Practice 96
2.3 Fungi 37
2.4 Viruses 39
2.5 Micro-organisms and food Chapter 4 Variation and
production 4l classification 100
Scientific Inquiry! Probiotics 43 Science in Context! Variety
2.6 Micro-organisms and in moths f 00
decomposition M 4.1 Classifications lO2
2.7 Micro-organisms and disease 46 4.2 Animal and plant kingdoms lO4
2.8 Micro-organisms and disease 4.3 Classifying animals 106
in animals 48 4.4 Classif ing plants f 09
2.9 Micro-organisms and disease Scientific Inquiry! Classification fI I
in plants 50 4.5 variation
Species and ll3
2.lO Louis Pasteur: decay and food Summary ll5
production 52 Summative Practice 115
7.8 Uses of neutralisation l8l
Summary r83
Ghapter 5 Solids, liquids and Summative Practice 183
gases 118
Science in Context! Amazing
demonstrations r18
Ghapter 8 Earth 186
Science in Context! Finding
5.1 Gases 120
out about Earth 186
5.2 Liquids 122
8.1 Investigating rocks f88
5.3 Solids 124
8.2 Tlpes of rock f 90
5.4 Classifying everydaymaterials 126
8.3 Weathering of rocks 193
5.5 Substances and mixtures t28
Scientific Inquiry! Moving rocks f95
Scientific Inquiryl Matter l3l 8.4 Types of soil 196
Scientific Inquiryt Separation
8.5 Four spheres ofEarth f98
of plant pigments 132
8.6 Inside Earth 199
5.6 Changes of state r33
8.7 Plate tectonics 2Ol
5.7 Using models in science r35
8.8 Volcanoes,earthquakes
5.8 Heating and cooling curves 137
and tsunami 203
5.9 Investigating water 139
8.9 Disaster response 206
5.10 Investigating evaporation r42
8.f0 Evidence from the past 207
5.ll Physical and chemical changes 144
Summary 209
Summary 145
Summative Practice 2to
Summative Practice r45
Ghapter 6 Material properties 148

Science in Contextl Developing
a new material 148 Forces and their
6.1 Materials and their uses r50
effects 212
6.2 Physical properties of materials 152
6.3 More physical properties t54 Science in Contextl It's a record! 212
6.4 Testing metals and non-metals r56 9.1 What are forces? 214
6.5 Data on metals and non-metals 158
9.2 Frictional forces 216
Scientific Inquiryl Alloy and
9.3 Dealing with friction 218
their properties r60 9.4 Forces in balance 220
Summary r6r 9.5 Gravity and weight 222
Scientifi c In quiry! Magnetic
suspension 224
Chapter 7 Acids and bases 164

9.6 Moving through fluids 225
9.7 Stretching and squashing ))7
Science in Context! Acids and 9.8 Measuring density 229
health 164 9.9 Upthrust, floating and sinking 23r
7.1 Acids 166 9.f 0 Forces at work 233
7.2 Bases 168 Summary 235
7.3 Making indicators 170 Summative Practice 235
7.4 The pH scale 172
7.5 Investigating acidic problems 174
7.6 Neutralisation 176 Ghapter 10 Energy
7.7 Preparing common salt 178 transformations 238
Scientific Inquiry! Salt crystals Science in Context! An
and red cabbage indicator r80 energetic day 238
10.1 Ideas about energy 240 Ghapter 12 Temperature
10.2 Investigating the energy in food 242 and heat 292
10.3 Elastic and gravitational energy 2M Science in Context! Ocean
f 0.4 Exploring kinetic energy 245
temperature 292
10.5 Exploring energy l2.l Temperature and scales 294
transformations 247
12.2 Thermometers 297
f 0.6 Energy transformations in cell 249
12.3 Thermal expansion 300
lO.7 Sankey diagrams for energy
12.4 Measuring heat energy 302
transformations 251
12,5 Heat transfer 304
10.8 Wasted energy 253
Scientific Inquiryt The story of
10.9 Conservation of energy 255
the vacuum flask 306
10.r0 Energy efficiency 257
Summary 307
10.11 Reducing wasted energy 259
r0.r2 Producing electricity 26r
10.13 The future of energy sources 263
Scientific lnquiryl Lemonade or Scientific enquiry* 310
battery? 26s
266
Science in Contextl History of
Summary
length measurement 310
The skills of investigation (1) 3t2
The skills of investigation (2) 314
Chapter 11 Earth and The skills of investigation (3) 3r6
Scientific Inquiryl Common
beyond 270
laboratory apparatus 3r8
Science in Context! Resources Physical quantities 319
in the Solar System 270 Measuring length 321
ll.l Earth and the Sun 272 Measuring area and volume 323
Scientific Inquiryl Kepler's laws 273 Other measurements 325
ll.2 The Moon 275 Scientific Inquiryt Archimedes
11.3 The Sun and the planets 279 and gold crown 327
ll.4 Exploring the conditions Summary 328
on other planets 283 Summative Practice 328
11.5 Beyond the planets 285
f f .6 Changes in the model of the
Solar System 287
Glossary 331
Summary 289
Summative Practice 289 lndex 351
*Note: Scientific enquiry should be taught prior to other chapters.

About this book
Amazing Science 7 provides complete coverage of the Cambridge
Science Curriculum Framework for Stage 7 andprepares students
for Cambridge Lower Secondary Checkpoint. It incorporates the
latest National Curriculum to provide support for both teachers
and students to prepare for the Ujian Nasional (UN).
Learning outcomes ... Practical activity Science in Contextl

Clearly stated at the To develop scientific Spreads at the start ofeach
start of each topic skills chapter, to put learning into real-
world or historical context and to
challenge students to think about
wider issues
Expeft tips
To avoid common '.
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errors and
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Science in Contextl
Medicines for the future
Key terms
Highlighted bold *
in text for each Summary questions ,onrept map
topic and defined in To test and consolidate students' Outlines the key concepts
bilingual Glossary learning after each topic in the chapter
vl
Scientific enquiry
A special section designed to develop students' scientific skills.
This section encompasses Practical activities and also covers
Scientific lnquiryl scientifi c measurements
lLelated information Note: Scientific enquiry should be taught prior to other chapters
to cultivate higher
order thinking skills
Glossary
Key words arranged in
alphabetical order with
Science rn Context!
detailed explanations in
History of length measurement both English andBahasa
Indonesia
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Summative Practice
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test and to introduce them to Summary
Each discipline in ."' Cambridge Checkpoint and Ujian Summarises important
Science is colour-coded Nasional style questions concepts in the chapter
vtl
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Science in Contextt
The story of appendicitfls
Sometimes things in your body go wrong. Adi Your body contains many organ systems.
has been admitted to hospital with a severe One common cause of bad stomach pain is
stomach pain. He could have fallen and hurt appendicitis. This is an infection in the appendix,
himself. He might have an infection which could a small organ in your digestive system.
cause sickness and diarrhoea. He could have
problems with his liver or his pancreas. What is
happening in Adi's body?
large
i ntesti n e
)
a. This inflamed appendix will make
Adi feel very sick
quickly once their infected appendix has been
removed. They just have to recover from the
effects of the operation and wait for the cells of
the body to repair the damaged tissues.
If the appendix is not removed in time, it may
burst. The infection then spreads from the
appendix into the tissues around the organs of
the body. This is called peritonitis and it is very
serious. The infection can spread quickly to the
blood and then to all the different organs of the
body. It can make a person collapse and even
.^, A cross section of an aooendix with acute die. So, it is very important to see a doctor if you
appendicitis have symptoms like Adi's.
We can treat diseases like appendicitis because
The doctors will listen to Adi's symptoms.
we understand about cells, tissues and orqans in
They will examine him carefully. They may test
the body.
samples of his blood and urine to see if he has
an infection. When they have decided he has In this chapter you are going to learn about
appendicitis they will operate to remove the living organisms. You will discover the amazing
infected organ. world of cells through the microscope. You will
look at how these cells work together to form the
After that, a pathologist will look at the cells
organs, which make up the bodies of the plants
under a microscope to find out what was wrong.
and animals around you.
Young patients like Adi often get better very
?o
,' Goncept map
Living and non-living things
Dwi made a visit to Gong Cave in Pacitan, Indonesia during her
After this topic you should
be able to:
holidays. She was fascinated by the stalagmites and stalactites in
o state what a non-living the caves. The stalactites form columns that hang from the ceiling
thing is of the cave while stalagmites are formed on the cave floor. Do you
o differentiate between think stalagmites and stalactites are living things?
living things and non-
living things.
a excretion
a growth
a movement
a nutrition
a reproduction
a respiration
a sensitivity
Stalagmites and stalactites in Gong Cave, Pacitan, Indonesia

^.
We are surrounded by living things and non-living things.

Sometimes, it is difficult to differentiate between them.
All living things have seven characteristics in common. These
are excretion, growth, movement, nutrition, reproduction,
respiration and sensitivity. We say something is a living
thing only when they show these seven characteristics.
Non-living things do not show these characteristics.
There are two q?es of non-living things. The first tlpe of
non-living things refers to materials which originated from
living things. For example, a wooden chair (a non-living
thing) is made from a tree (a living thing). Petroleum,
another non-living thing, is formed from organisms which
died millions of years ago.
The second tlpe of non-living things refers to items
r Amethyst quartz crystals are
that are derived from materials which were never alive.
hardened minerals formed from
non-living things Examples of these are metals, sand and glass.
ls it alive?
Collect three things from your school surroundings. Decide if they are living organisms or not.
. Prepare a checklist like in the previous page and fill in the information.
Look at the images below - they show living things (known as living organisms) - which exhibit
several characteristics of living things.
. Now try question 2from the Summary questions below.
Collect 10 items that you can find tn your classroom and draw a table that has all the seven
characteristics of living things. Tick the items that exhibit anv of these characteristics and cross if
they do not.
Summary questions
O lmagine you are

leading a team of
scientists on a missiorr
to Mars. You want to
find out if there is life
on the planet. What
would you bring to
help you with your
investigation? How
would you decide if
you had discovered
life or not? How would
you convince scientists
on Earth that you had
discovered life?
Look carefullv at oictures

@ ano @.-Reterrins
to the key terms on
page 4, decide which
characteristics of life
you can observe in each
picture.
@ eroiplanted some
seeds in his garden.
Are they living or
non-living?
Investigating living organisms
To know if something is a living thing or not, you have to work
After this topic you
like a scientist to find out. This means asking lots of questions and
should be able to:
. looking very carefully to make observations. Scientists look, smell,
exptarn some ways
listen, take photos or record sounds as part oftheir observations.
to demonstrate the
characteristics of They also measure things. They carefully record their evidence.
ilving organisms Then they try to explain what they observe as well.
o list some of the work
scientists do.
Respiration
Living organisms respire to get energy from their food. It means
they often use oxygen to break down their food and produce
energF. They produce carbon dioxide and water as waste products.
. carbon dioxide They also produce heat. Getting rid of this carbon dioxide is also
. observation known as excretion.
. oxygen Carbon dioxide is a poisonous gas. If you bubble carbon dioxide
. record through a colourless liquid like limewater, the limewater turns
. urea cloudy white.
You breathe in and out thousands of times a day. Your body gets
oxygen from the air you breathe in. What do you think happens
when you breathe out? Think of a way to test your idea.
Growth and reproduction

Carbon dioxide turns clear Living organisms take time to grow. As living things grow, they
limewater cloudy increase in body size, weight and number of body cells. Growth
is an irreversible and permanent process. It changes your body
shapes and functions. Growth rate can be measured by height and
weight. In human beings, the stages of growth include infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age.
Reproduction also often takes a long time. It means an organism
produces offspring and thus, ensures the continuation of their
population. All living things reproduce in different ways. Plants,
for example, reproduce through seeds, leaves and stems.
Can you tell the difference between growth and reproduction?
Excretion
Excretion means removing waste products from the body.
Breathing, sweating and urinating are examples of excretion. We
remove carbon dioxide and water vapour when we breathe out.
When we sweat, we excrete sweat which consists of water, salt and
urea. Excretion is important because it prevents the body from
becoming poisoned.
Nutrition
All living organisms need
to make or take in food for
fuel. This fuel gives them
energy. Animals cannot
make their own food. So
they eat other organisms.
Plants don't eat food. They Some plants trap and digest
use light, carbon dioxide and animals. These plants cannot get
the minerals they need from the
water to make their own food. They soil, so they eat animals instead!
produce glucose, and also oxygen as their waste product. They
absorb minerals from the soil as part of their nutrition.
Summary questions
The importance of movement rnint about your answer
@
Movement is vital for living organisms to survive. For example, to question 1 on page
animals need to find food, shelter, and breeding partners. They 6. Answer the same
must also avoid danger. Plants need as much light as possible to question again - but
make food. now maKe your answer
as scientific as possible.
Sensing the world around you @ nri kept a plant by the

window in the classroom
All living organisms can sense if there are changes in their for a month. He watered
surroundings. When they do that, they can find food and keep it regularly. He put
out of danger. The main human senses are sight, hearing, smell, another plant in the dark
taste and touch. for a month. In the end,
the plant in the dark
died. This proved that
the plant needed light
Testing the connection between to make food. His friend,
taste and smell Budi, did not agree.
Your sense of smell and your sense of taste work very closely He did not think the
together. You can taste things much better if you can also investigation was very
smellthem. scientific.
. Plan and carry out a scientific investigation by using (a) Why did Arithink
flavoured snacks or different tvpes of crushed fruit. that light is needed
for plants to make
food?
In the great migration, animals such as zebras and wildebeest miqrate (b) Suggest why Budi
to find planLs to eat Carnivores such as crocodiles, lions and hyenas
migrate to follow their animal prey was right to think
that the investigation
was not scientific.
(c) Plan a more scientific
investigation to show
that plants need light
to make food.
Looking at cells
After this topic you What is a microscope?

should be able to:
Cells are very small. We need a special tool called a microscope
o set up a light
to see them.
microscope and use
it to observe cells
. prepare an animal
slide
. name the main
structures seen in an
animalcelland plant
cell under a light
mrcroscope
o state the similarities
between animal cells
^^,J
cil rLr ^t^^+ ^îl^
vrdr rt uvilD.
A water flea (inset) cannot be seen with

our naked eyes but it can be observed
under a light microscope
body tube - holds

eyepiece lens
you observe
-,,^^^+-
^^! JuvPv,
o,,u Lr
A microscope makes small
through here
EyEP'sus
^.,^î^^^l^^- ,s,,J things look bigger. It is rather
Iike a complicated magnifiiing
coarse focus glass. It can make things look
knob - brings the objective lens
cnariman inrn
- lens that
4x, 10x, 100x or even 400x
^."..,t f^., ,. magnifies the bigger than they really are!
specrmen We can use it to see living
fine focus knob stage - where organisms or non-living things
fi^^ +, ,^^^ microscope slide is
praceo
such as crystals that we could
the focus and
i^^-^-^^^ +L^ never see just using our eyes.
detail of the condenser
specrmen - focuses light on Light from the light source
the specimen goes through the material
armllimb you want to look at on your
where you hold diaphragm - controls
- the amount of microscope slide. It travels
and carry the
linh+ ra.ahi^^ +h-
mrcroscope up through the objective lens
specrmen
cip
and the eyepiece lens until
mirror/light source
- to hold the specimen - raflantc li^h+ t^ tho
it reaches your eye. You see
in place specrmen a clear, magnified picture of
base
your specimen many times
- Keeps the i'. bigger than it really is.
'*r *:,
-i-'^.-^^^ "+.hl-
* A light microscope
How to use a light microscoPe?
Handling a microscope is not hard, and the steps below can help
you.
Step l: Place the microscope on a flat surface, with the mirror
facing the light source.
Step 2: Adjust the mirror to allow light to
enter the microscope.
Step 3: Place the slide onto the stage.
Step 4: Select the lowest power

objective lens.
Step 5: Look into the eyepiece
lens.
Step 6: Turn the coarse focus

knob until the specimen
can be seen clearly.
Step 7: Turn the fine focus knob to

obtain a sharp image.
. cell
. chlorophyll
o microscope Preparing a slide of cheek cells
. starch Now let's use a microscope to observe cells, in this case cheek cells.
The preparation of cheek cells and onion cells are almost similar
except the use of staining agent. Methylene blue is used to stain
cheek cells as this makes it easier to observe the nucleus. In plant
cells, such as the onion, iodine solution is used because it reacts
with the starch granules in the cells. That makes it change colour,
and you can then see the plant cells through a microscope.
O (9 onto a crean (O methvrene brue to
;"";'y,:Uiili: iJ;i ii.lfl,:|, ru:::!;:ff:'J'" ilit"1'"f":r
Place the cover slip over Use filter paper to absorb any
IE the specimen gently excess methylene blue
l.l
Animal cells
Microscopes have made it possible for us to see the cells that make up animals and plants. If you
Iook at one of the simple cells that lines the human mouth through a light microscope, this is what
you see.
nucleus - this is cell membrane - this is the outer layer

the control centre ofthe cell. Substances move in and out
of the cell. lt contains through the membrane
all the plans for making
new cells and
new organrsms cytoplasm - this is the jelly-like substance
where all the important jobs of the cell are
carried out, such as using the substances from
food for growing
vacuole - tiny spaces containing air, fluid or

food particles. Animal cells have many small
vacuoles
l, Animal cell
Flant cells
Many of the structures in a plant cell are the same as in an animal cell. However, there are some big
differences too.
nrtnnl:cm
vacuole - a
membrane-lined space
nucleus filled with fluid
cell membrane
cell wall - plant cells
hr\/a r t^r
'^h
cellulose wall around
chloroplasts - them, which helps
small disc-like the plant to stay
structures found in upright, gives shape
green plant cells. and protects the cell
They contain a
^16oh î^mon+
known as
chlorophyll
A Plant cell
1',!
Which is which?
These are pictures of animal cells and plant cells photographed using a powerful light microscope.
. Can vou tell which cells are which? Then label the main parts of each cell.
1 00Ox
Modelcells Summary questions

. Plan and make a model of an animal cell and a model ofa O vicroscopes have
plant cell. What materials will you use? changed the way
scientists look at the
living world. Explain
why they are so
Gomparison between an animal cell and impodant.
a plant cell
@ Explain the similarities
and differences
Animal cell Plant cell
between plant
and animal cells to
someone who has not
Basic units in both organisms and carry out life processes studied biology.
Has cell membrane, cltoplasm and a nucleus @ foot at the animal

celland plant cell
models that you and
Animal cell your classmates
have made. Decide
which models are
Not fixed Shape Fixed shape
the best and explain
what makes them
Does not have a cell wall Cellwall Has a cell wall
particularly good.
Has chloroplasts
Does not have chloroplasts Chloroplast
to make food
Usually absent but if , Has a large central

vacuole
pr"r.rri, the vacuole is small vacuole
Glycogen granules Foodstorage Starch grains

Gells under an electron
mlGroscope
l,ook at the two pictures of pollen grains. The second picture is observed through an electron
it gives you a more detailed look at the pollen grains than the first picture.
rrricroscope. So
An electron microscope gives a more detailed image compared to a light microscope. Thus, it is
widely used by researchers to observe specimens. An electron microscope has a higher magnification
irnd resolution power so researchers can see the finer details of cells and micro-organisms.
.r. Pollen grains under a light microscope (left) and an electron microscope (right)
chloroplast
rr ritochondrion Golgi apparatus
ribosome
lrrcncnma vacuole
rough endoplasmic
centriole reticulum
cytoplasm
nucteotus
cyroprasm
cell wall
r;ell membrane nucteus
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum cell membrane
mitochondrion
Animal cell Plant cell
This is a diagram of an animal cell and a plant cell observed under the electron microscope. Can you
explain the functions of these structures?
Gell specialisation (1 )

Single cells are very small, often only about 0.0l mm across.
be able to: Some organisms are made up of single tiny cells. We say they
. are unicellular. Bigger organisms such as human beings, trees,
explain how cells,
tissues, organs and insects and mosses are multicellular. This means they are made
organ systems are up of many cells. For example, you are made up of billions of tiny
arranged cells all working together.
. give some examples The cells that make up a body are not all the same. They are
of specialised animal specialised to do different jobs. Nerve cells for example, carry
cells.
electrical messages to the brain and throughout the body.
Specialised cells have different features so they can do a particular
job in the body.
. multicellular
. organ
o specialised Gell organisation
. tissue
. Lots of specialised cells of the same type working together make
unicellular
up a tissue. A tissue carries out a special job in the body. Muscle
tissue for example, contracts and relaxes for our body movement.
Several tissues working together in the body form an organ. For
example, muscle tissue works with other types of tissues to form
the stomach, an organ.
Sometimes several different organs work together to carry out a
specialised job in the body. This is called an organ system, such as
the digestive system and the excretory system. Organ systems are
needed to form complex organisms.
Specialised animal cells

When cells become specialised to carry out one job, they look
very different compared to the simple animal cell you looked at
on page 11. Look carefully at the cells and you will be able to see
how they have changed to carry out their special job.
.r. Cell organisation begins with

cells tissrres oroans apl
nucteus
systems to form organisms
Muscle cells - Contract and Bone cells - Suoport the softer

relax to enable movements of tissues and orovide ooints of
different parts of the body attachment for muscles.
'|4
short strands energy released here
of cytoplasm head contains
(dendrites) hydrolytic enzyme
to enter the egg tail (flage lum) propels
cell (ovum) through f uid
long strand
of cytoplasm
carries genetic
(axon/
information
( in the nucleus
Nerve cell (neurone) -
A ^^-,^
A ^îl L^^
I rerve Leil
t^-
^ rurrg
r rds d
axon to transfer eiectrical

messages around the body.
The dendrites connect to
many other nerve cells.
Sperm cell - Carries genetic information to the egg.
It is specialised to move to the egg cell with its tail and
the energy-releasing middle region, and then to
break into the egg with its head
cell membrane no nucteus/ flexible shape to pass Summary questions

so short life through small spaces
O tO Design a cellthat is
good at storing fat.
Label it to explain
the specialised
structures.
(b) Design a cell
biconcave shape increases cytoplasm contains haemoglobin, that is good at
surface area to transport which carries oxygen detecting light.
oxygen Label it to explain
r Red blood cell -The special shape gives a large surface area the specialised
so oxygen goes into the cell. No nucleus to make more structures.
room for the special red pigment (haemoglobin) that (c) Use the Internet
rransporrs oxygen.
or other books to
look up fat cells
and light-detecting
cilia beat to move fluids
cells, and see how
wellyour design
compares to what
the real cells look
like.
@ Oraw a table as below

ano compare nerve,
sperm and red blood
cells.
nucleus
Ciliated epithelial cells - These cells are covered with tiny,

hair-like cilia which beat to move things in the body,
for example mucus from the lungs They use lots of energy.
15
Cell specialisation (Z)
After this topic you shoutd Specialised plant cells
be able to:
. give some examples of
These strange looking plant organs carry out special jobs.
The
specialised plant cells pitcher plant traps insects while the mangrove roots absorb
air and
. explain how specialised
water into the trees. These plant organs are made of
speciarised
plant cells are grouped cells organised into tissues. Several tirro", work togeth& to fo._
together to make the organ. For example, the roots contain transport
tissue made
tissues and organs. up of xylem and phloem cells as well as supporting
tissue.
Mangroves
Cells for making food

The process where plants make their own food is
called
photosynthesis. In the green parts of plants (the leaves
and
the- stems) many of the cells have special green
structures
called chloroplasts that carry out photosyntltesis.
The green
substance in these structurts, chlorophyll, capturer"light
energy from the Sun, which is used Uy ihe plant
to ma'ke
sugar (glucose). Plant leaf cells containing rots
of chloroplasts
make specialised palisade tissue, which ii where most
of the
photosynthesis takes place.
vacuoie supports chloroplasts ce tl
and stores nutrients trap light membrane
c.) C), C--- O

Pitcher plant
cellulose cell wall for
cytoplasm support and shape
-r, A leaf cell

16
Drawing cells
Here is part of a plant leaf and a plant root under a light microscope, The cells are stained
(coloured)to make them show up more cleady.
. Make careful drawings of a palisade cell from a leaf and a root hair cell as seen through a light
mtcroscooe.
. Label as many things as you can.
. Look at the diagrams of the leaf cell (on the previous page) and the root hair cell (below). What
don't you see in these micrographs?
Summary questions
@ Siti observed the cells

of a plant leaf under the
microscope and saw
r Light micrograph of a plant leaf I Light micrograph of a plant the green chloroplasts.
(x 200) root (x 15) She also looked at
onion cells. Even though
the onion cells had no
chloroplasts she coulo
Root hair cells still see that they were
You find root hair cells close to the tips of growing roots. Plants plant cells and not
need lots of water and minerals for growth. The root hair cells help animalcells.
them absorb water. They give the plants microscopic 'hairs' on the (a) What are the main
roots so there is a very large area ofroot surface that can take in differences between
plant and animal
water. Root hair cells are always found close to the transport tissue
cells?
in the roots so the water can be carried up to the rest of the plant.
(b) Why do you
think there are
chloroplasts in
some parts of the
large surface area plant and not in
- helps efficient
^L-^-^+i^^
others?
- dissolved substances
help draw water into @ Sore plant cells are
the root nucleus adapted for taking in
water from the soil and
.^, A root hair cell others are adapted
for photosynthesis.
The guard cells cyroprasm
vacuole What other types of
cells might be needed
in a plant? Can you
find out about two
chloroplast more specialised types
Guard cells - are kidney-
shaped cells that control of plant cells? (Hint:
the size of stoma (opening) moving substances into
by changing its shape.
They regulate water loss in leaves or around the
plants. n ucle us plant.)
17
Animal and plant tissues
Tissues are built from individual cells which are similar in structure
be able to:
and in function. Examples of tissues in humans are epithelial
o state the role of tissues
tissues, nervous tissues and muscle tissues, while vascular tissues,
in cellorganisation
ground tissues and epidermal tissues are found in plants.
. give some examples Nervous tissues sense stimuli and send impulses to different parts
of animal and plant of the body as a response. Impulses are electrical signals. Nervous
tissues. tissues control and coordinate activities of the body. This tissue
makes up our brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
. impulse
o phloem
. stimuli
. xylem
epidermis
cortex
A Nervous tissues made from many neurone cells
The contraction of muscle tissue enables movement. The

movement may involve the whole body or part of it. The three
types of muscle tissues are smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and
cardiac muscle.
skeletal muscle cardiac muscle
Vascular tissue consists of

*yle- and phloem. Xylem Summary questions
transports water and minerals
from the roots to other parts of @ whichis more complex:
human tissues or plant
the plant. Xylem also supports
the plant. Phloem transports tissues?
Explain your answer.
food from the leaves to the
roots and stems.
Ground tissues consist
@ npart from transporting
water and mineral
of parenchyrrra tissues, salts, xylem also
collenchyrna tissues and supporls the plants.
sclerench).ma tissues. These How does xylem do
tissues store food. They also that?
Vascular tissue (xylem and provide support to the plants.
^. phloem)
Organs in humans and animals
Humans, like lots of other animals, have many different organs
inside their bodies. Plants have many different organs too. Each
should be able to:
. organ has a particular job to do. Your heart is an organ that pumps
give the positions of
blood. It is part of your circulatory system, which transports
the main organs in
the human body substances all around your bodv.
. explain the functions
of the mdn organs in
the human body. Seeing inside your body
Organs can be observed by cutting open (dissect) the body like
the frog below. By using special machines, doctors and scientists
can now see inside the human body without cutting it open. Look
at the photo below of a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan
. dissect
of a human body. What can you see?
lung
hea 11
liver
gall bladder pancreas
small intestine
stomach
large intestine urinary bladder
A Organs {ound in a dissected frog L An MRI scan
19
The main human organs
MRI scans are not always easy to understand. However, if you know the main organs in the body,
you will find it much easier to see what is going on when you look at the scan!
brain
- controls the activities
of the body
aorta
trachea - carries blood around the body
- carries air in and out

of the lungs lungs
- air is breathed in and out to give
vena cava oxygen for respiration and get rid of
- carries blood back carbon dioxide
to the heart
heart
- pumps blood to the lungs to take
up oxygen and then pumps blood to
all the organs ofthe body
liver stomach
-breaks down - breaks down food
poisonous chemicals
pancreas
-helps break down fats
kidney
- makes urine and Summary questions
balances the mineral
salt and water content
in blood O Make a list of attthe
organs you can identify
on the MRI scan using
small intestine the information from
- breaks down food the diagram of the
and takes it into the
blood
human body.
@ Using the diagram of

the human body, and
any other resources,
oraw separate
diagrams of the
large intestine respiratory system, the
-takes water back into the circulatory system, the
body and gets rid of waste
digestive system and
the excretory system.
20
F
Aftar thic innin rrnr r

Wherever you live, plants will be part of your life. People eat
plants, wear materials made from plants and build houses from
should be able to:
. give the position of plant materials such as wood. All flowering plants have some
structures in common.
the main organs of
flowering plants - the Although plants from around the world may look very different,
t^^.,^^
^+^mil, ttjdvUJ, r'^^+^
TUULJ
JLUt they all have the same plant organs.
and flowers
. explain the functions
of the main organs of
flowerrng plants
. make careful
observations and
drawings.
o flower
. leaf
. root
. stem
D:to n:lmc
Orchids
Flowering cacti
wlltin a Photo'
ldentifying the main organs of a plant
Collect four different complete plants from your school garden. Make sure you have permission
from an adult to dig up the plants. Gently wash the soil off the roots.
Spread each plant out on a piece of paper and identify the main organs.
. Draw each of your plants and label the organs.
o Compare the size and shape of the same organs in different plants.
Plant organs
What the organs do
Each plant organ has a job (function) in the plant. That is how a plant carries out the functions of
living organisms. The organs of a plant keep growing all through the plant's life.
. Leaves make food in a process called photosynthesis (see page 16). The leaves are usually green.
The chloroplast traps the sunlight which the leaves need to make food. The leaves are often big
and flat so they capture as much light as possible. They also let the plant take in oxygen and
release carbon dioxide at night. They are therefore important for respiration, excretion as well as
photosynthesis.
. Flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant. They may be sensitive to light and close up
when it gets dark.
The stem supports the plant. It holds up the flowers so that
insects or the wind can bring pollen into them. The stem also Summary questions
holds up the leaves to the Sun so they can make food. The
stem is sensitive to light and it moves by bending so that the O Not allthe ptants have
flowers. Explain why.
leaves are exposed to as much light as possible.
The roots grow into the soil. They hold the plant in the ground.
They take up water and minerals from the soil, which the plant
@ Sometimes the organs
of plants look very
needs to make food. The roots may store food to help the plant strange. lt is because
reproduce. they have special
functions in the plant.
( The structure For example, the
of a flowering
pl ant
spines on a cactus
look thin and hard. In
fact they are leaves
which help the plant
to lose less water.
They also protect it
n from being eaten.
I
Can you think of three
really unusual plants
from your country and
explain the functions of
their special or unusua
organs.
I
I
22
r-
The human systems
When a few organs work together to perform a certain function,
it is called an organ system. The systems work independently and
should be able to:
o together to form a functioning human body.
state the roles of
systems in humans ( Nervors
brain system
. give some examples Coordinates and
of human systems. cninal rnr.l controls nerve
activities and
responses.
bones nerves
( sk"l"t"l
system
(r rnnartc
. circulatory system body and
tha
. digestive system provides

. excretory system
movement.
. nervous system
. organ system
. respiratory system
lver Circulatory system

Transports food
omach substances, oxygen, ) Respiratory
system
carbon dioxide and
large Supplies
waste products in
i ntesti ne oxygen to
the body
smatl the body
I nIesIt ne and removes
Tectum carbon
dioxide
Summary questions
O *nu do tissues usually

un nary consist of similar cells
bladder whereas the systems
are made up of different
organs?
o. Digestive system
Breaks down {ood
( Excretory system
molecules to produce Removes waste products @ suppose one system
fails, what do you think
nutrients. such as carbon dioxide,
urea, water, mineral salts happens to the rest of
the body?
The human skeleton

All living organisms move, including people. We are vertebrates
be able to: with a bony skeleton inside our bodies. We use that skeleton to
. explain how the
help us move about.
skeleton gives the body
supporl, protection and
movement Inside the body
. name the main bones To see the bones inside our bodies we use X-ray photographs.
of the body. X-rays go straight through the soft parts of our bodies. So on
X-ray photographs only the hard bones can be seen.
r skeleton cranium (skull)

o vertebrate
o X-ray photograph
cl avi cl e
(collar bone)
-^^^,,t- hu merus
(s ho u lder
(upper arm bone)
blade) steTnum
(breast bone)
rib
X-ray pictures let us see the vertebral column
bones inside a living body (backbone) - made
up of lots of small
bones called
vertebrae
pelvic girdle
carpa ls
(wrist bones)
pnaranges
(finger bones)
femur
(thigh bone)
patella
(kneecap)
tibia
(shin bone)
fib u la
(calf bone)
tarsals
(a nkle)
pna ranges
Itoes)
r The human skeleton

Broken bones Summary questions
Look carefully at these two X-rays. t Here are some names

of the bones in the
Try and work out which bones have been broken in each one. body. Use them to
. Make a sketch and labelthe broken bones. answer the ouestions.
. Explain how you decide which bones were broken. ribs thigh bone
backbone (vertebrae)
shin bone skull
toe bones
(a) Which parts of the
skeleton hold the
body upright?
(b) Which parts of the
skeleton protect
delicate organs?
The skeleton is not

one single large bone.
It is made up of lots
of smaller bones with
joints in between them.
Explain why this is
important.
What does the skeleton do?

@ eaoies and small
children have bones that
The skeleton does three main jobs:
. it supports the body are more flexible than
. it protects delicate organs those of an adult. This
makes it possible for
. it is jointed so we can move easily.
them to keep growing.
We all need a strong support system to hold us up. Otherwise we (a) Apaft from making
would be giant, rubbery blobs! The bones of the skeleton are hard growth possible,
and strong so they can protect vital organs from being damaged. why is it a good
thing that the bones
We need protection for the delicate parts of our bodies, such as of small children are
our brains and our hearts. Strong, bony'cages' like the skull and quite flexible?
the ribs give us the protection we need. (b) Adults would not
get on very well if
We need to be able to move about quickly and easily. The place
their bones were as
where two bones meet is called a joint. The joints between the flexible as those of
bones mean the skeleton allows us plenty of movement, as well as a small child. Why
support and protection. not?
Broken bones
If you fall badly or meet with an accident you may break a bone. A
broken bone hurts and it does not support your weight. However,
broken bones do get better. Ifthey are kept still for several weeks,
your body makes new bone tissue, which heals the break. A plaster
or splint is put around the broken bone to keep it still as it heals.
25
I Uuscles and ioints
The bones of the skeleton can move, but only if you make them.
The bones inside your body move thousands of times a day. Pick
be able to:
. up your pen and lift it up to your shoulder. Which bones did you
explain how the joints
move?
make it possible for you
to move
. explain how the Muscle power
muscles work
against each other (in
antagonistic pairs)to
move the bones of the
skeleton.
a antagonistic muscles
a contract
a relax
a synovialfluid
a tendons
humerus
To move our bones we need
muscles. Athletes train to get
big, strong muscles which are
u lna easy to see, as in the photo
Riranc enntran+c ra,hila above. Most people cannot
triceps relaxes. The biceps see their muscles quite so
exerts a pulling {orce on
tendons to raise the radius. clearly! Muscles are bundles
The lower arm is raised offibres which can contract or
shorten.
Each end of a muscle is joined to a
different bone by non-stretchy tissue
called tendons. When a muscle contracts.
Triranc nnntrrrtc
it shortens to pull a bone into a different position.
while biceps relaxes.
The triceps exerts a
pulling force on
Your muscles can only pull - they cannot push the bone back to
tendons to move the where it came from. A different muscle must contract to pull the
ulna down The lower bone back. While the second muscle contracts, the first relaxes.
arm straightens.
Muscles that work in pairs like this are called antagonistic
muscles because they work against each other.
forearm straightens ( Antagonistic muscles working in the arm
26
Muscles and movement
Try the arm movements shown on page 26. See if you can feel your muscles as they shorten
and stretch.
o Which other parts of your body are moved by pairs of muscles working like this? Make a list of
all the pairs you can think of.
Joints and movement

Bones cannot be bent without being damaged. Wherever two bones meet, there is flexible connective
tissue which allows movement. These places where a bones meet are called joints.
There are two tlpes of joints in our body called immoveable joints and moveable joints. The
immoveable joints are found in our cranium bones and do not allow movements.
If the joint is able to move back and forth, like a hinge on a door, it is known as a hinge joint. It can
be found in your elbows and knees. If the joint can move in a circular motion in all directions, like in
your shoulders and hips, the joint is known as a ball-and-socket joint.
Summary questions
numerus
ligaments - to hold the O the diagram of

joint into your book.
"oOU
a
bones of the joint together
so they move slowly Label each paft of the
joint and describe what
it does.
@ Harir notices that the

muscle which lifts his
arm up (his biceps) is
bigger than the muscle
which pulls his arm
down (his triceps). Can
you think of a scientific
cartilage synovial fluid ulna
explanation for this?
.r, A synovialjoint, a structure of a moveable joint
@ Make a poster to show
the structure of a joint,
The ends of your bones are covered with tough, rubbery cartilage the way it works and
to protect them. In places where the bones move a lot, such as what happens when it
your hips, knees and elbows, you make synovial fluid. This fluid goes wrong. Work in
cushions and lubricates the joint. It makes sure that the bones groups - each group
move smoothly without grinding against each other - it is like oil can find out about a
in the engine of a car! different joint.
If the joints become damaged or diseased it is very painful to

move. Some joint problems such as arthritis are more common
in older people as all the tissues of the joint suffer from wear and
tear with time.
27
t-
i
I Sum ffiry
All living things move, take in or make Cells often become specialised to carry
food, respond to changes in the world out a job in the body; for
particular
around them, grow, reproduce (produce example, in animals: red blood cells,
offspring), get rid of waste products and white blood cells, nerve cells; in plants:
get energy from their food. leaf cells, root hair cells, guard cells.
Non-living things do not have characteristics Tissues are important as they form one of
such as excretion, growth, movement, the building blocks in organisms.
nutrition, reproduction, respiration and
The main organs in plants are the roots,
sensitivity.
stems, leaves and flowers.
Plants use carbon dioxide, water and
Organ systems in mammals include the
light to make their own food. Animals
resprratory system, the digestive system
have to eat other organisms, either plants
and the excretory system.
or other animals.
Systems are composed of organs which
Bespiration releases energy from food. lt
come together to make the entire human
also produces carbon dioxide. you can
body function well.
bubble the carbon dioxide through clear
limewater and it willturn cloudy. The human skeleton is made up of many
bones. lt supports the body against
A microscope has an eyepiece lens, a
gravity, protects the delicate organs and
stage, a clip to hold the specimen in
allows movement.
place, an objective lens, a mirror or light
source and focusing knobs. you need a The joints allow the bones to move
microscope to look at most cells. smoothly. They have specialtissues such
as cartilage, which absorb shocks and
A simple animal cell has a nucleus, cell
cushion the bones.
membrane and cytoplasm.
Muscles are special proteins, which
A simple plant cell has a nucleus,
cell contract and pull on the bones, making
membrane and cytoplasm as well as a
them move. Muscles can only pull in one
cell wall, chloroplasts and a permanent
direction so they are found in pairs that
vacuote.
work against each other.
A plant cell has cell wall, chloroplasts,
a large vacuole whereas an animal cell
does not.
I
I
5
28
Summative Practice
Mark(/) for non-living things and (,x)for living (c) The increase in size of the chicks.
things. (d) Parent birds diving for fish.
(e) Chicks opening their mouths when they
hear the parent birds approaching the
nest.
(0 Young birds making energy available in
the muscles to flap their wings. t6l
5 Fill in the parts of the microscope with their
functions.
t5l
Why are icicles not considered as living
things? n l
The seven characteristics of living things
are defined below. Write the correct t4l
characteristics. Number the correct seouence on how to use
Definition a mrcroscope.
(a) Breaks down food, releasing its energy,
often using oxygen
Look into the eyepiece lens tr
(b) Changes the position of all or part of the
body
Adjust the mirror to allow light to
enter the microscope T
(c) Increases in size and stays larger Turn the fine focus knob tr
(d) Makes and removes waste products Place the slide onto the stage tr
from the body
(e) Makes more of the same by producing
Turn the coarse focus knob T
t5l
offspring
State one difference in preparing animal
0 Makes responses to changes
cell slides and plant cell slides. Explain your
in the surrounding environment
answer. t2l
Match the cells with the correct functions.
(g) Obtains from the surrounding sources
the energy and chemicals needed to
make bodies move or qrow o Allow
movement
t7l
A scientific expedition travels to a remote
island to investigate birds' life. For each ot (b) Provide
a
the following, state one characteristic of living supporr
things which is being shown by the birds.
(a) Nest building. t2l
(b) Parent birds bringing food to their chicks.
ldentify the tissues based on the statements.
(a) This tissue senses stimuli and sends
impulses to different parts of the body as
ll a resoonse
b) This tissue enables movement
(c) This tissue transports food and water in
olants
(d) This tissue produces food and provides
suppoft to the plant t4l
10 (a) Arrange the following from smallest to HUman cell
laroest:
Match the labelled parts of the cells with the
following structures. You may use each name
once, more than once or not at all.
t3l
(b) Which of the following are plant organs?
tsl 13 (a) Copy and complete the table to compare

11 (a) What is the meaning of the term organ? plant and animal cells. You may use ticks
t2l ano crosses.
(b) This is an MRI scan of a oaft of the human
bodv.
List the organs that you can see. t3l t5l

(c) State one function of each of the following (b) Use the information in the table to draw
organs:
a Venn diagram to show the features of
plant cells and animal cells. Your diagram
will look like this:
t6l
12 The diagrams show a plant cell from a leaf and
a human cell from the inside of the mouth.
Plant cell Animal cell
The features that are found in both olant

and animal cells will be in the middle
where the two circles overlap. t1l
Plant cell
Copy out this list of specialised cells. A. Support and protect the organs
B. Contract and relax to provide movements
red blood cell, white blood cell, root hair C. Transport oxygen in the body
cell, muscle cell, leaf cell, nerve cell D. Receive and transmit nerve impulses [1]
Match each cell to a function from the list 18 The diagram shows two types of cells. Which
below. Provide your answers in a table form. of the followino statements is correct?
o protects the body against diseases
L
. carries electrical messages from the

brain to the muscles
o carries out photosynthesis
. absorbs water and mineral nutrients
. carries oxygen around the body
o contracts to move parts of the bodv
t6l
t 5 (a) One of the functions of the skeleton is to
protect the body. Name the parts of the A. Both cells have cell warr
skeleton that protect the following parts B. Starch is the food reserve found in cell K
of the body: c. Chloroplast is only found in cell L
(i) heaft and lungs D. K can make its own food but L cannot
(ii) brain tll
(iii) spinal cord t7l 19 The diagram shows a system in the human
\"/
/b.) State trruo other functions of the skeleton. oooy.
r2l
(c) What advice would you give to someone
who has broken a bone? t3l
(d) What do you call muscles that work in
pairs against each other? tll
(e) Joints are found where two bones meet.
Explain the way in which the following
help movement at joints.
muscles, tendons, ligaments,

cartilage, synovial fluid
t5l
AJ \N
Name the system.
16 The statement below shows the function of a A. Respiratory system
part of a light microscope. B. Muscular system
C. Blood circulatory system
A lever that controls the amount of light D. Skeletal system t1l
reaching the specimen
20
Which part of the microscope best fits the
r^locnrintinn ahnrra?
A. Condenser
B. Diaphragm The diagram shows a structure in the
C. Body tube organisation of human cells. Which of
D. Fine focus tube the following has the same level of cell
17 The diagram shows a organisation?
structure of cells found in a A. Ovary
human body. Which of the B. Stomach
following is the function of C. Parenchyma
the cells shown? D. Pancreas t1l
31
Micro-organisms
and disease
Science in Contextl
Medicines for the future
Scientists are always looking for chemicals that Scientists also want to know what disease-
can kill bacteria, viruses or fungi but would not causing bacteria need to live and grow. Then
harm people. That isn't easy at all. they use computers to try and design new
chemicals that will stop the bacteria growing
Scientists have to make careful observations and
or kill them.
ask the correct questions. They do experiments
to see if they are right and collect evidence to Fish have slime on their bodies and that
show to other scientists. They then develop protects them from infections. If they lose
explanations that can convince other people their slime, their scales get infected very
about their ideas. quickly. Scientists have observed this and
are investigating different chemicals from
Below are some examples of the way scientists
fish slime which may kill bacteria.
are looking for new chemicals to kill bacteria:
. Many antibiotics, such as penicillin, are
made by mould (fungi) that are found in the
soil. So, scientists are looking into soil to see
if there are moulds to make new chemicals The white disc on the agar contains a chemical
that can kill bacteria. (antibiotic) that kills the bacterial colonies in the Petri
dish
I
*
a
tt af
it tl &
. I't'ople in ancient Egypt used honey to help fight and bite each other. Although their
lrt'irl wounds. Modern scientists have found teeth are dirty, the bites don't get infected.
llrcrc are chemicals in honey which stop Scientists have looked at crocodile blood
irrl-cctions caused by bacteria. Some honey- and found a chemical that kills a wide range
birsed medicines are now used in hospitals. of bacteria. They are working hard to see if
Screntists hope to make more and better this can be made into an antibiotic medicine
nredicines from honey. to cure people with bacterial infections.
. Crocodiles live in filthv water. Thev often
In this chapter, you will explore the link between micro-organisms and disease, including the work
of the famous French scientist Louis Pasteur. You will also be looking at the importance of micro-
organisms in food production and in the natural decay process.
Goncept map
Bacteria
Decay and food Fight
Decomposition production against
Protozoa (Pasteurisation) diseases
Viruses
Animals Plants
Bacteria
Organisms are classified into five main groups called kingdoms.
These are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Animalia and Plantae.
be able to:
. label a diagram of a When you look around you can seeyour classmates. You may see
bacterium plants and animals. But there are millions of tiny living organisms
. explain that bacteria you cannot see. These are micro-organisms'
are living organisms Micro-organisms exist in two forms: unicellular and multicellular.
. list some of the ways Unicellular micro-organisms are formed from a single cell
bacteria affect people. whereas multicellular micro-organisms are made up of many
cells. Bacteria, protozoa, fungi, viruses and algae are various
tlpes of micro-organisms. Micro-organisms are sometimes called
microbes for short.
o bacteria
. colony
. culture What are bacteria?
. kingdom
. The kingdom Monera include bacteria and the blue-green algae
micro-organisms
(cyanobacteria). Bacteria are some of the smallest of all living
organisms and come in various shapes and sizes. About 100 of
the largest bacteria lined up would just about stretch across this full stop. You cannot see individual
bacteria without using a microscope. Each bacterium is a single cell, hence they are unicellular
organisms.
Bacterial cells look different from plant and animal cells. They don't have a proper nucleus. Instead
they have a loop in the cl.toplasm that carries all the information about how to make a new cell (the
genetic information). Bacteria often have other small pieces of genetic information called plasmids.
Bacteria are living organisms. They take in food and respire. They excrete carbon dioxide and other
waste products. They can grow and reproduce by simply splitting in half (binary fission). If they have
all the things they need, some bacteria can split in half every 20 minutes. Some bacteria even have
flagella to move themselves about.
Useful and harmful bacteria

Some bacteria cause diseases in humans and other organisms such as animals and plants, for example:
. Salmonellabacterta cause stomach upsets.
. Bean blight disease in plants is caused by bacteria.
Many bacteria are harmless and some are
cell membrane slime capsule cell wall plasmids
very useful to us. For example:
. Bacteria help to decay the bodies of
cytoplasm
dead plants and animals.
. Bacteria in our guts and on our skin
help to keep us healthy.
genetic
material . We use bacteria to make cheese,
yoghurt, wine and vinegar as well as for
A A bacterial cell (74000x) treating human sewage.
34
Plant and animal cells
What do olant and animal cells look like under a microscope?

. Work in small groups. Draw and label an animal cell and a plant cell to remind yourselves of
what they look like
Now compare your drawings with the typical bacterial cell in the previous page.
Growing bacteria
If you grow bacteria on special jelly
(agar) that contains all the nutrients
they need, they form colonies. These
colonies are big enough to be seen
without a light microscope. This makes
it easy for scientists to see if a chemical
will kill disease-causing bacteria. But
take great care when you culture bacteria
and follow these instructions carefully to avoid
any risk from harmful bacteria: ) Growing bacteria
in the laboratory
Summary questions
Sterilise the inoculating loop used to
transfer micro-organisms to the agar. Heat
U, Make a table to
compare a bacterial
the inoculating loop in the flame of a cell with a plant cell and
Bunsen burner until it is red hot and then
an animalcell. You will
let it cool. Do not put the loop down or
blow on it as it cools.
need four columns -
one for each type of cell
and one for the features
you are companng.
Dip the sterilised loop in a suspension of

the bacteria you want to grow. Use lt to
@ Bacteria grow fast when
they have just the right
make zig-zag streaks across the surface of conditions. Write a
the agar in a Petri dish. Replace the lid on plan to investigate the
the dish as quickly as possible to avoid best temperature for
contamination.
bacteria to grow as fast
as possible. You could
present your plan as a
series of drawings or as
Seal the lid of the Petri dish with adhesive a flow chaft.
tape. This is to prevent micro-organisms
from the air contaminating the culture or fh"
micro-organisms from the culture escaping. @ diagram of the
bacterial cell on the
Do not seal all the way around the edge so
previous page is 74 000
oxygen can still get into the dish. This is to
prevent the growth of harmful bacteria that times its actual length.
do not need oxygen. Calculate its actual length
and show your working.
Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular micro-organisms that are not visible to
be able to: the naked eye. These organisms belong to the Kingdom Protista.
. They live in soil, water and even in organisms like us! Some hunt
recognise and name
protozoa other micro-organisms such as bacteria for food. That is why they
o are called protozoa which means 'little animals'. Protozoa with
describephagocytosis
in Amoeba.
chlorophyll like Euglena can make their own food.
Protozoa can cause diseases as some of them are parasites.
This means they live on and feed off other organisms. Protozoa
reproduce by duplicating their contents and splitting into two
identical organisms (binary fission).
a phagocytosis
a protozoa Amoeba
a pseudopodia Amoeba is a protozoa that has no fixed shape and looks like a
blob of jelly with a dark speck inside it when observed through
a microscope. The jelly is the cytoplasm and the dark speck is
the nucleus. The cltoplasm can be pushed in any direction that
the Amoeba wants to create pseudopodia, the 'false feet'. The
pseudopodia are used to move and engulf food in a process called
phagocytosis.
contracti e
I
vacuote
I Amoeba -^. The pseudopodia -t Food vacuole formed,

approaching surround the the bacterium is
bacterium bacterium diqested and absorbeo
.^. Some common protozoa

found in the environmenr Summary questions
What is the mdn
Protozoa and disease difference between
protozoa and algae?
Malaria is a global life-threatening infectious disease common
in tropical countries like Asia and Africa. Malaria is a mosquito-
borne infectious disease caused by Plasmodium,aWe of parasitic
@ What are the
characteristics of
protozoa. The parasites are spread through the bites of infected protozoa that make
female Anopheles mosqttitoes. It affects humans and other animals. them look like animals?
(9 Wny do cows need

protozoa in digesting
their food?
36
Fungi
We do not need a microscope to see
should be able to:
all micro-organisms. Certain
. explain that yeast fungi are called micro-
organisms while others can
and moulds are
types of fungi grow very big indeed!
. describe yeasts and
moulds.
a fungus (pluralfungi) This puffball is a very large fungus. The apple gives you an idea how
a hypha (plural larqe it is
hyphae)
yeast
Finding out about fungi
You will probably have seen fungi in market stalls or
growing wild or as part of your food. Mushrooms
and puffballs are the parts that the fungus uses
for reproduction. Most of the rest of the
Fungi destroy fungus spreads out in the soil as very thin,
millions of thread-like structures called hyphae. Many
tonnes of
food around fungi are very useful to people. However, all
the world fungi get their food from dead or other living
every year
organisms and so some of them cause a lot of
damage. They digest crops and food and make
them rot.
There are many types of fungi. Some fungi are unicellular
such as yeast and the rest are multicellular like bread mould. Th.y
usually need moist conditions to grow. The cells of these fungi can
be seen under the microscope. You will see that they look
very different both from plant and animal cells and from
each other.
Yeasts
Yeasts are single-cell organisms. They are found all
around us. They often grow on the skins of fruits,
feeding on the sugar in the fruit. They usually
respire using oxygen from the air, but they can
respire without oxygen too. Each yeast cell has a
nucleus, cltoplasm and a membrane with a cell
wall around it. They reproduce by budding, with a
small new yeast cell forming from the old one as you can see in the
following diagram and photo.
There are many types of yeasts. People have used some types of
yeast for centuries to make bread and drinks such as beer and
wine. But some yeast cells can also cause diseases of the skin, the
lungs and the brain.
-1. Yeast cell Scanning electron micrograph

of yeast cells (1 5 000 x)
Moulds
Moulds are very different from yeasts. They are made up of tiny,
Summary questions
thread-like structures called hyphae. Hyphae are not individual
cells. Look at the structure of a mould hypha in the following O tul Explain how
we can tellthat
diagram. See how it differs from the structure of the yeast. fungi are living
Moulds need oxygen to respire. They get their food by digesting organisms.
it outside their bodies and then taking in all the substances they (b) Draw a table to
compare yeasts
need. This is why mouldy food goes very soft as it is being digested.
and moulds.
Moulds reproduce, but they do not split into two. They make little
fruiting bodies that are full of spores. Each spore can grow into a
new mould.
lU Moulds can make
food go bad. What
conditions do moulds
need to grow?
@ Vou want to study

some yeasts or moulds
under a microscope.
How would you do it?
@ Wfrat is the actual

diameter of the yeast
cytoplasm nuclel
cells shown in the
photo? How did you
arrive at the answer.
r Mould hyphae
38
Viruses
Imagine a micro-organism that doesn't respire, feed, move, excrete
should be able to:
or have any sensitivity, but can reproduce by taking over other
. describe the organisms. It sounds unbelievable but this is what viruses do.
structure of a virus
explain what a What is a virus?
parasite is
explain why viruses
are effective
parasites.
acquired immune
deficiency
syndrome (AIDS)
human
immunodeficiency
Viruses look like something from outer space
virus (HlV) ^.
a leprosy A virus is incredibly small, about 0.000 l mm long. Viruses can
a parasite reproduce, but only inside the cells of another living organism such
a virus as an animal or a plant. Viruses are unlike other living organisms.
They don't respire or move themselves, feed or excrete. Under
powerful electron microscopes, viruses can be seen as strange
shapes, which are made of protein and genetic material.
genetic material
(not in a nucleus)
ta il
sheath
tail fibres
prorern coaT
.f. The structure of viruses
Viruses and disease

All viruses cause diseases in living organisms. Diseases caused by
viruses include colds, influenza, chickenpox, measles, polio and
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infections or AIDS
(acquired immune deficienry sydrome). Viruses cannot
move themselves from one organism to another but they have
found different ways of spreading around. For example, the
virus that causes the common cold spreads when people
cough or sneeze.
( A single sneeze like this releases millions of viruses into the airfor
other people to breathe in - and catch your coldl
39
Make a virus!
Work in a group. Look for different images of viruses on the Internet or in books. Choose one
virus and find out what it looks like and what disease it causes.
Plan to make a model to show the structure of vour virus. Make vour
model and oresent it to the class.
Viruses are parasites

Viruses are parasites. A parasite is an organism that takes what
it needs to live from another living organism known as the host.
A parasite always hurts its host, and sometimes it will even kill
the host.
Apart from viruses, other parasites include:
. animals, such as tapeworms and threadworms
. bacteria, such as Mycobacterium leprae, which causes leprosy
. fungi, such as Candida, which causes thrush.
Most parasites rely on their host for food, and sometimes Summary questions
protection. Once viruses get into the body they invade the cells.
The protein coat of the virus often stays outside the cell but the
genetic material is injected through the cell membrane. The
O *nu do some people
think that viruses are
genetic material of the virus then takes control of the nucleus of not living organisms?
the host cell. It uses the host to make lots of newviruses. Eventually
the cell bursts and releases all the new viruses. These then spread @ vo, may need to do
through the body and infect more cells. They can also leave the some research to
body and infect someone else. answer this question.
State the range of
Scientists have developed antibiotic medicines which can be used lengths in millimetres of
to cure diseases caused by bacteria. However, we do not have the following:
medicines which can destrov viruses vet and so we cannot cure virus, bacterium,
viral diseases. animal cell, plant cell
@ Draw a diagram, chart

or make some models
@ synthesis of virus to compare the sizes
mareflats
of the different cells in
question 2.
@ insertion of genetic
material into host cell
t €) Wf'y are drawings

and photos of micro-
organisms always
magnified? What is
€ the magnification of
@ attachment the virus (left) shown
in the illustrations on
page 39? Show your
working.
.t Virus reproduction in a host cell
Micro-organisms and food
production
Every time you eat cheese, yoghurt or bread you are eating foods
made using micro-organisms.
should be able to:
. explain how yeast
is used in the
production of bread
Bread making with yeast
. explain the way If yeast cells have air, warmth and
bacteria are used to plenty of sugar, they will respire
make yoghurt and and growvery quickly, making
ANAACA lots of carbon dioxide as a
. make conclusions waste product. For thousands
from data collecteo of years people have used this
in an investigation. method to make bread that is
light and airy. Flour, sugar, yeast
and some water or milk are mixed
. curds together to make dough. The
r The yeast in this naan bread
. lactic acid dough is kept somewhere warm makes it rise when it is being
. whey to rise. baked
. yoghurt As the yeast respires, the carbon

dioxide bubbles make the dough
get bigger. Its texture gets lighter.
When the bread is baked, the
bubbles ofgas get bigger and the
dough rises even more.
Yoghurt-making using
bacteria
Yoghurt is a creamy solid made by mixing
bacteria with warm milk. The bacteria feed
on the sugar in the milk and make a chemical
called lactic acid. This gives the yoghurt its sharp,
tangy taste. The lactic acid causes the milk to clot
and,solidiff int*.goghRrt, gn+ the a9!iog".of.,fh9.
bacteria also gives it a smooth, thick texture. Once
the yoghurt-forming bacteria have acted on the
milk, they stop other bacteria from growing, so the
milk doesn't go bad.
Many different animals including camels are used for milking.

lf the right bacteria are added, the milk soon turns into' . ,
yoghurt
41
Keeping milk good
Ordinary milk goes bad in just a few days. On hot days, it turns bad even fasterl Yoghurl lasts
mucn tonger.
Set up a investigation to show how yoghurt-forming bacteria keep milk good for a long time.
o Prenare two test tr rbes. Measure out 10 cm3 of milk into each test tube. Label the tubes 'Milk
- room temperature' and 'Milk - cool'.
. Prepare another two test tubes. Put 10 cm3 of yoghurt into each test tube. Label the tubes
'Yoghurt - room temperature' and 'Yoghurt - cool'.
. Place one milk and one yoghurl test tube at room temperature on the side of your classroom.
. Place one milk and one yoghurt test tube in a cool place, such as in a fridge.
. Observe all the test tubes every day and record the appearance and the smell of the contents.
Once they have gone bad, throw them awayl
. Display your results and conclusions. Do not taste the milk and yoghurt
used in your experiment!
Using bacteria to make eheese Summary questions

Cheese is made by the reaction of certain bacteria with milk. It
changes the texture and taste and also preserves it. Some cheeses @ lul lfhroad
you place a
elnr rnh in
can last for years.
the fridge or if you
The bacteria used in cheese making produce a lot of lactic acid. bake immediately
This makes the milk separate into a very solid part (curds) and a after making it, it
Iiquid part (whey). will not rise. Why
do you think that
The curds can be used fresh, often with herbs and seasoning happens?
added. They can also be mixed with salt and other bacteria, or (b) You want to
even moulds. They are then pressed and left to dry out. These hard find the effect of
cheeses can last a very long time. remperaTure on
the bacteria that
Sometimes moulds are added to cheeses. or the cheeses are
are used to make
wrapped in the leaves of different plants. Both the moulds and the
bread. Describe
leaves sive the cheese extra flavour. iho inrractinafinn
@ Wort< together in a
group and frnd out how
v In cheese making, solid curds are made by the action of bacteria
on milk The curds can be eaten fresh or turned into hard cheeses people make cheese or
usinq more bacteria and salt yoghurt. Make a poster
to explain the process.
You could use your
nna+ar tn nnntraci
home production with
industrial production
using informatron from
websites.
What do yoghurt, tempe, cheese and miso have in common? They contain friendly bacteria known
irs probiotics which help to flush out harmful micro-organisms that can cause infections in our
i ntestines.
'Ihere are millions of micro-organisms in our gastrointestinal tract. Some of these bacteria are good
bacteria. They keep our intestines healthy.
Eating fermented food has many benefits. These

beneficial bacteria control the harmful micro-
organisms in the body and make our immune
system stronger.
a Apart from strengthening the immune system,

these bacteria also improve the efficiency of
the digestive tract. If we get food poisoning or
diarrhoea, these good bacteria would be flushed
out. So it is a good practice to take probiotics
after that.
The idea of eating food with friendly bacteria is
, not something new. Yoghurt, for example
was used by nearly all the people who kept
animals for milk. History shows that even
drt' as early as 1500 B.C., people in India were
using yoghurt in their cooking.
We all have these friendly bacteria in
our bodies. When we were born, we
swallowed them as we were coming out
of our mother's birth canal. Later, we got
more of them from our mother's milk.
Today, we don't have the same number
of these friendly bacteria in our bodies. It
could be due to stress or infections in the
bowels. However. we can increase these
friendly bacteria by taking yoghurt,
cultured drinks and probiotics.
*#
43
Micro-organisms and
decomposition
What happens to a piece of fruit if you leave it too long before
you eat it? It will be covered in mould and, in time, the mould will
be able to:
. describe how micro- break it down completely.
organisms break down
the remains of animals
and plants
Decomposition in nature
. explain how Living things are always taking in
decomposition by materials from the world around
micro-organisms can them. Plants take minerals from
be both useful and the soil. These are then passed
harmfulto people on to the animals that eat the
. record observations plants. If this goes on for years
over time. and years, the resources of
Earth would soon be used up!
However, the mineral nutrients
. compost in the bodies of dead animals and
o decomposers plants, and in animal droppings,
. sewage are released back into the soil by the
action ofmicro-organisms. These micro-
organisms are known as decomposers. .l Micro-organisms, such as
this mould, quickly break
down a piece of fruit
Decomposers feed on waste droppings

and dead organisms. They break them
down (digest them) and use some of
the nutrients to grow themselves.
They also release waste products.
These are nutrients broken down
into a form that plants can use.
When we say that things decay,
they are actually being broken
down and digested by these
micro-organisms.
( In a cycle of life and death, the

decomposers break down dead
organisms and return nutrients
' to the soil
The effect of temperature on the decomposers
Work in groups to find out the effect of change in temperature on the micro-organisms that
decompose living organisms.
. Each group collects either whole fruit, or some plant wastes, for example fruit and vegetable
peelings, grass cuttings, fallen leaves.
. Divide the material into three plastic bags and lightly tie the top of the bag (black plastic bags
are accepted as well).
o Put one bag in the fridge, one somewhere where the temperature is about 20 oC and the last
bag somewhere hot, where the temperature is about 30 "C or higher.
. Open and observe the organic material after one day, three days and one week. Record your
observations (photos are a good way to do this).
. Compare your results with the rest of the class and make your conclusions about the effect of
temperature on the rate of decomoosition.
Using decomposers
Summary questions
The number of people in our country keeps growing. People
produce a lot of bodily wastes. The more people there are, the O fo make the best
more waste is produced! Whether we use a pit latrine or have compost you need
flushing toilets and a sewage system, we rely on micro-organisms warmth, moisture and
to break down our sewage and make it harmless to us and to the oxygen. Explain why a
world around us. these are needed.
People also use decomposers to break down vegetable waste, dead /:\
plants and grass cuttings. They turn this waste into a rich brown
\u trxprarn wny tr ts so
impoirant that micro-
substance, which is added to the soil to help plants grow bigger organisms break down
and better. This partially decayed material is called compost. waste material and dead
bodies in nature.
Decomposers as destroyers @ Read the Practical

activity instructions
Decomposers break down dead organisms. They will also break carefully. Suggest what
down things we need. Bacteria and fungi destroy crops in the you should do to make
fields. They also decompose millions of tonnes of food every year. this investigation a fair
If we can stop micro-organisms from decomposing the food we LUJ T.
want to eat, there would be more food for people in the world.
45
Micro-
can
be able to:
rent
. explain how infectious
able
diseases are spread
. explain how the body
defends itself against How it makes
diseases. people feel
Nose, throat Tired, with a
headache, blocked
nose
. cilia
r infectious disease
o white blood cell
Infectious diseases
Many diseases are caused by micro-organisms such as bacteria and
viruses. They can make people feel unwell and even kill them.
Bacteria and viruses cause diseases such as tonsillitis anc
tuberculosis. Th"y can get into your body through openings such as
your mouth and your nose, or through cuts in your skin. Once inside
they attack the cells of your body and you begin to feel unwell. But
most times you don't stay ill for ever. That is because your body has its
own natural defences against the micro-organisms that cause disease. r This Salmonella bacterrum
has been magnified thousands
of times. Salmonella bacteria
cause food poisoning
First line of defence - don't let thema in!
Your body works hard to prevent disease-causing organisms
from getting in. Your skin covers and protects most of your body
ca
tissues. Micro-organisms getting into your mouth go straight into
the acid of your stomach!
The easiest place for micro-organisms to enter is your respiratory @
system, when you breathe air right into your lungs. o
The hairs in your nose filter the air you breathe in. Also, many o @
micro-organisms get stuck in the mucus produced in your L)
respiratory system. The mucus is then removed by the action of eiliated eolr rmn:r enithelium
cilia found on special cells (ciliated epithelial cells) that line the
r Ciliated epithelial cells are ideally
airways leading to the lungs. sr/ited for the ioh thcv have to do
lhe cilia beat to move the mucus carrying dust, bacteria and viruses away from the lungs. The cilia in
your respiratory tract are beating all the time but you don't notice them. However, you see the results
of their efforts when you have a cold. What happens then?
When you cut yourself, your body can be attacked by all micro-organisms around you. Your blood
clots to form scabs to help cope with this danger. These scabs:
. stop your bleeding
. stop micro-organisms from entering
. let new skin form underneath, hence, protecting you from any further invasions.
$eeond line of detence - destroy the Summary questions

rmwaders
When bacteria or viruses enter your body, cells in your blood O Draw and labela
diagram to show where
will take over the defence. Your body has an army of white blood
cells, which engulf and destroy the bacteria or viruses. micro-organisms can
enter your body. On
When you get an infection your body makes lots of extra white the same diagram adc
blood cells. They are made in special glands in your neck and other labels in a different
places around your body. This is why when you are ill, you often colour to show the way
have swollen glands. The glands are very busy making white blood in which your body
cells to fight offthe micro-organisms which are making you ill. defends itself against
diseases.
@ Explain why ciliated

epithelial cells are ideally
v A white blood cell engul{ing and destroying a bacterium
suited for the job that
they have to do.
'Cigarette smoke stops

@ the cilia on the ciliated
epithelial cells in your
respiratory system from
beating.'
'People who smoke
often get more coughs
and catch colds more
often than people who
are non-smokers'.'
Suggest a scientific
explanation on how
these two statements
might be linked.
47
Micro-organisms and disease
in animals
Bacteria, viruses and fungi can cause diseases in animals (including
be able to: human beings). Some of these diseases kill people and livestocks
. describe a bacteriar and affect the health of millions of people around the world.
disease in animals and
explain how it can be
treated and prevented
o describe a viral
Tuberculosis - a bacterial disease
disease in animals and
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria. In cattle and people, it
explain how it can be affects the lungs. TB makes animals and people cough up blood,
prevented lose weight and sometimes die. In people, TB is spread by coughs
. describe a fungal and sneezes. But you will not get this disease unless you have been
disease in animals. in close contact with the TB patient for some time. Cattle live in
herds so they easily spread the disease from one to another. People
can get TB if they drink untreated milk from an infected cow.
o antibiotic Some people do not have enough food to eat or their immune
r polio system is damaged, for example by HIV. These people have a
o thrush higher risk of catching TB. About 2 billion people (one third of
o the world population) are infected with TB and about 2 million of
tuberculosis fl-B)
o them die every year.
vaccination
Ifcattle are infected with TB they are often slaughtered. People
may be treated. TB is caused by bacteria so it can be cured by
antibiotics. It takes a very long course of antibiotics to cure TB.
Sadly, people do not always finish their medicine so they become
ill again.
TB can be prevented byvaccinations which make people immune

to the disease. It can also be prevented if people are well
fed and have good living and working conditions.
When cows are infected by TB they

do not give much milk or meat and
cannot work in the fields Many
people do not get enough food as
a result
mlio-aviral disease
Polio is a disease caused by a virus. It attacks your nervous
system and it can cause paralysis. If this affects breathing muscles,
the person may die. The virus is passed on in faeces and in
contaminated food and water. In the past, many people were left
paralysed. Now polio exists only in three or four countries. It has
been largely wiped out by a worldwide programme of vaccination.
Vaccination lets your body meet a dangerous micro-organism in

a safe way. Then, if you ever meet the real micro-organisms, your
body can make the white blood cells needed to destroy it before
you become ill.
Many countries have worked very

hard to vaccinate their populations
*'hrush - a fungal disease and help wipe out polio
Fungi do not cause many diseases in animals but they can cause
serious infections of the brain, the lungs and the heart. Thrush is
the most common fungal disease in people. It is caused by a type Summary questions
of yeast that lives on our skin. Usually, yeast cells are harmless.
However, if you have to take antibiotics or if you are seriously ill, @ Wort< in a smallgroup.
Write down allthe
the fungi may attack your skin. This makes your skin itchy and illnesses you can think
sore. Anti-fungal chemicals can usually kill the fungus and make of. Try and find out
you better. which of them are
caused by bacteria,
viruses and fungi.
@ tul rB is spread more

easily when people
are poor and live
in overcrowded
conditions - why do
you think this is so?
(b) Explain how TB
in cattle affects
people.
Why do you think
that we vaccinate
and treat people
â. A 3-D illustration of fungi Candida albicans that cause thrush (also known
against TB but
as candidiasis) do not treat or
vaccinate cattle?
@ *nu is it imporlant to
vaccinate people when
they are babies, and not
wait tillthey are older?
^L Thrush is often not serious but it can be very sore and painful
49
Micro-organisms and d[sease
in plants
Micro-organisms infect plants and cause disease. When plants get
sick and die, people don't get enough food to eat, so plant diseases
be able to:
can be very serious for people too.
. describe a bacteriar
disease in plants and
explain how it is spread
and can be prevented
Xanthomonas- bacterial dfrrumffi$ms frrl
. describe a viral disease plants
in plants and explain There are some bacteria that cause diseases in all sorts of plants
how it is spread from fruit trees, such as lemons, figs and bananas, to houseplants.
and how it can be These bacteria all belong to the same group known by the scientific
prevented it if it
name Xanthomonas (pronounce as
. describe a fungal starts with a'Z').
disease in plants and
explain why it is so One type of this bacteria causes
senous. citrus canker. Th.y attack
citrus fruits such as lemons,
oranges and limes. Th.y
attack the leaves, making the leaves brown and unable to make
food. They affect the fruit so they are spotty and fall offthe tree
before they ripe. They can ruin a crop once they attack a citrus
grove.
The bacteria ooze out of the fruits and leaves of an infected
plant. They are then easily spread from one plant to another plant
by water.
Xanthomonas cost farmers millions of dollars every year in lost
crops. This is because when plants are infected, they have to be .^. Diseases, such as this citrus canker,
can destroy farms and ruin lives
destroyed to stop the infections from spreading.
Mosaic viruses in plants

There are many different viruses, such as mosaic viruses that attack and damage plants. They
get into plants when the leaves are damaged, for example when insects bite the leaves. They
take over the plant cells to make new viruses. The leaves of the plant develop a mosaic
pattern of different colours. This viral infection stops the plant from growing well and
often stops it producing a good crop.
There is no cure for plants infected with this viruses. They have to
be destroyed. It is a big problem to stop the virus spreading to more
plants from infection in the soil. The virus is spread by people's hands
or is carried by insects that feed on plants.
( The yellow areas in these leaves are infected with tobacco mosaicvirus.
Mosaic viruses like this can damage an entire crop
Fusarium wilt - a disease caused by fungi
Fungi don't cause many serious diseases in animals but in plants they cause terrible problems.
Fusariumwilt (also called vascular wilt and Panama disease) has destroyed banana crops in almost
every country where they are grown. The spores of the fungus are in the soil and they attack the
small roots of young plants. They get in to the special water transport tissue (xylem) in the plant
and destroy it. If the plant cannot transport water it will die. As the plant is dying, the fungus
makes lots more spores. The spores fall into the soil and infect even more plants.
Anti fungal chemicals will help get rid of fungi that grow on the surface of
plants. However, nothing much can be done once the fungi invade the d
plant tissues. It is very hard to get the spores out of the soil. The plants fA
have to be destroyed. Our hope for the future is to breed crops that are
resistant to as many diseases as possible.
'7 Millions of tonnes of crops - like these bananas - are lost

worldwide every year as a result of fungal plant diseases ,il
4
Summary questions
@ nant diseases often

affect people as well as
plants. Why is this?
lf ,.
@ nice, wheat and maize

are three of the world's
major crop plants,
Find out the names
of the main diseases
that attack each
crop and the type of
micro-organism (virus,
bacterium or fungus)
that causes each
disease.
@ VaXe a poster that

could be used to
warn farm workers
from spreading plant
diseases from one farm
to another.
Louis Pasteur: decay and food
production
Vaccinations prevent serious diseases such as polio. Pasteurising
or heat-treating milk helps to preserve it. Covering our food helps
be able to:
to keep it good. All of these methods are based on the work of
. explain how Louis
one man-Louis Pasteur. He was a French scientist who lived and
Pasteur helped explain
worked in the 19th century. Until today, his works still affect our
the way micro-
lives.
organisms break down
organic matter
. explain the way Louis
Pasteur made food
Micro-organisms and decay
safer for all of us. For hundreds of years people thought that living things appeared
from nothing. Scientists thought things went bad because moulds
and other organisms appeared in them as if from nowhere
. fermentation (spontaneously). Louis Pasteur did not believe this. He thought
o pasteurisation that these organisms grew from some existing organisms. He set
up some experiments which showed that it was micro-organisms
from the air that grew on the food (organic matter), breaking it
I down and causing decay.
Pasteur put broth in two flasks. He boiled one

{lask to kill the micro-organisms he was sure
were there The swan neck on each flask would
stop micro-organisms in the air from getting in not boiled
(')
[1
Nothing grew in the boiled flask The broth in

I the flask which was not boiled went cloudy and
was covered with mould.
Pasteur broke off the necks which trapped

micro-organisms from the air and put them in
the flasks of broth. Now the boiled broth went
cloudy and mouldy too as bacteria and mould
soores from the air were put into it.
Louis Pasteur's famous experiments with swan-necked flasks proved

his ideas about the connection between micro-organisms in the air
and decay. They also helped disprove the ideas of his rivals about
I sDontaneous oeneration
I
52
Summary questions
@ t"l naafar
Explain how
rriaatinn
nrntontq nonnlo
against food-
borne infectious
drseases.
(b) What is the
difference
In many countries, the milk you drink and the milk used to make dairy between the
products, such as yoghurt and cheese, have all been pasteurised ^^^+^,,-:^^+:^^
pdJtt ut tJclUUt I
of milk and
rticro-organisms and food production rne process
that nrnr]r rnoe
Louis Pasteur discovered that micro-organisms were needed to UHT (ultra-high
make alcohol and vinegar. They break down sugars without any temperature) milte
oxygen to make alcohol. This process is known as fermentation.
When the alcohol or vinegar went bad, it was because conditions @ rino out as much as
you can about the life
were not right for the yeast to grow properly. Other micro-
organisms got in and made it decay. of Louis Pasteur.
Present your findings
Once peopleknewthis, theymade sure theydidtheir fermentations as a timeline of his life,
in the best possible conditions. or a poster about his
life and work. Work rn
Pasteur also showed that if milk was heated, it killed off most of
a group and use books
the bacteria and moulds which made it go bad. Most of the milk and the Internet to help
you buy in shops today will have been heated in this way. The you. Also look at the
process is called pasteurisation, named after Louis Pasteur. The next few pages of this
milk lasts longer and is safer to drink because pasteurisation also book for ideas.
kills offthe micro-organisms that cause diseases such as TB.
@ Explain why the lives
Pasteurisation is used to preserve many different foods now,
of many children
such as fruit juice, milk, yoghurts and cheeses, wines and beers. have improved as a
It has saved millions of lives over the years because it has stopped result of the scientific
food going bad and prevented people from getting food-borne discoveries since the
infections. time of Louis Pasteur.
A change of direction
For the first part of his career Louis Pasteur worked in universities
and with local industries. This was n'here he discovered the
scientific evidence that micro-organisms is responsible in decay
and fermentation.
As he got older, Pasteur became more interested in understanding
some of the terrible infectious diseases he saw around him. He
had five children but three of them died young from infections
such as typhoid. His youngest daughter Camille was only two
when she died. Pasteur became determined to stop the spread of
some of these diseases in both people and in animals.
53
Louis Pasteur: the fight against
disease
After this toprc you should
As a scientist Louis Pasteur was always asking questions. What
be able to: causes infectious diseases? How do they spread? How can we
. explain how Louis
prevent them? He knew the answers to these questions but he
Pasteur showed that needed to prove to the other scientists that his explanations were
mrcro-organisms were right.
involved in the spread
of disease
. describe a scientific Frotecting agalnst disease
experiment by Louis Louis Pasteur knew about the work of Edward Jenner who had
Pasteur that showed developed a vaccine against smallpox. After his experiments
a way to help prevent conducted on decay, fermentation and pasteurisation, Louis
orsease
Pasteur was sure that all infectious diseases were caused by germs
o talk about the (micro-organisms) passed from one person to another. He called
importance of
it the germ theory of disease.
questions, evidence
and explanations Pasteur wanted to find ways to grow these disease-causing micro-
in developing new organisms. His plan was to make them weaker, so he could use
scientific ideas. them as a vaccine to protect animals or people against a disease.
The battle against anthrax

. germ theory
. vaccine
Anthrax is a deadly disease of farm animals and humans caused by
a bacterium. It took Louis Pasteur a long time to grow the bacteria
that cause anthrax in his laboratory. But he could not make it safe
enough to use as a vaccine. Not all scientists accepted pasteur's
germ theory of disease. One of them challenged him to prove that
anthrax was caused by germs - by vaccinating some sheep against
it. Pasteur's vaccine was not yet fully tested, but he took up the
first seen
bauLlt'* were
-^^+ariA '.-, .imole light challenge.
through o
r uttt'1
microscoP
microscopes
"'-*r" develoPeo'
electron
' Louis Pasteur hao nrs own

I specially built laboratory in Paris
where he did research on his
II germ theo'y o{ oisease
54
The trial of the anthrax vaccine
. 25 sheep were given Pasteur's anthrax vaccine. Another 25
sheep were not vaccinated.
. A month later, all of the sheep were injected with anthrax

from infected animals.
. Three days later, all of the unvaccinated sheep had died or
were dying of anthrax. All the vaccinated sheep were still alive
and well.
Pasteur had won the challenge and many more scientists then This is one of Pasteur's own flasks
accepted his ideas about germs and disease. It contains the dried soinal cord
of a rabbit with rabies
Fasteur and rabies Summary questions

in 19th century, about 100 people died in France each year from
the bites of animals with rabies. When Louis Pasteur was a little
O to what was
Pasteur's germ
boy of eight, a rabid wolf came down from the mountains and theory of disease?
attacked people, including some from his village. He never forgot (b) Today, we know a
their screams as they had their wounds cauterised with red hot lot more about
what causes
irons. In spite of this, eight people died of rabies. Pasteur never
infectious diseases
forgot the horror of this.
than the great Louis
Pasteur knew if he could find the micro-organism which caused Pasteur did. Write
rabies and made a vaccine, no one could doubt his germ theory of a letter to Louis
disease. However, he could not find the germ that caused rabies. Pasteur explaining
Today, we know the reason of course. We know Pasteur could not to him what we
know about micro-
see it because it was a virus! Viruses are so small they cannot be
organisms today.
seen with a normal light microscope.
Pasteur kept trying. He worked with the spinal cord taken from @ *nu do you think Louis
rabbits with rabies to try and make a vaccine. One day a little boy Pasteur tried out his
who had been bitten by a rabid dog was rushed to see Pasteur. vaccine on children
Two doctors had said he was going to die. So Pasteur tried a new before it had been
properly tested? Would
vaccine treatment on the little boy and the boy did not get rabies.
this be allowed today?
Three months later he used the same method on a l5-year-old
shepherd boy badly bitten by a rabid wolf. Pasteur treated him @ worx in small groups.
Find out as much as
with the vaccines and the brave shepherd boy was saved.
you can about some
Now everyone accepts Pasteur's germ theory of disease. From other important people
that time onwards, scientists and doctors have worked to discover who have helped us
more ways of curing and preventing disease. to understand about
micro-organisms and
disease. They include
Edward Jenner, Lady
Mary Wodley Montagu
and Joseph Lister.
Make a poster or a
presentation of your
findings.
55
The seven characteristics of livino Yeasts are single-celled fungi. They
organisms are nutrition, respiration, reproduce by budding. Moulds are fungi
reproduction, excretion, movement, made up of tiny thread-like structures
sensitivity and growth. called hyphae. Fungi reproduce bV
Micro-organisms are very small living making spores.
organisms, and can only be seen using a People use fungi for food and to make
mrcroscooe. bread but they can also cause diseases
There are various types of micro- in people, animals and pJants.
organisms, such as bacteria, protozoa, Viruses are incredibly small micro-
fungi, viruses and algae. organisms which are made up of a
Bacteria are the most common micro- protein coat and genetic material. They
organisms. They are made up of single are parasites - they can only reproduce
cells, which havea cell wall, genetic by taking over the cell of another living
material, plasmid, cytoplasm, slime organism and using it to make new
capsule and flagellum. Bacteria have all viruses. All viruses cause disease.
the characteristics of living things. Micro-organisms such as bacteria and
Some bacteria are very useful to people, yeasts are involved in the process of
some have no effect and some are decay.
harmful and cause diseases in people, Bacteria, viruses and fungi all cause
animals and plants. diseases in animals (including people)
Protozoa are unicellular micro-organisms. and plants.
They are closer to the animal kingdom One of the first people to make discoveries
than the plant kingdom as they don,t about micro-organisms was the French
have cellwalls and are able to move. screntist, Louis Pasteur.
Fungi are micro-organisms but they
can be very large. They carry out all the
characteristic activities of living things.
56
Summative Practice
Seven terms about micro-organisms are The graph shows the number of cases of
listed below. Their definitions are also given. oolio woddwide between 1985 and 2010.
Draw out a table matchino each term with its Global poliovirus cases,
definition. 1 985-201 0
450000
400000
eo
o-
350000
o 300000
o
o
250000
o
u
o
o 1 50000
ll
E 1 00000
z
1985 1990 '1995 2000 2005 2010

Year
micro-organism composed of cells without
,^t^, ,^ (a) Describe what happened to the number
^ ^,
A IIUUIUUJ
of cases of polio between 1985 and
2010. t4l
any organism that lives in or on a host
(b) Exolain the use of vaccination in the
from which it obtains its food
eradication of polio from many pafts of
micro-organism that reproduces within the the world. t3l
cells of its host
(c) Why is it important to continue to
vaccinate young children against polio
preparation of a disease-causing organism even though the number of cases of the
that provides long-term protection against disease woddwide is very low? tsl
that disease
Explain why the following are used in cheese
an illness caused by a parasitic organism making:
2 Comolete the table.

t4l
Explain why some cheeses can be kept for a
long time without going 'bad'. t2l
Several children became very ill with the
same symptoms. Scientists questioned their
families to find out how the children had
become ill. All the families had drunk apple
juice from a local farm. The scientists found
that the apple juice was contaminated by soil
bacteria. The farmer said that unoasteurised
apple juice tasted much better than
pasteurised juice.
(a) Describe briefly what happens when
foods such as milk or apple juice are
pasteurised. t2l
I
(b) Suggest why children and not adults (c) Write a plan to show how the two
became ill after drinking the apple juice. students could use their apparatus and
i'!i materials to demonstrate Pasteur's
tl
(c) The farmer was told to change his experiment. l,ii1
production process if he wished to Ahmed and Abdul investigated the factors

continue to sell the unpasteurised juice. needed for the decomposition of leaves from
Suggest three changes that he should the trees in their neighbourhood.
carry out. !:)l They collected many leaves of the same type
and divided them into six groups, A to F.
John's father brews his own beer. He has
They weighed each group on a balance to
made two batches. One is very good, but
make sure they were of lhe same mass. They
the other tastes foul. He thinks it has bacteria
then treated the leaves as follows:
in it as well as yeast and that the bacteria
have produced an acid giving the foul taste.
He takes samnlos nt bOth balcheS to a
A washed thoroughly in a sterilising fluid
and kept in a sealed container at 4 "C.
laboratory.
(a) Explain how he found out whether
B similar to A, but kept at 25'C,
batch has acid in it.

one C put straight into a sealed container and
l.'l kept at 4 "C.
(b) There are two methods to show that D similar to C, but kept at 25'C.
there are bacteria in the samples. Write E put straight into a perforated container
some instructions for John's father to that allows air to mix with the leaves
follow for each of thesemethods. lttl and kept at 4'C.
(c) Explain briefly the process in which F similar to E, but kept at 25 "C.
yeasts produce drinks such as wine and
beer. [:)] After several weeks Ahmed and Abdul took
the leaves out of the containers and weighed
Sari and Ayu have to make a presentation on
them again. Each group of leaves lost mass,
the life of Louis Pasteur. Rather than make
but some lost more than others
a poster or write a biography. they decide (a) Ahmed and Abdul designed their
to repeal his experiment on sponlaneous investigation to find out the effect of
generation and show the class their results.
three factors on the decomposition of the
Their teacher gives them some laboratory
leaves. Name these three factors.
apparatus although he tells them that the
(b) Explain why they only used leaves from
school has no swan-necked flasks and they
one type of tree and not several different
I will have to think of another way to Ly l.Jvo.
demonstrate this parl of Pasteur's experiment
(c) Suggest why they put the same mass of
Sari and Ayu staft by making some nutrient
leaves in each container iti
broth that contains glucose and some
(d) Predict which group of leaves, A, B, C,
mineral salts. These are the nutrients required
D, E or F lost the most mass. Explain
by bacteria to grow. They boil the broth and
your answer. Make sure that you refer to
pour it into some flasks that they had washed
the factors that affect decomposition in
in boiling water. They also made up some your explanations.
broth that they did not boil and poured that l,'j
into some unwashed flasks. They covered Dewi wanted to observe protozoa using a
some of the flasks with foil and left others microscope. She took some samples from a
open to the air. pond and prepared a slide to see under the
(a) Explain what is meant by the term microscope. However, she could not see the
spontaneous generation. l2l protozoa.
(b) Suggest a way in which the students Suggest ways to help Dewi prepare a better
could make some apparatus resembling slide to observe the protozoa.
Pasteur's swan-necked flask [,:] |
t
I
'rl
58
10 Nova and his team were assigned to study 12
the effect of antibiotic concentration on the
growth of bacteria. They prepared two Petri
dishes containing the same volume of nutrient
agar and bacterial culture. Then, they placed
different concentrations of antibiotic discs on
each of the nutrient agar. They inverted the Which of the following sequence of steps
Petridishes and incubated them at 35-37 "C shows the process of phagocytosis?
for 2 days. A. P,Q,R,S
(a) Explain why they used the same volume B. S,Q,P,R
of nutrient agar and bacterial culture. 17l C. R,S,Q,P
(b) Predict the result of this investigation. 12/ D. Q,R,S,P N]
(c) Suggest why they used the same
antibiotic and not a different one. n l 13 Which of the following is an example of
(d) Why did Nova and his team inveft the multicellular micro-organisms?
Petri dishes? n l A. Paramecium
B. Amoeba
11 The diagram shows some examples of C. Spirogyra
protozoa. Which organism cannot be D. Chlamydomonas
classified as orotozoa?
nl
14
These organisms differ from bread mould

OECAUSE
A. they are unicellular organisms
B. they are able to make their own food
C. they have cilia
W D. they have chloroplasts t1l
15 Euglena is different from Paramecium
because Euglena
A. cannot move
B. has chloroplasts
C. does not have a fixed shape
D. has pseudopodia tll
A.W
B.X
c.Y
D.Z fil
Habitats and
environments
Science in Gontextt
Working in the field
Ghecking for weeds
Mr Putra is the school gardener. He says that half of the
school field is covered with weeds instead of grass. A group
of students are trying to find out if that is true by using
some simple equipment.
. The students marked out a transect using a long piece
of string.
. They put a frame called a quadrat down at regular
intervals.
. They counted the numbers ofsquares ofeach quadrat
where there were weeds.
. They worked out the percentage of the field that
contained weeds. It was only 32o/ol Now they can tell .^. A transect lets you take samples in an
orqanised wav
Mr Putra that he was wrong. The school field was not
half covered with weeds!
Taking random samples

Some students decided to do quadrats that were not on
the transect lines. One group found a patch of the field
which had lots of weeds and did their quadrats there.
They thought they would show Mr Putra he was right.
Another group found an area with no weeds at all and
decided to do quadrats there. They really wanted to
prove Mr Putra wrong!
However, the results of both these groups were not valid.
Their results were not from the transect and they were
not from random sites, so the scientific evidence they
On average the students found eight
had collected was not accepted. souares out of 25 contained weeds
i.'B $nE for living orgamlsrns
Several students wanted to find out what animals lived on the school field
loo. They decided to look in the middle of the field, at the path that went
through the middle and in the long grass and bushes which grew at
the sides. .r'i
lly using
) Yo, can
. pooters, the organisms
living in the
. nets, habitats around
your school, just
pitfall traps and as this student is
doing
beating trays,
the students found many different types of insects,
snails, slugs, woodlice and worms. They made a careful
record of everything they had found. They wanted .r
to repeat their field work every month throughout
the year, just to see if the living organisms around, ii
them changed during the year.
In this chapter you will find out about
organisms live and the ways in which
interact with one another. You will also
about the influence of the environmt
humans on them. ,:
Goncept map
HABITATS AND ENVIRONMENTS
Abiotic . Competitions Local and

ir pollution
components . Prey-predators seasonal
. Symbiosis
Water Water
Extreme
pollution
Temperature I Balanced environments
ecosystem
Sunlight Biotic Soil
Underwater pollution
components
Air environments
Soi
Producers Consumers Decomposers
Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores

be able to:
. explain that the habitat
of an organism is its
home
o describe some different
habitats.
I
fl
/,*
';-nd
,
T
Habitats all around you
Work in a small group. Think of as many different habitats as you can. You can starl with the
ohotos below.
o Write down a list of vour ideas. Share vour list with the class.
1:L Pt The ice of Antarctica, the African

savannah and a tropical rainforest
in Borneo are three very different
ha bitats
Different tlpes of animals and plants have different habitats.

Dragonflies and slugs for instance live near ponds and in damp Summary questions
places, they could not live in a hot desert. Monkeys, that live in
hot forests, would not survive in a cold treeless Northern plain. O Explain the difference
between a habitat and
an ecosystem.
Living together
The type of soil, the local temperature and the weather in an area all @ Deseft animals do nol
live in very cold habitats
affect what organisms can live there. The physical conditions of an
and plants from the
area together with the animals, plants and micro-organisms living
Arctic do not grow
in there are all part of the ecosystem. Animals, plants and micro- in tropical countries.
organisms make up a community and they all need a habitat Explain why human
which suits them. They live in balance with the other organisms beings can live in most
around them and the living conditions in their ecosystem. of the land habitats on
Earth.
When you look at the habitat of a particular type of living
organism, think about everlthing working together. Often one
organism cannot live in a habitat without another different tlpe @ ff inr< about your school
and its surroundings.
of organism. For example, fungi need dead plants or animals to Describe three different
feed on, sheep need grass and bacteria in their guts and penguins habitats. What living
need fish. things would you find
there?
63
I nvestigating habitats
Your school would have many different habitats. The sports field
and flower beds are good examples. To study a habitat means you
be able to:
. need to find out the different types of organisms that live there.
describe ways of
investigating a habitat You have to count the numbers of the organisms. Some simple
o observe and describe equipment can be used to help you find out about a habitat.
living things
. record results in
different ways, e.g.
Using a quadrat
drawings, using tables The simplest way to build a picture of a habitat is to count the
. make conclusions from number of organisms there. A quadrat will help you do this
the data collected. scientifically. A quadrat is usually a square frame of wood or metal
with an area of either I m2 or 0.25 m2. You lay it on the ground
and it outlines your sample area. You use the same quadrat every
invertebrate time and sample as many areas as you can.
pooter Quadrats are useful for counting organisms that do not move,
quadrat such as plants or fungi. They are also used to count the numbers of
slow moving animals, such as snails, barnacles or sea anemones.
Random samples
When you use a quadrat it is important that you choose your

sample areas at random. This means you can't choose an
area which has many interesting plants - or just bare eafth!
The person with the quadrat closes his eyes, spins round,
opens his eyes and walks ten paces in that direction before
dropping the quadrat. Repeat this for every sample. lf you use
a random number generator to decide where to put down
vour ouadrat it is even better.
If organisms are only partly covered by a quadrat,

you can choose to count them as in or out, but
you have to maintain the same method used for
all your quadrats. In the diagram, you have six or
seven plants per 0.25 m2 (that's 24 or 28 plants per
m'z) depending on the way you choose to count
them.
( Organisms often fall partly in and partly outside a

quadrat. You have to decide whether to count them in
or out
[-inding animals
You can easily observe large mammals and
birds in a habitat by just watching out for them.
Uut that habitat may also have many small
invertebrate animals which are not easy to see
or identi$'. There are several ways to find smaller
animals:
. A pooter: This equipment can pick up small
invertebrates. It works like a simple vacuum
cleaner. You suck on one tube and the
invertebrate is sucked up in another tube so
you don't swallow it. You then gently move 'I
the invertebrates into a collecting chamber
where you can examine them. Once you have
caught your organisms, a magnifting lens
I Using a pooter to collect insects
will help you to see them more clearly.
A pitfall trap: Some animals, such as beetles, are too big to be sucked up with a pooter. You can
make a pitfall trap. It traps beetles and other small animals that don't fit into a pooter. They are
easy to make, but you must empty them out regularly so the trapped animals do not die.
A sweep net: This is a large net which you use to sweep through long grass. You can then
investigate any organisms that are caught in the net.
Tree beating: Hold a white sheet or large sheet of card under a tree or bush. Then gently hit or
shake the bush and collect the animals that fall out.
Summary questions
@ rino the most common

organisms in a habitat
in your school. Describe
the habitat and the
method using a quadrat
in this study.
(L) Explain how you would

make a pooter from
an old plastic drinking
small container bottle, two straws and a
piece of fine cloth.
A pitfall trap
@ nnimats that get caught
in a pitfalltrap could
be at risk if you do not
check it regularly. Why?
65
Abiotic and biotlc compomwmts
Take a walk in your school compound. You will notice that the
be able to:
things around you can be grouped into living things and non-
. differentiate biotic living things. A forest ecosystem consists of living things such as
micro-organisms, animals and trees as well as non-living things
factors from abiotic
factors which include sunlight, water and temper
. list some biotic factors
o list some abiotic factors.
a abiotic
o biotic
o humus
Living organisms are interrelated to one another and their environment
An ecosystem has living and non-living components that work

together. Biotic factors are the living components that consist
of all the living organisms in that community. Abiotic factors
are non-living components that affect the living components.
Biotic factors
The biotic components are producers, consumers and
decomposers. Producers are autotrophs that consist
mainly of photosynthesising plants which produce their
own food from light energy meanwhile both consumers and
decomposers are heterotrophs that cannot synthesise their
own food but instead obtain from other orqanisms.
Abiotic factors
Abiotic factors determine the conditions of the living organisms
.L Woodlice avoids dehydration
in any community. The abiotic factors are water, temperature,
sunlight, air and soil.
Water
Water is an abiotic factor. It is very important in ensuring that organisms survive. As most organisms
consist ofwater, water is needed to carry out their life processes. Thus, water influences the distribution
of animals and plants in any ecosystem. Most organisms, for example, snakes, frogs, Iiverworts and
mosses prefer humid habitats. Some organisms regulate their activities to avoid dehydration. One
example is woodlice which are usually found under stones and rotting tree stumps.
66
Temperature
'l'cmperature determines the type of organisms
tlrat can live in a certain place. Most organisms
(an only survive within a narrow range of
lcmperatures. But there are animals and plants that
live in extreme conditions. Animals that live in the
clesert can tolerate high temperatures during the day
rnd low temperatures at night. Some animals hibernate
in extremely cold temperatures as a means of survival.
Sunlight
Sunlight is the most important source of energy in the
ecosystem. Plants depend on sunlight to carry out
photosynthesistomaketheirfood.Differentpartsof
a forest get different degrees of light. That makes it
possible for different types of organisms to grow t' ..
there. For instance, tall trees obtain a greater amount

of sunlight. So they form the canopy or roof of the
forest. Plants such as ferns and mosses survive in
these shaddy areas. Bacteria and fungi also prefer
dark conditions.
Air
Air is a mixture of gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are needed
for life processes such as photosynthesis and respiration.
Organisms living in higher altitudes of the mountains are well
adapted to the higher pressure ofair.
Both camels and polar bears are
well-suited to live in extTeme
Soil conditions
Soil is an important factor for terrestrial organisms. It supplies

nutrients to plants. Soil also acts as a habitat for animals like
Summary questions
earthworms and insects.
Soil is enriched by
, decomposed dead plants O List the abiotic
components in the
and animals. called ecosystem.
humus. The type of soil
determines the tipe
of vegetation that can
@ state the differences
between biotic and
.' grow. For example, you abiotic factors.
can find coconut trees
growing on sandy beaches @ Ciu" one interaction
between abiotic and
while paddy grows well in clay
soil as it can hold water for lonq biotic factors in the
of time. desert.
67
Gnouping orsanis $
In any one habitat you will find many different living organisms.
Some of them are large, such as baobab trees, elephants, giraffes,
be able to:
. redwood trees, gorillas and whales. Others are small, such as
identify some ways to
ants, caterpillars, duckweeds and krill. Each habitat is different.
group living organisms
. However, the organisms found in different habitats share the
explain that a habitat
same features. This means we can put them into groups. Each
will contain a number
of different types of
habitat has similar groups.
organisms
. use information from
seconoary sources. Plants make food
In most places, the first group you will find are plants. Plants
are usually green. They have leaves, stems and roots. They make
. carnivore food by photosynthesis, using energy from the Sun. They are very
. herbivore important. In most habitats, all the other organisms depend on
. the plants. This may be directly as food, or because they feed on
omnivore
other organisms which have fed on plants.
Decomposers
In a habitat you will find other organisms growing which may look
a bit like plants. They grow up from the soil or from the trunks of
trees. They are not animals because they do not move around.
These are part of a group of living organisms called fungi. Th.y
cannot make their own food. They feed on the remains of other
organisms. Fungi are categorised in a feeding group known as
decolnposers. Other decomposers include bacteria, termites, ants,
millipedes and earthworms.
{
Plants versus fungi
.a. These
Work in a group.
. Make a poster to show the main differences between
plants and fungi. Find out how they get their food. Get
some good images from the Internet or other books to
show the different plants and fungi that exist in the world.
l)ccomposers are responsible
lirr the disappearance of dead
organisms. They break down
tlcad organisms and their waste.
'lhey turn them into nutrients
and simpler substances such
r.rs nitrates and phosphates,
and gases like carbon dioxide.
'fhese nutrients and gases
are returned to the soil or
atmosphere, and plants absorb
them.
' lmagine a world without

decomposers! All the dead
organisms would pile up and
there won't be space for the
living organisms to go about
their daily activities
erbivores, carnivores and omnivores Summary questions

Many animals in a habitat eat the plants that grow around them.
Some feed on grasses, others feed on the leaves of bushes or trees, G)
v wnat are the main
differences between a
and some eat flowers, fruits or berries. Animals which eat plants
plant and a fungus?
are herbivores.
There are many animals which feed only on other animals. They (2 ) (a) HOW lS a Carnlvore
may eat insects or worms, birds or large mammals. They may eat different from a
herbivores, or they may eat animals which eat other animals. They herbivore?
are all known as carnivores.
(b) In what ways do
omnivores differ
are from herbivores and
carnivores?
(c) Draw a table with
three headings -
herbivore, carnivore
and omnivore. In
each column write
three examples of
the type of animal.
@ nna thinks there

will always be more
til
herbivores than
Iti carnivores in an
-7ia
^^^^,,^+^-
uuuJyJLvl ll. 4la
i; disagrees. She thinks

that there are more
These carnivores
will eat this carnivores than other
herbivore once animals. What do you
they have killed it
think? Explain your
answer.
69
Food chains
After this topic you should A food chain is a way of showing how different organisms in
be able to: a habitat feed on one another. Look at habitats around you,
o state that food chains try to identift the organisms in the different food chains. The
are composed of simple food chain in the picture tells us that antelopes eat grass
different trophic levels and cheetahs eat antelopes. It doesn't tell us how many planis or
. explain the terms antelopes or cheetahs get eaten!
'producer','primary Food chains show how energy can pass from one living thing
consumer'and to another in a habitat. The arrows show the direction in which
'secondary consumer'
energy is passing along the chain.
r draw simple food
chains with three
trophic levels.
.4. Grass --.) antelope --.) cheetah: a food chain
Producers and consumers

A general food chain looks like this:
The different stages of the food chain are known as trophic levels.
Plants produce their own food by photosynthesis. This is why they are called producers. Every
food chain starts with a producer, and most prodr cers are plants. Animals .orrrrrir" plants or other
animals, so they are known as consumers. The animals which eat plants (the herbivoies) are known
as primary consumers.
Some animals eat the herbivores. They are carnivores and are called secondary consumers.
Omnivores
can be both primary and secondary consumers because they eat both plants and animals.
In the food chain on the next page, the leaf of the plant is the producer. The caterpillar eating the leaf
is the primary consumer, and the bird eating the caterpillar ii the secondary.o.rrrr-"r.
Think about
the living organisms you come across when studying the local habitats and write down some
of the
food chains. Do some extra research if you need to so you can complete them all.
70
Making three-item food chains
Draw out as many three-item food chains as you can. Think of organisms you have identified
in your local habitat or organisms from other habitats further away.
Make large coloured drawings of the organisms in one of the food chains you have drawn up.
Cut out the shapes and hang them up, with the producer at the bottom of the food chain.
oving along the chain Summary questions
O Make up three different

food chains. Use one
How many antelopes do you think a cheetah eats in a week? How from your local habitat,
many blades of grass do you think an antelope would have eaten one from a freshwater
in the same week? Thousands of grass plants will only feed a small habitat and one from
number of antelopes. Those antelopes will only feed an even any habitat of your
smaller number of cheetahs. choice.
What happens to the food as it passes along the food chain? When
an animal eats a plant, not all of the food in the plant ends up as
@ Explain why the arrows
pass from the plant
new living material in the animal. Some of the food gets used for onwards through a food
other things. The animal uses the food to move about and grow. chain.
Some of the food will not be digested and will be passed out of the
body as waste. @ Wfrat happens to the
biomass as it passes
When an animal itself is eaten by another animal, it only passes along a food chain?
along the food that has become part of its body. The next organism Suggest as many ways
gets only the small amount of food that was turned into the new as oossible in which it is
biological material. This biological material is called biomass. used or lost.
Food webs
After this topic you should Food webs

be able to:
Food chains do not reflect the complex feeding relationships that
. differentiate a food exist in most communities. There is more than one food chain in
chain and a food web
any ecosystem. Plants and animals are part of several food chains.
o explain what a pyramid When these food chains are linked together, a foodweb is formed.
of numbers is
o state the characteristics
A food web describes the actual feeding relationships and
of pyramids of numbers energy flow within the community. It helps maintain a balanced
. describe how energy
ecosystem by regulating the number of organisms at each trophic
flows in a food chain. level of the food chain.
o food web
Pyramids of numbers
o energy flow If we arrange the numbers of organisms according to each stage
e pyramid of numbers or trophic level in the food chain, then we have a pyramid of
numbers.
In a py'amid of numbers, the organisms with the highest number
is at the base of the pyramid. Plants, being the producers are always the highest in numbers and
placed at the bottom of the pyramid. The primary consumers are at the second trophic level, while
the secondary and tertiary consumers are at the third and fourth trophic levels.
The number of organisms at each level of the pyramid decreases as we move up the food chain. The
size of the organisms increases from the base of the pyramid to the top.
Plant
(producer)
Snake
.r. A food web that is made up of

several food chains
Tertiary consumer
Secondary consumer
{ er
,:r Pyramid of numbers
:r:nergy flow in a food web

Living organisms need energy to survive. Energy is
transferred through a food chain when an organism eats or
is eaten. A food chain starts when plants absorb light energy .
from the Sun and convert it into chemical energy which will be
stored in them. Plants use this energy for various life p
such as growth, reproduction and excretion.
When plants are eaten by primary consumers, the stored chemical Seals are carnivorous animals
and need a lot of food to obtain
energy is transferred into primary consumers. However not all energy
the energy is transferred as some energy will be dissipated as heat
to the surroundings while another fraction of the energy will be
used for activities such as moving and eating. From the primary Summary questions
consumers, the energy flows to secondary consumers and lastly,
to the tertiary consumers. There is a loss of energy from one level O State the differences
between a food chain
to the next, and the amount of energy decreases along the food
and a food web.
chain. Very little energy is transferred to the next level and this
explains why the pyramid of numbers seldom exceeds four levels.
@ fhe number of trophic
Since the energy decreases from the lower level to the higher level, levels in a food chain is
the organisms at the higher level have to eat a large amount of generally not more than
food to get their energy supply. So, the number of organisms at four. Why is that?
the lower level is always more than the next trophic level.
@ *nu does the amount of
energy decrease along
Food chains and food webs the food chain?
Work in groups.
. Make as many food chains in a tropicaljungle you can
think of.
. Use the food chains to create a food web.
. Once the food web rs completed, turn it into a poster.
73
Interactions between organisms are proof that no living being
be able to: can survive on its own. Organisms have to interact with one
o qtaia tho irrnoc nf another and with their environment. Interactions between living
interactions between organisms help the organisms obtain food, shelter, protection
organrsms and breeding partners. It also regulates their population size and
o differentiate the types maintains the balance of nature.
of interactions between The relationships between organisms can be grouped into
organisms. competition, prey-predator and symbiosis. Symbiotic is
relationship consists of commensalism, mutualism and
parasitism.
a commensalism
'tj,:,,,,r, ,,. ',. ::
l,):i
a competition ,: ,
a mutualism Competition is an interaction in which organisms compete for

a parasitism the same resources such as food, territory and breeding partners.
a prey-predator Competition usually occurs when the resources are limited. The
a symbiosis result of this competition has a negative effect on the weaker
organism. This interaction can be ftrrther
grouped into intraspecifi c competition
and interspecifi c competition.
Intraspecilic competition is a
competition between the same
species while interspecific lntrasPecific
competition exists among
members of different species. A
herd of deer competing for food
is an example of intraspecific
competition. A lion and a hyena
fighting over a carcass of deer is an
of interspecific competition.
.,example
i
I
t
ts
I The birds are showing
I intraspecific interaction while
the lions and the hyenas show
i nterspecific interaction
!
i,; i i5]lry ,i%j,..4---r r:,.*
A predator capturing its prey
A prey is the organism that is hunted and eaten whereas the predator hunts and eats the prey. Usually,
the predators are carnivores and larger than the prey. However, the predator can also be a prey to
a larger predator than itself. For instance, a snake eats a rat but the snake can be eaten by an owl.
Predators are well adapted to kill their prey. They possess good vision, sharp claws, strong beaks, a
good sense of smell, powerful jaws and sharp teeth. They can run faster than their prey. Their bodies
are sometimes camouflaged so that their prey cannot see them.
The prey also have sharp eyes to detect the presence ofpredators. Th.y have the ability to run and
escape from their predators. Some prey give out unpleasant smells or harmful chemicals. Some can
mimic the colours or smell of other stronger animals to frighten or confuse the predators.
Symbiosis means a close interaction between two different species which live together and interact
with each other for an extended period of time. In a symbiotic relationship, one species will benelit
while the other species may be unaffected or might be harmed.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms from different species in
which one gets benelits (commensal), and the other does not benefit and is not
harmed (host). Commensalism usually occurs between a larger organism
and a smaller one. The larger organism is the host and the commensal
will be the smaller organism. An example of this relationship is the .*r*
remora fish and shark.
Mutualism
Mutualism is a relationship between two
organisms from different species in which
both benefit. A good example of this
interaction is the clown fish and sea anemone.
A clown fish gains protection from predators
by living amongst the poisonous tentacles of
the sea anemones and by feeding on the food
remnants of the sea anemones. Meanwhile,
the clown fish chases anemone-eating fish
away. ,.' Mutualistic relationshio between a clown fish and sea
anemones
Parasitism
Parasitism is an interaction between two organisms of different species in which one gets benefit
(parasite) and the other is harmed (host). Usually, the parasite is smaller in size compared to its host
and they reproduce at a higher rate. A parasite takes food and shelter from the host. Parasites are
divided into ectoparasites, which live outside the host's body, and endoparasites, which live inside the
host's body. Mosquitoes and fleas are ectoparasites while viruses and tapeworms are endoparasites.
Interactions between organisms Summary questions

Work in groups. @ state tne
. Make a folio on different types of interactions between difference between
organisms that you have learned. commensalism and
. Give one example for each interaction complete with mutualism.
pictures.
@ rhe host in
commensalism is larger
Rafflesia, the world's largest flower is a parasite that feeds on the vines of whereas the host in
Tetrastigma plant The Rafflesia plant has no stem, root and leaves and is parasitism is smaller.
not visible until the flowers bloom The Rafflesia flower looks maqnificent
but emits a foul smell Why is that?
@ Cive one example of

(a) mutualism
(b) interspecific
competition
parasitism
(d) commensalism
@ Describe the prey-

predator relationship
between a rat and an
owt.
II
Biological control
Since we know how living organisms interact with one another,
we should be able to control the population of a particular pest
by using another organism that feeds on or kills the pest. Using
a living organism to manage the population
growth of another organism is known as
biological control.
;', Owls play an important role in
eliminating pests, such as rats,
on oil palm plantations. Rats
pose a major pest problem
on oil palm plantations,
causing monetary losses to
the owners. Chemical-based
baits can be used to lure the
rats away, but that chemical
is toxic enough to kill cattle,
so plantation owners have
had to look for other solutions.
They experimented with snakes
as snakes are natural predators to
rats but that was also unsuccessful.
Then, they tried using cats but the cats fell for
the poisonous baits which were used for rats. The planters then
decided to use owls and the plan worked!
Nowadays, planters rear barn owls to keep rats in check. This

method is environmentally friendly, and also keeps a natural
balance in the ecosystem. The planters only have to invest in
making nests for the owls which can be easily made from wooden
boxes and the problem ofrats is taken care of.
The method employed by these oil palm planters is known as

biological control. It is when a natural predator is used to kill a pest
which happens to be its prey. By using the natural enemy, only its
prey is targeted. This method does not cause health problems to
the handlers unlike the chemical pesticide, which can pollute the
environment. Pesticides can kill many other organisms besides
the intended pest. Thus, biological control is safer than using
pesticides to solve the problem of pests in agriculture.
Interdependence between
organisms and the environment
After this topic you should Balanced ecosystem
be able to:
o state the imoortance of In an ecosystem, various organisms live together and are
interdependent for their survival. They interact with one another
a balanced ecosystem
as well as the environment to create a balanced ecosystem.
. describe how
interdependence in A balanced ecosystem is a system that does not change very much
a pond ecosystem over a period of time. The size of the population remains the same
WOTKS. through a steady supply of basic needs like oxygen, food, shelter
and breeding partners. A balanced ecosystem helps to puri$r and
recycle gases, water and minerals. It even helps to control climate.
o balanced ecosystem
o dispersal Pond ecosystem
o pollination A pond is a quiet body of water which is shallow and allows
o reproduction sunlight to penetrate to the bottom. This creates a variety of
vegetation such as submerged plants, floating plants and pond
edge plants.
Aquatic plants obtain energy to make food from sunlight during
photoslmthesis. They obtain carbon dioxide from the respiration
of aquatic animals and minerals from the soil at the bottom of the
pond. The animals, in return, obtain their supply of oxygen from
the plants which release oxygen during photosynthesis.
Animals cannot make their own food. They depend on other
organisms for food. They eat plants or other animals in their
ake
consumer)
Drro
(secondary and tertiary Trog /"...
consu mer) (seconda
consumer
large fish
consu me r)
oucK
(secondary
consu mer)
snail
(primary a lgae
roducer)
(secondary consumer)
'lacler a
zoop anKton
;decomposers)
A ba anced pond ecosystem
environment. Some pond animals depend on aquatic plants for

shelter and protection. They cling to parts of the plants such as Summary questions
the leaves, and are able to camouflage themselves to match the
colours of the parts of the plants they are attached to. o The forests of Indonesia
are an example of an
Aquatic plants and animals depend on non-living components ecosystem. can you
of the environment and other organisms for reproduction. The explain why?
plants rely on water, wind, insects and birds for pollination and
dispersal. Meanwhile, the animals rely on favourable climatic @ ls an aquarium without
conditions and the abundance of water to find breeding partners any plant considered a
and disperse their eggs. Plants provide opportunities for the balanced ecosystem?
animals to attach their eggs or their young ones. whv?
Decomposers like bacteria in the soil help break down dead
organisms and release minerals into the soil. These minerals
supply nutrients for the plants.
In the pond ecosystem, the non-living factors such as water, air,
temperature, oxygen content, rainfall, light intensity and other
factors influence the distribution of organisms.
The interdependence among living organisms and their
environment creates a balanced ecosystem. The amount of food
and the availability of shelter, breeding partners and space keep
the population of each organism in check.
79
l
i
I

be able to:
. expiain how the activity
of people can have a
negative effect on food
chains
. explain how people can
have a positive effect
on food chains.
i
Supplying water in regions where the soii is very dry alows many more
I plants to grow so more food chains can develop
Wher-r we keep aninals for food, we are managing a food chtrin.

When we manage a forest to grow tir-nber, we change the food
chains and focld webs that are there. Someti'es there is a soocl
ellect, but sometit-nes our eft-ect is a neqtrtive one.
There are nany clifferent ways in which

people can calrse problems in food
chains. One good example is the story of
clichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). DDT
is a powerful pesticide. It kills the insect pests
that destroy crops and spread diseases such as
malaria.
Unfortunately DDT does not break down in
the bodies of animals. It is simply stored in
their fat. Not long after farmers itarted using
I DDT, many large water birds such as herons
failed to reproduce successfully. Th.y started
to lay eggs with very thin shells. When the
parent bird sat on the nest, they broke.
|,
I We sometimes put chemicals in rivers without
I knowing what they will do to the food chains there
When things go wrong, the bigger fish will suffer
most
I
80
Why did the herons start to die out?
Look at the food chain below. Why do you think the herons were so badly affected by DDT?
. Write down your ideas. Read on to see if you are right.
%X-;
anrmal plankton
prll' heron
DtanKron r-...-^
DDT in the food chain

Summary questions
When DDT is sprayed onto fields, it also gets washed into streams
and rivers by the rain. It got into the bodies of the tiny plants and O Describe the positive
animals in the water. These organisms take in only small amounts effect on food chains
of DDT, so they are not harmed. when water is supplied
io dry regions.
All the DDT will stay in the bodies of the small fish. Then big fish
eat lots of these little fish. The big fish now has more DDT in their
body fat. Still it is not enough to hurt them. Then herons eat lots
@ Here are some of the
ways people affect food
of the big fish. There is now enough DDT in the heron to affect chains. For each ofthe
the strength of their eggshells, so the number of herons decreases. following statements,
decide whether it has
When people realised the terrible effect of DDT, it was banned a good or bad effect
in many countries. Now it is only used where pests do so much on food chains and the
damage that it is worth the risk of using DDT, for example to kill environment. Explain
the mosquitoes that cause malaria. your answer.
. Emptying sewage
into the sea
Other ways of affecting food chains o Planting grasses,
sucn as marram
People cause pollution in many different ways, through body grass, on sano
waste (sewage), pesticides, industrial waste, car fumes and more. dunes
We pollute the oceans, rivers, lakes and the land. All of this can o Putting factory
have a bad effect on food chains. waste into rivers
We have also polluted the air. We have destroyed part of the ozone
o Setting up nature
reseryes
layer which protects us from UV radiation and this is affecting life . Stopping whale
on Earth. We have changed the climate by producing too much hunting
carbon dioxide - and this means food chains are affected too. . Spraying crops with
But we are also doing many good things. We conserve habitats pesticides
that are threatened. We take water to dry areas and prevent
erosion of soil. We replant areas with new forests. We create food
chains. Find out more in tooics 3.14 and 3.15.
81
The ways in which organisms fit into their habitat and survive are
be able to: known as adaptations. By looking at the adaptations of an animal
o describe some habitats
or plant, you can get a good idea of where and how it lives.
of organisms
. explain how organisms
are adapted for survival
SurwivinE
. communicate your Living organisms are adapted in many ways to survive in different
ideas supported by conditions. For example, plants have adaptations of their roots and
evidence leaves to cope with different conditions. Here are some examples
a mrko anr{ nroqont of the ways living organisms are adapted to their particular way
conclusions by bringing of life.
tnoothar avir-lcnno f69p6
different sources. 'w7
. adaptation
The habitat of the Venus flytrap has soil containing

very few minerals. The leaves of the plant are
ts adapted to catch and digest insects. The plant
gets minerals from the insects in order to grow
ano reproouce
The long neck of

a giraffe aJlows
it to feed on the
leaves from the
tnnc n{ trooc th:+
I
few other animals
can reacn
.l
*:. R,
II
aa"'4r-
ftr
The cactus has:

. a thick stem with lots of water-storing cells
. tiny spines as leaves
. a thick waxy outer layer
p . verf deep roots.
The barn owl has:

. excellent hearing
. large eyes
The rabbit has:
. a sharp beak and claws
. long ears
. light bones and feathers.
. large eyes
. strong hind legs
A cheetah has: . flat grinding teeth.
. ver/ small ears
. spotted fur
. sharp pointed teeth
. verY long legs.
Summary questions
'!
$
u, rvrany antmats can
'li'rii:ll1; cnange corour or
;r1
have colours which
blend in with their
background. This is
0aileu carrouilage.
^îl^/-l ^^,-^' '{t^^ How
does this help them to
survive?
Working out the adaptations
@ Wort< in a small group.

Look at the fact files of the four oroanisms vou have been Think of four habitats.
grven aOove. Write down at least one
. For each one write a paragraph explaining how the organism from each.
organism is adapted to its habitat and way of life. Do some Make a fact file to show
research usinq different books and the lnternet. how each organism
^,-l^^+ +^
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Animals and plants have to be adapted to changes in their
be able to: environment to survive.
o describe the
adaptations of some Day an'nd rufrgffnft un vfr ff"mfr.i,wtmrs
animals and plants to
their habitats Habitats change every 24 hours. Daltime is usually much warmer
o describe some and brighter than the night-time. Some organisms are adapted
adaptations for the to be most active during the day. For example, most plants open
day and for the night in their flowers during the day when insects are flying around to
living organisms pollinate them. Many animals use their eyesight to find food in
. describe some seasonal the light. Amphibians and reptiles are cold-blooded and need the
adaptations in different warmth of the day to be active.
animals and plants Some animals are nocturnal. They are active during the night.
. communrcate your Sometimes this is to avoid being eaten, although there are some
ideas suppoded by predators that hunt at night. These nocturnal animals usually have
evtdence.
Iarge eyes which use as much of the dim light as possible. Some
flowers open at night. They are pollinated by nocturnal animals
such as moths or bats. They often have a strong scent to attract the
moths, which can smell with their feathery antennae.
Seasrommfl mwfimml:W.a:';,tr,ilr,-tt,ff\1ffi
In some parts of the world, near the equator, the weather is very
similar all year round. But in many other places it changes a lot
through the year. In temperate regions such as Northern Europe a
tree might get l6 hours of sunshine and a temperature of around
20 'C in the summer. But in the winter these change to around
eight hours of light and 5 "C. There isn't enough sunlight for the
leaves to make the food the tree needs and theywould all be killed
by frost. So the tree becomes dormant. It loses its leaves and slows
down all the processes of life.
;tll l:
l
-t Bybecomingdormantinwinterthistreecansurviveuntil thewarmerweatherandlongerdaysofspring
Investigating adaptations
Using the techniques in topic 3.2, collect a selection of animals and plants from your local
habitats. Look at their adaptations and use them to help you decide where they live and whether
they are active in the day or during the night.
Many small plants can also become dormant. They survive

the winter as seeds, or as bulbs below the ground.
Animals have to survive these changes in conditions too.

Some animals change their behaviour. Some change the
way they look and others change the way their bodies
work. Hedgehogs and polar bears for example hibernate
in cold weather. They eat a lot and build up fat in the
summer. Then their bodies slow down to save energy
through the winter in a sheltered hiding place. They
become active again when the days get longer and warmer.
Some animals migrate. They leave bad conditions and move

to good conditions. Some birds and mammals travel thousands
of miles every year. Swallows spend the summers in Europe and
winters in Africa. In the great migration in Africa, big herds of Summary questions
wildebeest and zebra move across the continent. The herds follow
the rains to eat the new grass which grows because of the rain. O Describe three
adaptations in an
organism that is active
during the daytime
and two adaptations
Many animals develop thick, shaggy in organisms that are
coats to keep warm through the
colder part of the year. They lose active at night.
their thick coats in the spring
@ *nu do many animals
in temperate countries
grow thick coats before
winter?
@ Before a polar bear

hibernates it:
o builds uo as much
body fat as possible
o makes a den to hide
in under the snow,
When it hibernates it
slows down all of its
body processes.
Exolain how these
adaptations help the
oolar bear to survive the
winter.
Many parts of the world have extreme conclitions, ranging from
be able to: very hot and dry to very cold ancl dry. For an orgauism to survive
. describe how animals
in extreme conditions, it must have special adaptations.
anA nlan+a ^,-J^^+ +-
pranrs aoapl
anu Io
exLr er
^\/+r'^m^ |e h^^+
I leaI at -
^î ]u coto
in their environment.
In many places arollnd the world the daily temperatllre gets
very high. Often water is in short sr-rpply as well. This rnakes lif-e
hard for animals and plants. Deserts are the nost extreute hot
environments.
Desert plants often have roots that spread widely or go deep clown
into the ground to reerch water. The leirves are ofteu smtrll and
have thick waxy outer layers to recluce water loss. Desert plants
often store water in their stems, their lcaves or their roots. Many
plants growing in hot and dry conclitions also hirve sharp spines
to protect thernselves from animals thart want to eirt them. Plants
aclapted to hot conditions are callecl xerophytes. Cacti are the best
known extrmple.
Mammerls that live in hot clinrates usually have very little fr-rr arnd
big, thin ears to help them lose heat. Some nnimals such as desert
rirts can store all the water in the food they eat so they harclly
These Euphorbia survive hot need to drink. Many clifferent types of anin-rals also adarpt their
and dry conditions with the r behaviour. For example, when it is very hot they hide in the shade
fleshy leaves, deep roots and
the spiny thorns that protect of rocks or in burrows which they dig.
them from being eaten
Plants that survive in very cold conditions are often

very small. They may have hairy leaves to trap a
) layer of air to keep them warm.
;,
'' Some have special antifreeze chemicals in
',:' their leaves, so they don't freeze in the low
temperatures.
Elephants have large, thin ears, wrinkled skin and very

little hair in order to help them lose heat
Animals also have special adaptations for living in cold places. Many mammals have a thick layer
,rl'fat (blubber) beneath their skin to insulate them from the cold. Their thick fur keeps them warm.
Itirds have extra layers of soft feathers to keep them warm. Reptiles and amphibians do not live in very
t old climates as they cannot get their bodies warm enough to move about. Many animals hibernate
or hide away through the coldest weather. Polar bears retreat to a den under the snow for the winter.
liven cold climates have summers and winters. The landscape changes
colour completely when the snow and ice come. Many animals
rrclapt for the change of seasons with a change in their colour
rrs well as the thickness of their fur. Their colour change
nreans they are camouflaged all through the year (see
the photos of the Arctic fox).
Adaptation to altitude
When animals live at very high altitude they
have to be adapted to cope with less oxygen
in the air as well as cold temperatures. Special
ardaptations for altitude include:
. extra red blood cells to carry more oxygen
. bigger lungs to take in more air

. more blood vessels in the lungs to take
more oxygen from the air.
.:,rP You can clearly see the difference in the colour and
the thickness of the fur of the Arctic fox in summer
and winter - and how well thev are camouflaqed in the
different seasons
Summary questions
..:ti.
.}-: O Foreach ofthefour
organisms listed below
:,,.il
''::ral describe:
itti .
(a) where it lives
:,1. (b) how it feeds
(c) its adaptations to
live in its habitat
. tiger
. camel
. polar bear
. retndeer
87
be able to:
. describe some of
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U tu auoPtouut ^+
living organisms [o lile
un0erwaler.
a gills
a phytoplankton
r tt .
What are the main

problems for organisms
living underwater?
Mention three ways

in which fish adapt to
underwater life.
I nnk rt tha nhntn nf

Loln rnri iha nhntn
nf tho coq annlor fieh
Make a poster about
r- +^-
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dudvLoLrur rur l,+^
ilru
underwater
89
i
t: rli:::l::iil :lri,: ..':' ii
:'t
. .::.::'::"" .
,..:i :. ' 'l';,,,;.''

be able to:
. state what pollution is Air pollution occurs when contaminants are
. describes the types of releasedinto the air and cannot be removed
pollution through natural cycles like water cycle and
. list the causes of nitrogen cycle. Some common air pollutants are
pollution carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
. describe the effects of soot, dust, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
pollution. and lead compounds. These are
dangerous to human beings and
the environment.
acid rain
algal bloom Sources of air pollution include
chlorofluorocarbons emission from vehicle exhaust,
(CFCs) forest fires, quarries and
haze industries like cement, timber
smog and asbestos. ""
soot I \"J*dilslu
Smoke from forest lires can cause haze which reduces visibility.
Sometimes, smog occurs as well. Haze alrd srnog blurs visibility.
They can also cause breathing difficulty, especially for people
with asthma. When there is haze, heat is trapped making the
temperature rise. As for pltrnts, the stomata on the leaves are
blocked by soot and this hinders photosynthesis.
Balinese statue in Bali, When we burn fossil fuel, carbon monoxide is formed. This
Indonesia showing w-âtherin g
and danage due lo acid rain reduces the ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to the cells.
When we do not have enough oxygen, we can get headaches and
dizziness. We may even die if we breathe in ltrrger doses of carbon
monoxide. Carbon dioxide is also released fiom the burning of
fossil fuels. It causes the greenhouse effect.
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are released from factories
and power plants running on fossil fuels. When they dissolve
in rainwater, they cause acid rain. Acid rain lowers the pH of
ponds and lakes, making the water acidic. This is dangerous for
the organisms living in the water. Crops and livestock are also
affected by acid rain. Acid rain is corrosive. It damages buildings
and structures especially those made from limestone and marble.
Objects made from iron such as vehicles and bridges rttst even
faster because ofacid rain.
Wrrys to oYercome air pollution:
. Avoid using fuels that release alot of smoke, smog and soot
. Fix catall'tic converters on all motor vehicles to convert harmful
exhaust gases into carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water
. Use unleaded petrol to prevent the release of lead particles into
the atmosphere
. Use CFCs-free products
. Avoid open burning of rubbish and allow the government to
build incinerators An incinerator ln the national
. Fix a filter on the smoke ducts of chimneys in factories to trap park with garbage bags waiting
to be disposed
pollutants before smoke is released into the surrounding air
. Educate the people on the effects of air pollution and ways of
reducing them
. Take legal action against owners of factories or vehicles
which pollute the environment.
Water and soil pollution

Water pollution is caused by domestic waste and
littering, industrial waste, agricultural activities, logging,
mining, increased sediment from soil erosion and
oil spills. Water pollution can occur in any body of
i water such as rivers, oceans and underground water.
When the different sources of water flow together, the
pollution spreads.
Domestic waste is waste from kitchen, bathroom and
laundry such as garbage, detergents and waste from
!w; food preparations. This waste, especially untreated
sewage, can cause serious health problems. Sewage
..r* A dead bird becomes a victim of oil spill
disaster in the Gulf of Mexico refers to wastewater that contains urine and faeces.
Sewage disposal is a major problem in developing
countries as many people do not have clean water and do not live in sanitary conditions.
Too much application of pesticides as mentioned in topic 3.9 can also cause water pollution as
these substances leach into the underground water which will later flow into ponds and rivers. Over
usage of chemical fertilisers will contribute to algal bloom with dangerous results for aquatic life in
ponds and rivers. Sometimes, untredted factory waste is discharged into waterways, causing serious
pollution. Water pollution ce& spread even to those rivers from which people get their drinking
water.
Accidents can happen at sea involving tankers, pipelines, refineries and illegal cleaning of oil tankers
at sea. The result is not only tbgoil spills which we can see, but much more damage and danger that
we cannotsee. The oil washes up.the shoreline and covers the beaches with black and sticky oil. It
iffects seabirds arid other marine organisms.
The reproduction rate of aquatiqlife slows down due to water pollution. The food chains are also
91
Soil is a thin layer of organic and inorganic material formed on
the upper layer of Earth. Soil pollution is the contamination
of land that is used for agriculture, habitation and wildlife or
forest reserves.
Soil pollution is caused by the use of excessive fertilisers and

pesticides, deforestation, seepage from a landfill, household
dumping and discharge of industrial waste into the soil. Seepage
from landfill especially heary metals can end up in a food chain,
with serious results. Deforestation means chopping down large
areas of trees. The result is soil erosian because there are no more
trees to anchor the soil with their roots and no more leaves to
soften the impact of hear,y rain.
Soil pollution leads to lowyield of crops, loss of animals and plants

and their habitats, soil erosion and water pollution.
To prevent soil pollution, there could be forest replantation
programmes, adopt the 3R-reduce, reuse and recycle-as a way of
life and stop using chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
All the types of pollution are interconnected. For instance,
factories using fossil fuels to run their operations release
pollutants into the air. This causes air pollution. When the
pollutants dissolve in rainwater, they return to Earth as acid rain
and increase water and soil pollution. We must all be prepared to
change our lifestyle to curb the problem before it gets worse. Soil pollution due to copper
mine exploitation
Pollutions Summary questions
Write an essay of about 300 words on pollution. Discuss the QD State the effects of
effects of pollution and steps to reduce the impacts. pollution.
lo* does acid rain

@ damage buildings,
v We can reduce household wastes by recycling
especially those made
of limestone and
marble?
@ How do excess
fertilisers which flow
into lakes cause the
death of aquatic
I
antmals and plants?
@ Wf'at happens if
untreated sewage is
discharged into the
rivers?
I
hluman population growth
Human beings have been living on Earth for less than a million
years. But our activity has changed the balance of nature on the
should be able to:
. planet enormously.
describe how the
human population
nas grown
. explain how the
The growth of the human population
increasing number For thousands of years there were only a few million people
of people has had scattered all over the world. So our actions had only small, local
positive and negative effects on the environment.
effects on the
environment. In the last 2 000 years or so, the human population has grown
very quickly. There are now over 7 billion people on Earth. Now
the things we do can really affect the environment and even the
. climate change whole planet.
o extinct Normally when a population of organisms grows really fast, it is
. greenhouse effect quickly reduced by predators, lack of food, a build-up of waste
o ozone hole products or disease. But human beings have discovered how to
grow plenty of food to eat. We can cure or prevent many killer
diseases. We have no natural predators. Because of all these, the
human population has grown very fast.
) The growth :o
ofthe human
o
^^^,,l^+;^^
PvPu,oL,v, I
i+
o
The oreenhorrse elfee I is a o.J
o
natural process which keeps ol
Earth warm enough for life to 0
exist But extra carbon dioxide _o1
E
(COr) means extra warming, ln
which may not be a good thing
z B'7'6'5'4'3'2'1
Thousands ofyears ago
Negative effects
More people on Earth means we
use more of Earth's resources.
As a result, we are a negative
influence on the environment.
The negative effects are:
. We burn fossil fuels, such

as coal, oil and gas, to
make electricity and heat
buildings. We burn oil
products in vehicle engines,
producing carbon dioxide.
93
This adds to the carbon dioxide which is
already in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide
and gases such as methane and nitrogen
dioxide are known as greenhouse gases.
The increasing amount of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere traps extra heat energy
from the Sun. So the surface of the Earth
gets even warmer. This is known as the
enhanced greenhouse effect. Greenhouse
effect is actually natural and necessary to
support life on Earth. But we are producing
too much greenhouse gases, causing an r The ozone hole as seen from space
imbalance in the environment.
As a result, the climate seems to be changing all over the world. Climate change means a big
change in temperature, precipitation and, wind patterns for an extended period of time. It affects
the habitats of animals and plants in different parts of the world. Some animals and plants are in
danger of becoming extinct. The polar ice caps are melting at a very fast rate, and glaciers such as
the Alps, Andes, Himalayas and Alaska are retreating faster. The sea level is rising and low lying
areas are at risk of flooding. Many places have seen changes in the pattern of rainfall which has
caused floods, droughts or heat waves.
We cut down very large areas of forest to grow crops such as oil palm, and to raise animals, such
as cattle. This destroys a rich habitat and it means that hundreds of types of Iiving organisms are
becoming extinct every year.
Chemicals such as CFCs used in fridges and aerosol sprays have built up in the atmosphere and
destroyed some of the ozorre, a form of oxygen. The ozone in the atmosphere protects Earth from
ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun. The ozone hole is where
the ozone layer has become thin and is allowing more UV Summary questions
through. This can damage many living organisms by causing
more cancers to happen. The good news is that people are now
producing fewer CFCs and the ozone layer is getting thicker
@
t-ist the reasons why
the human population
agaln. has grown so much in
recent years.
Positive effects @ wort< in a group.

Make two posters. In
As people become more aware of the problems, they are working one, explain people's
hard to protect the planet by: negative effects on the
. planting more trees environment. In the
other, show the positive
r preventing further destruction of more rainforests effects people can have
. protecting areas where rare plants and animals are found so on the environment.
the numbers can grow Compare the posters
and decide whether
. finding alternatives to fossil fuels, for example biofuels humans are good for
. reusing, recycling and replacing resources. Earth or not.
94
;ffirus nnary
Remember that the habitat of an oroanism Humans can have a negative effect
is its home. on food chains, for example by using
There is a wide variety of different habitats pesticides such as DDT.
around the world. Organisms are adapted to their habitat.
You can investigate a habitat using simple They are well suited to the place they live
apparatus such as quadrats, pooters, and the way they feed.
sweep nets and pitfalltraps. Organisms may be adapted to be active
An ecosystem has biotic and ablotic during the day or during the night (if they
components that work together. are nocturnal).
Biotic components include producers, Organisms may be adapted io survive
consumers an0 0ecomDosers. seasonal differences in the weather
Abiotic components include conditions and the amount of food
water,
available.
temperature, sunlight, air and soil.
Plants are green organisms which make
Organisms have many different
adaptations which make it possible for
their own food by photosynthesis. Fungi
them to live underwater and in extreme
are not green and they feed off other
organisms which may be alive or dead.
conditions of heat, cold, altitude and
depth under the ocean.
Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat
other animals and omnivores eat both Pollution happens when contaminants
plants and animals. are released into the surroundings and
cause damage to the environment.
A plant is a producer, a herbivore is a
primary consumer and a carnivore is a Environmental pollutions include air
pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.
secondary consumer.
Organisms are linked together in feeding
The enormous growth of the human
population is having negative effects on
relationships known as food chains.
the environment such as increased global
Interactions between organisms maintain warming and the thinning of the ozone
the food web and control the size of the layer (ozone hole).
population of the organism.
Climate change refers to significant
Competition, prey-predator and symbiosis change in the components of climate
are types of interactions between such as temperature and rainfall.
organisms.
As people become aware of the
Symbiotic relationships consist of problems, they are finding solutions
commensalism, muiualism and parasitism. to have a more positive effect on the
Interdependence between organisms is environment in some parts of the world.
vital for the survival of the organisms.
95
Summative Practice
Copy and complete these sentences using The students called them species 1, 2, and
key terms from this chapter. so on, and recorded the colour of each type.
The place where an organism lives is called (a) Explain the way the two groups could
its present the results to their class. t3l
are animals that eat onlv (b) Suggest why there were fewer animals
pranrs. on type B trees. t3l
A diagram that shows the flow of energy (c) Explain why most of the animals were
between three or more different orqanisms is green or orown. t2l
called a Their teacher said that the two groups should
An is a olace where different use exactly the same method when collecting
oroanisms interact with one another and their the animals. They should use the beating
envrronment. t4l tray and pooters.
Some students are investigating the animals
(d) Suggest ways in which the two
groups could improve their method of
that live on the trees in the school ground.
investigation. t4l
The school gardener told them that there are
two types of trees: (a) Complete this food chain to show the
feeding relationships among these three
organisms found in an African nature
reserye:
gqqg anlelope cheetah t2l

(b) The food chain has three trophic levels.
State the trophic level for each organism
in the food charn. t3l
(c) Vultures are scavengers that will eat
the bodies of dead antelope and dead
cheetahs.
(i) Add vultures to the food chain you
nave orawn. t2l
(ii) What are omnivores? t2l
The diagram below shows three types of
interactions among living organisms.
The class are divided rnto two groups to

collect animals from the trees. Nisha's and
Dino's groups think there are different types
of animals on the two types of trees.
They used a beating tray and pooters to
make their collections. The figure shows
some of the animals collected by Nisha's
group from trees of type A. Dino's group
found fewer animals on tvoe B trees.
Fill in the spaces provided using the correct
cogon9rass words for the following statements.
(a) An organism which hunts and feeds on
another organism:
(b) A relationship between two organisms
where both benefit:
(c) Consisting of many species of organisms
interacting with one another and with the
physical factors around them: _.
(d) A mosquito sucking blood from the
human body: t4l
Photos X and Y show interactions between
Name the type of interactions shown in
orqanisms.
(a) P
(b) o
(c) R tsl
5 The diagram shows a part of the oil palm
plantation.
(a) Construct a food chain found n tne

plantation. t2l
(b) What is a food chain? t2l Y
(c) A sample of soil from the plantation was
examined under a microscooe. Name (a) Name and explain the type of interactions
the organisms found in the soil and state shown in photo
their function. t2l (i) x
(d) What will happen if the workers kill all the (ii) Y t4l
snakes in the plantation? t2l (b) Inthe forest, living organisms compete to
tal The plantation owner increased the obtain basic needs. What is the difference
amount of ferlilisers for the oil palm trees. between the types of competition
After sometime he noticed plenty of fungi between animals and competition
growing on the stems and roots of the between plants in forests? t2l
trees. The fungi can eventually damage How is the prey-predator interaction
the oil palm trees. What is the role of beneficialto man? t2l
the fungi? How are the oil palm trees (d) The vegetable plants in Rahman's farm
affected? t3l are attacked by caterpillars. Suggest the
fastest way to overcome the problem.l2l
97
8 Which of the following rs not an abiotic faclor? (c) The diagram shows a food web.
A. Autotrophs
B. Temperature
C. Sunlight
D. Soil t1l
An interaction between two organisms in

which one benefits and the other neither
benefits nor harmed
Which interaction best depicts the relationship

based on the statement above? (i) What type of interaction rs shown by
A. Parasitism the caterpillar and the chicken? tll
B. Competition (ii) What is man's role in the food chain?
C. Symbiosis
D. Commensalism t2l
ti I (iii) What will happen when man has
10 Which of the following is not true of a pyramid chickens? t1l
consumed all the
of numbers?
are plants important in a food
(iv) Why
A. The base is occupied by producers web?
B. The number of organisms decreases t2l
12 Animals are adapted to the habitats in which
from the base to the top
C. Energy flow increases from the base to they live.
the top Explain what is meant by the term adaptation.
D. The size of organisms increases from the t2l
base to the top tll 13 The photo shows a red slender loris, which is
11 The diagram shows a pyramid of numbers. a nocturnal animal that lives in the forests of
Sri Lanka.
\o/ What levels do P and Q represent in this

food chain? t2l
(b) What conclusion can be made concerning
the organisms in a pyramid of numbers?
t2l
(a) Suggest three ways in which the red 16 The graph shows the increase in the human
slender loris is adaoted to a nocturnal life population of Brazil between 1550 and 2012.
in forests. tsl Population of Brazil
(b) Describe three ways in which the flowers
on some plants attract animals. tsl
I
14 The environmental conditions in desefts are o
o
very extreme. Deserts provide a habitat for
many types of plants and animals. o
(a) Describe the extreme conditions that €

plants and animals experience in deserts. E
t4l .9
(b) (i) Name a type of plant and a type of g
animal that are adaoted to survive in o
o-
deserts. t2l
(ii) Explain the adaptations of each of '1
550 650 750 1850 1950
'1 '1
205
these organisms to the conditions in Year
the deseft. t6l
(a) Describe what happened to the
15 Sperm whales are mammals and have lungs population of Brazil between 1550 and
for breathing air. They hunt squid and fish.
They spend about 90% of their lives at great
2012. t4l
(b) Why has the human population increased
depths and are rarely seen at the surface of
so much? t4l
the oceans.
(c) Suggest some problems that Brazil
will have if its population continues to
Increase. Lvl
(d) Suggest ways in which the government of
Rrazit marr .r^p itS population inCreaSing.
15/
(e) Some scientists believe that the human
population will continue to increase, then
it will peak and then rapidly decline. What
are their reasons for this prediction? tsl
17 Which of the following gases is usually
associated with global warming?
A. Chlorofluorocarbon
B. Nitrogen dioxide
C. Carbon dioxide
D. Sulfur dioxide t1l
(a) What are the problems that sperm
whales experience in hunting food at 18 Which of the following is not an effect of
great depths in the sea? t4l ozone depletion?
(b) How are sperm whales adapted to A. Reduced immune system
survive and feed at great depths in the
B. Lung cancer
sea?
C. Cataract
t4l D. Melting of ice caps Itl
Uariation and
classification
Science in Contextt
Variety in moths
foko collected 25 moths from the
bark of trees in the woods. They were
all the same tlpe of moth but they
had different colours. Some moths
were pale grey, some were dark grey
while some were greeny-grey colour.
He made a tally table to show the
different qpes he had collected.
|oko's teacher wanted him to show
his results in a way which made it
easier for other students to see what
he had found. Joko displayed his data
in a bar chart and a pie chart. Which
do you think works best?
. Is it possible to find out if the

sample of moths foko caught is
typical of the moths in the wood? Eo
E
. Why are there fewer dark moths

bo
o
_o
than moths of the other colours? E4
zJ
What might happen to the colour
I of the moths if the wood became
polluted by factory smoke?
A bar chart to show the different -r, A pie chart to show
colours of the moths the different colours
al of the moths
1r,
.#
i
il"he history of the peppered moth
Joko is not the first personto investigate variety in
the colour of moths. Many years ago in the United
Kingdom, scientists noticed that the peppered moth
came in two varieties- one pale and one dark. Peppered
moths were usually found on the pale coloured bark
of trees. There were fewer dark moths than light moths
because birds could see dark moths easily and would eat
them (see the first photo on the right).
After the British Industrial Revolution, the smoke from
factories made the bark of many trees dark and dirty.
After a time, scientists noticed that there were many
more dark moths than pale-coloured ones. Birds
could now see the pale moths more easily than the
dark ones and so the pale moths were being eaten (see
the second photo on the right).
In recent years the air and the woodlands have been
cleaned up. Now pale peppered moths have become
more common in British woodlands once aqain.
In this chapter you will find out about the importance of
classification in the animal and plant kingdoms and how
biologists classift living things.
These photos show the two varieties of
the peppered moths on different coloured
tree trunks
Goncept map
VARIATION AN D CLASSI FICATION

Glassifications ""u,'
After this topic you should If you walk a grocery store, you will n e that the goods
-into
be able to: are arranged tc resemble a library of foods. In the canned food
r state what is aisle for example, you'll see all types of canned food. When you
classification walk along that aisle, you will see that the canned food islsoited
o list the levels in the again into a few categories, like canned tuna and canned chickenl
hierarchy of classification The canned tuna will be further categorised into flaked tuna, tuna
. explain that we classify chunks, tuna with chilli and so on.
living organisms by In the same way, scientists classify all known living organisms
placing them into
into groups.
groups.
Classification helps scientists to identi$z individual species
accurately wherever they are. For example, the local name of
. class cobra in India and Thailand would not be the same, thus by using
. family the scientific n avoid confusion-.
. genus Classification ntiate the types of
. organisms, to
order type of organisms,
prevent confusions, and provide the precise names for organisms.
o phylum
. species Carl Linnaeus is known as the father of taxonomy. Taxonomy is
o taxonomy the science of naming and classifting organisms based on their
similar characteristics. Scientists use a common classification to
group these organrsms.
The hierarchy of classification starts from general to specific.
There are seven levels in the hierarchy of classification with each
level arranged in increasing specificity. The first and largest rank
is called kingdom and it is divided into smaller units called pyla
v Carl Linnaeus (1707 1778) (singular: phylum). A phylum is divided into classes, a class into
orders, an order into families, a family into genera (singular:
genus), and a genus into species. A species is a group of organisms
that many common characteristics ui" capable of
,have
interbreeding to produce viable offspring. "rra
dae
Homo The hierarchy of

classification Example,
the classifications of
Species sapien human (Homo sapien)
lhere are five kingdoms, each having its own characteristics.
Characteristics
. unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
. are known as prokaryotes
. examples are bacteria, blue-green algae (refer topic 2.1)
. organisms that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (eukaryotes)
a not classified as animals, plants or fungr
a examples are algae, protozoa llke Amoeba, Paramecium (refer topic 2.2)
unicellular and multicellular organisms
cannot photosynthesise
examples are moulds, mushrooms, yeast (refer topic 2.3)
all multicellular and photosynthetic plants
examples are mosses, ferns, conifers, flowering plants
all multicellular animals
examples are mammals, birds
ilinnaeus binomial nomenclature sy$tem

Carl Linnaeus made the scientific naming of organisms simple by using a method called Linnaeus
binomial nomenclature. He created and implemented binomial nomenclature, in which every
organism is given a name consisting of two Latin words. The first word is the genus and the second
word is the species. The scientific name should be tlped as italics or underlined if written down.
When writing a binomial name of an organism, the first letter of the first word is capitalised and the
second is not. Maize is scientifi.cally named Zea maysjust as humans are Homo sapiens. You may also
see an abbreviation of this name as H. sapiens where the genus is only represented by the first letter.
y The scientific name of Komodo dragon, the largest

lizard in the world is Varanus komodoensis
Summary questions
fi) state the importance

of the classification of
organisms.
@) What are the levels

in the hierarchy
of classification of
organisms?
@ oiu" two main

characteristtcs of the
organisms that belong
to the kingdom Monera.
103
Animal and plant kingdoms
There are millions of living organisms of different tlpes around
us. Scientists put living organisms into groups or classify them by
be able to:
. describe the main looking at the differences and similarities between them.
classification of animals
into veftebrates and
invertebrates Sorting things out
o describe the main Two of the main groups of organisms are animals and plants.
classification of plants Look at the pictures below and divide the organisms into these
into flowering and non- two groups. Do they all fit in?
flowering plants.
Animals and plants

. classify
. external skeleton
When one scientist talks about arr animal, it is very important that
o scientists all over the world know exactly what is meant. Members
internal skeleton
of the animal kingdom feed on other living organisms, whether
. nerve
plants or other animals. They are relatively fast moving, move
their whole bodies about, and have nerves to coordinate their
bodies. Animals can be very big like an elephant or very small like
a tiny beetle, but they all have these characteristics.
Plants are very different from animals. They are food producers.
They make sugar using energy from the Sun and store it as starch.
Plants are green. They don't move their whole bodies around. If
any of their parts move, it does so very slowly by growing. Plant
cells have cell wall made of cellulose.
This mushroom is neither a plant

an animal, so it does not
Listing animals
Work in a small group.

. Make a list of as many different types of animals as you can in three minutes. Think of local
animals and animals vou have heard about from other countries.
ffiJlore about animals

To identi4r the thousands of types of animals in the world we put them into groups. We look for
things that are similar and things that are different to decide where an animal belongs. The greatest
difference is between the vertebrates (animals that have backbones) and the invertebrates (animals
without backbones).
The vertebrates
Vertebrates have a hard, bony internal skeleton inside their bodies. Th"y all have a backbone - made
up of lots of little bones - which supports the body, allows it to move and protects the spinal cord and
other delicate organs inside the body.
The invertebrates
Summary questions
Invertebrates come in all shapes and sizes. They do not have a
backbone with a bony skeleton. Many of them have soft bodies. What do we mean by
They may have shells outside their bodies or a tough external classifyi ng organisms?
skeleton (exoskeleton) on the outside of the bodv.
@ In what way do
vertebrates differ from
invertebrates?
@ t-oot< at the list of

animals you made in
the Practical activity.
Draw a table with two
columns: vertebrates
and invertebrates. List
as many animals as you
r The cat is a vertebrate
can under each column.
r The locust is an invertebrate
More about plants

As we classifu animals, we can classify plants into groups too. We
Iook for things that are similar and things that are different to help
us decide where the plant belongs. We can classifr plants into two
big groups: non-flowering plants and flowering plants.
Glassifying animals
Some characteristics such as height or weight vary during an
animal's life. It depends on how much food it can find. Scientists
be able to:
o classi$, animals using characteristics which can be counted or
describe different ways
measured or which are always the same, such as the number of
of grouping organisms
including the main Iegs or whether an animal lays eggs in water.
groups of inverlebrates
and vertebrates.
The invertebrates
There are more invertebrates than any other type of animal.
They range from simple jelly-like blobs to large and intelligent
animals. Invertebrates can be divided into eight main groups
(phyla). Phylum Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Echinodermata.
Phylum Porifera, Cnidaria and Echinodermata can be found in
sea while the other phyla can be found both on land and in water.
^r' Phylum Cnidaria and r Phylum Echinodermata

sea anemones have-Jellyfish
jelly-like Include organisms such -as
haos fnr hoclies Thev n3ys starfish and sea urchins. Starfish
tentacles covered with stinging L-..^ ^ ^+-- ^L^-^! ^^ttern with
,oPEu |.Jo
cells to catch their fooq five 'arms' and spiny skin
.r, Phylum Nematoda r Phylum Annelida .r,

- Segmented Phylum Platyhelminthes
- smooth,
Roundworms have thin, worms, e.g. earthworms, have -
Flatworms have simole flattened
rounded and unsegmented long bodies divided into bodies. They are unsegmented
bodies segmenTs
.1. Phylum Porifera Sponges are .t Phylum Arthropoda Insects, .l Phylum Mollusca Snails,
- that are
non-moving animals crabs and centipedes- are part - all have
squid and octopuses
usually found in marine waters. of a group called arthropods. very muscular bodies and a
All arthropods have jointed legs shell either inside or outside
and a hard external skeleton. their bodies
Classifying the vertebrates
Work in groups of five.

. Each group looks at one of the groups of vertebrates on page '108 and find out as much as
you can about the animals in this group (provide examples). In turn, present your findings to
the rest of your class.
We can also divide invertebrates by observable characteristics such as with jointed legs and without
jointed legs.
Invertebrates with jointed legs have a segmented body and a hard exoskeleton. Th"y may have three,
four, or more than four pairs of legs.
Invertebrates without jointed legs can have worm-like bodies or non-worm-like bodies. Some worm-
like organisms have segmented bodies while others do not. Some non worm-like invertebrates may
have shells while others don't.
Invertebrates with Invertebrates

jointed legs without jointed legs
More than four Not worm-like

Three pairs oflegs Four pairs oflegs Worm-like bodies
pairs oflegs bodies
. butterflies . scorplons
. . earthworms
. grasshoppers . spiders
millipedes
. flatworms
. jellyfish
. ants . ticks
. shrimps
. . snails
roundworms
. crabs . starfish
The vertebrates
neao thorax aDoomen Although there are fewer vertebrates than
invertebrates, they are much bigger and more
noticeable. They can grow larger, even on land,
because they have skeletons inside the body to
one parr hold them up.
of wings
Vertebrates are classified into five smaller groups
(classes): fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
Fish, amphibians and reptiles all have a
body temperature which is the same as their
of jointed legs surroundings. Birds and mammals have their
own warm body temperature which stays the
r The body parts of an insect same whatever the weather.
107
Birds are warm-blooded
animals They breathe
with their lungs
wings and most of them

can fly They have beaks
and lay eggs with hard Mammals aTe warm blooded animals Most
shpLls ThFy orten core [or of them live on land, but some mammals like
their young whales and dolphins live in water Mammals
breathe with their lungs
They have hairy skin and can sweat The
young develop in the body of the mother
and are born alive instead of hatching The
mother makes milk in her body to feed them
I
I
Glassifying plants
After this topic you fust as the animal world can be divided into smaller groups
(phyla), so can the plant kingdom. Plants can be divided into non-
should be able to:
. flowering and flowering plants.
explain how plants
are classifred into
different groups Thinking about plants
. describe some of the
main plant groups Make a list of as many different plants as you can think of,
o present results in the both local plants and ones from other parts of the world that
form of a bar chart. you have heard about. How will you divide these plants into
groups?
. dicot
o monocot Non-flowering plants
Non-flowering plants can be divided into three small phyla:
Phylum Bryophyta, Filicinophyta, and Coniferophyta.
capsure
stalk
@ ln/u- Bryophyta
- Bryophlta include plants such as
stem-like \ mosses and liverworts. Mosses are small plants which
srrucru re need damp places to live. This is because they have thin
leaf-like leaves which do not have a waterproof covering and no
stTUctu re
transport system for water in the plant. They do not
have true roots, stems and leaves. Mosses reproduce by
making spores; they do not make seeds.
,,{ Moss and its structure

fronds
@ fftgrr- Filicinophyta
- The phylum includes plants such as
ferns. Ferns are much bigger plants than mosses. They have
strong stems, roots and leaves and their leaves are waterproof.
Ferns also have a transport system for water; so they don't
have to live in damp places. Ferns reproduce by making
spores; they do not make seeds.
Fern structure
@ lngo- Coniferophyta
- Conifers have thin, needle-like
leaves which they shed a few at a time all through the year.
They have a water transport system and waterproof leaves.
Conifers produce seeds which are formed inside cones. They
have true roots and stem.
Leaves and cones of conifers

^,
109
Plant sorting
Take a walk around your school compound.

o Find and identify as many different types of plants as you can.
' Make a bar chart to show how many times flowering plants, conifers, ferns and mosses showed
uo in vour lists.
Flowering plants
Flowering plants are grouped under Phylum Angiospermophlta.
They reproduce by having flowers. The flowers produce seeds
o{ flowertng
inside fruits. They have a water transport system and usually
monocots
have broad waterproof Ieaves.
These names
The seeds of flowering plants can be divided into three parts
the plumule, the radicle and cotyledons. The plumule will
-
develop into a shoot, the radicle will develop into a root,
while the cotyledons are known as seed leaves. The flowering
plants are divided into two main groups based on the number of theY have'
coty'edons, namely monocotyledons and dicotyledons. have one'
Monocots
have two'
Oicots
Monocots are not usually flower petals
woody. Their leaves have usuallv in
multtples
parallel veins. The flowers
are usually green or brown,
although some can be very
Summary questions
colourful. The roots are fibrous
and they produce seeds with
one cotyledon. Most monocots
seed
with one @ ntants can belong in
more than one group.
cotyledon
are herbaceous plants that can Name the groups.
I
live for one or two years.

pa ra llel
VEINS {#
'\r' @ varsfres are wet
places wnere mosses
fibrous grow well. Hillsides
root
are drier places where
L Monocots many flowering plants
grow but mosses do
Dicots are often woody. flower
not. Explain these
Their leaves have a network
multiples of observations.
of veins, and the top and four or five
bottom surfaces of the leaf are
different. They often have very
@ loot< again at the
first list of plants you
brightly coloured and scented made and put them
flowers which attract insects to into groups, What
pollinate them. They have tap- percentage of the plants
roots and produce seeds with you thought of came
two cotyledons. from each of the four
main groups of plants?
Glassifications
Echinodermata
. earthworm
Nematoda Insecta
Mollusca
. grasshopper
Chilopoda
. centipede
snail Diplopoda
. roundworm . millilede
,,rlJ
jellyfish
nae Dicotyledonae Bryophyta
. hibiscus . fern . pine tree
111
Dichotomous key
A dichotomous key is used to identify, classiS'and name unidentified organisms. We
can list the observable characteristics of the organism and match them to a particular
group. Observable characteristics include numbers of joints, body segments and
others. Make a list of the observable characteristics you can use to classifli the
organisms. A dichotomous key is made up of a pair of statements that can be
numbered as I, 2,3 and so on. Each number has a pair of particular observable
feature statements which are opposite to one another. For instance, has shell or no
shell. The numbering continues until the organism is identified. Since there are many
observable characteristics, we can build more than one dichotomous key fgr a set of
organisms.
An example of a dichotomous key for animals:
(a) Scales... goto2

(b) No scales................ go to 4
(a) Has legs.................. go to 3
(b) No legs................... snake \

(a) Shell..... tortoise \\
(b) No shell.................. lizard
.,#
(a) backbone............... bat
(b) No backbone......... Go to 5
(a) 8Iegs.......... spider

(b) 6 legs ...................... ant
An example of a dichotomous key for plants:
i
(a) veins........... orchid plant
Has parallel
(b) No parallel veins............ grape tree

(a) Has roots ........... ............ fern
I (b) Does not have roots.......................... moss

I
i
ectes arl vanflatlon
The smallest group in the classification of living organisms is
should be able to:
a species. We put organisms into different species based on
. variations between them.
describe what is
meant by a species
o discuss reasons
What is a species?
why a species has
or could become The members of a species can breed and produce offspring which,
extinct in turn, can also reproduce. If two animals or two plants cannot
. measure variation successfully reproduce and have fertile offspring, they must be
between members from separate species. For example, horses and donkeys look
of a species and quite similar and can produce offspring called mules. But mules
present the data in are not fertile - they cannot reproduce. This tells us that horses
different ways. and donkeys are two separate species. Each species has its own
characteristics which are passed on from parents to offspring.
Many species have become extinct, or are in danger of becoming
. characteristic
extinct. Extinction means that a species disappears from
. fedile Earth completely. This happens when there are changes in the
. variation environment where a species lives. Each species is adapted to its
own environment. If there is a change in the environment and a
species of plant or animal cannot change to cope with the new
conditions, it will die out. One species cannot breed with another
species to help it survive.
The dodo was a flightless bird that lived in Mauritius. 100 years
after sailors discovered the island, all the dodos were gone.
The sailors had eaten them! In modern times, climate change
means the ice at the polar regions is melting. The number of
polar bears is falling fast. They are adapted to living in the
ice and snow, and their numbers will continue to fall in areas
where the sea ice is melting fast.
y Horses and donkeys
Looking at variation
Look at the Harlequin ladybirds. They are all members of the same species.
o List as many of the differences and similarities between them.
Variation within a species

Summary questions
You have seen that there is variation between different groups
of living organisms. There is also variation between different
members of the same species. For example, all of your classmates
@ tul What do scientists
mean by the term
are members of the same human species - but you all look species?
different. There is variation among you. Investigate several (b) What characteristics
different specimens of the same type of plant or animal. you will are common
find many similarities - but they will also have differences which among the different
you can observe, record and measure. types of horses?
(c) Do some research
If there is a change in the environment, some members of the and list some
species may have a variation. This means they survive better than variations in
the others. They may be able to breed successfully and continue different breeds of
the species even if most of the rest die out. So variation is very horses.
important for survival of the species, particularly when their
environment changes. @ Cive an example of
an organism that
shows clear variation
Investi gating variation among the members
of the species. Why is
Some types of variation can be easily observed such as this important in any
attached and unattached earlobes, and dimples when you species for survival?
smile. Some types of variation can only be seen clearly when
you measure them, like. hand span, height and body mass.
. Work with your classmates and measure easily observed @ Find out why scientists
think the following
variation in people, e.g. earlobes or dimples. Draw a bar organisms became
chart, or a pie chart or a table to show your results. extinct:
. Do the same for the variation which needs to be passenger pigeon,
measured, e.g. hand span or height. great auk, quagga,
sabre-toothed tiger,
Work in a group. Collect a number of seeds, leaves, pods or mammoth.
flowers from different members of the same species of a local
plant.
o List the features which vary. Measure as many examples
as you can and choose the best way to display the data
vou collect.
Summary
Classification is sorling organisms Invertebrates can be divided into several
into groups based on their common other groups including different types of
characteristics. worms, molluscs and arthropods.
Taxonomy is the science of naming and Veftebrates can be divided into five
classifying organisms of the world based groups: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds
on their similar characteristics. and mammals.
The hierarchy of classifications, in order, Plants are divided into mosses, ferns.
is kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, conifers and flowering plants. Flowering
genus and species. plants are divided again into monocots
A scientific name consists of two Latin and dicots.
words. The first word is the genus and The smallest group in classification is a
the second is the species. The scientific species. A species is a group of organisms
name should be written in italics. which all breed successfully with each
Living organisms can be classified into other to produce fertile offspring.
groups based on the differences and Variation between organisms is used to
similarities among them. put them into different species.
Plants, animals, fungi and micro- Extinction is when all the members of a
organisms are some of the main groups. species die out.
To place living organisms into groups When a species cannot respond to
you make careful observations and changes in its environment it may become
measurements of their characteristics. extinct. Breeding between species to
Animals are divided into invertebrates, help them survive is not possible.
which do not have a skeleton inside their Variation between the organisms in a
bodies, and vertebrates, which have a species can help to stop them going
hard, bony skeleton inside their bodies. extinct.
Summative Practice
Six groups of animals and their features are listed below. Draw a table matching each group with its
feature.
moist skin covered in scales
skin with hair on most or some of the bodv

moist skin with no scales
backbone made of bone or cartilaqe
Which of the following statements is not
correct? 2 (a) Two fins on the upper sudace
A All birds can fly. ofthe body; sharp teeth
B All amphibians have four limbs. Sphyraena barracuda
C Some mammals lay eggs instead of (b) Many small, sharp fins on the
giving birlh to live young. upper surface
D Some fish have a backbone made of Aulostomus maculatus
cartilage. F l 3 (a) Tailfin is long and thin
Dasyatis americana
Biologists used to divide all animals into (b) Tail fin has two tong, thin
two groups - vertebrates and invertebrates projections
As they learnt more about organisms they Balistes vetula
realised that this division was too simple
However, we still refer to vertebrate ancr (b) State two features of fish that would not
invertebrate animals as it is a useful way to be useful in this identification key. Explain
start learning about classification. The many each of your answers. t4l
thousands of animal species can all be
classified into these two groups.
All domestic cattle belong to the same
species which is known as Bos taurus. ln
(a) In what way do inveftebrates differ fronr
the wodd, there are many different types (or
vertebrates?
(b) Explain what is meant by the
tll breeds) of cattle. Four of these breeds are
term shown below.
spectes. pl
The drawings show four different species ol
fish found in the Caribbean.
A
The breeds differ from one another in several

ways. For example, they are of differenl
heights.
(a) Look carefully at the drawings of the
heads of the four breeds of catfle. List
four features that vary among the catfle.
t4j
Biologists use keys to help them identify (b) Suggest three ways in which the breeds
different species. may differ from one another. t3l
(a) Use the identification key to name the In some countries each cow in a herd is
four different types of fish. t4l
identified by a tag in its ear. Most farmers
keep herds of cows that are all the same
1 (a) Body shape is long and thin: breed.
goto2 (c) Suggest three ways that a farmer can tell
(b) Body shape is not tong and the difference between individualcows in
thin: a herd if they are not tagged. lsl
go to 3 (d) Explain why cattle from all over the wodd
are classified in the same species. l3l
6 The drawings show three arthropods. 180-189 mm; 190-199 mm and so on.
(See page 100 to remind yourself how to
do this.) t3l
(d) Use the data in your tally table to draw a
histogram to show the variation in hand
span in the class. (A histogram is like a
bar chart but there are no gaps between
Copy and complete the table to compare the bars on the graph.) tsl
fa\ Suggest three reasons for the variation in
these three arlhrooods.
hand span in the class. tsl
Presence of Which of the following sequence shows the

hierarchy of classification?
A. O,S,U,V,T,P,R
B. S,Q,R,V,T,P,U
C. V,T,P,S,U,Q,R
D. U, T, Q, P,V, S, R t1]
The characteristics of classification change
(a) You may use ticks and crosses for the as they go down along the hierarchy
first three features in the table. tsl
(b) State two features that all afthropods
of classification. Which of the following
statements is an incorrect characteristic?
have in common. t2l A. The number of organisms increases
7 30 students were studying variation. Sam B. The number of organisms decreases
and Sara are looking carefully at everyone's C. The number of similar features of arr
earlobes. They discovered that 25 had free organrsm Increases
earlobes and 5 had attached earlobes. D. The organisms are arranged in an
(a) Draw a bar chart to show these results. increasing specificity n l
t5l 10 Which of the following is not a kingdom?
The class then measured the span of the left A. Monera
hand in millimetres. They did this by stretching B. Fungi
out their fingers on a piece of paper and C. Chordata
measuring the distance between the tip of D. Protista t1l
the thumb and the tip of the little finger. Sam
and Sara collected the data as follows: 11 Choose the field of science that names and
classifies organisms based on their similar
characteristics.
A. Ecology
B. Zoology
C. Genetics
D. Taxonomy nl
12 Which of the following statements about
(b) (i) What are the smallest and largest classification of organisms is incorrect?
hand spans in the class? tsl A. lt makes the study of organisms easier.
(ii) Use your answers in (i) to calculate B. lt enables predictions of the organisms.
the range in hand span within the C. lt names the organisms using a
class. t2l standardised system.
(c) Organise the data by making a tally table D. lt sorls organisms into one group only.
using the class sizes: 170-179 mm;
t1l
117
Solids, liquids and
gases
Science in Contextt
Amazing demonstrations
Otto von November, 1602 inMagdeburg,
Germany. the age of 15, and then siudied
law at the en. Whilst at Leiden, he also
studied engineering and was especially interested
in building
fortresses.
However, Otto will be best remembered for

his famous
demonstrations about the pressure caused by gases
in the air.
In 1650, he invented the air pump. With that, he was
able to
create a vacuum. He could remove the air from
a container
and show the great force that air pressure
could produce. Two
of his experiments are shown here.
Otto von Guericke

^.
( In this experiment,
a group of 20
men used a pulley
I I
I
to pulla piston
upwards, as one
man tried to pull
it downwards by
I
sucKtng atr out
of the cylinder.
I People were
amazed when the
'one man'(plus
the help of air
pressure) won the
I tug of war
I
In a second experiment, Otto had two halves of
ircopper sphere made so that they fitted together
perfectly. Some helpers used a pump to suck the
rrir out of the sphere. On his signal, two teams
of horses pulled and pulled, but they could not
separate the two halves of the sphere.
When the horses stopped pulling, Otto returned

to the copper sphere. He released a valve and a
hissing sound could be heard. As the air rushed
back inside the sphere, it suddenly fell apart
into two halves. The crowd were amazed and
delighted!
Otto's demonstrations continued to be a great

success as he toured around Europe, performing
rt several royal courts.
In this chapter, you will find out about the
particle theory of matter and the properties of
solids, liquids and gases, including changes of -L Two teams of horses could not separate the two
state. h:l',ac rha .nnnar c^h-"^ h^-"' '"^ ^{ .i"
^l L'
'q LUPPs' rP"c'e - "ll
pressu re
Goncept map
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
Gases
Gases are all around us. The air is made up mainly of nitrogen gas
be able to: and oxygen gas. Other gases you might know are:
. explain that gases are . chlorine gas
made up of parlicles
o . hydrogen gas
describe how the , n
particles in gases are, on . helium gas
average, spread widely
apart and how they
. carbon dioxide gas.
move
. explain the properties ) fnir airship is filled with
nf nacac rrcinn tho helium gas This gas has a
very low density
particle model.
. collide
o particle theory
. random
Exploring gases
Blow up a rubber balloon so that it is full of air and tie it up. With both hands press it gently
inwards, then release.
. Describe what happens.
Fill a plastic syringe with air up to its maximum reading
and then press your thumb over the nozzle.
o What is the volume of gas in the syringe?
. Now press the plunger downwards, without letting any air escape.
o What is the new reading on the syringe?
. By what percentage has the volume of the air in the syringe decreased?
Watch your teacher warm a boiling tube of air as shown below:

I
o Describe what happens

I
I
Particles in gases Summary questions
Scientists believe that all matter, including gas, is made up of
particles. The arrangement of particles and their movement in @ Name five common
solids, liquids and gases is described by the particle theory. The gases.
particles are too small to see, but using this theory we can explain
the properties of materials. @ Describe the
arrangement and
[.ook at the box below showing the particles of a gas. movement of the
particles in a gas.
Include a dragram in
your answer.
@ Explain why gases:

(a) nave a very low
density
(b) spread out to
nnnr rnrr thoir
container.
@ Explain why a hot

air balloon rises.
There is a lot of space between the particles in a gas. Therefore,

a gas is not rigid and the forces of attraction between the gas
particles are negligible. The gas flows much more easily than a
liquid and diffuses rapidly. The particles in a gas are free to move
irround rapidly in any direction. We say that they move in a
random manner. They collide with each other and with the walls
of their container.
. When we compress a gas, its particles are pressed closer
together. So there is less space within the gas
and its takes up a smaller volume.
. When we heat a gas, its particles
galn energy and move around
more quickly. Hot gas has
a greater volume than the
same mass of cool gas (at
the same pressure).
( The brown vapour of

bromine gas
Liquids
You get a good idea of the properties of a liquid when you go for
a swim or walk through a stream. Is it easier to move through air
be able to:
. describe how the or water? What does this suggest about the spaces between the
particles in a liquid compared with a gas?
particles in a liquid are
arrangeo
describe how the
par.ticles in a liquid
move
explain the properties
of liquids using the
particle model.
. expand
A Water isthe mostcommon liquid on Earth Viewof Biting Rivertaken

from Badegan, Ponorogo, EastJava, lndonesia
Particles in liquids
The particles in a liquid are arranged randomly. There is
no fixed pattern. There is very little space between the
particles. The particles can slip and slide around
each other.
Look at the diagram of the particles in a liquid:

. We cannot compress a liquid to any
extent because its particles are touching
the neighbouring particles.
. Therefore, a liquid is less rigid than

a solid. The forces of attraction
between liquid particles are weaker
than those in a solid.
i
A liquid can flow because its particles are free to move around.
Liquids flow to take the shape of their container. Summary questions
When we heat a liquid, its particles gain energy and slip and
slide over each other more quickly. This causes the liquid
O *nU can a liquid flow?
to expand when it is heated so that it has a slightly greater

volume.
@ Explain the results of
the Practicalactivity
'Exploring liquids', using
the particle model.
Exploring liquids
@ Vercury is a silvery
liquid used in the thin
a) Fill a plastic syringe with water up to its maximum reaorng
and seal the nozzle with vour thumb. tube inside some
thermometers. Explain
the way in which a
mercury thermometer
WOTKS.
Now press the plunger downwards, without letting any

warer escaoe.
o Does the volume of the water in the syringe decrease?
Compare this with the result of the same experiment
using a syringe of air. .^, A mercury thermometer
b) Warm a flask of coloured water which has a verv narrow
glass tube inserted as shown:
o Describe what happens.
thin glass tube
coloured water
Mercury is a metal
which is liquid at room
temperatu re
Solids
You already know about the properties
be able to:
of solids, such as wood, plastic and
o describe the metals. Each solid material is different
arrangement and but they all have certain things in
movement of the common. For example, all solids have
particles in a solid a fixed shape. They cannot flow like
. explain the properties liquids and gases.
of solids using the
nartinla
Hs, (,v,v
mndal
o evaluate
. vibrate
) C"ta is one of the most
expensive solid materials
l+;^rs a
- ---^
rL -^+-l+L^+rnaL people
rare meLar ^
use to make jewellery because
of its beautiful, shiny appearance
Gold is a dense, hard metal
Exploring solids
Take three equal-sized blocks of different solid materials, such as iron, wood and plastic.
Place each block in a olastic container filled with some water.
. What happens?
Dry each block and then find its mass using an electronic balance.
. Record your results in a table.
. All solids are made up of particles. Discuss the results of the
experiments. Think of ideas about these oarticles that could
explain the results.
electronic balance
I
I
Modelsolid
Make a model to show the particles in a solid using polystyrene balls.
The balls should all be the same size and you can use glue to stick them to one another.
o Evaluate your model. In what ways is it a good model? What are its drawbacks?
Particles in solids
The particles in solids are arranged in regular patterns. They
are fixed in their positions, touching the particles next to them.
The particles cannot move around like those in liquids or gases,
but they do vibrate. The hotter the solid, the more the particles
vibrate. Look at the diagram of the particles in a solid.
Summary questions
O *nu do solids have a

fixed shape?
@ sotios cannot be
compressed. Explain
why in terms of the
particle theory.
@ fne density of a solid is

mass oer unit volume
of the solid, which has
the unit g/cm3. Why do
different solids have
We cannot compress a solid because its particles are touching
different densities?
their neighbouring particles.
The forces of attraction are stronger between the solid particles
compared to liquids and gases.
A solid cannot flow because its particles are touching each
other in fixed positions. So solids have a fixed shape.
When we heat a solid, its particles vibrate more quickly and
more vigorously. This causes a solid to expand when it is
heated.
-r
Glassif frrx mveryday materials

Solid, liquid and gas are called the three states of rnatter. Look at
be able to:
the comparison betweelr the three sttrtes of martter below:
o rccnnniqo ih:i cnrqg
materials are difficult Solid Liquid Gas
+^ urilssily as
ru ^t^^îi, ^ -^ti,
^^ a soilo.
liquid or gas
mass definite delinite definite
. display results in a shape definite not definite; not definite;
table. takes the takes the
shape of the shape ofthe
container container
o volume definite definite not definite;

Q€IS
. liquid takes the
. solid volume of
the container
arrangement of particles are particles are particles

particles closely packed closely packed not closely
andrigidly but less rigid; packed,
arranged there is more a lot of
space between empty space
oarticles between
particles
compressibility incompressible almost highly

incompressible compressible
forces of very strong strong very weak

attraction
between
particles
fluidity cannot flow flow

can can flow
diffusion cannot diffuse diffuses slowly diffuses

rapidly
Look at each of the materials listed in the following table and classify them as a solid, a liquid or a
gas. Explain your reason for each choice.
You can use a microscope to help you.
. Record your results in a table similar to the one that follows.
126
Summary questions
sugar O Copy and complete the
toothpaste
g
,^,îl^^^^.
vvoilpqpsr ^-^+^
vqDLv 8
Eh.6
fr €
talc 5 FE
SAUCE
cling-film
te fr #e
Solid
hair gel
Liquid
narr spray Gas
sponge
@ Classify the following
substances as solids,
wet clay
liquids or gases at room
temperature. Put your
Now share your ideas with another group. answers into a suitable
Agree on a final version of your table before discussing your table.
results as a class. petrol; oxygen;
nitrogen; concrete;
engine oil; iron; carbon
Now try the next activity. dioxide; perspex;
vinegar
Making a key @ Name one materialthat

is difficult to classify as
o Using the properties of solids, liquids and gases, make a a solid, a liquid or a gas.
key to help classify substances. Explain why.
Try out your key on some of the materials in the previous

Practical activity box.
But some materials are difficult

to classify.
Would you classif' this jelly as
a solid or a liquid? Why?
127
Substances and mixtures
Matter is made up of particles called atoms, molecules or ions.
be able to:
Matter can be classified into two types based on its composition:
. substances and mixtures.
explain the
classification of matter
. classify examples of
matter.
Substances
A substance is a matter that has a fixed composition. There are
two kinds of substances elements and compounds.
-
An element is the simplest type of matter that consists of only
one type of atom. An element cannot be broken down into a
simpler form by any physical or chemical methods. The particles
o atom
in an element may consist of atoms or molecules. For example, all
o centrifugation metals and inert gases are made r.rp of atoms.
o chromatography
Elements of hydrogen (H,), oxygen (O,), nitrogen (Nr) and sulfur
o distillation
(Sr) are made up of molecules. These molecules consist of atoms
o filtration
of the same type of element that are combined by chemical bonds.
. ion A molecule is a neutral particle.
. metal
. A compound consists of two or more different elements that are
molecule
combined by chemical bonds. The particles in a compound can
. non-metal
be from either ions or molecules.
A compound that is formed from a reaction between the
metallic element and non-metallic element consists of
ions. For example, a reaction between sodir.rm metal
(Na) and chlorine gas (Cl,) will form a compound
of sodium chloride (NaCl). Sodium chloride
consists of a positively charged ion (Na') and a
negatively charged ion (Cl ).
A compound that is formed from a reaction
between non-metallic elements consists
of molecular particles. The molecules in this
compound comprise two or more atoms of different
non-metallic elements that are chemically bonded. For
example, a molecule of water (HrO) consists of one atom
of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen.
Another characteristic of a compound is that it cannot be
separated by physical methods, but a compound can split into
simpler substances by chemical methods. For example, oil is
burnt into carbon and hydrogen.
.l. Sulfur powder is an example of an

+A^+ ;. (rP
, m^l^."1-"
^l^-^^+ --,-l^ '^ v,
^f ,, v,sLU,cr
't 2 3 4 5 6 7 A I r0',t1 12 13 14 15 .t6 17 l8
A [A tB tVB VB VtB VIB VilB ViltB VilB tB [B iltA tVA VA VtA VIA vilA
atomic weight
I metals
semi metals symbol
I non-metals element name
A periodictable consists of all known chemical elements arranged in a table. lt is divided into metals, non-metals
and semi metals. The last column is the inert qases which are chemicallv inactive
Mixtures
A mixture consists of elements and or compounds that are mixed physically. The properties of the
components in a mixture do not change and the components can be separated by physical separation
methods. There are two kinds of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
A homogeneous mixture consists of two or more substances that are uniformly mixed. Salt water is
an example of a homogeneous mixture. A heterogeneous mixture consists of two or more substances
that are not uniformly mixed. For example, oil and water, granite
and concrete.
The separation method is based on the physical properties of
the components in the mixture such as magnetic property,
boiling point, melting point, solubility, and others. There are
solid and liquid
several methods of mixture separations that are commonly
used. These include filtration, distillation, centrifugation, and
chromatography.
Filtration
Filtration is based on differences in particle size of the components
in a mixture. It is used to separate a solid from a liquid. In filtration,
a mixture of solid and liquid is poured into a filter paper. The
Iiquid passes through the filter paper and the solid is retained.
A Filtration of a mixture ro
seoarate two comoounds
0bserving the differences between mixtures
Put a spatula of sugar into a glass of tap water. Stir until the sugar dissolves. Label the glass X.
Put a spatula of sand into a glass of tap water. Mix and label the glass Y.
. Observe glass X. Can you identify the sugar and the water in that sugar solution?
Explain your observation.
. Observe glass Y. Can you differentiate the sand from the water in that mrxture?
Explain your observation.
Compare glass X and Y. Discuss the differences.
Sublimation
Sublimation is based on substances in the mixture that
can change from solid to gas, while another substance in
the mixture cannot do so. For example, when a mixture of
iodine and salt is heated, the solid iodine directly changes
to gas. The salt remains in the container.
Distillation
Distillation separates liquid components with different
boiling points. A mixture is heated until the substances
boil, and the component is collected after condensing. The
liquid with a lower boiling point is collected first, followed L Distillation apparatus to separate a
by the liquid with a higher boiling point. m ixture
Chromatography
Chromatography is widely used in various activities to separate a Summary questions
mixture of gas or liquid. The mixture moves over the surface of
another substance with a different physical state. The components @ Wf,at is the simplest
form of matter? Give
in the mixture spread out at different speeds and are separated on
the stationary phase. There are several types of chromatography, an example.
such as paper chromatography, thin layer chromatography, and
gas chromatography. @ Wtrat are the
differences between
mixture and
Gentrifugation substance?
Centrifugation is used to replace the filtration method if the
size of solid particles is too small. This method is widely used to
separate red blood cells and white blood cells from blood plasma.
@ Cbssity the following.
ls it an element,
The sediments of red blood cells and white blood cells will settle a compouno, a
to the bottom, while blood plasma will homogeneous mixture
be retained at the top. or a heterogeneous
mixture?
sea water
aluminium foil
table salt
( A high speed centrifuge
mi.hih6 ic |coal +n c^;n down
chicken soup
this solution
i
Matter
Elements Homogeneous mixtures

. substances that are made up . also called solutions
ofonly one type ofatom . made up of two or more substances
. e.g.gold, carbon, that are mixed uniformly
oxygen gas . e.g. salt water, water,
pure air
@W
t
Compounds Heterogeneous mixtures
. two or more elements that o made up of two or more
are chemically bonded substances that are not
. e.g.water, carbon dioxide, uniformlymixed
sodium chloride . e.g. oil and water, granite,
concrete -
-
A simple diagram that

summanses matteT
and its components
Separation of plant
pigments
In the early 1900s, Mikhail Tswett the Russian botanist separated
plant pigments through a chalk column. He called the technique
chromatography, translated from Greek
and graphei,', means to write.
- chroma means colour
What is the importance of chromatography?
Chromatography is used to separate substance mixtures into their
individual components. Paper chromatography is a quick and
inexpensive technique.
How does it work?
In paper chromatography, substances are distributed between
a stationary phase and a mobile phase. The mobile phase is the
solvent, while the stationary phase is the chromatography paper
that is submerged in the solvent. The solvent passes through the
chromatographypaper, carrying the substance in the mixture. The
.a. Mikhail Tswett
substance is separated into their individual components based on
their solubility in the solvent and also adhesion to the paper.
Let's look at the activity on the separation of pigments in leaves.
Grind a quarter cup of spinach leaves. Pour a solution of isopropyl
alcohol just enough to cover the leaves. Tape a strip of filter paper
to a pencil. Rest the pencil on the cup that contains the solvent.
The filter paper should touch the solvent. Wait and watch the
7 The spinach leaves are ground pigments separate. You will see that different colours of pigments
usino a mortar and oestle are separated at different distances. Some pigments travel farther
than the others.
v The green liquid from the spinach leaves is spotted on
a filter paper. The filter paper is placed in a solvent to
separate the pigment
I
Ghanges of state
What happens when we heat butter in a pan? The solid butter
should be able to:
will turn into a liquid. We say that the butter melts. Melting is an
. name each change example of a change of state - a solid changes to a liquid.
of state
These are the changes ofstate:
o explain what
happens in changes . solid ...) liquid
of state using the is called
particle theory. melting
. liquid "') solid
is called
a boiling freezing or
a boiling point solidifting
a condensation liquid "')gas
o condensation point is called boiling " ,\
a evaporation (or evaporation
when it takes 'l' An everyday .,'.
a freezing examDte oT a cni
a freezing point below
place of state - bu
point) meltins in a
a melting boiling
a melting point o gas "')liquid
a sublimation is called condensation
. solid "')gas is called sublimation

Some solids turn directly into a gas without
melting into a liquid.
y Changes of state on a
temperature line Most substances can exist as solids, liquids or gases depending
on their temperature. Look at the temperature line below:
@@
@
Liquid
Increasr n9
t f I
remperaru re
melting point boiling point

freezing point condensation point
Notice that substances melt and freeze at a particular temperature. They also boil and condense at
a certain temperature. Scientists often use melting points and boiling points to identifii unknown
substances. A melting point is the temperature when a solid melts into liquid. A boiling point is the
temperature when a liquid boils and turns into a gas. The temperature at which a liquid solidifies
is its freezing point. The process of cooling a liquid until it turns into a solid is called freezing.
Condensation is the process of a gas changing into a liquid. The temperature at which a gas liquefies
is its condensation point.
Observing some changes of state
Watch your teacher heat the following solids at room temperature:

butter ice wax sulfur (in a fume chamber)
Your teacher will measure the temperature at which each substance changes from a solid to a
liquid. This is the melting point of the substance.
. Record the results in a table.
. What happens to hot liquids when they are allowed to cool down again?
Your teacher will place a test tube containing a little ethanol into a beaker of hot water.
o What hapoens?
Watch your teacher warm a few crystals of iodine in a test tube.
o What happens?
. What is the name given to this change of state?
Particles and changing state

Look at the particle boxes below:
freezing/ condensation
solidi{ying
Summary questions
.L Changes of state
O Define the
following words:
The particles in a solid are packed closely together and are (a) condensation
vibrating. As we heat up a solid, its particles start to vibrate more (b) melting
and more vigorously. Eventually the particles vibrate so much (c) boiling
that they break free from one another and are able to move about. (d) freezing
This is when the solid melts.
As we heat up a liquid, more particles gain enough energy to @ wr'at do we call
the change when
escape from the attractive forces of their neighbouring particles.
a solid changes
The liquid starts to evaporate more quickly. Eventually, the liquid directly into
reaches its boiling point. At this temperature, particles are leaving a gas?
the liquid readily and you see bubbling within the liquid.
@ Explain what
happens when a
substance melts,
using the particle
theory.
using models in science
Scientists use models to help them explain the way the world
.l After this topic you
should be able to:
works. A scientist's model might be a theory, a mathematical
=
_-
. explain why scientists equation or a computer simulation that explains our observations.
L'
: use models We can then use the model to make predictions in new situations.
o recognise that If the prediction proves to be .orr..t, then the model is more
models change over likely to be accepted as a good one by other scientists.
time.
Changing models
The Ansignt Greeks were the first people to suggest that everything
. model is made of tiny particles. They about the
world they lived in. A Greek phil critus, put
torward his model to explain the
The particles he wrote about were so small that you couldn't
see theq.
He imqgingd that the particles were hard and could not be
destroyed.
Our w61d 'atoms' comes from the Greek 'atomos'. It means
indivisible (something that cannot be broken down).
Democlilqs explained the properties of materials by saying that
thell particles were different. For example, a runny liquid must be
made up of smooth, round particles so that they can iumble over
each ot\g1.
How convenient for your theory

that we can't actually see all these
individual particles do you
really expect me to -believe that!
t Scientists use physical models

like this to help explain the
woflo
Modelling particle theory
lmagine that you and your classmates are particles in a solid, a liquid and a gas.
Discuss a way that you could model the behaviour of the particles changing from a solid to a
liquid to a gas.
. Try out your ideas.
r Evaluate your model. In what ways is it a good model and what are its drawbacks?
On the other hand, hard solids must be made up of particles that are
sharp, jagged and hard. These particles get stuck in position. That's
why they don't flow.
Democritus liked this model because it was logical. However,
another famous Greek philosopher called Aristotle had
suggested that all materials were mixtures of earth, air, fire
and water, and the Greek people believed him.
In his model, Aristotle said materials were different because

they contained different proportions of earth, air, fire or
water. This was a powerful theory, too, as people could use it
to explain many observations.
Eventually, over 2 000 years later, scientists developed a
theory of particles that is still useful today. This theory does
not accept everything that Democritus suggested, but accepts ... Democritus was a Greek
the facts about particles. philosopher, born in 460 BC He
has been commemorated on
Experiments carried out around 1800s played a big part in Greek stamps and a large research
institute near Athens is named
refining our ideas about particles. after him
Summary questions
O *nu are modets

used in science?
i
@ St"t" a difference
between the
Democritus
model of a solid
and the one you
have used in the
pafticle theory
introduced in this
chapter.
I
@ *nu do modets
l. The Bohr's atomic model, as proposed by the scientist, Niels Bohr, is change over time?
currentlv the accepted model for atom
I
Heating and cooling curves
You have seen how solids melt when we heat them and how the
resulting liquids solidi$' when they cool down. In this topic we
should be able to:
will see what happens to temperature during changes of state.
. describe what
happens to the A suitable substance to investigate is stearic acid.
temperature of
a solid when it is
heated beyond its
Investigating melting
melting point
. describe what
Solid stearic acid will melt when heated in a beaker of hot
happens to the
waler.
temperature of a
liquid when it is Set up the apparatus as thermometer
cooled below its shown in the diagram.
freezing point.
Using a thermometer, take the
temperature of the stearic acid
every 30 seconds. clamp stand
. cooling curve
o heating curve Do not remove the
thermometer from the
stearic acid throughout the
experiment.
Keep taking readings untilthe
temperature reaches about
70'c.
ftime should be in the first column, and temperature rn the
second column.)
Now carry out the next experiment as quickly as possible.
Investi gati ng freezing thermometer
Use the clamp stand to lift the tube of molten stearic acid from the
clamp stand
hot water.
The tube of stearic acid will start coolino down when removed from
the hot water.
^+^^-i^ ^î!
Take the temperature every 30 seconds.
cooling down
o Draw a line graph for each set of results in the two experiments.
. What patterns do you see on the graphs?
Explaining heating and cooling curves Summary questions
The line graph below is obtained from the Practical activity
'Investigating melting'on the previous page. The line on the graph
O tul what is the
difference
is called a heating curve. Look at the graph:
between a
heating curve
and a cooling
curve?
(b) From which
merrn9
(or freezing) part of a
por nt heating curve
U solid melts can we tell
o the melting
l energy is being used point of a
rc
here to separate particles
c)
o substance?
from their neighbours
E (c) Compare
P
the melting
point in part
(b)with the
freezing
point of the
Time (min)
substance.
.1, A heating curve

@ st"t"r, a coolrng
curve for a
You can see a flat (horizontal) section on the line. The temperature substance with a
stays the same for a while even though the substance is still belng melting point of
heated. At this point, both solid and liquid are present in the 60'C, showing
tube. This temperature is the melting point of the solid substance its change from a
(which is the same as its freezing point). The temperature remains liquid at 70'C to
the same until all the solid is melted as it takes energy to separate a solid aI2O'C.
its particles from each other.
The line graph below is obtained from the Practical activity

@ Explain the
flat section of
'Investigatingfreezing'on the previous page. The line on the graph the line on the
is called a cooling curve. cooling curve
you sketched in
question 2.
liqu idlsolid
U
3-
CJ
I l
o
0
o
E
O
<- -^li!
JUIIU -+ -^^-
Ie m pe ratu re
I
Investigating water
A heating curve has a flat section at the melting point of the
After this topic you substance. This curve can be extended to show another flat section
should be able to: at the boiling point of the substance. Look at the graph below:
. plan an experimenl
tn nrndr rna tho
heating curve for
water, including the
apparatus required
U
o present results in e.-
c)
tables and graphs )
6
. recognise anomalous C)
o
results E
.q)
. explain the unique

behaviour of water room remperarure
below 4 "C.
Time (min)
. anomalous result A A heating curve
. hydrogen bond
condensation
U
L
c)
l
a
0
o liquid/solid freezinq
E
.c)
-+
Time (min)
.1, A cooling curve
The heating curve above remains flat as the liquid is boiling. This
is because energy is needed to separate the particles in a liquid as
they form a gas and bubble from the liquid.
A cooling curve for a gas cooling to a liquid and then to a solid
has two flat sections. The first shows the condensation point. The
second shows the freezing point.
Anomalous results
Sometimes we get a reading from an experiment that does not
follow the pattern ofthe rest ofthe results. Such a result is called
an anomalous result. This might be because of human error.
You might have made a mistake reading the measuring instrument or used the measuring instrument
incorrectly. For example, some measuring instruments need to be set at zero before using in order to
get an accurate reading.
Plotting your results on a graph will help you to spot any anomalous results. If possible, repeat the
readings. If not, do not include the anomalous point when you draw your line of best fit on the graph.
Nnvestigating ice, water and stearn
Plan an experiment to plot a heating curve for water.
Your experiment should start with water in its solid state, as ice.
It should finish when both liquid and gas (steam) are present.
. Predict a sketch of the heating curve for water.
o Write a plan for the method you will use. Include a diagram and an apparatus list.
o In what way willyou record your results?
o In what way willyou display your results? Do not start any practical
. work before your teacher
Check your prediction against your results.
has checked your plan.
. Evaluate your experiment.
AnalysilrE clata
The results for part of a heating curve of a substance are

shown in the table below:
0.0 63.0
0.5 66.0
1.0 67.0
1.5 67.O
2.0 77.O
2.5 67.O
3.0 67.0
3.5 70.0
4.0 73.O
Plot these results on a graph.

Circle around the anomalous result.
What should you do with the anomalous result?
Draw a line of best fit through the points.
Strange propefty of ice
Fill a glass with water.
. Slowly place an ice cube in the glass. Then add in more water so
the final water level reaches the brim.
. Wait until the ice melts. Observe if there is overflow of water as the
ice melts.
Strange behaviour of water

It is known that a solid is denser than a liquid. But, if we put ice in hydrogen bonds
water, ice floats. Why does ice float in water? Strange!
Water has a maximum density of I glml at 4 "C. As the
temperature drops further, it becomes less dense. This is related
to the hydrogen bonding between the water molecules in ice.
A hydrogen bond is the attractive force between hydrogen atoms
of water molecules with the oxygen atoms of neighbouring
water molecules. When the temperature reaches below 4 oC, the
hydrogen bonds are aligned. That means the arrangement opens
(expands) the hexagonal structure of ice. So, there is more empty
space in the structure, causing the low density of water below 4 "C. Summary questions
O (a) what is the boiring

point of water?
(b) What is the freezing
Notice how the iceberg is floating on the water This clearly shows that
ice is less dense than water ooint of water?
@ for
sr"t"r' a cooling curve
a substance starting
as a gas and finishing as
a solid.
@ to what is an
anomalous result?
(b) You discover an
anomalous result
as you analyse the
data collected in an
experiment. Explain
what you should do
with this anomalous
result.
@ ls the volume of 1 g of
ice equal to the volume
of 1 g of liquid water?
Explain.
Investi gating evaporation
When a liquid changes into a gas, at any temperature below
After this topic You should
be able to:
boiling point, we call the change in state evaporation.
. investigate the Evaporation is important when we dry our clothes!
evaporation of water
. choose the key
variables in the
investigation
. make and evaluate a
prediction.
. control variable
. dependent variable
. independent variable
a{fect how quickly the water evaporates from the washins

^ YJ:l ;"J;"bles
Evaporation is also important when we extract salt from sea water. The sea water is left in shallow
pools called salt pans for the water to evaporate.
v A white solid is left when water

evaoorates from sea water. This
is a mixture of different salts,
but it is mainlv sodium chloride
, ,',
;.,'-Q
142
Investigating the rate of Summary questions
evaporation
So what affects how quicklv the salt is obtained from a O Define the word
'evaporation'
salt pan?
You can now apply the parlicle theory to explain and *nu
investigate one of the factors that affects how quickly water
@ do some
particles escape from
evaporates from a salt solution. the surface of a liouid
o List the factors (variables)that might affect how quickly at a temperature
water evaporates from salt solution. below its boiling point
. Choose one factor to investigate. but others do not?
This is your independent variable. You can choose which
values it has in your investigation. @ Vou are investigating
. What will you measure to find out how quickly the water how temperature
affects the time it
evaporates?
takes for salt to
This is your dependent variable. (lts value depends on dissolve.
the values you chose for the independent variable.) (a) What is the
o Write down the question you will investigate and make a independent
prediction. variable in your
Explain your prediction using the particle theory. investigation?
. Which factors must you keep constant to make it a fair (b) What is the
test? dependent
These are your control variables (see page 312). variable?
(c) Name two control
Plan your tests - what apparatus will you need? variables in your
investigation.
When you have planned what to do, let your
teacher check your plans before you start.
Record your results in a suitable table and display the data

on a grapn.
a What pattern can you see in your data?
a Check if your data supports your prediction or not.
a Evaluate your investigation.
Explain any ways in which you could improve your
investroation.
,:ii
Physical and chemical changes
After this topic you should There. are two types of changes that happen in matter physical
be able to: and chemical changes. -
. distinguish between Breaking a candle will change its length but not the composition
physicaland chemical of substances that make up the candle. If we melt ice,lt turns
changes. but it is still water. The particles before and
ame. These are examples of physical changes.
erties are changed, but the composition of the
Chemical changes also

egg, aburning candle or
the smell of toast is not
Evidence of physical weathering where the tree roots eventually break

down this large rock
Weathering: physical or chemical change?

Summary questions
Rocks and soil are everywhere around us. How are they formed?
A process known as weathering breaks down rocks inio smaller
pieces gradually. Weathering can be caused by temperature @ Wrrat are the
differences
change, water, and roots of plants. The weathering of iocks by
between physical
water happens when water is absorbed into the rock-s and freezei-
changes and
The rocks expand and crack into smaller pieces. The smaller pieces
chemical
of rocks still contain the same composiiion as the parent iocks. changes?
This is an example of a physical change.
Limestone that is found in caves can be in contact with water from
rain and rivers. The water might be acidic. The limestone will react
with the acidic water and fall apart, forming new compounds. This
is a chemical change.
Summary
We can explain the properties of solids, Mixtures contain subsiances that are
liquids and gases using the particle mixed physically and can be separated
theory. This modelexplains how materials by physical methods. Mixtures can
oenave. be classified as homogeneous or
In a solid the particles are packed very heterogeneous.
close together, touching the nearest a Solid -r liquid = melting
neighbouring parlicles. They are fixed in a / solidifying
Liquid -r solid = freezing
position but also vibrate. a Liquid -r Q?S = ev?poration / boiling
In a liquid the parlicles are very close a Gas + liquid = condensation
together, but can slip and slide over
a Solid -r gas = sublimation
one another.
In gases, the particles move around a Water has a density lower than 1 g/ml aI
rapidly at random and there is lots of temoerature below 4'C.
space on average between the particles. Matter can undergo physical or chemical
Elements cannot be broken down into changes. A physical change does not
simpler substances, change the composition of the sample
substance. lf a new substance is formed
Comoounds are formed from the from the change, a chemical change has
combination of two or more tYPes of
taken olace in the reaction.
elements by chemical bonds. Compounds
cannot be separated PhYsicallY.
Summative Practice
1 (a) Classify the following substances as
solids, liquids or gases at 20 "C.
Put your answers into a suitable table.[9/
orange juice; hYdrogen; helium;

granite; sea water; steel; sulfur
dioxide; polythene; diesel
(b) Name two materials that would be

difficult to classifu as a solid, a liquid or a Copy and complete the sentences, using
gas. t2l words from the following list:
Copy and complete the following table to
describe the differences between solids, vibrate pressure around walls
liquids and gases in terms of: quickly gas space solid
(a) their shape nl
(b) how easy they are to compress t1l
(c) their ability to flow. nl
The padicles in a are fixed in position (b) Use the particle theory to explain why
but they liquids can be poured. nl
-
In a liquid, the parlicles can move (c) Use the pafticle theory to explain why it is
slipping and sliding over one another. easy to move through a gas. nl
In a the pafticles move very 7 Copy and complete these sentences using
and there is a lot of between oarlicles the particle theory:
-,
(on average). As they collide with the (a) Solids have a fixed shape because
- produce a force that
of their container they
causes gas _ .
t8l (b) Liquids have no fixed shape because
A class is going to model solids, liquids and
gases using marbles and the lid of a shoe box.
(c) Gases take up a large volume because
Draw diagrams that show the arrangement of tsl
the marbles in the model of: lmagine that the people in your class are
(a) a solid t1l particles. Use them to demonstrate the
(b) a liquid ttl arrangement and movement of pafticles in a
(c) a gas nl solid, liquid and gas.
Think a set of instructions for this modelling
Solids, liquids and gases are the three states
of matter. The particles in a solid, liquid and
activity. t6l
gas are shown below. ldentify what type of matter is described
The arrows represent changes of state: below.
(a) Has a single kind of atom. t1l
(b) Composed of two or more elements that
are chemically combined . t1l
(c) Does not have a fixed proportion of
elements. t1l
10 A student mixes one spatula of iron filings
with one spatula of sulfur powder in an
evaporating dish.
(a) He holds a magnet over the mixture
and the iron filings are attracted to the
(a) Which box contains: magnet. What can be concluded from
(i) a solid?
this observation? Which element is
(ii) a liquid? metal? t2l

(iii) a gas?
(b) lf he heats the mixture of iron filings and
t3l
(b) Which state of matter is the most sulfur powder, the colour changes. Can
easily
compressed? a magnet attract the component in the
t1l
(c) (i) ldentify the changes of state labelled substance? State your reason. tsl
D. E. F and G. t4l 11 A matter Y contains gold and nickel. Two
(ii) Which changes of state require samples of Y are taken and it is found that
cooling down to take place? t2l they differ in the composition ratio of gold
(d) Sima wants to see how easily sulfur and nickel. Both samoles have uniform
oowder melts. composition physically. Classify Y. t2l
Sulfur burns in air to form toxic sulfur
dioxide gas.
12 How many phases does a nomogeneous
mixture have?
Give two safety precautions Sima should
take in her experiment. t2l
A. Four
B. Three
6 (a) What do you think happens to the C. Two
vibrations of the particles when vou heat D. One ttl
a solid? t1l
13 Which of the following methods is appropriate it with sulfur. This makes 'vulcanised'
for separating the mixture? rubber, which contains linkages between
the rubber particles. Draw four particles
in a piece of vulcanised rubber. t2l
18 Name the process in which the particles in a
liquid absorb energy to become a gas. l
n
Sugar dissolved in 19 Name some daily examples of sublimation.
WAIET
ttl
c.
A group of students investigated the heating
curve of a substance, X,
D. Red and blue food
X is a solid at room temperature. The group
colouring in water
heated half a boiling tube of X in a water bath
and recorded the temperature of X every two
t1l minutes. Here are their results:
14 Which of the following mixtures can be
separated by fifiration?
A. Oil in oaint
B. Cereals in milk
C. Alcohol in water
D. Salt in water nl
15 Why is water classified as a molecule?
A. Water can dissolve any matter
B. Atoms in water are physically combined
C. Water cannot be broken down into its
elements
D. Hydrogen and oxygen atoms are
chemically combined in a 2:1 ratio tll
16 Write a short story or cartoon strip about a
water pafticle that stads off as an ice cube in
(a) Draw a scientific diagram of the
afreezer. The next day it ends up as a drop
experiment to show the heating of
of water on the inside of a kitchen window.
X.
substance t4l
(b) Plot a graph to show the results of the
Name your story '24 hours in the changing
world of a water oarticle'.
experiment. t4l
t10l (c) What was the room temperature when
17 Read this information about rubber: the experiment was carried out? [1]
(d) What is the melting point of substance X?
nl
(e) Explain the flat section of the line on your
graph using the particle theory. tgl
Classify each of the following as physical or
chemical changes.
(a) Freezing a glass of water.
(b) Rusting of a nail.
(a) Draw the particles of rubber in an elastic (c) Zinc reacting with hydrochloric acid and
band. tt l releasing gas.
(b) Draw the pafticles of rubber in an elastic (d) Breaking a glass. t4l
band that is being stretched. t2l Which of the following processes does not
(c) What happens to the elastic band if you
indicate a chemical change?
stretch it too far? t1l
(d) Explain your answer to part (c), referring
A. Corrosion of metal
to the particles of rubber. B. Burning of wood
/a\ Rubber can be strengthened by heating
t2l C. Evaporation of water
D. Explosion of hydrogen in the air t1l
Material properties
Science in Contextt
Developing a new material
to be spun into fibres by forcing it through
narrow jets in a machine.
Stephanie sent the milkyliquid to the laboratory,

but they were reluctant to do it. They argued that
it might block up their machine. However, they
eventually did test it, and sent the results back
to Stephanie. The fibre was incredible! Stephanie
had discovered a new fibre! It was only half as
dense as fibreglass, but nine times stronger than
a similar mass of steel. Several re-tests were
done, until they were absolutely sure there was
no mistake.
Stephanie and her team then had to work out
A Stephanie Louise Kwolek was born in 1923
how to manufacture tonnes of the new fibre.
Can you imagine howproud you would be if you This included the necessary safety and
invented something that could save thousands environmental checks on their process and the
of lives? Well, in 1965, Stephanie Kwolek did new fibre.
it. Stephanie had been a research chemist for
DuPont, a US chemical company, for almost 30
years. DuPont chemists had been researching
ways to make new polymers (very large particles
made of thousands of repeating units).
In the 1960s. DuPont wanted to make a new
material for lightweight, but durable, car tyres
since lighter tyres could save fuel.
Stephanie and her team worked on the problem.
One day the chemicals she was mixing formed A The racing 'leathers' of this rider contain Kevlar. lt
a milky liquid, instead of clear liquid she was protects the rider against abrasion in an accident if he
falls off his bike and slides across the tarmac at hiqh
expecting. She decided to test the liquid. It had speed
<( The Kev ar
'i r.d . r
',1i
..
:;s$ ,, , .s; in this oven
' .. !f'-'-.r ' ,.:* glove provides
proTeclro n
e from heat
Finally, in 1971, the new fibre was launched

under the name of Kevlar. Today it is used
to reinforce tyres, as well as in hundreds of
different applications. Some of these are called
composites. To make composites, Kevlar
fibres are mixed with other materials to give
new products with improved properties. For
example, it is used extensively in commuter
aircraft to reduce weight and yet maintain
strength and is impact resistant.
Kevlar fibre is also used in the sails of ship
because it makes the sails strong and yet flexible.
But most famously, it is used to make bullet-
proof vests. Stephanie Kwolek can be proud
that Kevlar fibre has helped to save thousands
of lives.
In this chapter, you will hnd out more about
everyday materials and their physical properties, L Sheets of Kev ar fibre are compressed to make the
iookins in detail at metals and non-metals. body armour which saves lives
? concept map
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Materials and their uses
After this topic you should Materials and objects
be able to:
Before studying the materials that make up our world, we must
. distinguish between
understand the difference between materials and objects.
materials and objects
. describe the properties Materials are the substances we use to make objects. For example,
of some materials we can use wood to make a table or a matchstick. The objects made
. link some materials to (the table and the matchstick) are very different but the material
their properties. used to make them (wood) is the same.
o density
o property
. softness
^l All these objects are made of wood
Survey of materials and obiects
Look at the non-living things around you.

. Make a list of all the obiects vou can see and a list of all the materials used to make these
objects.
. Which list is longer? Why?
Materials and their properties

A property is used to describe materials. For example, 'heavy' and 'light' are not properties of a
material. To illustrate this, think of a nail and a girder. Both objects are made of iron, so they have
the same properties, even though the nail is light and the girder is hear,y. The property that describes
a material's 'heaviness for its size' is called densig. We can say that iron has a high density. An iron
nail might have a small mass but it will seem heavy for its size. So density is a property of a material
but mass is not.
Propefi survey
Look at the materials around you.

. Make a list of the properties of each material.
Remember that a property must be relevant to any size or shape of material.
. Make a list of all the words you used to describe the materials.
o Discuss if all the words in this list are suitable to describe the property of a material.
Using materials Summary questions

The material that we choose to make a particular object depends
on what the object is used for. For example, we might need to @ Wni"f, of the fottowrng
make some packing material to protect a TV in its box when refer to properties of
it gets moved around. The main property in the material for materials and which do
the packaging will be softness. If the TV box gets knocked, the not?
packaging is needed to cushion the blow. Heavy
Dense (high density)
Packaging is often made of a material called expanded polystyrene. Large
It is a plastic that has gas blown into it as it sets. The trapped Hard
bubbles of gas make the packaging very spongy and soft. Another
useful property of expanded polystyrene is its low density. This is @ n builder requires a
useful when transporting electrical goods around. Less fuel is used materialthat is soft
in vehicles delivering the goods and the boxes are easier to lift. and can be moulded
into shapes before
it sets into a very
v The softness and low density of expanded polystyrene make it an excellent strong materialthat
material to use to protect goods during transportation can support heavy
loads. Name a suitable
material.
@ *nu don't we make:

(a) pans from plastic?
(b) slippers from wood?
@ *nu do we use nyton to

make ropes?
Physical properties of materials
The properties we have looked at so far are all physical properties.
be able to:
Physical properties describe a material and the way it behaves
o in tests. For example, we might test the temperature at which a
describe a variety of
properties of materials material melts. This is called the material's melting point. The
o design a table to record
temperature at which it boils is called its boiling point. We might
results.
pull a material until it snaps and then measure the force required.
That is called its tensile strength.
Materials have other properties called chemical properties. These

refer to the chemical reactions of materials. In chemical reactions.
new substances are formed. We will look at chemical reactions in
more detail in the next chapter.
o brittle
. flexible
. malleable Brittle materials
. opaque
o Brittle materials smash or break apart when struck with a hard
transparent
object such as a hammer. Glass is a brittle material. We say it is a
hard, but brittle material.
Flexible materials
Flexible materials will bend when a force is applied. The plastic
used to make rulers is flexible.
rod being tested
Some types of plastics are flexible .a. Testinq the flexibilitv of a material
Exploring properties
watch your teacher heat the middle of a glass rod strongly with a Bunsen
ourner.
. What does this tell you about the melting point of glass?
Make sure you wear eye
You will be given some materials to test for flexibilitv. protection when testing
brittleness, malleability and transparency. flexibility, brittleness and
. Record your observations in a table. malleability.
.l' Copper is a malleablematerial. What would happen if the copper

shown here was brittle?
Malleable materials
Optical fibres carry light signals
Some materials can be hammered into new shapes without Tor communtcattons
smashing. These materials are described as malleable. Metals are
malleable.
Summary questions
TransparenUopaque materials @ Oescribe briefty a
method you could use
Most materials are opaque. You cannot see through them. Light is
to test a materialfor:
either absorbed by or reflected off their surfaces. However, a few
(a) malleability
materials are transparent. Light can pass through these materials (b) transparency
so you can see through them. (c) flexibility
@ Put the folowing

materials in order of
melting point - from the
highest melting point to
lowest.
water sand
oxygen wax
light source material to light sensor light meter

@ Rubber stretches when
it is pulled and returns
be tested
to its original size when
Testing transparency the forces are released.
- the light sensor measures the amount of light
that passes through the material being tested and displays this on"the What do we callthis
light meter propefty?
More physical properties
The materials used to build homes and used in homes have very
be able to: different properties. For example, slate tiles are used for roofs in
. distinguish between
countries with wet climates. Slate is a rock that is waterproof.
absorbent and Water cannot pass through, so it is ideal for making roof tiles.
waterproof materials Moreover slate rock can be split into thin sheets which can be cut
r plan a fair test to find to make regular-shaped tiles.
out how absorbenl
different paper towels
at u.
a absorbent
a waterproof
.a. This roof is covered in waterproof slate tiles The rain runs off the tiles
into guttering, down drainpipes and then into underground pipes that
take the water away from the building
.re
\t / Other roof tiles can be made from baked clay. Baked clay is also
used to make house bricks. These are not waterproof and will
absorb (soak up) some water through their surface. The brick is
described as slightly absorbent or porous. This absorbed water
usually evaporates offin warm weather.
However, if the bricks in a house are constantly in contact with
water, the water is absorbed deeper and deeper into each brick. It
spreads from one layer of bricks to the next. As the bricks never
get a chance to dry out, the walls become damp. This can cause
serious problems in the house. For example, mould can grow on
the inside walls.
^r. This roof is covered in terracotta Look at the experiment below to see another problem caused by
tiles water absorbed into brick.
Brick damage
Place a brick in a bucket of water for a week.

After a week, remove the wet brick from the water, wrap it in a plastic bag and tie the top of the
bag. Then place it in afreezer.
Look at the brick at the starl of the next lesson. Leave the brick in a warm place for the ice to melt.
. Make a note of your observations.
o Explain the damage that the repeated treezing and melting of water in wet bricks could cause
to a building.
Which type of paper towel is the most absorbent?
Prepare four different types of paper towel.

Use a magnifying glass or microscope to observe a small piece of each type of paper towel.
o What do you see?
. Predict which paper towel will absorb water best. State your reasoning.
Now plan a fair test to check out your prediction. There are several ways you can measure the
water absorbed.
o Make a list of apparatus you will need to carry out your plan.
Do not start any
o In what way will you record your results? practical work before
. Will you display your results using a bar chart or a line graph? your teacher has
(See page 316.) checked your plan.
After carrying out your tests, comment on your prediction.
. Evaluate your method.
Compare your results with other groups.
. Did all the groups place the paper towels in the same order?
. Does it matter which way you chose to test the paper towels?
Absorbent materials Summary questions

Materials are chosen for certain uses because of their special
properties. In the kitchen for example, we use paper towels to @ Wf'at is the difference
mop up liquid spills. between a waterproof
and an absorbent
There are many different brands of paper towel in the shops. How material?
do we know which is the most absorbent? As in the investigation
above, you can test paper towels yourselfand report your findings. @ State a word, other
than absorbent, that
describes a rock that
absorbs water.
Refer to the investigation

on paper towels above.
(a) What was the
independent
variable in your
investigation? (See
page 31 2).
(b) What was the
dependent
variable in your
investigation?
(c) Name two of your
control variables.
(d) Explain the type of
.l' Many paper towels claim to be best at absorbing water but which is graph you used to
reallv the most ahsorhent? display your results.
Testing metals and non-metals
After this topic you should Gonductivity of metals and non-metals
be able to:
Two other important properties of materials are thermal
. describe what is conductivity and electrical conductivity.
meant by electrical and
thermal conductivity Good thermal conductors allow heat energy to pass through them
distinguish between easily. Poor thermal conductors are called thermal insulators.
metals and non-metals
by comparing their
electrical and thermal
conductivity
draw conclusions from
data collected.
electrical conductivity
electrical insulator
graphite
thermal conductivity
thermal insulator
''3-,
^r. The base and sides ofthe pan are made of steel -a good conductorof
heat The pan handle is made of wood - a thermal insulator
Good electrical conductors allow electricity to pass through them

easily. Poor electrical conductors are called electrical insulators.
All metals are good thermal conductors, with some better than
others. Non-metal materials are poor thermal conductors. They
are thermal insulators.
All metals are good electrical conductors. Non-metals, except

carbon in the form ofgraphite, are electrical insulators.
Testing electrical conductivity
You can test the electrical conductivity of materials

using a circuit, as shown here.
The bulb will light up if the material placed in the
gap in the circuit is an electrical conductor. The bulb
lights up when the circuit is complete.
. What conclusion can vou draw from the results?
Testing thermal conductivity
Your teacher will heat some rods of different three different metal rods
metals as well as a glass rod, as shown in the glass rod
diagram. (to compare
with the
The grease will melt and the drawing pin will metals)
drop off as heat energy travels along the rod.
The rod whose drawing pin drops off first is a drawing pin
the best thermal conductor tested. stuck under each
. Record the results in a table. rod with grease -
. What conclusion can vou draw from the the pin falls off
when the grease
results? gets hot
What type of material always conducts heat?

Are there any exceptions to this rule?
. Comment on the fairness of this test.
Comparison between metals and non-metals
Summary questions
@ Oefinethermal
conductivity and
electrical conductivity.
@ to what do we mean
by a thermal
insulatof
(b) Give an example of
a thermal insulator.
@ Wnat type of material

willalways conduct
The electrical wires are
made of copper - a good electricity and heat?
conductor of electricity. The
wire's outer casing is made
of plastic - an electrical
insulator
@ *nt is graphite an
exceptional non-metal?
Scientists have collectecl clata olr naterials irncl thcse have been
recclrcled in books of data ancl olr compnter clirtirbascs. T'ypictrl
be able to:
. ir-rformal"ion will inclucle ir nrzrterial's ruelling point, boiling point
distinguish between
.tnrl rlcnsity.
metals and non melals
using secondary data
E UmF --
U''
F Scientists col cct data wnr(--lr c.rfr

bc used ro icl--rrtify unl<nown
r'nater|a s
Therc aire some clata iu the [able below:
Metal or non-metal Meltingpoint ('C) Boiling point ("C) Density (g/cm')

aluminium r-netal 660 2 350 2.7
argon non-metal - 189 l86 0.00r 7
bromine non-metal -7 59 J.l
chromium metal I 860 2 600 7.2
copper metal I 084 2 sBO 8.9
helium non-metal -270 -269 0.000 r7

lron metal I s40 2 760 7.87
lead metal 327 r 760 r 1.3
mercury metal ,39 357 13.6
neon non-metal 249 246 0.000 84

nickel netal r 455 2 ls} 8.9
phosphorus non metal 44 280 1.8
platinum metal r 772 3 720 21.5
sulfur non-metal 115 445 1.96
titanium metal | 670 3 300 4.5r

zlnc metal 420 9r3 7.r
158
Alloys and their
properties
Look at your jewellery, coins and car bodies. They are made
of metals, but not only one type of metal. They are made
of different metals mixed to form alloys. An alloy has the
properties of the metals it is made of.
What are alloys?

Alloys are formed by combining two or more metals in
a variable composition. Th"y are homogeneous mixtures
not compounds. The first alloys developed was bronze,
a mixture of tin and copper. Bronze is harder and more
durable than the copper itself. Since its first discovery,
A Bonang is a traditional Javanese music more types of alloys have been discovered such as brass,
instrument that is made from allovs.
usually bronze or brass or other meial pewter and wrought iron.
mrxlures
Alloying metals
To form alloys, the metals are melted first. The melted metals are then mixed, shaped and cooled
until they solidify. A metal is alloyed with other metals to give it better properties such as corrosion
resistance, conductivity, lustre, malleability and durability.
Iron is widely used in the production of appliances. It is not commonly used in its pure form because
iron can easily corrode. When iron is mixed with carbon and other metals such as chromium and
nickel, the resultant alloy is more resistant towards corrosion. It forms various tlpes of steels such as
stainless steel, carbon steel and alloy steel depending on the percentage of carbon and other metals
mixed together. We use stainless steel every day and everywhere. Kitchenware, hospital utensils and
hardware are usually made of stainless steel. Stainless steel can resist corrosion and stain, and can be
easily cleaned. Although stainless steel products are not cheap, but they are easy to maintain and are
long lasting. Thus, stainless steel is always popular.
Copper and zinc are mixed to form an alloy, called brass. Different strengths of brass can be produced
based on the proportion between copper and zinc. An addition ofzinc to copper enhances the strength
of copper. Brass has great values because it is strong,
can be easily machined, is resistant to corrosion,
and looks attractive. Therefore,
brass has been the main choice
in the production of objects
like musical instruments. door
handles and iewellerv.
) Strinl... steel kitchen utensils

I
Summary
a Materials are chosen for particular uses according to their properties.
a Properties of materials include:
- hardness
- density
- melting point
- flexibility
- brittleness
- absorbency
- transparency
- thermal conductivity
- electrical conductivity.
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity whereas non-metallic materials are insulators.
Summative Practice
Match the objects, materials and their most (a) Draw a diagram of the apparatus you
useful property from the jumbled lists below: could use to test whether materials are
electrical conductors or insulators. t3l
(b) Name four materials that conduct
electricity. t4l
List three ways in which the properties of
metallic and non-metallic materialsdiffer. tsl
Blocks of two different materials, A and B,
were tested by striking them with a hammer.
Material A was found to be brittle and
Material B was malleable.
Descrrbe the way in which each material
changed during the test. t2l
161
A group poured the same volume of water 6 Look at the test below:
through different types of paper towel
(labelled A to D) to see which was best at mass to be dropped
soaking up water. They measured how much
water came through each paper towel.
Here are their results.
cardboard tube
small steel ball
material being tested
(a) What properly is being tested? t1l

(b) lf you tested two different materials,
name two control variables you would
need to consider to make this a fair test.
12I
A group of students were testing four metals
(W, X, Y and Z). They set up the apparatus
below and timed how long it took for each
drawing pin to drop off the different metals.
(a) Which properly of the paper towels was four different metal rods
the group investigating? nl
(b) The title used by the group for their
investigation was 'Which paper towel is
the best?'
Can you suggest a better title? t1l
Put their results into a table like the one
shown below:
Here are their results:
(d) Give one variable that the students had

to keep constant. t1l
/o\ (i) Name the independent variable in
their investigation.
(ii) Name the dependent variable. t2l
(D Draw a bar chart to show the results. tsl (a) Complete the question that the students
(s) Put the paper towels in order (with the were investigating.
I
most absorbent first). F] Which metalis the best ? tll
lil
I
(b) Which two metals should they test again 10 Why are metals often used in electronic
to make sure their results are reliable? devices and cookware?
Why? t2l A. Metals are good conductors.
(c) Give two ways in which the students tried B. Metals are good insulators.
to make their investigation a fai Iest. [2] C. Metals are lustrous.
(d) Display the students' results on a graph. D. Metals are ductile.
(Willyou use a bar chaft or a line graph?) nl
t4l 11 Which of the following can be beaten into
(e) Before their tests, the students felt the sheets?
metals. They predicted 'MetalY could be
the best because it felt coldest.'
A. Phosohorus
B. Sulfur
Did their results support their prediction?
C. Carbon
Explain your answer. t2l D. Zinc
The flexibility of different plastic rods was ttl
tested using the experiment shown below. 12 Which of the following material properties
rod being tested means that you cannot see through it?
A. Dull
B. Opaque
C. Absorbent
D. Transoarent
nl
13 The properties of two samples, Q and R
are listed. Sample Q can be bent and easily
melts upon heating. Light can pass through
sample R. Sample R shatters when it is
Four different types of plastic (K, L, M and N) hammered. Which of the following represent
were tested. Q and R?
(a) Name a control variable in this
Sample Q Sample R
investigation. nl A. Metalruler Brick
(b) Describe the method used to carry out B. Brick Glass
the tests on K, L, M and N. t3l C. Glass Plastic ruler
(c) What unit would be used to measure D. Plastic ruler Glass
the flexibility? Irl
(d) The rod made of plastic M did not beno t1l
at all in the test. What word is used to 14 A block of an unknown sample is placed in
describe this property of M? tt l water and it sinks immediately. lt has a very
Which of the following statements on material high melting point and boiling point. Which of
propefties is correct? the following could it be?
A. Slate can be used in making roof tiles A. Aluminium
because it is slightly absorbent. B. Argon
B. Brick is porous, so it absorbs water. C. lce
C. Water can just run off absorbent D. Sulfur
materials. nl
D. Water can be trapped in waterproof
materials.
nl
Acids and bases
Science in Contextt
Acids and health
We come across acids every day in our lives -
there is acids in oranges, fizzy drinks, vinegar
and even rain. Not many people know that 'acid'
comes from the Latin word'Acidum', meaning
sharp. The opposite of acid is'base'.
Acids and vitamins

Have you ever looked at the ingredients on a
bottle of vitamin supplements? You will see
quite a few different acids on the label. For A People who don't eat enough fruit and vegetables
may benefit from taking multivitamin tablets
example, there's ascorbic acid, which is the
chemical name for vitamin C.
There's folic acid, a vitamin

The story of aspirin
that is essential during
pregnancyand can also Ancient Greeks used the leaves and bark of the
reduce the risk ofheart willow tree to relieve pain.
disease. Pantothenic
acid, also known as
) fhe Ancient Greek
vitamin 85, is another doctor, Hippocrates,
gave women tea
}.o' ingredient in vitamin
made from willow
6i supplements. bark and leaves to
relieve pain during
childbirth
( fnir pregnant
woman ts
taking a tablet
containing folic
acid supplement
I
But it was only in the 19th century that scientists 60/o of people still suffer stomach problems as a
found out that it was actually an acid that caused side effect.
Lhe pain to go away. Th.y named it salicylic
In this chapter, you will find out how to tell if a
acid (after the Latin word for willow - Salix).
solution is an acid or an alkali using indicators
However, this acid caused ulcers in the mouth
and the importance of using the pH scale. You
and attacked the lining of the stomach. So
scientists made a salt using salicylic acid and the
will also learn about neutralisation reactions
and some of their applications.
side effects disappeared, even though the salt
tasted horriblel
In 1853, a French chemist used salicylic acid and

made the first aspirin. It wasn't called aspirin
then. 'Aspirin' is in fact a trade name used by
the German company that marketed the drug at
the start ofthe 20th century.
The Iatest research on aspirin suggests that it is
more than just a painkiller. For people over 50
years of age for example, a small, regular dose
appears to reduce their chances ofheart disease,
certain cancers and strokes. However, around -1, Aspirin is made from salicylic acid
Goncept map
ACIDS AND BASES
165
----!
lrt
H{
trn
u;
lf l eX s
I
After this topic you should Common acids

be able to:
Most people think of acids as harmful, fr.rming liquids. The fact
o list some common we come across acicls every day, but we are',t in danger
is
actds at alll In
fact, many comn-ton acids are for-rnd in food and drinl<s
. recogntse hazard oranges, apples, lemons, yoghr_rrt, tea and vinegar.
such as
symoots.
Some common acids you can find at home are:
Name of acid
citrus fruit, such as oranges, citric acid
lemon, limes
. acidic apples malic acid
. corrosive tea
. tannic acid
harmful
o irritant yoghurt lactic acid
. oxidising vinegar acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
o toxic cola phosphoric acid
Hazard symbols
In laboratories and in industry the three
v This common cola most common acicls are:
fizzy drink brand,
and other cola . hydrochloric acid
brands, contain
phosphoric acid . sulfuric acid
. nitric acid.
These are all examples of strong
acids.
A concentrated soluticln of these
acids is corrosive. They 'eat away'
materials.
we can make them safer to use by adding water to the concentratecl
acidic solutio.. Even when they are dir'te, the sorutions become
irritant and can still damage the skin. To rnake them harmless,
we need to add even more water to the acidic solutions.
To warn us of the dangers when using acids and other chemicals,
their containers are labelled with hazird symbols.
Look at the commonly used hazard. symbols shown in the
next
Page.
Transporting hazardous chemicals
Chemicals are transoorted from factories in road tankers.

The road tanker carries a sign of ahazard symbol at the back. The tanker shown here is
carrying concentrated sulfuric acid.
Find out what its hazard svmboltells us.
Summary questions
O List three acids found in

the kitchen.
Corrosive Toxic Explosive
These substances These substances can cause These substances are
attack and destroy death They are poisonous very dangerous. They @ Wfrat are the three main
acids used in science
living tissues, when swallowed, breathed in, may explode if
including eyes and or absorbed through the skin exposed to heat, fire, laboratories?
ski n. shock or friction.
@ Wfrat is the difference

between a liquid that is
corrosive and a liquid
that is irritant?
@ Wfrat can you do to

make a concentrated
Highly flammable Oxidising Harmful
These substances TL^^^ ^,,L^+^^^^^ These substances are solution of a strong acid
easily catch fire. provide oxygen which similar to toxic safer to use?
allows other materials substances but less
to burn more fiercely. dangerous
I rritant
These substances are
not corrosive but can
cause reddening or
blistering o{ the skin
Bases
Acids and bases are like chemical opposites. They react with each
be able to:
other, as we will see on page 176.
r list some common If a base is soluble in water, it is called an alkali. A soluble base
bases forms an alkaline solution with water. These solutions feel soapy
. describe how an alkali to the touch. However, it is not wise to touch concentrated strong
differs from a base alkaline solutions. They are corrosive, just like concentrated
. distinguish between solutions of strong acids.
acidic and alkaline Some common bases are:
solutions.
. sodium hydroxide
. potassium hydroxide
. alkali . calcium hydroxide
. alkaline
. base
. ammonia solution.
o indicator
Distinguishing acids and bases
Some substances change colour in solutions of acids and alkalis.
These substances are called indicators. We use indicators as a
quick way to distinguish between acidic and alkaline solutions.
Litmus is a common indicator. Look at its colours in acids and
alkalis.
'-":!&--*d/
'-
\oDtUM ^t
HyDROXlu"
.1. Litmus is red in acids and blue in alkalis
Litmus can be added to the solution being tested using a dropper

pipette. We can also stain absorbent paper with litmus solution
and dry it. Then we can add a few drops of the solution being
Sodium hydroxide is an alkali - tested onto the litmus paper and observe the colour change.
a soluble base
168
Litmus indicator
In this experiment you can try using litmus solution and litmus paper to test:
(a) an acid (use dilute hydrochloric acid)
(b) an alkali (use dilute sodium hydroxide solution)
(c) a neutral solution (use distilled water, which is neither acidic nor alkaline).
. Describe what haooens.
Make sure you wear eye protection.
0ther indicators
There are other indicators which cause colour change in acids and alkalis, as in the following:
Acidic or alkaline?
Summary questions
In this experiment your teacher will provide you with solutions
A to E, to test which are acidic and which are alkaline. @ wrlat is an acid-base
indicator?
Test the solutions with two indicators from the table above.
. Make a table for vour results.
. Check your answers with your teacher. @ Describe a way to
distinguish an acidic
solution from an alkaline
Make sure you wear eye protection. solution. Give the results
of anv tests.
@ n student tests an
unknown solution with
1.09526.OOO3 phenolphthalein, which
pH-tndika remains colourless, and
with methylorange,
which turns red. What
Some indicators
does this tell us about
come in the form the solution?
of paper strips.
This indicator
strip shows an
alkaline result
Making indicators
Dyes extracted from plants often make good indicators. You can
make your own indicator in the next experiment.
be able to:
. explain the function of
indicators
. make an indicator from
plant material
. choose apparatus and
use it correctly when
investigating possible
indicators.
o beetroot
. dye
. filter paper
.a, Litmus is extracted from lichen
Making an indicator
Step 1
Chop up some beetroot and place it in a

mortar. Add a little water, then use a pestle
to crush it.
Step 2
Use a dropper to transfer the dye to a piece
of filter paper.
dropper
Step 3
Leave the stained filter paper to dry in a warm place.
Once it has dried, tear it in half and place each half on

a white tile.
You have now made indicator paper.
Step 4
Add a few drops of acid to one half of your indicator dilute acid
paper. and alkali
to add to
Add a few drops of alkali to the other half. indicator
o What is the colour of your indicator when tasted with:
paper
(a) acid?
(b) alkali?
Step 5
Repeat Steps 1 to 4 using red cabbage instead of beetroot.
Make sure you wear
Stick your dried pieces of indicator paper in your notebook to eye protection.
show your results.
Which plant material makes the Summary questions

best indicator?
Your task is to investigate which plant material will make the u, vvnat rvrng tntngs are
used to make litmus?
best indicator.
Discuss what makes a good indicator.
o @ Describe the best
way to extract as
What will you keep constant to make your tests fair?
much coloured dye as
Try out different plant extracts in acidic and alkaline solutions.
possible from a plant.
o Which acidic and alkaline solutions will vou use to test
your indicators?
@ Draw a table to
summarise all the results
Compare your results with those from other groups.
o Which was the best indicator made in your class? in acids and alkalis for
the various plants tested
. Evaluate your investigation. Think about the fairness of in your experiments.
your tests.
Which variables were difficult to

control or measure?
Make sure you wear

eye protection.
Beetroot is used to make an

indicator
The pH scale
After this topic you should Universal Indicator
be able to:
In the previous experiments with indicators, could you tell if
o understand the solution was strongly acidic or just weakly acidic? Was the colour
a
advantage of using a
of the indicator the same in all the acidic solutions? What about
Universal lndicator
. use the pH scale the alkaline solutions?
o make careful A Universal Indicator can tell us how strongly acidic or alkaline
observations. a solution is. It contains a mixture of dyes, so it can turn a whole
range ofcolours. It can even show ifa solution is neutral - neither
acidic nor alkaline. In a neutral solution, a Universal Indicator
turns green.
o neutral
o pH scale
. Universal Indicator The pH scale
We match the colour of a Universal Indicator to a pH number,
shown on the pH scale below.
+more acidic more alkaline+>

neutral
.r. The pH scale
If the pH value is below 7 - the solution is acidic (red).

If the pH value is 7 - the solution is neutral (green).
If the pH value is above 7 - the solution is alkaline (blue).
. The lower the pH value, the more acidic the solution is.
. The higher the pH value, the more alkaline the solution is.
Universal Indicator (Ul) is commonly used in

science laboratories
i
Testing the pH of solutions
Your teacher will provide a variety of solutions. Your task is to test their pH values.
You can do this by adding a few drops of a Universal Indicator to a small amount of each solution
in a clean test tube. Alternatively, you can put a few drops of the solution to be tested into the
wells of a spotting tile. Then add a drop of the Universal Indicator to each solution.
Universal Indicator spotting tile
' Design a table that shows the colour of the Universal Indicator, the pH number of the solution,
and what this tells us about the solution.
(a) Which is the most strongly acidic solution you tested?
(b) Which is the most strongly alkaline solution you tested?
(c) Name any solutions you tested that are neutral.
(d) Which solutions are most hazardous to use ano Make sure you wear
which are safest? eye protection.
Testing everyday solutions Summary questions

Using one of the methods described in the previous
experiment, test the pH of the following:
Q! What is specialabout
a Universal Indicator
- toothoaste compared with other
indicators?
- a fruit drink
- indigestion tablets @ Draw a pH scale
soil shaken with water and filtered and explain what it is
used for,
Comment on the pH of each substance testeo.

(f (a) Arrange these
solutions in order,
with most acidic first.
pH numbers:
2863127
(b) (i) Which of the
solutions in
part (a) is
neutral?
(ii) What colour is
the Universal
Indicator in a
neutral solution?
Investigating acidic problems
Acids can be very useful but they can also cause problems. Here
be able to: are some examples.
. describe some
problems caused by Acid rain attacks buildings
acids
Burning fuels give off acidic gases, making rain more acidic than
. suggest ideas for
it should be. This causes many pollution problems. For example,
testing milk that is
acid rain falling on buildings and statues made of limestone will
turning sour
'attack' and wear them down.
. plan investigations,
choosing and
controlling variables Investigating the effect of
r present results acid rain
and conclusions in Collect a little limestone powder on a watch glass.
appropriate ways.
Slowly drip a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid onto
the oowder.
o What effect does acid have on limestone?
. What might affect how quickly acid reacts with limestone?
. Discuss this ouestion and make a list of variables that
might matter.
Choose one variable to investigate your independent variable.
(see page 312.)
. Predict what effect this variable will have.
o What will you measure to find out how quickly the
Acid rain has worn down the
features ofthis statue limestone and acid react?
. Plan a fair test.
Discuss the presentation
of your results - design Before starting any
a table and decide what practical work, your
type of graph you will use. teacher should
Carry out your tests, check your plan.
record your results and
come to a conclusion.
Acidic soil
Different crops grow best in soils of different pH.
pH range of soil
5.0-6.5
4.5-6.0
6.0-8.0
7.0-8.0
6.0-7.0
Investigating the pH of soils
Collect different soil samples and test their pH.

Add the soil to half a beaker of water and stir.
Then filter the mixture and add a few droos
of Universal Indicator (Ul)to the filtrate. filter funnel
Alternatively, dip a piece of Ul paper in the
filtrate. filter paper
. Record the pH values in a table.
. Conclude which plants will grow well in each
tvoe of soil.
filtrate
Milk turns sour Summary questions

Have you ever tasted milk that has
been kept too long? The milk t) Why do limestone
tastes sour because its sugar buildings show signs of
(lactose) has turned into acid damage?
(lactic acid).
@ t"t which plants grow
well over the largest
range of pH values?
(b) Which plant can
grow in the most
acidic soil?
(c) Describe a method
you can use to test
( WnV do we keep milk in a fridge?
the pH of a soil.
@ wnicn acid causes milk

to spoil?
Investigating milk
o What affects the pH of milk?

. Make a list of variables.
We know that milk turns acidic when it sooils.
. Plan an investigation to find out how one of vour identified
variables affects the oH of milk.
. Make sure your repoft
has a title (in the form of a Allow your teacher
question), prediction, plan/ to check your plan
method, results, conclusion before stafting any
and evaluation. practicalwork.
Neutralisation
We can say that acids and alkalis are chemical opposites. They
react together, 'cancelling each other out'. When you mix them in
be able to:
. just the right amounts, they will form a neutral solution. We call
explain what a
neutralisation reaction the reaction of an acid with an alkali a neutralisation reaction.
is
. carry out a When we can get a neutral solution from an acid and an alkali
neutralisation reaction. we say a chemical reaction has taken place. A new substance or
substances has been formed. If acid and alkali are mixed in the
right proportion, salt and water is produced.
Some examples of neutralisation include:
. ,r
SUIIUfIC aClO
sodium
+i i """')^ sodium + water
hydroxide sulfate
. nitric acid + gotassiyy .......>

potltsit- + *"1",
nydroxrcle - nrtrate
Adding acid to alkali
Use a dropper pipette and a small measuring cylinder to collect 5 cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide
solution in a test tube.
Place the test tube in a test tube rack and add a few drops of a Universal Indicator.
o What is the pH value of the solution?
Add 4 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to the same test tube.
a What is the pH value of the solution now?
a What does this tellyou about the solution?
Now use a clean dropper pipette to add dilute hydrochloric acid to the test tube, a drop at a time.
After each addition, shake the tube from side to side. Add only enough Universal Indicator to turn
the mixture green. You will have to be very carefulto do this successfully.
o What is the pH value of the solution when you have added
equal quantities of acid and alkalitogether?
. What happens to the pH of the solution if you add too much
acid?
lf you add too much acid, you don't have to start the whole
experiment again. What can you do
to make your solution neutralwithout Make sure
having to staft all over again? you wear eye
protection.
I Sodir. chloride also known as table salt - a common salt

Adding alkalito acid
Using a dropper pipette and a small measuring cylinder, repeat the previous experiment but start
with 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid. Then you can add sodium hydroxide solution a little at a
time to the acid.
o What do you notice about the pH change when the point of Make sure you wear
eye protection.
neutralisation is reached in both exoeriments?
Treating acidic soil
Collect two soatulas of acidic soil in a beaker and half fill it with distilled water. Filter into a conical
flask and test the pH with Universal Indicator.
o What is the oH value of the soil?
Repeat this experiment but mix powdered limestone with the acidic soil before adding the water
and then filtering.
. What is the pH value after treating the soil with powdered limestone?
Repeat a second time but this time add powdered lime to the acidic soil.
. What is the pH value after adding powdered lime?
Make sure you wear
. Which powder would you recommend to the farmer? eye protection.
Neutralising acidic soil Summary questions

As you saw on pages I74 and I75, the pH of a farmer's soil makes
a big difference to the crops that can be grown. O Coou and complete:
When we add an acid to
Many farms suffer from soil that is too acidic so the farmer needs an alkali, the pH value
to increase the pH of the soil. The cheapest, most easily applied of the solution goes
substance is powdered limestone or lime. Both react with acids to
neutralise them. When the right amount
of acid and alkali
You can try neutralising soil as in the Practical activity above. with each other, we
get a _ solution
.7 Farmers spread lime or limestone on acidic soil to raise its pH value formed, with a pH value
of
@ ciue one use of a

neutralisation reaction
that can be helpfulto
farmers.
@ Stetcr, a graph to show

the pH of the solution
changing when an acid
is added to an alkali, as
in the first experiment on
the previous page.
ln tlri: iitr;t c.)ipcrinrcirt on paqc l7(r, 1,orr ncutralisecl iut ircicl \vith
After this topic you shoukj
be able to:
ilxr ilil(ilii" tr1-i,41t, .t'"'- gei silttt{ bv a ltetc, )/otl itright ltet grirlcl'Lrl litr
s prepare a sanrl:tle
tllrtI icle lionl
of salt, iollowirg a 'i1re i'c:tr--iiort irr-'Irlttn sorlitr rrr it),rllov rlc iurd hl,tl rochl<ir-il irr:id
-cut ll s.l. ,r" Iu-ruLiut
;'ri"orl tre rs sori lrLnr chior-iclc (coillnrou sali) anrl $r.ltet'. l1-\\'e Il)cn
r
,, nxP lit r the seLr.rr; rliut r

lr't iirr.r \'\'iiIL]r.L'vlrpoiiiIe , \\'..' ei)ii qcI il sautpNc o1]stidiuln chlrtritlc.
of crystar s of sa t frort
riatris 1;.;i"inc."i [r,'rri'urLilii,slri!oir tclLe-[ioii cart [)c ncuIntl, aci(lic
iLs solution
()r'basiLr. li ricpcnrls o1r Il]c ii,pc ol'lici(ls an(l lrlkalis rrsccl in thc
rrae iioi',. ri rcilrlion [re Ir'r,ccir it str.oti!] irticl arrrl u \\'cali allitrli lornts
rrt aciclir'srrlt i\ r'cilciioir [rctr,vcen lr \\'c;.ll( acici atrrl rr slrortr:. ull<irli
Iornr a brrsie slrl[. li srrli loi-n]acl lrctivccn il sir-on{r rcid and rl str'onl-t
;rlliltli is nc!.i [''ll"
liocliunr cirloricle it.; l vr-'r-y inrportltrrI su[rstancc iit thc cl]cnrirrrrl
iitrlirsir-1,.
(.llrenrisLs rrse soclirr rrr clrloritlc solLriion us tlrc sturting llatcrial io
nlti"r.: Iilr.l loliolvi rrg:
1 ll,rlnl"r,"r rrsr.rr.l llr rrilli(" inilr"qllr"inc.

(llrlonn,r.' rscrl tu ntrlii('[)luîiclr arrel l)\/(] Plasi:ic. It is iilslr
., .l r . ...., '... r,i li.;,I,, \ irtr.r..
irirrr lri,61 1-ar."11.' Liscrl Io nlirl(c soal]s, clctcrqcnis, [rlcach,

!lo,.l
prtpcr rulel llbrcs {irr sy,ntltetie labrics.
(-fr or rc ,r rcl sorllrr r ryr l r>rrr.1r
n.r <r f r , rar lr
A bee's sling is sr.l d [o br.:

:rc ir lfreory, rI can
lrJrc So, bc
r^r,ll..lliL,fir,
.r rl. -. .il/ t,,jt Jtl
with bicar[ronate of soda (a wea<
a <al ) A wasp's slin<; is sa ci to lr.,
a <aline Wl'rat cou d you us-^ l.cr ,*r\
treat a wasp sling?
178
Preparing a sample of salt
Follow the meihod from the experiment 'Adding acid to alkali' on page 176 to make a neutral
solution from an acid and an alkali.
(Alternatively, collect some salt solution from your teacher)
lf your neutral solution contains a Universal Indicator you can remove its colour by adding a
spatula of charcoal powder to the green solution and then boiling it.
Stir the solution with a glass rod. The charcoal takes the colour out of the solution.
Filter the mixture. You should get a transparent, colourless solution. Pour the solution into an
evaporating dish.
Now heat it on a water bath, as shown below:
Stop heating when you see some white crystals around the edge of the solution.
Leave your evaporating dish for a few days. The rest of the water will evaporate off slowly.
Slower evaporation gives bigger crystals.

. What is the chemical name for the salt you have made?
. What shape are your salt crystals?
sodium chloride
solution
evaporati ng
dish
Summary questions
neutral solution water bath @ Wf,at do we callthe

type of reaction in
+ cnarcoal
which sodium chloride
is made from an acid
sodium chloride
solution and an alkali?
@ Draw a flow chart to

show the method used
to prepare a sample
of sodium chloride
crystals from dilute
hydrochloric acid and
sodium hydroxide
solution.
@ Explain, in terms of the

particle theory, what
happens when sodium
chloride solution is
heated.
Salt crystals
Salt crystals are formed c
when a saturated salt

solution is cooled. Salts are
categorised into two gpoups;
soluble salts and insqtrirHe salts.
Salt solubility is basdd on its
ability to dissolve in water. ''' Salt crystals under the microscope
A salt is made up of positive ions and negative ions. When these

ions are packed closely with a regular and repeated arrangement
in fixed.positions, a solid with a definite geometry known as a
crystal lattice is formed. The crystals are hard and brittle. The
melting points of such crystals are very high because of the crystal
lattice structure.
Salt crystals have fixed geometrical shapes such as hexagonal
or rhombic, with a fixed angle between two surfaces. Other
characteristics include flat surfaces, sharp angles and straight
edges. All crystals of the same salt have the same shape although
the size may vary depending on the rate of recrystallisation.
Rapid crystallisation produces smaller crystals than slow
crystallisation does.
Red cabbage indicator

Red cabbage contains anthocyanin, a pigment that changes
into different colours when it is added to acidic and basic
solutions. Anthocyanin is red in acidic solution (pH < 7),
purple in neutral solutions (pH = 7), and bluish-green in basic
solutions (pH > 7). Other foods that contain anthocyanin are
apple, strawberry, beetroot and blueberry. We can make our
own pH indicator at home to test the acidity of household
items such as shampoo, soap, tap water, vinegar and lemon
iuice.
A Red cabbage pH indicator
solution. Acidic lemon juice (red), Cut the red cabbage leaves into small pieces. Place it in a pot and
alkali sodium bicarbonate (blue)
and neutral tap water (purple)
add enough water to cover the leaves. Boil the solution until it
showing property of anthocyanin turns dark purple. Place the sample solutions (shampoo, soap, tap
in red cabbage juice water, vinegar and lemon juice) each in a separate glass. Pour some
of the purple solution into each glass. Observe the colour changes,
and you will now know which household items are neutral, acidic
or basic.
The purple red cabbage solution remains purple in a neutral
solution (water). It turns red in acidic solutions (vinegar and
Iemon juice). It turns bluish-green in basic solutions (soap and
shampoo).
180
Uses of neutralisation
After this topic you Indigestion remedies

should be able to:
Did you know that your stomach contains hydrochloric acid?
. describe some uses
of neutralisation. Ithelps break down your food and kill bacteria. But sometimes,
for example if you eat too much and too quickly, your stomach
can produce too much acid. That's when you get a burning feeling
we call as indigestion.
Have you ever had indigestion? If you have, you will probably
have taken a tablet to relieve the discomfort.
These indigestion remedies are called
. antacid
antacids.
. indigestion
A Antacid tablets
Investigating indigestion remedies
You will be given several different indigestion remedies to test. Write down the names of their
active ingredients. The active ingredients will react with acids to neutralise them. They are called
bases, and they include alkalis. But bases do not necessarily dissolve in water (whereas all
alkalis do).
As a group, decide on a question you would like to investigate.

. Plan your investigation, remembering to make it a fair test.
. Decide how much acid and antacid you will use, and how you will measure the effects.
. Record your question, method, results and conclusion.
. Discuss your investigation with other groups.
o Evaluate your method, comparing it with those used by other groups.
o Summarise the findinqs of vour class and evaluate the effectiveness of the different remedies.
:,.'., ,::,:la ,
181 '.,::aa:'t'a:,:
litl
Treating stings
you can ease the pain
Bee stings are acidic.
l=" of bee and ant stings with bicarbonate of
=
=
soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) _ a weak
-= alkali.
Wasp stings are alkaline. you can neutralise

them with vinegar (ethanoic acid) a weak
acid. -
Using sodium hydrogen carbonate

Adding baking powder helps cake_mix to rise. The baking
powder contains sodium hydrogen carbonate (known"
as
bicarbonate of soda or sodium bicarbonate) and a Ant bite can also be treated with
weak acid. a weak alkali
when water is added, the two reacts and gives offcarbon dioxide
gas. The carbon dioxide gets trapped in the cake-mix
which makes
the cake rise. The self-raising flour is a type of ready_made
flour
which has baking powder already added io it.
We also use sodium hydrogen carbonate in cleaning agents Summary questions
and
in some toothpastes. It neutralises acidic solutions.
The reason for including sodium hydrogen carbonate in O fa Which acid causes
toothpaste is that acids are formed in our mouths indigestion?
by bacteria (b) What can we
that feed on sugars. These acids attack the enamel on
our teeth. do to treat the
causing cavities. So a weak alkali wiil get rid of the acids that cause
symptoms of
tooth decay.
indigestion?
@ *nu is it a good idea

to treat a wasp sting
with vinegar?
@ tO Explain why
sodium hydrogen
carbonate is used
in baking powder.
(b) Explain how the
sodium hydrogen
carbonate in
toothpaste can
help prevent tooth
decay.
A Baking powder contains sodium hydrogen carbonate

Summary
a Not all acids are dangerous. oH values of less than 7 indicate acidic
a Concentrated solutions of strong acids solutions.
are corrosive (they attack materials and pH values of more than 7 indicate alkaline
living tissue). solutions.
The more dilute you make an acid (by A pH value of 7 indicates a neutral
watering it down), the safer it is to use. solution.
Indicators are substances that change Acids and alkalis react in a chemical
colour in acids and alkalis. reaction called neutralisation.
A Universal Indicator changes to a range Soluble salts are formed by the reaction
of colours. We can match the colour to a between acids and alkalis.
pH value (or pH number) on the pH scale. A reaction between a strong acid and a
strong alkaliforms a neutral salt.
A reaction between a strong acid and a
weak alkaliforms an acidic salt.
A reaction between a weak acid and a
strong alkali forms a basic salt.
+ more acidic more alkaline|
Summative Practice
1 (a) What does this hazard warning represent? (d) Look at these bottles of hydrochloric
actd.
-L5
t1l
(b) What do the hazard warning signs for
irritant and harmful have in common? [1]
(c) What would you do to treat a person who
has splashed some dilute hydrochloric
acid in his or her eye? t1l Why do the bottles have different hazard
warning signs on them? t2l
A group of students made their own indicator You can try to make your own indicator using
solution in the laboratory from blackberries. coloured flower oetals
They tested some solutions with their A group of students made some indicator
indicator. Here are their results: solution from petals of three different colours.
They added their indicator to an acid and an
alkali. Here are their results:
(a) What apparatus would you use to

get as much dye as possible from the
(a) What colour would the red petal indicator
blackberries? [2]
be in a solution of sulfuric acid? n l
(b) ldentify each substance in the table as (b) What colour would the purple petal
indicator be in a solution of salt which is
acidic or alkaline. t6l neutral? [1]
(c) What would be the advantage of using
(c) What colour would the purple petal
a Universal Indicator solution instead indicator be in a solution of sodium
of blackberry juice when testing the
solutions? t2l
hydroxide? nl
(d) Explain which colour flower petal would
Ahmed tested some solutions with Universal make the best indicator for both acids
Indicator paper. He wrote down their pH values: and alkalis. t2l
1, 5,7, 14 The table below shows the pH values of five
but forgot to write the names of the solutions. unlabelled solutions.
Can you help him by completing the table
below, matching the pH values to the correct
solutions tested? t4l
\o/ Which solutions are acidic? t2l

(b) Soap solution is weakly alkaline.
Which of the solutions could be soap
solution? t2l
When an acid and an alkali react together, a (c) (i) Give two solutions that would react
salt is formed. lt is a solid substance made ol together. t1l
crystals. (ii) What do we call this type of
(a) Give one reason why you may not see a reaction? tt l
salt formed in thisexperiment. l n
(iii) Two new substances are formed in
(b) Describe the method you could use to the reaction. One is a salt. What is the
obtain crystals of salt from the neutral other substance formed? t1l
solution formed. t3l
Maria was investigating which of four (b) Which solution is weakly alkaline? t1l
indigestion tablets was most effective. She (c) ls solution D acidic, alkaline or neutral?
crushed an eoual mass of each tablet and ttl
added it to 25 cms of water and an indicator. (d) What would happen to the pH
of
Then she added dilute hydrochloric acid 1 cm3 solution E if you added plenty of water
at a time, until the indicator changed colour. to it? t1l
Here are her results: What is the compound formed when a metal
replaces the hydrogen atom in an acid?
Fizzo - 18 cm3 A. Carbon dioxide
Neutratabs - 17 cm3 B. Hydroxide ion
Soothers - 9 cm3 C. Hydrogen ion
Alkomix - 12cm3 D. Salt
(a) Put her results in a suitable table. t4l tll
(b) What type of graph would you use to 10 What are the products produced by the
show Maria's results? t1l following reaction?
(c) Which tablet was the most effeclive? [1]
(d) What could Maria have done to make Calcium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid )
her results more reliable? nl
A student tested five solutions with Universal A. Calcium chloride + water
lndicator solutron. B. Calcium chloride + hydrogen
C. Calcium chloride + water + hydrogen
D. Calcium chloride + water + carbon
dioxide
t1l
11 Which of the followino can form an acidic
salt?
A. Strong acid + strong acid
B. Strong acid + strong base
C. Weak acid + strong base
(a) Which solution is the most acidic? ttl D. Strong acid + weak base nl
Earth
Science in Contextt
Finding out about Earth
Mary Anning - fossil hunter
Mary Anning was only 11 years old when
she had the thrill of discovering the fossil of a
complete ichthyosaurus.
Her study and collection of fossils since then has
made Mary the greatest fossil collector ever. In
fact, she was even made an honorary member
of the Geological Society of London (a great
honour indeed for awoman in Victorian times!).
L The actual fossil is now in the Natural History

Museum in London The story of Alfred Wegener
It is difficult to believe the idea that continents
E ancient rocks (over 2000 million years)
are moving around on the surface of Earth.
area where fossils of Mesosaurus
(a reptile) are found In 1915, Alfred Wegener first suggested his
theory of continental drift. Alfred was studying
fossils at that time, and he noticed that the fossils
found in Africa and South America were quite
similar. This made him curious. Previously,
people had said that the coastlines of Africa and
South America looked like two pieces in a jigsaw.
Alfred went further and suggested that, millions
of years ago, they had been joined together. He
suggested that they had slowly drifted apart.
( Evidence that Africa and South America were once

joined together
However, other scientists believed that there
were similar fossils on different continents
because, in the past, bridges of land linked the
continents to each other. But, the bridges must
have sunk below the oceans. Alfred too couldn't
explain how the continents had moved. So his
ideas were never accepted in his lifetime.
Years after Alfred's death, scientists exploring

the ocean floor, found new rock forming on
either side of massive cracks that ran between
continents. This supported Alfred's idea of
drifting continents! The scientists called it the
theory of 'plate tectonics', and dropped their
earlier theory of a 'land bridge'. That was how
A Pangaea Alfred's theory was accepted by the scientific
community.
He noticed matches between the types of rock
found in Africa and South America. There were
In this chapter, you will find out about different
types of rocks and soils. You will also discover
also matching rocks across other continents.
what scientists know about the internal structure
This led him to think that millions of years ago
all the continents had been joined together. He
of Earth, and how fossils and the fossil record
can be used to estimate the ase of Earth.
called this'super-continent' Pangaea.
Goncept map
EARTH
lnvestigating rocks
There are many different rocks formed by different mixtures of
minerals.
be able to:
. describe properties of Look at the photo of granite rock below:
rocks, such as texture a' ':r+. /li^ht feldspar (pink,
and porosity glassy minerals) brown or white
. explain why some colour minerals)
rocKs are porous
. make careful
observations and
measurements.
crystalline
mica (black
fragmental colour minerals)
interlock
porous
Granite is a rock made from a mixture of minerals
texture
Gomparing rocks
Record your descriptions of the different rocks provided by

your teacher. Use a hand lens to aid your observations.
o Sorl your rocks into groups on the basis of your
observations.
y Porous rocks have grains that
do not interlock
. Compare your groupings with those of your friends.
grarns In water In
the rock the oaos Texture and porosity of rocks
The texture of a rock describes the way its grains fit together.
There are two main types of texture in rocks:
. Crystalline texture - The mineral grains in the rock are
crystals and the grains all interlock. There are no gaps between
the crystals. Granite is an example.
. Fragmental texture - The minerals form randomly shaped
fragments or grains, and do not fit together neatly. Another
mineral often'cements'the grains to each other. Sandstone is
an example.
Rocks that have spaces between their grains can absorb water
better than rocks with interlocking crystals. Water fills the gaps
between grains in rocks such as sandstone. We say these rocks are
porous.
'i
Texture
Use a hand lens to look at the structure of granite and sandstone.
' What do you notice about the way the individual 'grains' interlock? Which rock has grains that
do not interlock?
Porosity
o Predict which of the two rocks is more porous (better at absorbing water) (which rock is more
porous) What is your reasoning?
Weigh a sample of each rock when dry
. Record the result in table below:
granite sandstone
Now submerge each rock in water.

. What do you notice?
Remove the rocks from the water and let excess water drip off Weigh the rocks again.
. Record your results in your table and fill in the rest of the table
. What is your conclusion? Was your prediction correct?
y The qrains in sandstone are non interlocl<ing

I I 1, , I tli I ' lli l
Conrr qr
vvvy rnnl
tu enmnlnf^.
vvt ttvtulu.
Most rocks are
of minerals. There are
two main types of rock
: crystalline and
When the grains in a

rock do not the
roch is meaninq
it can water
Think about a model

to explain the porosity
of rocks to another
student. lt should
demonstrate the
interlocking and non
interlocking minerals.
Types of rock
After this topic you should Sedimentary rock

be able to:
Pieces of weathered rock eventually settle in another place as
. explain how sedimentary,
sediment. Over time,layers of sediment build up and the separate
metamorphic and
bits of rock become a ted of rock.
igneous rocks
are formed material washed into the sea
o list the characteristics or blown in by wind' '' ' .
of each rock type.
a cementation
a compaction
a igneous rock
a lava
a magma
a metamorphic rock
a metamorphism
a sedimentary rock
r The formation of sedimentary rocks
You can imagine the pressure building up as layer upon layer

of sediment is deposited. This squeezes water out from the gaps
between the grains of sediment. Under this pressure, the edges of
the grains can join together. This is called compaction.
Another process also helps the sediments to form rock. Water
that passes between the gaps in grains can evaporate. This leaves
behind any solids that were in the solution. These solids act like a
glue or cement. They sticks the grains of sediment together. This
is called cementation.
Rocks formed like this are called
sedimentary rock. Sandstone and
limestone rocks are some examples
of sedimentary rocks.
The general characteristics of
sedimentary rock are:
. they are porous (absorb
water)
. they usually have grains that
do not interlock
. they can contain fossils.
Metamorphic rock
Rocks under pressure
Sometimes sedimentary rocks are subjected to very high temperatures and pressures. When this
happens, chemical reactions take place in the solid rock. New minerals form crystals. The new rock
formed is a metamorphic rock.
Slate is a metamorphic rock, formed under high pressure. It is made from mudstone or shale, which
are both sedimentary rock. In mudstone, the clay minerals are mainly disorganised, but the new
minerals in slate are all organised in one direction (as shown in diagram below).
Black slate rock is an example of

mudstone slate metamorphic rock
Heating up rocks
Beneath Earth's surface, rocks can get very hot. They can be
subjected to extreme heat near molten rock, called magma.
The magma rises towards the surface in areas where we find
volcanoes. Earth movements that build mountains also generate
great heat. During metamorphism, the rocks may get very hot but
do not melt. Marble is formed by the action of heat on limestone
or chalk.
.^. Marble rock is another example
The general characteristics of metamorphic rock are: of metamorphic rock
. they are made of crystals

often too small to see with
the naked eye
. their crystals are usually
volcano
interlocking, so the rocks
are non-porous marble {ormed here cooling of lava forms
I nnanr rq rnrlzc
. they often have bands of when limestone is
heated by magma
minerals running through
them
. they do not usually contain
fossils (any fossils that are
found will be distorted).
lgneous rock Summary questions
Forming crystals
We know that molten rock, called magma, rises towards Earth's
O "oOU
and complete the
following sentences:
surface. Sometimes it escapes frorn the surface in a volcanic Sedimentary rock
eruptions. The molten mixture of materials that breaks through is formed by the
the surface is called lava. nrnnaqqoq nf
As magma or lava cools down, the interlocking crystals form and , The
igneous rock. Granite is an example of an igneous rock. It is tncreases as

of sediment
hard and shiny. Large crystals form when magma cools down
and rock build up
slowly deep undergronnd, as in granite. Small crystals form when
above. This causes
magma cools quickly, as how basalt forms on the seabed. The
the edges of
general characteristics ofigneous rocks are: to fuse _, and
. they are hard and non-porous , ,^+^r i^ ^^, ,^^,Â
vvdtur
^ tJ JLlucuzuu
. they are made up of interlocking crystals

out. left behind
act as a
. they contain no fossils as these are destroyed in molten rock between the grarns, so
(magma). forming rock.
@ and complete the

v Molten lava cools down to produce igneous rocks "oOU
following sentences:
New rocks that have
been formed by the
action of and/
or heat (without
the rock) are called
rocks. You
can often see
of minerals running
through the rock.
@ Explain the formation

of igneous rocks,
including why some
have small crystals
ano some nave
t^-^^ ^^,^+^t^
rdr 9u ur yJLdrJ.
Weathering of rocks
Weathering of rocks is a process where rocks disintegrate and
gradually wear away. There are three types of weathering which
should be able to:
. are physical weathering, chemical weathering and biological
describe weathering
weathering.
of rocks
. describe the types of
weathering of rocks. Physical weathering
Physical weathering is the breaking down of rocks due to physical
changes such as extreme temperature change. In a desert for
example, it is very hot during the day, but very cold during the
night. In hot weather, the rocks expand; while in cold weather, the
. biological weathering rocks contract. As it expands and contracts, cracks may form and
. chemical weathering pieces of rock will fall off
. physical weathering
Another example of physical weathering is through a process
o weathering known as freeze and thaw. Water enters into the cracks of a rock
and freezes. Then, the ice expands and pushes the crack further
apart. When the ice melts, more water enters the crack. As this
water freezes again, it expands and makes the crack even bigger.
This process continues until the rock breaks apart.
Physical weathering can also occur from the action of wind,
gravity, waves and rain. Rocks can easily wear down when winds
blow tiny grains of sand against the rocks. These tiny grains and
debris rubs against the rocks and dislodge loose particles from the
surface of the rocks. Gravity causes rocks to tumble down slopes
and this causes abrasions on the rocks.
v The action of waves such as this

will eventually wear down the
coastal rocKs
-1, Rocks are cracked open by
freezing water
I
Chemleal weathering
Chemic:rl weathering is tl-re weathering of rocl<s by
cherricals. Rainwtitcr can be ill-r agcnt clf cl'iernical
weathering. As rainclrops flrll t.ruto Earth, carbon clioxicle in
the air clissolves in it ntaliir-rg the rainwater slightly :rcidic.
Rocks srLch as lintestoncs iurcl chirll<s react with thc slighLly
aciclic ririnrvater ancl ncrv sol Lrble substirlces erre firrntecl
cluring the rerction. When these substauces rlre wirshccl
awav. the rocl< is welrtlrerccl.
Biological weathering
Bicllogical lvearthering is tr ;rroccss r,r,here living [hirrgs srrch
as plirnts, iurir-nnls ancl nticrobcs clisintegrate rochs. Often
growing roots tiom plants crcate pressrlrc in the roclis lutcl
splitting the rocl<s. Wcecis growing tl-rrough crtrcl<s iu thc A-l'' ,'l w.'lL'"rrlrit^ 't -t
paverlent arc iln exrurple of this process. ,A.nintiils such as
baclgers can burnriv into a cracli irntl breal< tl're rocks too.
V Anima s such as badqers c:ontri[rLr[c tcr

biologica w--athe-.rl nrJ of rocl<:;
Freezing and thawing

is an example of
physical weathering.
Can you explain the
process of freezing
and thawing?
b.
I
Types of soil
The characteristics of each type of soil are determined by:
be able to: . the size of the rock fragments it contains
o identifV different types . the chemical composition of the rock fragments
of soil
. make careful . the amount of organic materials mixed in it. This organic
material is called humus and originates from living organisms.
observations and
measurements Some people classifu soils into five main types: clay, sand, silt,
. carry out tests on soil peat, and loam.
samples.
Others simpliff this to just three categories of soil:
. clal
o clay . Sand
o humus
. loam
. loam
. sandy soil Clay soil contains very tiny pieces of weathered rock. This means
that there are some gaps between the clay particles for water to
drain through. Therefore, clay soil can become waterlogged in
heary rain. It contains little air, especially when wet, because there
is not much space between its small particles. You can recognise
clay soil as it is lumpy and sticky when wet but turns rock-hard
and can crack when dried out.
Compare this with sandy soil, which is gritty to touch, and drains
water quickly because of its larger rock grains. This means that
there are more gaps between the sand particles for air to occupy.
Air is needed by organisms that live in the soil such as the roots of
plants. Sandy soil has a disadvantage, heary rain can wash away
the soluble nutrients in it. We say that the nutrients are leached
from the soil.
Loam soil has a more equal mixture of small and large grains of
rock. This means it can retain water without getting waterlogged.
It also contains more humus than clay or sandy soil.
sand Sedimentation test: stir two large spatulas of soil in a measuring cylinder
of waterthen leave itto stand overnight The densest bits in the soil settle
down first and sink to the bottom. The low density humus floats on top
Investigating soil
Water content
We can test the water content of a soil sample by warming it gently in an oven.
. Weigh the soil sample before and after warming to work out the mass of water lost. Spread
the soil out to dry on a dish in the warm oven. This will evaporate the water.
. Calculate the percentage of water in each sample of soil tested.
Humus content
Take a sample of soil that has been warmed to evaporate the water (as in the previous test) and
weigh it. Spread the dried soil sample on a tin lid. Heat the tin lid strongly. lt is best to do this in a
fume cupboard to prevent the smell in the laboratory. Heating strongly burns off the humus from
the soil.
. Calculate the percentage of humus in each sample of dry Make sure you wear
soiltested. eye protection.
Summary questions
t What else, besides

deposited rock
fragments that we find
in soil?
Draw a table to
compare grain size,
ease of drainage and
amount of air, in clay,
sandy and loam soils.
@ Wfrat differences would

you see between sandy
soiland loam soil in a
sedimentation test?
@ Describe a method
to carry out the
permeability test (as
shown in this page)
to compare the three
types of soil.
Permeability test: This test measures the rate at which water will
drain through a soil sample so that different soil samples can be
compareo
t.ttl
Four spheres of Earth
The area near the surface of Earth can be divided into four
inter-connected'spheres' which are lithosphere, hydrosphere,
be able to:
. atmosphere, and biosphere. The names of the four spheres
describe the four
cnhoroq af trarlh originate from the Greek words for stone (litho),water (hydro),
vy,,v, vv
air (atmo), and life (bio).The four spheres can be and often are
present in a single location.
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the outer solid part of Earth, including the
crust and uppermost mantle. It is approximately 100 km thick. It
covers the entire surface of Earth from the bottom of the Mariana
Trench to the top of Mount Everest. The lithosphere is made up of
minerals rich in iron and masnesium.
Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near Earth,
which includes the oceans, rivers and lakes. Over 97o/o of Earth's
water is in the oceans. The remainins.2.5o/o is fresh water; over
two-thirds of the fresh water on the planet are solid and exist as
Inside Earth
After this topic you The crust
should be able to:
Have you ever wondered what is inside our planet? To get inside,
. describe the first of all you would have to go through Earth's relatively thin
structure of Earth
crust. It can be as thin as 5 km under the oceans, increasing to
. collect secondary about 70 km under the continents. Compare these distances to the
data to gain
13 000 kilometres of Earth's diameter. This thin crust is the Ieast
information about the
dense of Earth's lavers.
structure of Earth.
The mantle
a crust
Under the crust is Earth's mantle. This layer goes down almost
a inner core halfivay to the centre of Earth. The mantle is almost entirely solid.
o mantle However, there is a small amount of molten material between the
a outer core crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
a tectonic plates
Earth's crust and upper mantle is made up of huge slabs of
rock, called tectonic plates. These move very slowly
and cause earthquakes and volcanic activity
Earth's core
Beneath the mantle is the outer
core. This is a dense liquid, made
up of molten iron and nickel.
\ Both these metals are magnetic.
I
I
,
I
I
( ffre structure o{ Earth
199
Researching planet Earth
(a) Old models of Earth

Over the ages, there have been different theories about the structure of Earth.
Find some of these old ideas about our planet using secondary sources, such as books, the
Internet or videos.
(b) What is inside Earth?

Earth is about 13 O0O kilometres in diameter but the deepest hole ever drilled is only about
13 kilometres deep. So how do scientists know what is deep within our planet?
Using secondary sources, find out the ways in which scientists obtain their information. Present
your results from (a) and/or (b) on a poster to share with the class.
At the centre of Earth, there is the inner core. This is the densest
part of Earth. Unlike the outer core it is solid because of the very Summary questions
high pressure. It is also made of iron and nickel.
The outer and inner cores make up just over half of Earth's
@ Ora* a labelled
diagram of Eafth
diameter. shown in cross-section
(as though Earth had
y Three-dimensional illustration of a view
throuqh to Earth's core been sliced in half ).
@ Wf'ere do we find
the thinnest pads of
Eadh's crust?
@ *nu does Earth

behave like a giant
magnet?
@ some people compare

the structure of Earth
to an egg with cracks
in its shell. Do you
agree? Why?
Plate tectonics
The plate tectonics theory states that the movement of tectonic
plates is responsible for many of Earth's major landscape and
should be able to:
o explain the landforms. The movement of tectonic plates caused by the
movements within Earth's mantle.
movement of
tectonic plates At places where the rising hot magma spreads out beneath Earth's
. describe the different crust, the plates are dragged apart. At places where the spreading
plate movements. magma cools and sinks, the plates are pushed together, forcing
some of Earth's crust into the mantle.
mid-oceanic ridge
. convergent boundary
. divergent boundary
. transform boundary
I The movement of plates occurs due to convection process in the mantle,

where hot magma separates the plates and cooling magma joins the plates
The movement of plates creates the following three types of

ridge tectonic boundaries.
Divergent boundaries
A divergent boundary is formed when two plates diverge or
move apart from each other. This happens as magma spreads
beneath Earth's surface. A divergent boundary is also called a
constructive boundary as new landforms are created along such a
A model of a divergent boundary plate boundary. Mid-ocean ridges and continental rift valleys are
examples of divergent boundaries.
.,,t:
A convergent boundary is formecl when trvo plates move tou'trrcls
each other, fornrirrg moLrrrlairr ranges.
I
At this boundary, the denser or heavier crust is forced uncler
the less dense or lighter crlrst, into the rnantle. This pr-ocess is
called subduction and the area r,rlhcre it takes place is knor.l'rr irs
the subduction zone. As the sinking ctnst moves clorvn into the
mantle, the great heat ancl pressure rnells the crust. O{ten the
energy released results in earthquarkes. Since the crust is being
destroyed in this process, this boundary is erlso called clestrucLive
bou rr dary.
,,:tt,
zl, Th-. rnajest c Hirralayarr ranges whic r consi:t of tl'r,- lrigl-resl per;r<
in wor d, Mount Everest, is a resL-r t oI Lhe col is]of l bet\^/ee r Llre
rdian PLate ancl turasian P aLe LhaL beqan -50 rni ion ye.rrs.rqo.rrcJ
continucs t toclay
A transform boundary is forn-red when t'uvo plates slide

past each other. Tl-ris movement results in the formation
of a transform fault. Earthquakes are common along such
boundaries. but there are few or no volcanoes.
]-'r\
l':' 1..}
'
t
{!'"-f
!f"+' 'SI
*.;, $'
!\ \'r Explain the movement
of tectonic plates
.r.' Describe the plate

lti:- " movements that occur
The road a ong lhe San Andrea faulL ine s due to two p ates at the three types of
sl drng past each other as shown in thc right d agram
plate boundaries
:\ -'r 11 . ,,i, l
Volcanoes, E?rthquakes and
tsunami
After this topic you Volcanoes
should be able to:
. describe the types of
volcanoes
o describe what an
earthquake is
. describe how
tsunami is formed.
bomb
molten-lava
a composite volcano lumps ejected
a eafthquake crater
- ofthe
the mouth
a epicentre volcan o
tava
a focus -
flowing
central vent
-
a channel in
a shield volcano molten the neck of a
rocks volcano, where
a volcano magma erupts
fissure-cracks
-
where lava flows
lahar of mudflow
magma chamber
- -
mixture of water and
molten rock volcanic ash
under Earth
Shield volcanoes
A shield volcano is a volcano with a gentle slope that is
flat near the
top. An example of a shield volc
narrow Dase ano A shield volcano is formed fro
and spreads quickly over a wid
and steam are able to escape ea
the eruption of a shield volcano
Composite volcanoes
A composite volcano is steeper at the top and
gentler at the base.
of an active composite volcano is
l:::::"n" Mount Merapi in
-L Composite volcano tnoonesla.
Composite volcanoes are formed from ash, cinder and acidic lava. During an ernption, viscous lava
rises up the main and side vent and solidifies. This prevents the magma and gases from escaping and
pressure builds up. Finally, the increasing pressure results in a violent eruption of ash and cinder,
followed by lava. The lava covers the ash and cinder to form layers of a composite volcano. Since
the composite volcano comprises alternating layers of solidi{ied lava and ash fallout, it is also called
stratovolcano.
Earthquakes
An earthquake is the movement of Earth's surface caused by the sudden release of energy stored
in the Earth's lithosphere. As tectonic plates move, they cause friction on one another. So pressure
builds up at their boundaries and energy is stored up in Earth's crust. When the pressure can no
longerbe contained, energyis released and radiates out in a forrn of shockwaves through the crust
and onto Earth's surface. As the rocks break up and move in a series of sudden jerks, large faults are
created. The strength of an earthquake depends on the focus and the epicentre of the earthquirke. The
focus is the point of release of the energy within Earth's crust, while the epicentre is the point on
Earth's surface that lies directly above the focus.
eprcentre
SNOCK
,",-.,^^ --:i-+^ Generally, the nearer the focns is
to Earth's surface, the stronger the
earthquake. This is because faster
vibrations are reaching Earth's snrface.
On Earth's surface, the energy that is
released is known as shock waves.
Th"y are stronger nearest to the
epicentre. Hence, places nearest to the
epicentre generally receive the strongest
vibrations.
I The released of
pressure from Earth s Like volcanoes, earthquakes mainly
rrr rci nrnr'lrrrac a caria<
occur along plate boundaries. This is
of shock waves that
originates from the because earthquakes are vibrations that
focus (point of origin)
pressure is re eased here focus point are caused bv ulate movements.
Tsunami
'Tsunami' originates from a fapanese term which means harbour
waves. Tsunami are series of huge waves created as a result of
earthquakes under the sea.
The occurrence of a tsunami
is depicted in the diagram.
Itstarts with an earthquake

under the sea. While the
earthquake is happening,
vast quantities of water are
displaced in a very short time,
generating a massive amount
of energy. This energy causes
a series of progressive waves
moving across the ocean
surface at speeds ofup to 800
kilometres per hour. These a A tsunami is a series of huge waves. lt washes against the coast with
waves continue to qrow as oreat soeed and force
they travel.
As the tsunami waves approach the shoreline, they collide with
the rising seabed. This causes friction, and the waves slow down Summary questions
as a result. But when the speed decreases, the wavelengths become
smaller and the wave amplitude increases. The waves become O Mount Merapi
in Indonesra is a
giant waves and collide with the shore which can cause massive stratovolcano. Descdbe
damage, uprooting trees and washing away people and property. the formation of a
An example of an undersea earthquake which triggered off a stratovolcano.
tsunami occurred in the Indian Ocean near Sumatra, Indonesia
in December 2004. These huge waves travelled for thousands of @ In the form of a
table, compare the
characteristics of
shield volcanoes and
composite volcanoes.
(9 Wny do some
earthquakes produce
more damage and
deaths than others?
/':\
(f Work in a group. Find
information about the
effect of the tsunami
that occurred tn
srnpll lndonesia in December
2004 and present it in
class.
Disaster response
After this topic you should Disaster response to volcanic eruptions
be able to: During volcanic unrest, it is important to respond properly. The
. respondappropriately recommendations are:
during an eadhquake
or a volcano eruption.
. Pay close attention to emergency plans, follow instructions
for closures and evacuations-this could save your life.
. Officials will update on hazard zones and disseminate new
information as the eruption develops.
. Keep informed about eruption progress.
. Do your part to remain safe, and help others in need.
. Richter scale
o seismometer
Disaster response to earthquakes
Scientists who study earthquakes are known as seismologists. The
strength of an earthquake is measured using a seismometer. The
intensity of the earthquake is described using a Richter scale. An
increase of one point on the scale will generates a 10 times bigger
quake.
It is important to be able to respond appropriately during an
earthquake.
The recommendations are:
Go to 'safe places'. A safe place could be under a sturdy table
Earthquake or desk.
effects
Wait in your safe place until the shaking stops, then check to
Not felt by people
see if you are hurt. Move carefully and watch out for things
Felt little by that have fallen or broken because they are hazards.
people
Be on the lookout for fires. Fire is the most common
Celling lights
earthquake-related hazar d,
swing
due to broken gas lines, Summary questions
Walls crack damaged electrical lines or
Furniture moves appliances. @ Wf,"t instruments can
be used to measure
Some buildings If you must leave a building
collapse the strength of an
after the shaking stops, use
eafthquake?
Manybuildings the stairs.
destroyed If you're outside during an @ Explain why the
Total destruction earthquake, stay outside. magnitude of an
of buildings, Move away from buildings, earthquake alone
bridges and roads trees, streetlights and does not determine
power lines. the severity of the
.L Richter magnitude related to
damage caused by an
the effects of an earthouake
eafthquake.
Evidence from the past
In this topic we will look at how scientists use to make deductions
should be able to: about the history of our planet from its rocks and fossils.
. explain how fossils Fossils are the remains (or imprints) of animals and plants that
can be used to lived thousands or even millions of years ago. Dead plants or
compare the age of animals were preserved in sediments that eventually turned into
rOCKS
rock (see page 190). The hard parts oftheir bodies were replaced
. discuss why the by minerals. Look at the ages of some organisms that have lived
fossil record does on Earth in the diagram below.
not give evidence to
estimate the age of How ong ago (millions of years)
Earth.
fossil
A Fossils can tell usthe approximate age of the rockthey are found in
Fossilised remains are made

of minerals absorbed into the
hard parts of organisms, such as
shells or bones
L Fossilised bones in the ground
Fossils found in rocks give us clues about the history of Earth. For
example, the fossils of tropical fern leaves found in coal deposits
suggest that coal formed in areas with hot, swampy conditions.
Because of its coal deposits, many scientists believe that Britain
was once near the equator, and that it had gradually moved
thousands of miles northwards as a result of continental drift (see
page 186).
Sometimes, we find the same fossil species i

different parts of the world. We can deduce th
are about the same age. Such deductions are m
when the fossils used are of animals or plants t
for a relatively short period of time.
We can also get some idea of the relative age
studying the changes in the fossils present. Throu
some species of plants and animals have become extinct or
have evolved into new forms. We can use evidence from their
fossils to deduce which rocks are older. The simpler and less
developed an organism, the longer ago it must have lived. More
sophisticated organisms evolved from these original simple forms.
Fossils of species that only existed on Earth for only a relatively SUmmafy qUeStiOnS
short time period are more useful for datins rocks than those
species that existed over a long time. (!) vvnat ts a lossl|i
f2) Look at the fossils in +

j
the illustration F
Time
(a) Which of the i
three fossils is the T
oldest?
c (b) Which can give
B tho mncl nronico
eno nf
uYv vl the rncL< it ic
A
found in?
-t Fossils show signs of evolving over time
@ tul What is the
problem with trying
The age of Earth *n ann E^#h +/^,-
LW OVV Lqt Lt | il Vt tl
fossil evidence?
People have always wanted to lind out the age of Earth. But can
(b) What do scientists
fossil evidence help us to answer the question 'How old is Earth?'
use instead of
Scientists are doubtful. They believe that there was hardly any
fossils to estimate
Iife when Earth was first formed, and that early Earth was a ball tho ano n{ trart62
of molten rock. When it cooled down enough to form a crust
around the outside, the molten rock constantly burst through.
This created a volcanic atmosphere, unsuitable for life.
So scientists use the oldest rocks they canfind to estimate the age of
Earth. These igneous rocks contain some radioactive substances.
Some of these substances take millions of years to break down
into different substances. Scientists know how quickly they decay
into other substances. By analysing the amount of these and other
substances that are present in a rock, scientists can estimate its
age. Their best estimates at present place is Earth is about 4.6
billion years old (that is 4 600 000 000 years old).
This is much older than the oldest fossils ever found.
Summary
We can characterise rocks by properties A divergent boundary is formed when two
such as their texture (arrangement of plates diverge or move apaft from each
grains) and porosity (ability to absorb other.
water). A convergent boundary is formed when
Sedimentary rocks are formed when two plates move towards each other.
layers of sediment are buried under more A transform boundary is formed when
recent deposits. Under the pressure, two plates slide past each other.
and with the help of mineral 'cements' There are various types of volcanoes:
between the particles of sediment, shield volcano, composite volcano,
sedimentary rocks are formed.
cinder cones and lava domes volcanoes,
Metamorphic rocks are formed when An eadhouake is a movement of Eafth's
existing rock experiences high pressure
surface caused by the sudden release of
and/or temperature (without melting). energy stored in Earth's lithosphere.
Bands of minerals are often visible if
the metamorohic rock is formed under The focus is the ooint of release of the
pressure. energy within Earlh's crust.
lgneous rocks are formed when molten The epicentre is the point on Earth's
rock solidifies. Slow cooling, inside Earth's surface that lies directly above the focus.
crust, produces rock with large crystals. Tsunami is a series of huge waves created
Faster cooling, at or near Earth's surJace, as a result of earlhquakes under the sea.
produces rock with small crystals. The strength of an earthquake is normally
Earlh consists of a thin crust on top of measured using a seismometer.
a largely solid layer of rock called the The intensity of an eadhquake is
mantle. Below that we get Eadh's core, described using the Richter scale.
made uo of nickel and uon.
Fossils and rocks give us evidence for the
The movement of tectonic olates is events that took place on Eadh during
responsible for many of Earth's major period of ancient history, before humans
landscaoe and landforms. existed on our olanet.
Summative Practice
Are the rocks below as igneous, metamorphic Bits of sand crumble off the surface of the
or sedimentary? rock quite easily. t1l
Rock X: lt is made from plate-like crystals Rock Z: There are three different types of
all lined uo in the same direction. The rock interlocking crystals arranged randomly in
fragment has parallel flat sides where it has this hard rock. t1l
been split. nl (a) (r) Name an igneous rock made up of
Rock Y: There are particles of sand visibly
held together by an orange-brown mineral.
large crystals. ttl
209
(ii) Under what conditions is this type of (c) Which propefty of the soils was the
rock formed?
(b) (i) fi l screntist testing? Choose i, ii, iii or iv.
Name an igneous rock with very smatl
crystals.
i How acidic the soil is
(ii) Under what conditions is this type
ii How wellthe soil drains
rock formed?
iii tts density
(c) Explain the difference we frnd rn the s
iv tts texture fi l
(d) Which soil would be best suited to a crop
of crystal in igneous rocks using the that needs well-drained soil to grow well?
th ory where necessary. t2l
particle
(a) Explain the process whereby limestone
(e) Which soil rs most likety to Ou .#
can be changed into marble.
t2l
Explain why. "tuy pl
(b) Explain the process whereby slate can (0 Which soil is most likely to be sandy soilr
be formed from mudstone.
t2l
Explain why. pl
A scientist says that the oldest fossils found Sami and Des were investigating how rocks
are 600 million years ld so the age of Earlh can be worn down.
is 600 million years. D you think the scientisr They made six cubes from plaster of paris
rs correct? Explain your answer t2l
They weighed the cubes then put them in
a tin can with a lid. They shook them for
An agricultural scientrst wanted to find out
30 seconds then weighed the six largest
which of his trial fields would drain most
blocks again, making sure no bits were losl
quickly. He took soil from each of his four
from the can. They replaced the blocks in the
fields, labelled them A to D, and carried our
can and repeated this several trmes.
the test shown in the figure.
Here is a graph of their results:
He found that soil A took 45 seconds to
orarn a set volume of water, soil B took 32
seconds, soil C took 17 seconds and sotl D
took 78 seconds.
I^4
GJ
E
';z
o
Jl
t46B
Time (min)
\q/
(b)
(c)
contents before and after the experiment,
measufl ng what would they find? Choose i, ii or iii.
cylinder i The mass had decreased after the
experiment.
ii The mass had increased after the
experiment
iii The mass remained the
t1l same.
(d) (i) What do we cail the rock formed
from fragments of rock that settle irr
layers?
I2l Record the scientist,s results in (ii) lf these rocks are put tll
,nd"i
a table. high pressure and baked at high
t2l
(b) Show his results on a suitable graph. temperatures, what type of ,oct<
t4l
forms? fi l
7 The structure of Eafth is shown below: (d) How does water mechanically weather
rocks? t4l
9 (a) How does the magma in a composite
volcano differ from the maoma in a shield
volcano?
(b) Why is a composite volcano also called
as a stratovolcano?
(c) What is an eadhouake?
(d) Define the terms focus and eoicentre of
an earthquake. t4l
10 Most geologists think that the movement of
(a) Name the oarts of Eafth labelled A to E. Eafth's plates is caused by
t5l A. gravity
(b) Which layer of Eafth: B. subduction
(i) contains fossils? nl C. convection currents
(ii) is made up of solid iron ano D. Eafth's magnetic field n l
nickel?
is found beneath Eafth's
t1l 11 There are _ types of plate boundaries.
(iii) giant A. 2 C.4
tectonic plates? ttl B.3 D.5 ttl
(iv) varies in thickness between 5km
and 70 km? t1l 12 What is the boundary between two plates
(c) (i) Which of the following is the best that are moving aparl?
estimate of the age of Earth? A. Divergent boundary
o 4.6 thousand years old B. Convergent boundary
. 4.6 million years old C. Transform boundary
. 4.6 billion years old nl D. None ofthe above nl
(ii) Scientists can estimate the age of 13 Magma which is forced onto Eafth's surface
Eafth. State what thev observe and is also known as
measure to work this out. t2l A. vent C. lava
8 (a) One of the forces that causes tectonic B. cone D. magma chamber [1]
plates to move is 14 What is the most common type of volcano in
currents in the asthenosohere. the world?
(b) Where do most of Eafth's eafthquakes,
A. Shield volcano
volcanoes and mountain building occur? B. Composite volcano
/n) How is mechanical weathering different
C. Rock volcano
from chemical weatherino? D. None of the above tl l
I Forces and their
effects
Science in Contextl
It's a record!
Athletes train for years to compete in championships or
to make attempts at beating world records. They have
undergone extensive training to develop their strength
and stamina. However, records are not being broken just a
because the athletes are getting fitter, but the equipment p
I
they use and tracks they race on all make it easier to go that
Iittle bit faster.
0n your marks
The fastest runners are sprinters. They have to be able to
run at over 10 metres per second and even tiny things can
slow them down. Their shoes, clothing, and even the starting
You need a big force to get you off to a
blocks, are desiqned to help them out.
Get a grip
The track material and the running shoes are designed v The aerodynamics
of this bobsleigh
M to allow for better grip as the athletes run. If the
track was too hard then there would be less grip
allow it to reach
150 km/h
,., \, and the athletes' feet would slip. The shoes have
spikes that dig into the track to help the athlete
push forwards.
Bobsleighs slide along icy tracks at over 100

km/h powered onlyby an initial push and the
force of gravity. To steer the sleigh the metal
runners need to dig into the ice. Aerofoils
at the front of the sleigh push downwards
allowing for better grip at high speeds.
( The spikes on these shoes will grip the track and
allow the athletes to push themselves forwards quickly
Gutting down the drag
It's not just track athletes who are getting better.
Look at the kit these cyclists wear and the
bicycles! They don't look much like street cycles
at all. Scientists and engineers have studied
how bikes move through the air and have spent
years making them more aerodynamic. Even
the shape of helmets is streamlined. All of these
changes mean that cyclists can go a bit faster
than their competitors.
Competitive yachts are pushed by the force of

the wind. So the shape of their sails are carefully
designed to generate as much force as possible
^l Drag needs to be reduced both above and
and with minimum drag. The yachts' hulls are below the water
streamlined because they have to cut through
the water. Every tiny difference in the shape of
the sail or hull can make the difference between
winning and losing.
In this chapter, you will be looking at how forces
affect objects, changing their shape or speed. You
will see how, by applying our understanding of
how forces work, we can keep on getting faster.
You will also see how forces can make things
float or sink, and learn about the force that keeps
your feet on the ground.
) A -odetn sprinl cyclist Every aspect is

designed to improve the top speed
Goncept map
FORCES AND THEIR EFFECTS
What are forces?
After this topic you should When you pull an elastic band it stretches. When you let go of the
be able to: end it shoots forwards and flies out of your hand. Both of these
. describe what forces effects are caused by forces.
can oo When a force is doing something we say that it is 'acting, on an
. use newtonmeters and object. Forces act on objects and can change their shape or how
scales to measure the they are moving.
size of forces.
Showing forces
we can see or feel the effects of forces but we can't see the forces
themselves. To explain what they are doing we draw them as
a force arrows on diagrams.
a newton
. The arrow shows the direction the force is acting (pushing or
a newtonmeter
(forcemeter)
pulling).
. The length of the arrow indicates how large the force is.
the pull ofthe

iron block on
the pull ofthe

magnet on the
the pull of the iron block
hand on the
door handle
the push of the

blue magnet on
the black magnet
the pull of
Earth's gravity
on the ball
the push of the

black magnet on
the blue magnet
Measuring forces
. Use a range of newtonmeters to measure the force needed to lift or

drag a range of objects. You can also measure the mass of some
smaller objects using a top pan balance.
Make sure you change the top pan balance reading (grams)
to neMons (N) by multiplying the reading with 0.010 N.
Record your results in a table with clear headings and
units.
Make sure you select a neMonmeter with the right range for
each of the objects. Don't use one that only measures up to
1O N to lift a chair!
> pan balance is used to measure the mass of a small

*;JiJ
Measuring forces Summary questions

Forces are measured in a unit called the newton (N). One newton
is a fairly small force: holding a 100 g mass in your hand needs an O and complete
"oousentence:
this
upward force of one newton.
Forces are measured in
a unit called
Newtonmeters Forces can be shown as
A newtonmeter (sometimes called forcemeter) is a spring with a
a on diagrams. A
scale attached. The force causes the spring to stretch and a pointer can be used to
to show how large the force is. Different springs can be used to measure a rorce.
measure a range of forces. Strong springs are used to measure large
forces while weaker springs are used to measure small ones. @ Wfrat are the readings
on these three
newtonmeters?
Scales and balances
A scale or top pan balance can also be
used to measure forces. Scales can
be very precise and measure the
weight of small objects much
more accurately than a
newtonmeter.
( A neMonmeter
@ Draw a diagram to
show the forces that are
acting on your book as
it rests on the table.
Frictional forces
When you slide an object across a flat surface it eventually stops.
be able to: A force is acting on the object as it moves and this force slows it
o down. We call this friction
describe how friction
acts to prevent or A heavy box is very hard to push. This is because there is a frictional
reduce movement force between the box and the ground. This frictional force is in
. repeat readings, the opposite direction to your pushing force. Frictional forces
display your results in always oppose the movement of objects. Ifyou went around to the
a table and calculate other side of the box and tried to push it, frictional forces would
averages.
still push back against you!
o friction
.1, Frictional force opposes the push on the box
Explaining friction
Friction happens because the surfaces of the two objects lock
together slightly. You can see this when you look at rough materials
such as sandpaper. If you try to slide two pieces of sandpaper past
each other, the rough pieces grip other rough pieces and the paper
becomes hard to move.
Although surfaces look smooth, all of them are actually rough

if you look closely enough. When the two surfaces get pushed
past each other, the roughness causes them to grip - just like the
sandpaper.
.^. The rough parts of the surfaces grip each other and prevent movement
Testing the size of frictional Summary questions
forces
Use newtonmeters to measure the size of frictional forces @ Whut causes frictional
force?
when a block is dragged across the floor or a desk.
@ f*o students
measured the size
of the frictional force
when different weights
were oraggeo across
the floor.
. Record the results in a table like the one shown below.
Mass (kg) Frictional
force (N)
Test the size of the forces when the block is dragged across 0.5 4.5
different materials. You will find that the results are not very
relrable, so you need to repeat the tests to find the average
1.0 5.5
values for the forces. 1.5 5.4

2.0 6.2
Modify the experrment to test the effect of different wetghts
by adding loads on top of the wooden block. The weights will
2.5 7.1
push the surfaces into closer contact. (a) What conclusion

o Does doubling the weight of the object double the size of can you make
the frictional forces? about the
relationship
Make sure you have a clear space to carry out between the size
the experiments. of the mass being
dragged and the
size of the frictional
force?
(b) What causes this
relationship?
(c) Which of the results
are anomalous (do
not fit the pattern)?
(d) What improvements
could you make
to the experiment
to make your
conctusron more
The effect of weight reliable?
Another factor that affects the size of frictional force is the weight
of the object. A heavier object pushes further into the surface it is
moving across, making the rough surfaces stick together more.
This is why it is more difficult to push a box when it is full.
217
Dealing with friction
Friction can be a big problem as well as a big help. We usually want
be able to: things to move easily so we need to reduce friction. Sometimes, we
o investigate how
want to increase the grip between objects so we increase the friction.
frictionalforces can
be reduced using
lubricants Reducing friction
o improve the quality of In engines, frictional forces between the moving parts release a lot
data collected of heat energy and this reduces the engine's efficiency. Sometimes
. describe how frictional the engine parts expand and get damage.
forces can be To reduce friction we can separate surfaces so that they do not rub
increased to improve
together. We can do this with a lubricant. This is a liquid that gets
grip.
between the two surfaces and stops them touching. In an engine,
we use oil as the lubricant. There will still be a little frictional
force between the engine pans and
o lubricant the oil but far less than before.
Oil is commonly used as
a lubricant for machines
but any liquid can act as
a lubricant. If you slide
down a waterslide. the
water reduces the friction
between you and the slide,
making you go faster.
A Engines contain hundreds of moving parts

Without a coating of oil they would not work
Testing lubricants
Use a plank of wood and a 1 kg metal block or similar

object to investigate the effect of lubricants on friction.
The more the friction, the greater the angle you have to
tilt the plank for the block to slide. You can measure the
height you have to lift the end of the plank. Coat the plank
in different lubricants and see how much you need to tilt it
before the block begins to slide.
. How many times will you repeat each test?
. Record your results in a table.
. To display your results, will you use a bar chaft or a
line graph? (See page 316.)
Make sure you do not slip on the lubricants.

Do not let them drip onto the floor.
Increasing friction
Sometimes we want to increase the amount of friction
between surfaces to increase grip. Materials such as rubber or
plastic cause a lot of friction so they are added to surfaces where
extra friction is required.
Car tyres are made of rubber to increase the friction between them
and the road. They also have tread patterns to drive on slippery .a. This close-upshows the
deliberately rough surface of
roads. where water can act as a lubricant and make the car slide.
a matchbox. When you strike
a malch, so much friction is
caused that the match head
bursts into flame
lmproving grip
Investigate which tread patterns on shoes give the best grip.

Summary questions
Test how easy it is to pull different shoes across a surface.
(You will probably need to weigh down the shoes a bit by @ Wf'"t is a lubricant?
putting a block of metal inside them.)
Does the material that the sole of the shoe is made from @ Wf,at will happen to a
car engine if it is not
make a difference? regularly topped up
Does the tread pattern have any effect on the grip of the with oil?
shoe?
@ tul which parts of a
hinrrnlo naor'l in
have low levels of
friction and which
need high levels?
(b) What materials
are used for these
different parts?
Forces in balance
If you try to push a car stuck in mud, it probably will not move.
be able to:
Friction acts against the push and the two forces cancel each other
o out. We say that the forces are balanced.
state what happens
push
when forces
are balanced or
unbalanced
r calculate the resultant
force acting on different
objects.
. balanced
o resultant force
. unbalanced
.a. The forces on this car are balanced
Balanced forces {
When the forces on an object are balanced, the object can do one
of two things:
a if the object is stationary, it stays stationary
oownwa ro a if the object is moving, it keeps moving at the same speed in a
pull of weight straiqht line.
upwaro pusn Looking both ways

of chair
To understand what forces are doing, we have to look at the
forces that are acting horizontally and then the forces that are
acting vertically. When you are pushing a car that is stuck in the
mud, the friction and your push cancel each other out and these
horizontal forces are balanced. There is also a force acting in the
When you sit still the forces opposite direction to the weight of the car and these forces are
acting on you are balanced balanced too.
^L Don't forget to think about all the forces when

checking to see if they are balanced
Testing balanced forces
Use newtonmeters to test the idea of balanced forces. Tie two newtonmeters to a piece of string
and use them to pull in one direction and use a third newtonmeter to pull in the opposite direction.
Try this for a range of 'pulls' to see if you always
get a resultant force of zero. Don't pull the newtonmeters too
. Comment on the accuracy of your readings. hard; you may over-stretch them.
Unbalanced forces
If you get some friends to help, you might be
able to make the car move. The frictional forces
can't match your combined pushing force - the
forces are unbalanced. We can find the overall
effect ofthese unbalanced forces by finding the
resultant force.
To find the resultant force you can add all of
the horizontal forces going in one direction
and then take away the forces going in the .4, A little help might get the car to start moving
opposite direction.
resultant {orce
Summary questions
u, 'ed
vvnar are Daranc
forces? What do
unbalanced forces
cause?
QL) Work out the resultant

400N+600N 500N+700N force in this tug of war.
Which side is winning?
1 000N 1 200N
r The resultant force here is 200 N to the riqht
Acceleration +300N s00N 400N 3s0N 300N 550N+

An unbalanced force will change the speed or direction of the
object it is acting on. This change is called acceleration. @ Wf icf' of these involves
balanced forces?
The size of the acceleration will depend on the size of the A a car that is stationary
resultant force and the mass of the object. A small resultant force B a car speeding up
will accelerate a large object a little; a large resultant force will C a car travelling at a
accelerate it more. ^+^î. , Jpuuu
-LrtdLry ^^^î
221
Gravity and weight
When you 'weigh' yourself on bathroom scales you are actually
measuring your mass. There is an important difference between
be able to:
. the mass of an object and its weight.
explain the difference
between mass and
weight Mass
o calculate the weight The mass of an object is a measure of how much matter (material)
of objects in different is in it. That depends on how many particles there are inside it.
locations using Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
gravitational force.
The mass of an object is always the same. If a metal block has a
mass of l kg in a laboratory then it will have a mass of l kg even
. gravitational force if it were on the Moon because it still has the same number of
. weight particles in it.
Weight and gravity

The weight of an object is the force that pulls it downwards.
This force only exists because it is near Earth. The mass of Earth
attracts the mass of the object and this is what causes the weight.
Weight is a force, so it is measured in newtons, just like all other

forces. To find the weight of an object you need to know how
strong gravity is. On Earth, the gravitational force is
approximately 10 newtons per kilogram of mass in the object. So,
a 1 kg object on Earth would weigh 10 N (l x 10) and a 40 kg
object weighs 400 N (a0 x 10).
If you could take the object to the Moon it would weigh less. This
is because the Moon is smaller than Earth and the Moon has less
mass, so the gravitational attraction is smaller. On the Moon, the
gravitational force is only 1.6 newtons per kilogram.
f This piece of material is a copy

of the'lnternational Prototype
Kilogram' and it has a mass of
exactly '1 kg f The mass stays the same but the weight is different
What would it weiqh?
The weight of oblects changes depending upon the planet they are on.
. CopV and complete this table to show the weights of some common objects on different
olanets and the Moon.
Vehicle The Moon

Lunar Roving 1.6 21O
Venera-13 soace orobe Venus 8.9 760

a car Mercury 100 37O
a helium airship Jupiter 24.8 30 000
. When you have completed the calculations, produce posters illustrating the differences in
the weight of objects on drfferent planets. Make sure that these clearly explain the difference
between mass and weiqht.
$ummary questions
Q) lul difference
Explain the
between
mass and weight.
(b) The gravitational
force on Earth
is actually closer
to 9.8 newtons
per krlogram.
Recalculate all
the weights of the
masses mentioned
in the examples on
tha nrorrinr re n2no
@) Scales are often used

to measure the mass of
objects. Why wouldn't
these work properly on
the Moon?
@ On Olympic weightlifter
can lift 472k9 on Earth.
/^\ \A /t
vv|rdl^+ i^
r- +ta^ î?^
u rE Dr4v
\d/
of the force the
rnreinhtliflor rrses tO
do this?
(b) lf the weightlifter
could go to
Mars, where the
^-^.,i+^+i^^^l rdr {^-^^
gldvltdLlur i^
rtJr uu lD
3.7 N/kg, what is

the maximum mass
he could lift up?
Magnetic
suspensr0n
Gravitational force keeps everlthing on the

surface of Earth. Frictional force slows down
the movement of objects that are in contact
with one another. However, there is a way
that could appear to defr these two forces -
using magnetic force.
As you know, opposite poles in a magnet attracts, while like poles repel each other. By using this basic
concept, large objects can be suspended above the ground, defting gravity.
Maglev is a transportation method that uses magnetic levitation to move vehicles without them
touching the ground. The word maglev is derived from 'magnetic levitation'. It uses magnets to keep
vehicles afloat. This significantly reduces friction, thus passengers experience a smooth and silent
journey at high speeds. Maglev trains are currently in operation in |apan, Korea and China. fapan set
the world record in 2015 when its maglev train hit 603 kilometres per hour.
superconoufirng
magnets
magnets
electromagnet electrical
.1, The large superconducting magnets under the train repel the electromagnetised tracks, allowing the train
to levitate above the track The electrical power source creates magnetic field that pulls and pushes the
train along the track effortlessly
You can also create your very own magnetic levitation at home. You
need a large magnet as a base and a top made of a smaller flat ring-
shaped magnet fitted with washers, and a short cylindrical piece
of wood (see the diagram on the left).
The top is placed on a piece ofpaper, on the centre ofthe base
magnet and spun. Slowly pull up the paper and remove it.
You will witness a levitating top.
Moving through fluids
When you run quickly or ride on a bicycle you can feel the air
rushing past your face. Similarly, when you swim, you can feel
should be able to:
. water pushing against you as you swim. Gases and liquids are
explain the meaning
of air resistance
fluids - their particles can be moved about and we can pass
(drag) through them (see page l2I).
o test the effect of
streamlining on
movement through
fluids
. record and display
rocr rltc offontirrahr
a air resistance .r. lt is very difficult to push yourself through water at high speed
a drag
a fluid
a streamlined
Moving through the air
It is fairly easy to push through the air when you are moving
slowly but it becomes harder when you go quickly. The faster you
travel the more particles you need to push out of your way each
second. This means that you need to use a bigger force. As you
travel, the air resists your movement (the particles push back).
We say there is air resistance or drag. The faster you go, the
larger the drag will be.
Streamlining
Air resistance will slow you down or even bring you to a stop,
just like other frictional forces do. Modern cars are streamlined
to reduce air resistance. Their shapes allow air to flow over them
edges' smoothly.
This sports car is highly Moving through water

streamlined
It is harder to move through water than air. This is because the
particles in water are much closer together than those in air so
you have to push more of them out of the way to
move through it. Boats need large engines to
oyercome this drag from the water and it
Iimits their top speed.
To go really fast, boats are designed to lift
themselves out of the water as much as
possible so that they don't have to push
throueh it.
Testing streamlined shapes Summary questions
You can find out if changing the shape of an object affects O and complete:
"oOU and liquids are
how easily it moves through a fluid. Use 10 g pieces of Gases
modelling clay and design a set of shapes (such as spheres, both because
disks and teardrops). Drop the shapes down a cylinder their particles are free
containing a thick fluid and record how much time it takes for to move. When we
them to fall to the bottom. Sketch all your designs before you move through the air
start dropping them through the fluid. there is a force called
. Why was it imporlant to make all of the objects 10 g in (or
*l-'a* nnn^^^^
Lr rar ulJlJuJUJ
+l-'i^
ilD
mass? Lr
. In what ways will you record and display your results?

movement. To make
this movement easier,
o Which shapes were the most streamlined and which were -)
cars and other vehicles
the least?
are
using smooth curved
Be careful to avoid spilling the liquid. snapes.
@ rul Why is it more

difficult to travel
through water
than it is to travel
through air?
This fast boat sl<ims across the surface of the water, (b) Why don't aftificial
reducing water resistance +^
^^+^lli+^^ ^^^t
JdLUIIILUJ I IUUU LU
be streamlined?
@ ffstreamlined.
is truck is not
Draw a
new design that would
allow the truck to move
more efficiently.
Stretching and squashing
Forces can change the motion of an object. Th"y can also change
the shape of an object by stretching or squashing it.
should be able to:
. investigate the
behaviour of elastic
as it stretches
Stretching
. design an experiment When a solid object is stretched by forces, the particles in the solid
to test how a are pulled, and they move further apart. This makes the object
materialcan be longer. As you use more force the object continues to stretch. If
compressed the force becomes too large the particles can separate from each
. make scientific other and the material breaks.
predictions about
An object that is being stretched is under tension. Some materials
stretching materials
o will not stretch much before they break but others will stretch
present conclusions
a great deal. It's easy to see this stretching behaviour in elastic.
to others in different
ways.
When you apply a force to the elastic
it stretches and becomes thinner.
The force is untangling the
. chains of particles inside
"'t ""t
compressed
. the elastic and so the
tension
elastic becomes longer.
o@oo
@@@o o@oo o@oo
@o@o @@oo
@@@@
@@o@ o@@o oooo
oo@@ oo@@ @o@@
@@o@ oooo
o@oo oooo
) fh. particles are oo@o
being pulled further
apart, making the ,"r..1 ,.r."1
obiect lonqer
Stretching elastic
You have an elastic band. Design and carry out a test to see if there is a relationship to how much
it stretches when different forces act on it. You have to measure the length of the elastic when
different weights are attached to the end to produce different sized forces.
. Plot a graph to show the relationship.
o Test a second thicker elastic band and see if the relationship is the same.
o Carry out the same test on metal springs. Make
a prediction before you star1. Plot a graph and Be careful not to drop any of
describe the relationship. Do the springs behave in the weights on your feet.
the same way as the elastic band? Explain why.
Squashing a sponge Summary questions
Think of a way to test if there is a relationship between the @ fwo students think that
force applied to a sponge and how much it gets compressed. there is a relationship
Use the equipment you have been given to design a test and between the diameter
then carry it out. You will have to measure the size of the of a strip of elastic
sponge when there are different forces squashing it down. and the amount it
stretches. They test
their idea by stretching
five strips of elastic
of different diameters
using a force of
1O N. Their results
are shown below.
Diameter Extension
(mm) (cm)
1 60
50
Plot a graph showing the amount of force (or mass) used 1.5 39
to squash the sponge against how much it has been
1.7 40
squasneo.
2
Present your conclusions clearly to the rest of the class.
2.5 11
Be careful not to drop any of the weights on your (a) Plot a suitable
feet. graph to show
their results.
(b) Describe the
relationship of the
results and give
a conclusion for
the experiment.
Squashing (CJ Are there any
When forces squash an object we say that it is being compressed. anomalous
The particles are forced closer together. As they get cloier they results? lf so,
repel each other more and more, and it gets more difficult to force identify them.
them closer together. There is thereforJ a hmit to how much we
can squash an object. @ Plan a test to see if
there is a relationship
The particles in solids or liquids are already very crose together between the force
so they are fairly incompressible. On the other hand, qases can be applied to a gas and
easily compressed. its volume.
You will need to
include a container that
can contain gas and
force
enable you to measure
the volume of the gas
when it is squashed by
different forces.
n:rticles are being forced closer together This makes the object
]fe
Measuring density
In Chapter 6, you found out about the properties of a material.
One of these properties was density. Densitywas a measure ofhow
should be able to:
'heavy' the object is for its size. Now that you understand
. calculate the density
the difference between mass and weight you will
of a material
be able to calculate the densitv of materials or
o cdrtll out an
objects by measuring them.
experiment to
measure the density
of an irregularly
shaped object.
. density
Different materials have

different densities
Defining density
Density is defined the amount of mass an object has in a fixed
as
volume. This means that if you can measure the mass and volume
of a sample you can easily calculate the density.
Galculating density
To calculate the density of a piece of material you need to use the
simple formula:
â. Some examples of densities. You

can find more in the table in ToPic
6.5 (page 158)
There are two sets of units that are commonly used for density:
. mass in grams and volume in cubic centimetres give density
in g/cm3
. mass in kilograms and volume in cubic metres give density
in kg/m3.
When you are using small amounts of material you will probably
use g/cm3. For larger amounts, use kg/m3.
The density of regular objects
You have been given a set of materials with regular shapes. Use a
ruler to measure the dimensions of the objects and calculate their
volumes. Then use the top pan balance to measure their mass. Use
these figures to calculate the density of the objects.
. Put all of your measurements in a clear table.
. Measure volume in cm3 and mass in grams.
Measuring density Summary questions

To measure the densitv of a material you need to measure its mass
and volume.
O and complete
"oputable to show
this
Regular shapes the densities of the
samples of material.
Many objects, such as cubes or spheres, have regular shapes. You
Material Mass (g)
can find their volume with simple calculations and their mass
with a balance.
goro 965
diamond 0.5
lrregular shapes expanoeo
polystyrene
However, most objects are not
I regular shapes; you can't find Material Volume
their volume using a ruler and (cm')
calculator. goro 50
If you place an object that sinks diamond 0.14
into a container partly full of water expanoeo 250
then the level of the water will rise. polystyrene
You can measure the increase in
Material Density
volume if you use a measuring (g/cm3)
cylinder as the container. This
goro
increase in volume is the same as
the volume of the object that you diamond
.r, Using a measurlng cylinder
to find the volume of objects dropped in. expanoeo 0.075
porystyrene
Measuring the density of

irregular shaped obiects QL) Some objects tloat
on water. Destgn an
Use a measuring cylrnder to measure the volume of the experiment that will
nl.rionte lot j vv r mcasr rro tlg
vnr
Lv nrnrridor'l
,v(
vvtvv
. Half fill the cylinder with water and record the volume
volume of an object
that floats so that you
measuremenl.
can find its density.
. Now add an object and record the new volume reading.
(Hint: you have to
. Find the increase in volume reading; this is the volume of make the object sink).
the object.
o Use a top pan balance to measure the mass of the object.
You can then calculate its density. As you are working with
small objects, measure mass in grams and volume in cm3.
Upthrust, floating and sinking
After this topic you Upthrust
should be able to:
When an object is placed in water a force called upthrust acts on
. explain why some
it and pushes it upwards.
objects float and
some do not . If this upthrust is the same as the weight of the object, the
. measure the object will float. The forces are balanced.
upthrust acting on . If the upthrust is less than the weight of the object, it will sink.
a range of objects.
With correct design, huge objects can be made to float on water.
. upthrust Measuring the effect of upthrust
You can use a newtonmeter to calculate the upthrust on

an object.
. Measure and record the weight of an object.
. Place the object in water so that it fully submerges and
record the new reading on the neMonmeter.
The upthrust will be the difference between these two readings.
( fhe upthrust
reduces the
measured
weight of an
object
Forces at work
Engineers design buildings using their knowledge of forces.
They need to understand how the forces will affect a building's
should be able to:
. strength. This involves very complicated analysis using computer
describe how
onntnoora IQo simulations and careful testinq of materials.
shapes to spread
forces through a
building Strong shapes for building
. use your Arches have been used in construction, especially of bridges, for
understanding of
thousands of years. Arches are very good for supporting weight
fnrnac fn rlacinn
vvvll,| |
and spreading out the stress on the building. Roman viaducts and
a strong bridge or
amphitheatres used rows of arches on top of each other so that
IOWer.
very tall buildings could be constructed. Similar arch shapes can
be seen in some modern road bridges where the road is suspended
by cables from a strong arch above it.
. crumple zone
These skyscrapers in Dubai have

been built using steel grids for
strength This Roman viaduct in Pont du Gard. France.
has stood for 2000 years
Skyscrapers are built from

grids of steel girders joined
at right angles. These can be
/, strengthened with concrete,
i< which is very strong when it is
being compressed (squashed).
To stop large buildings from
bending, triangular supports
are sometimes used. These
act in a similar way to arches,
spreading the forces through
the structure. --**'"*"
I beams are used .r,l-,"
construction of large buildings.
They are much lighter than solid
beams and nearly as strong
Bridge building
You have been given a set of construction materials. Construct the longest span of bridge
possible. The bridge needs to be able to supporl a 50 g mass placed in the middle of it.
. Use the ideas from this lesson to make your bridge as strong as possible.
. You could also attempt to build the tallest tower possible from the materials.
Forces in crashes
Engineers have to understand what happens to cars
when they crash. Strong box shapes around the driver
and passenger area are used to keep it in shape
during collisions. They also design areas of the cars
called crumple zones, which will deliberately fold
up to absorb the kinetic energy of a collision.
v This car has crashed into a steel pole Nobodv was

hurt because the front oart of the car crumoled and
absorbed fhe kinetic enerov of the car
.a. The inside of this racing car

heq avrr: ctaal tr rhinn
a strong protective cage for
the driver Normai caTS dre
designed to have strong
PoJJc"9cl
Summary questions
O *nU are arches used

construction?
in
@ Find out about the

construction of the
tallest building or the
Crumple zone longest bridge in your
region.
Use the materials you have been given to build a crumple
zone for a toy car. Attach it to the car and see how effective it @ Wf'at safety features,
is at absorbing the energy of a crash. besides the ones
mentioned on these
Use a ramp to make sure the car crashes into a wall at the pages, are used In cars
same speed each time. in nrntont iha drirror
. What can you use to simulate a passenger in the car? ^^^ru
or ^^^^^^^^.ô
vdJJUr rvur D r
Summary
a Forces can change the shape or The mass of an object is the amount of
movement of an object. material in it and is measured in kilograms.
a Forces are measured in newtons. The weight of an object is the force
a Friction is a force that acts to prevent caused by its attraction to Earth.
the movement of objects. lt is caused by When objects move through liquids or
surface contact. gases, drag forces slow them down.
When forces are in balance on an object, The density of a material is a measure of
it stays still or moves at a steady speed. its mass oer unit volume.
When forces are not balanced, an obiect
dUUUIUI
^^âlara*aa ATUD.
Summative Practice
Which of the following words can be used to
describe what a force can do?
speed, stretch, pull, expand, push,

change, energy, turn
Hl
2 Copy and complete the following table of
information about mass and weiqht.
MASS
weight
t2l Describe a way you can increase the friction
slippery? to help move a car that is stuck in mud. t1l
3 Why are wet floors t2l
Which of these weighs the most?
4 Copy and complete the table below, showing
in which of these diagrams the forces are
. a 5 kg mass placed on Earth (gravitational
force 1O N/kg)
balanced. t4l o a I0 kg mass placed on Mars (gravitational
force 3.7 N/kg )
A
30N
B
s0N . a 50 kg mass placed on the moon Titan
(gravitational force 1 .35 N/kg ) t1l
Felipe and Rafael are investigating how a
spring behaves when it stretches. They hang
weights from it and measure the changes in
length as accurately as they can.
(a) Why did the students repeat each test

five times? t1l
(b) Which surface produced the greatest
average frictional force? ttl
(c) Comment on the reliability of the results.
What evidence did you use? t2l
11 A cube of metal with a side length of 15 cm
has a mass of 1 kg. What is the density of the
metal? t2l
12 Aluminium has a density of 2.7 g/cm3. Lead
(a) Copy and complete the table to show the
has a density of 1 1 .349/cm3. What volume of
increase in length. t1l aluminium has the same mass as a 100 cm3
(b) Draw a graph showing the results. t4l lead block?
(c) Make a detailed conclusion about the t2l
way in which the spring behaves. t2l 13 Engineers in a laboratory tested the strength
of carbon fibre cables to evaluate their
Which of these factors can affect how lono a
usefulness in construction. The engineers
car takes to stop?
increased the force acting on wires of different
A the soeed ofthe car diameters untilthe wire snapped. The results
B the mass of the car of the tests are shown in the graph.
C the colour of the car (a) Which of the results from the experiment
D whether or not the road is wet was anomalous? tll
E the tread on the tyres t4l (b) Describe the relationship between the
A boat weighing 10000N is floating on a wire diameter and the force reouired to
lake. A group of people weighing a total of break the wire. Itl
3 000 N gets into the boat. (c) Estimate the force required to break
I
(a) What is the size of the upthrust on the a carbon fibre cable with a diameter of
5 boat before the people get on? t1l 0.2 mm. ttl
I (b) What is the size of the upthrust on the 1 800
boat afterthe people get on? nl 1 600
d (c) Draw a force diagram of the boat before 1 400

t
the people get on. Itl z"^^^
v | ltill
o ---
(d) Draw a force diagram of the boat after
the people get on. b 1000
t1l or cnn
(e) What happens to the depth the boat is in
the water when the people get on? n l *o Ano
-'-
oAn
10 Some student did an experiment to find the 200
frictional force produced when pushing a
weighted tray across different surfaces. The 02 0.3 04 05 06 0.7 08
result are as follows: Wire diameter(mm)
14 Three metal objects, all with the same mass
are dropped into a deep pool of water.
(a) Which of the objects will reach the
first?
bottom of the pool n l
(b) Explain your answer. t2l
15 What factors influences friction?

A. Weight of the object on a given surface
B. Roughness of the surface of the object
C. Weight of the object on a given surface
and the surface area of the surfaces in
contact
D. Weight of the object on a given surface
and roughness of the surfaces in contact
tll
16 Which of these statements is true?
A. The weight of an object is the same no
matter where it is
B. The mass of an obiect is the same no
matter where it is
C. The mass and weight of an object is the
same no matter where it is
D. The mass of an object depends on the
gravitationalforce acting on it nl
17 Which of the following cars is the most
streamlined?
18 An object P has a mass of 35 9. What should
A.
its volume be if it needs to sink in a liquid of
density 2.4 g/cm3?
A. 11 cm3
B. 15 cm3
C. 19 cm3
D. 24 cm3 t1l
19 What kind of shape is good for construction?
A. Arches
B. Triangles
C. Grids joined at right angles
D. All of the answers above tll
Energy
transformations
Science in Contextl
An energetic day
We need energy every day for everything we do.
In the morning, Ayu has a big breakfast. She has a .L She takes the bus to school through the city's
busy day ahead and she needs the chemical energy busy traffic. The bus uses chemical energy too but
that will keep her going the energy comes from diesel. The bus engine
transforms the chemical energy into kinetic energy
to make the bus move.
During one of her classes, she uses a computer for f She uses the computer projector to show her project. lt
research on her project. lt needs electrical energy produces a lot of light energy and heat energy.
from the mains supply.
There are many computers and students in the
room. They all produce a lot of heat energy and
sound energy. Cooler air blows in through the open
windows
.1, Ayu's nextlesson of the day is on the top floor.

She transforms chemical energy into gravitational
energy to climb the stairs
Think about the things you have been doing

over the last day. All of them involve some
energy transformations. In this chapter, you will
explore the different energy transformations
and see why energy is so important to us.
A Ayu has been performing energy transfers all
morning and it's still only time for lunch
!
Goncept map
EN ERGY TRANSFORMATIONS
239
ldeas about energy
Energy is needed for the smallest chemical reactions in our cells
be able to: to giant stars exploding. Every event is really a transformation
. describe how energy of energy - energy changing form or moving from one place to
another.
can be transformed
. use correct When you are running around, your stores of energy are quickly
daenrinfinnc {nr tha released. Eventually you will have to take in new sr"rpplies of
forms of energy. energy by eating. Even reading this book needs a range of energy
transfomrations to take olace.
Energy in action
. energy (chemical,
There are different ways to
gravitational
describe what happens when
potential, elastic
potential, kinetic, energy is transferred from one
heat, light, sound) place to another. For example,
. joule when )rcltt light a Bnnsen
. burner, thc chentical energy of
kilojoule
. the gas trernstbrrnecl into heat
transfer
and light energy.
o transformation
) lrge amounts of energy are
transferred when stars exolode
Here are some examples of the different types of energies and how they move frorn place to place:
Light energy is the only form of energy that is visible to our eyes.
It is a type of electromagnetic energy which travels at a speed
Light of approximately 300 000 km/s. Sunlight is an example of light
energy energy.
The thermal energy of an object is caused by the movement of

particles within the object. It is a type of kinetic energy. The higher
the temperature of the object, the faster the particles in an object
Thermal move. A good example is the movement of energy from a hot
energy place to a colder one.
Electrical energy is the energy stored in charged particles within

an electric field. When the charged particles move through a
Electrical conductive path, such as a wire, electricity is produced. An
energy example is the transfer of energy around an electric circuit.
240
Sound energy is a mechanical Summary questions
wave produced by the vibration
of particles in matter. 'Sound @ Completethese
waves require a medium such sentences using the key
as solid, liquid or gas to move terms for describing
from one point to another. the forms of energy.
Sound energy cannot be When you switch on
a torch it transforms
transferred through a vacuum.
energy in the
battery into _
and _ energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of given out by the lamp.
motion. Any object that moves, A television set is
designed to transform
regardless of the direction of
energy into
movement, possesses kinetic
energy and
energy.
energy. lt also
produces some
ener9y.
Storing energy Describe the main

Energy can be stored in an object. Stored energy is called potential energy transformations
energy. Here are three examples: when:
(a) you pedal a bicycle
Energy stored in materials, which can be ^^-lru i+
or aâÂa
JvuuuD 'uP
rr 'n
released by chemical reactions, such as (b) you use the brakes

burning of fuel. to stop the bicycle.
Energy stored in rnaterials that are stretched cive some examples

or squashed.
@ of when these energy
transformations could
Energy stored in an object that can fall; for nappen:
example a book on a shelf. (a) chemical energy
transforming to heat
and light
(b) gravitational energy
Measuring energy transforming to
You need different amounts of energy to do different jobs. We kinetic energy
l^\ elastic potential
measure the amount of energy transformed in a scientific unit
called the joule, which is represented by the symbol J. When there energy transforming
are large amounts of energy involved we can use k| (kilojoule), to kinetic energy.
where I kl is I 000 J. (4
\ )
,,/
Ooov and comolete
Lifting this book one metre from the table will transfer this table to shov"
only 3 or 4 joules of energy to it. conversions between
joules and kilojoules:
Burning one litre of gasoline will release 35 million joules
ofenergy into the surroundings. Joule(J) Kilojoule(kJ)
5 000
2.5
200
0.1
241
Investigating the energy in food
After this topic you should We need energy to keep the cells in our body working. We get
be able to: this as chemical energy in the food we eat. Different foods have
. compare the different different amounts of energy. So we need to make sure that we eat
energy contents in enough ofthe right foods to have enough energy to stay healthy.
foods using the correct Fats contain the largest amount of energy per 100 grams.
units Carbohydrates which include simple sugars also contain large
. carry out and evaluate amounts of energy. This is why eating a diet that contains large
an experiment to amounts of sugar and fat can lead to
measure the energy
content in different
you becoming overweight or
food samples.
even obese. Obesity
is a serious medical
problem in certain
countries. \ ,._ ! t&',-
carbohydrate
fats Proteins are ne ded , $t;'.
kilocalorie for the groMh and
obesity repair ofbody tissues. i
protein During extreme

starvation, protein
becomes a source of
energy.
v A calorimeter is used to ) fhir popular Indonesian meal

accuraLely measuTe the energy
provides plenty of nutrition and
content of food samples enough energy for us to get
through the day
Measuring the energy content

The energy content of food is a measure of the nutritional value
in the food and it is important in the food industry.
Food scientists can work out the energy content in foods. They
take small samples, burn them and calculate the energy released
by measuring the temperature rise in water. They have to make
sure they do not let any unmeasured energy escape into the
environment. They do this by using a calorimeter.
Units for the energy in food

Foods contain large amounts of energy, which is measured in
kilojoules (kJ). on food labels a different unit called the kilocalorie
can be used. One kilocalorie equals 4 200 joules of energy (4.2k|).
Examples of foods
Energy content
(k] per 100 g)
s40
660
480
.L Energy values for 100 grams of different foods
Food labelling
In most countries, packaged food has to carry a label to help
customers understand the energy and nutritional content of the
food. The regulations about what must be shown are different
around the world. The label usually gives information about the
"ii
16
nutrients in the food and its energy content in 100 g and in a t6";
serving. 3
iss
j
Gomparing the energy content

..t:F
in food
.1, Examining the food label will
usually tell you the energy
We can measure the energy content in food by burning it and
content in kilojoules and
using the heat to warm up water. In this experiment, there will kiloca lorles
be some energy escaping without being measured. So we
can only rank the foods in order of which one releases the
most energy and which releases the least.
Summary questions
Use samples of food to heat UJ Wny rs tne energygiven
15 cm3 of water in a boiling tube. content of foods
Light the food and quickly use in kJ per 100 g? In
the flames to heat the water. what way can this
lf the flame gets extinguished make it more difficult
relight it quickly and continue to know your food
to heat the water untilthe food energy intake?
sample is completely burned.
lD Make a record of your
Record the increase in temoerature of the water for each
food intake over a
of the foods.
period of a week and
Rank the food samoles in order of which heated the water calculate your average
most to which heated it the least. energy intake Per
a Which food provides the most energy? day. Are you getting
a What can be changed in the experiment in order to make enough energy?
the measurements more reliable?
fil
\_-/ Find out about the
energy intake of people
Be careful with the flames. in different countries
and the obesity levels.
ls there a link?
Elastic and gravitational energy I
After this topic you should Elastic potential energy
be able to:
When an archer pulls his bowstring back, energy is stored in the
. describe elastic energy
bow as a result of its altered position. This form of potential energy
and solve the problems
is called elastic potential energy. When the bow is at rest, there is
related to it
no energy stored in the bow because it is in its usual equilibrir-rm
. describe gravitational
position so there is no potential energy. Elastic potential energy is
energy and solve the
problems related to it. stored in elastic materials such as rubber bands, bungee cords and
springs when they are stretched or compressed.
Calculating elastic potential energy

I] T]
sprinq
SI TC]ICTI-'O
PE 0
Io calculate the elastic potential energy stored in a spring you
need to use this simple formnla:
elastic potential energy = x k x xt

|
k represents spring constant in the unit Newton per metre (N/m).
x is arnount of stretch or compression applied to the spring in unit
metre (m).
spil n9
Example
If a 10 N/m spring is stretched 0.30 metres from its rest position, what
The elastic potential energy (PE)
is the potential energy stored in the spring?
stored in a spring
Solution
efasticpotentialenergy=]x fON/m x (0.3m), =0.45 I
Gravitational potential energy

When a ball is held above the ground, the ball is storing energy as
resnlt of its elevated position. This stored energy is gravitational
tr
potential energy. It exists becausc Earth's gravitational force is
acting on the object.
Example The higher an object is raisec'l above the grotrnd, the nrore
If a pillow of mass 0.8 kg is gravitational poterrtial energy it possesses.
thrown upwards. How much
gravitational potential energy Calculating gravitational potential energy
does it possess at its highest T1-reformula used to calculate the gravitational potential energy
point5mofftheground? stored in an object is:
Solution
= gravitational potential energy

gravitationalp energy= m x gx h
=0.8k9x9.8N/kgx5m m represents the mass of the object in unit kilogram (kg).
= 39.21 g represents the gravitational field strength (9.8 N/kg on Earth).
h represents the height of the object in unit metre (m).
244
Exploring kinetic energy
Anything that moves has kinetic energy. The faster an object
should be able to: moyes, the more kinetic energy it possesses. If two objects move at
. same speed, the one with the greater mass has more kinetic energy.
describe the
relationship between There are different types of kinetic energy, such as rotational
potential energy and vibrational, and translational kinetic energy. In this chapter, we
kinetic energy will focus on translational kinetic energy - the energy produced
. solve problems by the motion from one location to another.
involving energy
transformations
between potential Galculating kinetic energy
energy and kinetic Translational kinetic energy can be calculated by using the
energy. following equation:
m represents the mass of the moving object in kilogram (kg).

v represents the speed of the object in metre per second (m/s).
Energy transformation
In the examples shown in the previous lessons, gravitational
potential energy is stored in the lifted ball and elastic potential
energy is stored in the stretched bow. What happens when the
ball and the bowstring are released? The stored potential energy
in both cases is transformed into kinetic energy, causing both
objects to move.
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It transforms from one
form to another. Potential energy can be transformed to kinetic
energy and kinetic energy into potential energy. We can express
this by combining the equations of both types of energy as shown
in the next page.
r The arrow shoots forward
Elastic potential energy transforming to kinetic energy
Work in groups. Design a catapult using popsicle sticks and rubber bands. Find out the
relaiionship between the drstance the catapult is pulled back and the distance the eraser travels.
. Try launching an eraser by pulling the arm of the catapuli backwards by 2 cm and
measure the distance travelled bv the eraser. Record the distance travelled.
. Repeat by pulling the arm of the catapult backwards by 4 cm, 6 cm and B cm.
o Compare the results obtained. Share your findings with the other groups.
. Describe the energy transformations involved in this activity and
what other factors influence the distance travelled bv the eraser.
II
Calculating elastic energy transforming to kinetic

energy
We can calculate the transformation of elastic enersv to kinetic
energy by using the following equation:
elastic potential energy: kinetic energy
l1
ixkx"'=;xmxvr
Example
A 250 N/m spring is compressed with a 5 kg block. If the block slides
at a maximum speed of 21.21 m/s after the spring is released, how
much was the spring compressed from its original position, x?
Solution A The ball experiences kinetic

energy when it is released
! xzsoN/m x
"' =|x 5 kg x (2r.2r)'1
x'z=9.00, x=3m
Summary questions
Calculating gravitational energy transforming to (1, A lootball ol mass
kinetic energy 0.5 kg was kicked up
We can calculate the transformation of gravitational energy to a height of h, and it
kinetic energy by using the following equation: hit the ground with a
qnoor'l nf ?1 m/e trinrl
gravitational potential energy = kinetic energy height h.
mxgxrt=*tmx.,r2
@ n spring is compressed
and a 3 kg block is
Example nnainn* *t-rn
vrouuu ovail rDL Lr rs
^t^^^^
If a basketball of 0.625 kg is dropped from a height of 1.5 m, what is
spring. lf the block
the speed of the basketball when it hits the ground? slrdes at a maximum
Solution cnoo.l af )A m/<: aflar
tho enrinn ic roloacod
0.625 kg x 9.8 N/kg x 1.5 m = { x 0.62S kg x v2
from a compression
v')=29.4. v=5.42m]s of 4 m from its original
posrtion, what is the
spring constant in
Gravitational energy unit N/m?
transforming to kinetic energy
Work in groups. Set up an inclined plane and see how the
angle of inclination of the plane affects the speed of a wooden
block sliding on it. Use the same length of slide and the same
wooden block to compare between different angles. Find
out what the ideal angle is for the wooden block to produce
the maximum kinetic energy without losing contact with the
surface of the inclined plane. Record the time taken for the
block to reach the bottom of the plane to determine its speed.
. Share your results with your class.
. Describe the energy transformations involved in this activity
. Experiment with different sudaces and masses to see how
those factors influence your results. What other factors
influence the kinetic enerov of the block?
246
Exploring energy
transformations
When we describe energy transformations we need to be very
should be able to: clear about the form of energy involved and the places where the
. describe a energy is stored or acting.
range of energy . When you switch on a torch the chemical energy in the
transformations batteries is transformed into electrical energy passing through
r interpret and the wires. The electrical energy is transformed into light and
oraw energy heat in the bulb.
transformations . When you ride a bicycle the chemical energy that was stored
accurately.
in your body is transferred to kinetic energy as the bicycle
moves. When you use the brakes to stop, the kinetic energy is
. energy transfer
transformed into heat energy in the brakes.
diagram . When you light a Bunsen burner there is a range of energy
transformations happening as the gas burns. The chemical
energy from the gas is transformed into heat and light (and a
little sound).
Energy transfer diagrams

We can summarise the transformations of energy with simple
energy transfer diagrams. We can see the changes in the location
of the energy and the form the energy is taking.
This energy transfer diagram shows the energy changes that take
place in the torch. The arrows show the 'flow' of energy over time,
from one place to another.
electrical energy heat and light

in the wires from the bulb
-L A battery-operated torch transforms chemical energy into electrical

energy which is then transformed into light energy and heat energy
This is the energy transfer diagram for an elevator going up in a

.a. Batterv-operated torch building.
gravitational
kinetic energy
potential energy
as the elevator
as the elevator
MOVCS
rises upwards
A An elevator energy transfer diagram

T
I
Investigating energy transformations
You have been given a set of small experiments involving energy

transformations,
. For each of the experiments, investigate the energy
transformations that take place and describe them.
When you carry out the experiments, think about:
. in what form the enerov is stored at the start
o in what form the energy is transferred
o where the energy ends up after
the transformation.
m agnest u Tn
.L Mass on a .^. Hand-held A Balloon being L Candle .L Metal bubbling in acid

sprn9 electrlc fan inflated burning
Summary questions
v Battery and an electric bell
o Place these activities

in order - from the
smallest amount of
energy transformation
to the largest:
.4, Wind up torch
boiling a full kettle
of water, running 1O
metres, climbing a 1O
metre flight of stairs,
stretching a small
elastic band, burning a
matcn.
@ Draw an energy
transfer diagram for
each of the activities
you carried out in the
avnorimant ahnrro
-L Hand-turned generator and a bulb
Energy transformations in cells
Energy transformations do not apply only to physical processes.

After this toprc you
should be able to:
They occur in biological processes too. Living organisms use
. energ-y to carry out life functions such as breathing, moving,
explain energy
transformations in
digesting, and even thinking. The energy used to carry out such
biological processes. processes come from the food that we consume. This energy
transformation occurs in the organelles of the living cells, such as
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Energy transformation in chloroplasts

A chloroplast is an organelle found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
. cellular respiration It is the site where photosynthesis takes place. Chlorophyll is a
pigment in chloroplast that gives plants their distinctive green
colour. Chlorophyll is the part of the plant that absorbs sunlight
during photosynthesis.
q ry V
#
x*
'*
.* tr
) fn. green specks are chloroplasts

and the inset shows an enlarged
illustration of a chloroplast
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process where green plants produce
oxygen
their own food using sunlight. It involves the transformation
of light energy into chemical potential energy stored as sun light
glucose (sugar) in plants. Glucose is the food in plants.
During photosynthesis, plants use light energy from the Sun

to combine carbon dioxide absorbed from the atmosphere
and water taken up by the roots to produce glucose and
oxygen.
Investigating energy transformations
Add yeast to warm sugar water in a water bottle, then cover the mouth of
the bottle with a balloon as in the diagram on your right.
I
. What happens after a while?
. What energy transformation is involved in this activity?
. Why must the water be warm and sweetened with sugar?
. Share and compare your inferences with your classmates.
Energy transformation
Summary questions
by mitochondria
Mitochondrion is the orsanelle that is t1, Wnte the word
responsible for cellular respiration. equations for
^L^+^^.,^+L^^:^
pr ^nd
rrJru-yr ru ruJr- d
Inside the mitochondria, chemical energy from
foods such as carbohydrate, protein and respiration.
fat is transformed into energy for
the cell's functions. Mitochondria lU Draw an energy
+-^^^r^-
are considered the powerhouse
^'^^-^-|
Lt dt tJtut utdgtdt | for
photosynthesis and
of the cell. They can be found in respiration.
abundance in muscle cells and
neurones.
Cellular respiration
Respiration is the process that releases energy from glucose stored
inside the body. It involves the transformation of the stored
chemical energy in glucose into other types of energies needed
for the body to carry out life processes such as movement and
growth. The food in the form of glucose is converted into energy
and waste products like carbon dioxide are released.
+
Note that respiration is like the reverse of photosynthesis. In
respiration, glucose is oxidised by oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide, water and energy, whereas in photosynthesis it is the
other way around.
Sankey diagrams for energy
transformations
A Sankey diagram is a diagram that can be used to show the
tlpes of energy changes that happen. It also shows the amounts
should be able to:
r interpret and draw of energy that are transferred. Here is a simple Sankey diagram
showing the energy transformations in a light bulb.
a range of Sankey
diagrams for energy
transformations 10J 9J
. use the principle electrica I neat
of conservation energy energy
of energy to find
missing values of .1, Sankey diagram for a bulb transforming 10J of electrical energy but
producing only 1 J of light
energy in a Sankey
diagram. The width of the arrows in the diagram tells us how much energy
is transformed in different ways. You can see that the bulb wastes
most of the energy supplied to it because the heat arrow is far
. wider than the light part of the arrow.
Sankey diagram
In this next example there are several forms of energy produced by
the television. The width of each arrow clearly shows the amounts
of energy.
70J light
500J
electrical 400J wasted
-^ L^-+
energy
A. Sankey diagram for a television set
Ghanges in stages
A Sankey diagram can be used to show the energy changes at
different stages in a process. For example, in a torch the energy
starts out as chemical energy inside the battery. It is then
transferred as electrical energy through the wires where some of
the energy is wasted in heating the wires. Finally the remaining
electrical energy is transformed into heat and light in the bulb.
'10
J
chemical
energy In
batteries
1 | haa+ onarnv
produced in wires
A A Sankey diagram showing the different energy transfers in a torch
rnl
Make some large Sankey diagrams for display in the room. Make sure that the width of the
arrows are in the correct proportion and that the labels are clear. You must use the principle of
conservation of energy to find any missing values. You can use the examples from previous pages
about energy transformation or you can try any of the following:
. A car that uses 100 kJ of chemical energy from fuel to produce 20 kJ of kinetic energy, 75 kJ
of heat and 5 kJ of sound.
' A ski lift that uses 40 kJ of electrical energy to produce 25 kJ of potential energy when it lifts
you up a mountain The rest is wasted as heat.
' A slide that can converl 1 000 J of gravitational potential energy into BO0 J of kinetic energy
and the rest as heat.
ener9y
provided
by fuel
loss In tTansmtsston
oss es
power I
statio n
' : ' ,li I r
Explain why Sankey

dragrams are more
useful for showing
energy transformation
than ordinary energy
transfer diagrams as
seen on page 247.
Draw a Sankey
diagram based
on the following
information about an
electrical buzzer. lt is
powered by batteries
that provide 30 J of
chemical energy 5 J
of energy are iost as
heat as the electricity
passes through the
wires of the circuit. The
6t tzzor nrnr'lr
vr vvvvvu
rnoq v6 |
I
.4. Some Sankey diagrams can get quite complex This diagram shows the v
energy transfers involved in generating electricity and transmitting it to of sound; the rest is
I
homes wasted as heat energy
Wasted energy
After this topic you Useful and wasted energy

should be able to:
When we use a light bulb, we want to transform the electrical
. compare energy energy into light but the bulb also transforms the energy into heat.
transfers
We say that some of the energy has been usefully transferred and
. describe how some has been wasted during the transformation.
energy is wasted
during energy
transformations
. plan and carry out
an investigation into
cooling a liquid down
. make conclusions
from collected data.
â. This table gives some examples of useful and wasted energy transferred
by different devices
Wasted energy by heating

In all energy transfers some energy is wasted. This wasted energy
is nearly always transferred to the surroundings, heating it up.
The energy transferred this way cannot be used in any more
transformations so it is useless to us.
In electrical circuits, the flow of electricity in the wires causes them
to heat up. This is why televisions and computers become hot.
These coils of wire in an 'electric
fire' are giving out so much heat Sometimes so much heat energy is released that the electronics
energy they are glowing red hotl need cooling fins or even fans to enable the heat to escape before
the device is damaged.
Sometimes we actually want to transfer heat energy in this way.
For example, electrical fires and the heating elements in kettles are
not wasting energy as heat.
y This cooling unit keeps the central processing unit of the computer
cool enough to operate. lt is designed to let heat energy escape
quickly by providing a large surface area
r-rii
More wasted energy
When mechanical objects,
such as the parts in an engine,
rub against each other the
friction causes them to heat
up. You will find out more
about this in Chapter 10.
The other common form of
wasted energy is sound. Many
machines produce useless
sound when they operate.
This jackhammer produces so

much wasted sound energy
that the user has to wear ear
prorecTron
I
Sometimes we want objects to cool down quickly. Design $t* rnm m m r"yy ffE flne$tn{ifiTs
a system of cooling fins to see if you can get the water in a
boiling tube to cool more quickly. Use the same volume of hot Decide what the useful
water in two different boiling tubes. Leave one 'normal' and and wasted energy
add some cooling fins made of aluminium foil to the other. transformations are for
these devices:
a refrigerator, an
aeroplane, a solar
panel, a loudspeaker,
boillng tube
a computer
,'_'
G-/) vvnen you use a
handheld games
hot water console or a tablet
computer for a while
it begins to feel warm.
Explain why this is
happening in terms of
energy transfer.
Your task is to find out if larger cooling fins will cool the water
faster.
r Share results with other groups to confirm your
conclustons.
You can also design an experiment to test whether a larger
surface area lets liouid cool faster.
What could you do to record the temperature decrease in
more detail over the cooling period?
Be careful with hot water - it can cause burns.

Gonservation of energy
You have seen that energy is transferred to the surroundings in
should be able to:
all energy transformations. This does not mean that the energy
o state the principle is gone. It is just too difficult for us to use the energy again in
another transformation.
of conservation of
energy
. use the principle
to find out how
Gonservation of energy
much energy has Energy never disappears. It just
been successfully gets harder and harder to transfer
transformed or usefully. This is a Yery important
wasted in a range of
idea in science and gives us the
situations.
principle of conservation of
energy.
. conselvation of
energy
This means that we can't make Conservation of energy

energy or destroy it; we can only in an electrical bulb
transform or transfer it.
Using the principle of conservation of energy

We can use the idea of conservation of energy to find out how
Conservation of energy in a much energy is transformed in useful ways or wasted. All we need
chemical reaction to remember is that there will be the same amount of energy after
a transformation as there was before it.
Here are some examples:

. Imagine that we use 20 | of energy to light up a torch bulb
but we only get 4 | of light. Then the principle of energy
conservation tells us that 16 | has been transferred by heating
the surroundings and is wasted.
+
In an experiment, a sample of magnesium ribbon is burned
releasing 50 J of heat and 6 | of light. That means there must
have been 56 | of chemical energy available before the reaction
started.
+
A plant transfers energy by photosynthesis. This
process uses energy from sunlight to convert simple
molecules of water and carbon dioxide into sugars.
A leaf will only be able to store 5 J of chemical
energy for every 1001 of energy received from
sunlight. This means that 95 J is wasted.
Spotting the changes

The principle of conservation of energy is always obeyed.
However, sometimes it is not obvious where all of the energy
has been transferred to or it is difficult to obtain accurate
measurements. To spot where the energy has gone we have to
look out for:
. changes in temperature that show that heat energy has been Conservation of energy in a
released plant
. changes in the speed or movement of an object that show us

that there has been a change in kinetic energy Summary questions
in the position of
changes (f Wh"n you roll a ball
- a rocket flying
the object across a flat field it
upwards, for example, quickly stops. Where
show us that it has gained does the kinetic energy
gravitational potential energy go?
the shape of an
can show us it
@ Wf,en an acid is
^.Jiî
duuuu +^ ^^ I dtndil
tu dt îl,^li d
^
or lost elastic neutral isation reaction
s"meth&s";:i; hennonc ennl tho
solution becomes hot.
Where did the heat
energy come from?
@ }re Sun releases a

huge amount of energy
every day. Carry out
some research to find
out the source of this
energy - it is one that
you have not studied
rrat
yv(.
Prndr rna a hriaf
| ,vvuvv
report on it.
Energy efficiency
After this topic you Imagine you have two electrical motors (A and B). You have been
should be able to: asked to test the motors by making them lift an object so that you
. describe how can decide which motor transfers the least energy.
different devices can . Motor A needs 100 | of electrical energy to lift the object and
be comoared to find gives out 5 | of useful energy. This means it has wasted 951 of
out which is the most energy. It is not a very good motor.
energy efficient
. Motor B does exactly the same job but needs only 251 of
calculate the
electrical energy. It is obviously a better motor.
efficiency of a
oevrce or energy
transformation Comparing devices
draw a line graph to
Comparing the two motors was fairly easy, but it can be harder to
display experimental
compare devices if they don't transfer the same amount of energy.
data.
We can make a fair comparison of how effective a device is by
calculating its efficiency. Efficiency is a measure of the fraction of
the energy given to a device that is usefully transferred.
. efficiency
Because there is always some energy wasted in a transformation,
this fraction will be less than 1.
Calculating efficiency
To find the eftciencywe use a formula:
An electrical motor
converts electrical
energy into kinetic
energy. This large
motor is used in
elevators
Ghanges in etficiency
The efficiency of a device can depend on its surroundings or
situation.
An electric motor might be efficient at lifting small objects but
inefficient at lifting larger ones.
. The efficiency of a loudspeaker might improve when the
sound level is louder.
Does the efficiency of a Bunsen burner change when it is used to
heat different volumes of water?
Time how long it takes a Bunsen burner to heat up
different volumes of water in a boiling tube by 40 'C.
You could use 4 cm3 of water uo to 12 cm3 of water in
1 cm3 steps. Make sure that the Bunsen flame is set at
the same level and the boiling tube is placed at the same
ooint each time.
. When you double the volume of water, does the time
taken to boil it double?
o Plot a line graph of the time taken to increase the
temperature by 40 'C against the volume of water.
. Where does the wasted energy go?
Ensure the boiling tube is not pointing
at anyone.
When you choose a device to use, you should examine all of the
data to decide on its efficiency. Carry out the Practical activity to Summary questions
see how the efficiency ofa device can change.
O and complete
"oOUsentence:
this
A device that uses
enerov to do
the same job is more
. lf we use
efficient devices we wi,,
save more and
this will save us money
ano resources.
t? A loudspeaker in a
music system uses
400J of electrical
energy and produces
50J of sound.
(a) How much energy
is wasted?
ls this loudspeaker system more efficient when the volume is turned right
uo? (b) What is the
efficiency of the
music system?
Reducing wasted energy
It costs money to produce energy in useful forms such as electricity.
should be able to:
If we don't transform that energy efficiently, we are wasting both
o explain why it is money and resources.
impoftant to improve
the efficiency of
machines and
Better bulbs
electrical devices We use a lot of energy to light our buildings, workplaces and
o test materials to see streets. So improving the efficiency of this lighting is important.
which one reduces The original electric light is called a filament bulb. It was invented
heat energy transfer towards the end of the 19th century and has been improved upon
the most since then. It is based on a simple idea: a thin wire inside a glass bulb
o make predictions gets so hot that it gives offlight when electricity passes through it.
about the rate of This makes it cheap to make, but it has very low efficiency.
energy transfer.
Fluorescent lamps were developed 40 years later. These were more
energy efficient but the lamps were very large to use in houses. So,
they were mostly used in office buildings or factories.
o fluorescent
. insulation More recently, compact fluorescent lamps, which are much more
o LED
energy efficient, have been developed for homes. The newest
generation of lighting is based on light emitting diodes (tED).
These are even more efficient than fluorescent lamps. They can
last for much longer before they need replacing.
heat
Fluorescenl
I Sankey diagrams for fluorescent bulbs and LEDs

-!
Keep the heat out
Carry out an experiment to keep water cold insrde a container to explore the ways refrigerators
are insulated. You should use water in a container and test different insulation materialJ or
techniques to see which one keeps the water colder for longer.
Use very cold water so that the temperature changes more quickly but don't have any ice in the
water Use a precise thermometer so you can detect small changes In remperature.
' Predict which material is the best at reducing heat entering the water.
o Predict whether the thickness of the material matters. Modify your investigation to 1nd out.
o Predict whether the temperature of the room has any effect on the result.
filanent fluorescent LED $ummary questi0ns

Lifespan (hours of use) 2 000 5 1
Efficiency (%)
U) wnv don't LED
lights get as hot as
8 000 20-25 310
filament lamps? Look
Cost to buy 2s 000 30-40 340 carefully at the Sankey
.l' Comparing different light bulb technologies diagrams and explain.
(f sore lisht butb

Keep it cool manufacturers are
concerned that if
A refrigerator is used to keep food cold. If we allow heat energy they increase the
to enter from outside it would not be very elficient. So we nse lifespan of their bulbs,
insulation to slow down the transfer of energy from the outside to they will start to lose
the inside. The insulating material will slow down the movement money. Why might
I
of heat energy. You can test the effectiveness of some materials in this happen?
the Practical activity above.
@ In cold countries
such as Canada,
filament lamps are
still popular in houses
because they are not
considered being
I wasteful. Why not?
260
Producing electricity
After this topic you Most of the electricity we use is
should be able to: generated at large power stations.
. describe in simple These transfer energy from various
terms, how an forms into electrical energy so
electricity- produci ng that it can be easily transferred
power station over long distances to our homes.
operares Once there it can
. describe non- be transformed into
renewable energy. almost any form of
energy we need.
a boiler
a fossilfuel
a furnace
a generator
a non-renewable
a nuclear power
a turbine
^L A fuel-burninq oower station in Jakarta
Inside a power station

Fuel-burning power stations burn a fuel such as fossil fuels, coal,
v The basic parts of a fuel-burning oil or natural gas in a furnace. This heats water in a boiler to
power sra|on produce high pressure steam.
The hot steam is used to spin turbines

giving them kinetic energy as they
rapidly rotate. These spinning turbines
are attached to generators containing
fuel gases
magnets and coils of wire. The magnets
spin within the wire coils and this
transforms the kinetic energy into
fu rnace electricity.
.L Energy changes in a fuel-burning power station

Generating your own electricity
You can generate small amounts of electricity with a hand generator

or dynamo. Use one to light up a bulb.
. What happens to the brightness of the bulb as you spin the
generator faster?
Be careful with the generator - they can easily

break if you spin them too hard.
Non-renewable sources Summary questions

Coal, oil or natural gas cannot be replaced once they are burned
to produce energy. Such a fuel is a non-renewable resource. These O In a power station,
resources are in limited supply so they become more expensive for every 1000 J of
as they begin to run out. Coal, oil and natural gas are fossil chemicalenergy
fuels, formed from the fossilised remains of dead plants and produced, 200 J are
animals which exposed to high temperature and pressure deep lost as heat in the
boiler, 400 J more are
underground over millions of years. They are considered non-
lost in the turbines
renewable because they take such a long time to form, and the
as the steam turns
current rate of consumption is much faster than the formation of
back into water and
new fossil fuel reserves. 50 J are wasted in
Most non-renewable resources are fossil fuels. but not all. Nuclear the generator as it
energy is considered non-renewable because it usually uses a very spins. The remainder
rare type of uranium, U-235, which is limited in supply. is transformed into
': electricity. Draw an
energy transfer diagram
Nuclear power (like on page 247) and
A nuclear power station is almost the same as a fuel-burning one. work out how much
The major difference is in how the heat is released. Nuclear fuel is energy is transformed
a healy metal called uranium. The atoms of uranium are unstable. into electricity.
When they are placed together in a high enough concentration,
they break down, releasing large amounts of heat. @ vour town is in need
of more electrical
Nuclear power stations create very dangerous radioactive waste supplies. Which type
products. If an accident happens, or a natural disaster, or a war, of power station would
the environment can be badly affected. best suit your area?
Give reasons for your
y A tsunami in Japan in 2010 damaged the Fukushima nuclear choice.
reactors Hundreds of square kilometres of land
evacuated for healt
@ lf the non-renewable
resources are runnrng
out, why do humans
still use them so
widely? What are
the advantages
and disadvantages
of non-renewable
resources?
The future of energy sources
After this topic you As fuels become more expensive we need to develop alternative
should be able to: sources. We also need to improve the efficiency of all the devices
. describe alternative that depend on fossil fuels.
sources of energy,
including energy to
produce electricity Renewable energy sources
and to power cars
More and more countries are ety
. design an experiment resources, such as wind, dolar or run
to compare how long
out and will enable us to generate n9.
batteries last.
a fuel cell
a renewable
Renewable resources have problems that limit their use. This

might be due to:
. the efficiency of the technology,
. the availability of the resource, or
. the expense of constructing the power stations.
For example, solar cells are expensive to build, and they operate
best in very sunnv environments.
l. These panels of solar cells are

very effective at generating Future cars
electricity in a desert because of
the reliable bright sunlight One important cause of the increase in the use of fossil fuels is the
increase in the number of cars over the past 20 years.
Electric cars are one possible solution. The motors are

efficient than petrol engines but there are major
;.. e
-_, more
problems to overcome. The cars need large batteries
that require expensive components so the cost of
the car increases. The batteries also take a lot more
time to recharge than just adding more petrol.
( In an electric car the batteries (shown in yellow) are very

heavy, expensive to make and take hours to ;s6[arao
Recharge or throw away?
Design an experiment to see how long a rechargeable battery can power a toy car or other
model. Investigate the time it takes to recharge the battery.
o You can compare the rechargeable battery to a disposable battery. Compare them in terms of
pedormance and cost.
lf you have data logging equipment you can use this in your experimental design.
. Do you think children would use a toy car that needed to be recharged for several hours
before they played with it again?
Do not try to recharge disposable batteries - they can explode.
Scientists are working on fuel cell technology for use in cars.

In these cells chemical energy can be directly transformed into Summary questions
electrical energF to power electric motors. Most of these use
hydrogen extracted from water as a fuel. These would be much @ WooO can be burned in
a power station instead
quicker to refuel and so can be much more user-friendly.
of other fuels. ls wood
There are not many electric or fuel cell cars on our roads. However, a renewable resource?
as the technology improves they might start to replace petrol and Are there any other
diesel cars in the long term. renewable fuels that
can be burned?
y An experimental hydrogen fuel cell car being refuelled; this is much

quicker than charging the battery in a normal electric car
@ Electric cars rely
on batteries which
need to be charged
using electricity. The
hydrogen used in fuel
cells also needs to be
extracted from water
using electrical energy.
Where does this
electricity come from?
Do electric cars really
save on fossilfuels?
You can research the
ideas further.
Lemonade or battery?
Lemons can be used to make cool lemonade
on a hot day, but did you know that it could
also be used to produce electricity?
The lemon battery changes chemical

energy into electrical energy - it is a voltaic
battery. The lemon battery is made up
of two different metals called electrodes
where electric current enters and leaves
a battery and an electrolyte, which is a
solution through which electricity can
be conducted. In this case, the electrolyte
is the lemon juice. The metals used are
usually copper and zinc since they are more
common among household items.
When the battery is set up, electrons gather at one of the electrodes while electrons are lost from the
other electrode. This creates a closed circuit and allows electric current to flow. However, electricity
generated from a lemon in this manner is rather weak due to the low current. Nonetheless, it is still a
good activity to explore and understand how electricity work.
To set up your very own lemon battery, you will need the following items:
. a lemon
. two electrical wires
. a coPper plate / coin / wire
. a zinc plate I galvanized nail
. LED (light-emitting diode) bulb

Cr
Arrange the items as shown as in the diagram.
What do you observe from this arrangement?
. Describe the energy transformations involved.
. How would you increase the electrical current in a
lemon battery?
. What is the principle behind the lemon battery?
. Could an orange function in a similar way? How
about other fruits?
Try it and share your findings with your class.
-I
Summary
fr
Energy is transformed when any event
happens.
Elastic potential energy (EPE) = ]2 " k * x, :r
There are several forms of energy; all Photosynthesis is a process that converts .'
measured in a unit called joules. light energy into chemical energy.

Energy is conserved; it cannot be created Respiration is a process that converts
or destroyed. But it can become less chemical potential energy into other forms
useful to us. of energy such as kinetic energy and heat
Food provides us with the energy our energy that are necessary to sustain life.
bodies need. Different foods contain Electrical energy is very useful and most ?'
different amounts of energy. electricity is generated in large power
There are two types of potential energy: stations that burn fossil fuels.
gravitational potential energy and elastic Renewable energy resources will not
potential energy. run out but non-renewable ones will
Gravitational potential energy (GPE) eventually run out.
=mx9xh Scientists are trying to develop more
Kinetic energy (KE) =; xmx v2 efficient technology to solve our energy
oroDlems.
Summative Practice
1 (a) Which of these words describe the forms 3 What is the organelle that carries out cellular
that energy can take? respiration?
A. Vacuole
chemical steam heat light B. Chloroplast
kinetic elastic potential coal oil C. Mitochondrion
D. Cytoplasm t1l
t5l 4 Chloroplasts in plant cells transform
(b) Which of those from the list in (a) can
be described as potential energy? A. chemical energy to heat energy
t2l B. chemical energy to light energy
2 Which of the following correctly states the C. light energy to sound energy
principle of conservation of energy? D. light energy to chemical energy t1l
A The types of energy do not change in an
energy transformation. 5 Cellular respiration functions to transform
B There is always heat produced in an A. light energy to chemical energy
energy transformation.
B. chemical energy to heat energy
C The total amount of energy before and C. kinetic energy to light energy
after a transformation is the same. t1l D. heat energy to chemical energy tll
266
A box that has a mass of 35 kg is held above the ground. lf the gravitational potentia
energy of the box in this position is 1785 J, what is the vertical distance between the box
and the ground?
A. 5.2 cm
B.51m
C. 5.2 m
D. 51 cm nl
A ball of mass 2.5 kg is placed on a spring launcher with a spring constant of 3OO N/m.
How far does the spring need to be compressed from its rest position to ensure that the
ball leaves the spring at 30 m/s?
A. 332.5 mm
B. 2.7 mm
C. 332.5 m
D. 2.7 m t1l
Copy and complete the energy transfer diagrams for each of these items:
(a) a solar-powered calculator
nl
(b) a battery-powered electric drill
(c) a wind up alarm clock
+[ ",-- I t2l
9 These Sankey diagrams show the energy transfers in a motorcycle engine.
Engine A Engine B
20 kJ
kinetic
50 kJ '100
J
chemical electrical
25 kJ
sound
neat
\a/ How much energy is wasted as sound in each of the two engines? t2l
(b) Which is the more efficient enoine? Irl
10 A group of students is investigating the 11 Two students test electric motors to find
efficiency of two small ketiles that are used to the more efficient one. They use the motors
boil different volumes of water. Their results to lift a O.Skg mass 3Ocm off the ground
are shown in the table. Motor X uses 40J of energy to lift the mass
in 5 seconds. Motor Y uses 30 J of electricar
energy to lift the mass in 7 seconds.
(a) Which is the more efficient motor? nl
(b) Where does the wasted energy from the
motors go? ttl
12 A student is preparing a simple vegetable
soup using the following ingredients:
(a) Which two variables do the students

need to control to make the test fair?
. the time each kettle was used
o the starting temperature of the water
o the energy supplied to the ketfles
each second
o the colour of the ketfle t2l
(b) Which is the more efficient ketile for small
volumes of water? (a) What is the energy content of the soup?
trl
(c) Which is the more efficient ketfle for large t1l
volumes of water? (b) What is the energy content of one portion
Irl of the soup (350 g)? tll
13 This graph shows electricity production over a 20 year period.
(a) Describe the trend in the graph,
(b) Explain why this trend is happening. t2l
t2l
E
19
F
o 17 000
u 15 000
f
T'
o IJ 000
o-
E 11 000
g 9 000
_g
UJ 7 000
14 This table summarises some of the properlies 15 These pie charts compare the resources
of the fuels used in oower stations. used across the world in the year 2008 and
the predicted resources in 2030.
2008
other 3%
hydroelectricity
16"/"
nuctear
10%
oil 5%
(a) What percentage of the world's energy
(a) What advantage does wood have over
was / will be generated using coal in
the other three fuels?
(b)
t1l
What disadvantages does wood have?
these years? t2l
(b) Describe the changes in resources being
nl used. Why do you think these changes
(c) Which type of fuel would be best used
in a town? Give your reasons.
are happening? t2l
t2l (c) Give three examples of 'other' energy
resources that are shown in the charts.
tsl
Earth and beyond
Science in Gontextt
Resources in the Solar System
closer. These 'near-Earth asteroids, contain
massive quantities of metals such as nickel and
iron, and even precious metals like gold and
platinum.
.L An artis lement on the

3.".f5 ll,'o:n''.o,rd
b.
Limitless energy?
Some scientists have ideas about buildinq giant
s to provide the
ed. As we use up
solar
^panels
in space to collect enerSr"and
harder and harder
transfer it to Earth. It would be very dlfficult to
to obtain. However, Earth is only a tiny part of build these panels on Earth and sending them
the Solar System, and astronomers, scientists into orbit. It would need huge amounts of fuet.
and engineers are already thinking about how So, could there be another way of building large
we could harvest resources from space. objects in space?
A robotic probe (spacecraft) could be sent to
a near-Earth asteroid or even the asteroid belt
Mining asteroids to collect materials. These materials could be
used to build a second robotic probe; these two
probes could make more robots. Eventually
there would be millions or billions of robots that
could be used to build gigantic solarpower plants
try to dig even deeper into Earth. in space. These could provide us with almost
Most asteroids are located in the asteroid belt limitless energy and collect all the resources we
but there are thousands of other that are much need to move out into the Solar System.
The new Space Race
In the past, government agencies such as NASA
and the Soviet Space Programme were the only
organisations with enough money and resources to
explore space. Their aim was to improve scientific
knowledge and develop new technologies. Now,
new countries including China and India and even
private companies are starting to launch space
explorations. If they are successful, that means we
will be able to get minerals in the asteroids. Could
this mean the start of the second Soace Race? Will
you be part of it?
In this chapter you will learn about Earth and
Moon as they travel around the Sun. You will find
out how scientists have explored the Solar System
and discovered the wonders of the wider Universe.
{ China has invested heavily in space

exploration and is planning a nanned
visit to the Moon and Mars
Goncept map
EARTH AND BEYOND
Phases of Asteroids
the Moon
Comets
Eclipse
Meteoroids,
Ocean tides meteors and
meteorites
The inner Theouter The dwarf

planets planets planets
Earth and the Sun
For thousands of years people have looked up into the sky and
be able to:
wondered about what they saw. Through careful observations we
. describe why we now know about the Solar System and greater Universe.
experience days, nights
and seasons
o describe the apparent Day and night
movement of the stars Earth is a large sphere that rotates on its axis as it travels around
during the night and the Sun. Each rotation takes 24 hours. This is the length of one
during the year day. Light from the Sun falls only on one half of Earth at a time.
r construct a model of That is why we always have half of Earth in daytime and the other
Earth and Sun half in night-time.
. describe the shape of a
planet's orbit
During the day, Earth rotates around the Sun, although it looks
like it is the Sun moving across the sky! Although we cannot feel
o state Kepler's laws of
Earth rotating, scientist have been able to detect this movement
planetary motion.
by careful measurement.
It is the same with the stars in the sky. As planet Earth spins,
the stars appear to move across the night sky. The stars are not
. axis actually moving in this way; they just look as though they are
. day because Earth is rotatinq around the Sun.
. ellipse
o orbit The year
o year
As Earth rotates, it orbits the Sun in an almost circular path (a slight
ellipse), taking one year to complete each orbit. During this time it
rotates on its own axis 365| times and so a year is 365f days long
(365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and46 seconds to be exact!). To make
our lives easier, we have 365 days in most years and then an extra
day in each fourth year (called a leap year).
As Earth orbits the Sun during the year, the positions of the stars
seem to change in relation to the Sun. The positions of the stars
in relation to each other do not change because they are all very
far away.
northern
hemisphere
Each curved line in this image

shows the apparent movement southern
of a star at night. The star named hemisphere
Polaris lies nearly directly in line
with Earth's axis of rotation and .a. Earth's path around the Sun. The different hemispheres are tilted towards
so does not appear to move the Sun six months apart, causing the seasons
Keplerns laws
In the early 1600s, fohannes Kepler, a German mathematician,
discovered that the shape of a planet's orbit around the Sun is
elliptical.
An ellipse is a special kind of oval shape that has two focal points,
fi and fz. In an ellipse, the sum of the distances from the two focal
points to any one point along the curve of the ellipse is the same
as the sum of the distances from the two focal points to any other
point along the curve of the ellipse as show in this diagram.
Kepler developed three laws
to describe the motion of
planets around the Sun known
as Kepler's laws of planetary
( fhe distance a + b (red lines) motion, or simply Kepler's laws
equals to distance c+d (blue
lines)
Kepler's first law: Law of orbits

All planets move in elliptical orbits, and the Sun is located at one ,
n. aic
T-
of the focal points.
Kepler's second law: Law of areas Planet

.1, Kepler's first law
A line that connects a planet to the Sun sweeps out the same area
time, t
in equal periods of time.
Kepler's third law: Law of periods

The square of the orbital period of any planet is proportional to
the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit. The orbital period is
Planet
the time taken for a planet to complete one full orbit.
l, In Kepler's second law, areas A,
Another way to explain Kepler's third law is that the ratio of the and A, are swept out when the
square of the orbital period (T'z) to the cube of the semi-major axis planet moves along its orbit for
the same amount of time, t. So,
orbit is the same for any planet. Hence, every planet has
(R3) of its
area A, : area A,
the same T2lR3 ratio. For example, obserye Earth and Mars in the
table below.
.f"
re oT eilrpse
L Kepler's third law: the semi-

Note: The semi-major axis is given in astronomical units (au) where 1 au major axis is the longest radius
is equal to the distance from Earth to the Sun, which is 1.4957 x 70tt m. of an orbit, beginning from the
centre of the ellipse, through
The orbital period is given in units of Earth-years where 1 Earth year is one of the focal points, ano to
the time required for Earth to orbit the Sun, which is j.156 x 107 seconds. the perimeter
A simple modelof Earth and Sun
The behaviour of Earlh and Sun can be exolored with a simole

model. Use a bright lamp to simulate the Sun and a ball (or a
small globe if you have one) to represent Earlh.
Rotate the ball and you should see that half of it is always
illuminated by light while the other half is in darkness.
. Draw a dot on 'Earth'to represent your position and rotate
Earth slowly anticlockwise. lmagine what you would see if
you were standing on the dot. The Sun would appear to be
moving from east to west.
The lamp may become very hot so don't touch A A model of Earth and
it until it has cooled. the Sun
Seasons Summary questions
O Coou and complete

these sentences:
During summer in
Australia the days
horizontal
are _ than they
are in winter. This is
because the
hemisphere is tilted
the Sun. At
the same time the
nofthern hemisphere is
experiencing
-L Earth's tilted axis makes some parts of it point towards the Sun more
than others @ Wfrat are the effects
of an elliptical orbit
Earth rotates about an imaginary line, called its axis. The axis on Earth?
passes from the South to the North pole. This is tilted at 23.4
degrees compared to the orbit path.
@ Ourlng winter in the
nofthern hemisphere
Because of this tilt, the northern part of Earth (the northern the North Pole and
hemisphere) is tilted towards the Sun during the months of May
other locations at
to August compared to the southern hemisphere. During these extreme nofthern
months the northern hemisphere gets more sunlight and the latitudes are in
temperature is higher because of this extra energy from the Sun. complete darkness for
The southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun during these several months. During
months and so is colder and experiences winter. The situation summer they have no
is reversed six months later when the southern hemisphere night time at all. Draw a
experiences summer and the northern hemisphere in winter. diagram to explain wh',
this happens.
The seasons are not as obvious near the equator. The temperature
differences are much smaller over the year and the weather is
dominated more by rainfall giving wet and dry seasons.
The Moon
The Moon is a large ball of rock, about a hundredth of the mass of
Earth, and it orbits Earth once in about every 29.53 days (Synodic
should be able to:
months). The Moon is very obvious in the sky, which is why it has
explain why the Moon
been studied in great detail.
appears to change
qhana nrror tho
course of a month
explain how solar and
Phases of the Moon
lunar eclipses happen The Moon does not produce light; it reflects light from the Sun off
explain how the its silvery grey surface. This means that we can only see those parts
Moon influences the of the Moon that are facing the Sun. Depending on our position
ocean tides on Earth. on Earth, we see different parts of the Moon lit up on different
days. The changing shapes that we see are called the phases of the
Moon. The practical activity will help you to understand why we
a neap tides see different parts of the Moon at different times.
a penumbra
a phases of the Moon
a solar eclipse
a spring tides
a umbra
â. This illustration shows the phases of the Moon as seen from Earth
A Moon phases taken by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Exploring the phases of the Moon
Use a lamp and two balls to modelthe phases

of the Moon. Use the large ball to represent
Earth and the smaller one to represent the
Moon. fihe lamp represents the Sun.)
o You can mark points on 'Earth' and try to
draw what you would see when the 'Moon'
is in different positions and is orbiting
arouno us.
o You can see the pattern better if you colour
half of the 'Moon' black and always keep
this part pointing away from the 'Sun'. .l Model to illustrate the ohases of the Moon
The lamp may become very hot so don't touch it until it has cooled.
Eclipses
At different times, Earth and
the Moon can each align in
front ofeach other. This leads
to a spectacular events, called
eclipses.
Solar eclipse
On rare occasions the Moon can pass directly between Earth Never look directly at the
and the Sun. Because the Moon appears almost exactly the Sun with the naked eye.
same size as the Sun (it is much smaller than the Sun but much
closer to Earth), the Moon can block out all of the light producing umbra. Umbra is the darkest part
of the shadow, where the light source is completely blocked. This leaves parts of Earth in complete
darkness; a total solar eclipse. These events allow us to observe the outer atmosphere of the Sun.
Penumbra is the area where the light source is only partially blocked. Other parts of Earth have some
of the light blocked out by the Moon but they are not in complete darkness. This is called a partial
eclipse.
Lunar eclipse umora penumora
Sometimes Earth blocks

the light from the Sun from
reaching the Moon. As the
Moon passes through Earth's
shadow, parts of the Moon's
surface seem to vanish. When
the Moon is completely in the
shadow, only the surface can
be seen as it is lit up by light
refracted (bent) by Earth's A Diagram showing a lunar eclipse
atmosphere.
0cean tides Moon
Ocean tides are the periodic rise and fall of ocean water. High tide
is when the ocean water level rises, and low tide is when the ocean
water level falls. Ocean tides occur as a result of the influence of
the Sun and the Moon's gravitational forces on Earth.
ttt $31i"'.,""",
The gravitational pull of the Moon causes the ocean water to bulge
in the direction of the Moon. Meanwhile, ocean water on the other
side of Earth bulge too, because the Moon's gravitational force
is, at the same time, pulling Earth towards it and away from the
water on the far side. Since Earth rotates on its axis, tides occur low
tide
twice each day at a given location. There are times when the tides
are especially strong and times when they are especiallyweak. This
depends on the position of Earth relative to the Sun and Moon.
Exploring spring and neap tides
Work in groups to gather information on how the Moon affects ocean tides on Earth.
. Get in touch with the local authorities that collect actual ocean tide data in your area. Arrange
for a site visit to learn how the data is collected, what they mean and how it could be used.
Observe the changes in ocean tides, take photos and record your findings systematically taking
into account the date, time and position of the Moon. Share your findings with the class through
a multimedia oresentation.
first quarter Moon
(neap tide) Summary questions
@ Whut evidence is there

that the Moon does
not give out light of its
new Moon full Moon own?
(spring tide) (spring tide)
@ and complete
"oousentence:
this
A onlinco
)-/ happens when
'n''1[:1',::y""" the _ passes
between
Spring tides are particularly strong tides that occur during a and the Sun.
solar or lunar eclipse, when the Sun, Moon and Earth are in a It blocks out the light
from the and
straight line. Spring tides are stronger during a solar eclipse. This
puts part of Earth
is because of the combined gravitational forces of the Sun and
in shadow.
Moon acting on Earth.
Neap tides are particularly weak tides that occur when @ lmagine you are
the gravitational forces of the Sun and the Moon standing on the Moon
rlr rrinn en onlinqo
(a) Describe what you
rnrnr rlr'l caa r]r rrinn
a lunar eclipse.
(b) What would you
see during a solar
anlinqo rrif rrnr
Jvv
r rnroro
vvvrv
^+^hii^^
Dror ^^ I d
rv ur
ruil ^ pdr
^^4 r
of the Moon facing

the Sun?
@ Explain the differences

between a spring tide
(v Low Lide (lelt) and high tide and q norn lido
(below) at a seaweed farm at
Nusa Penida, Bali, Indonesia
(t What are the impacts
of Earth and Moon's
rotation and revolution
on life on Eadh? Make
a presentation and
present it to the class.
The Sun and the planets
The Solar System is made up of a very large number of objects that
orbit around our star, the Sun. The Sun is the central point in our
should be able to:
e Solar System and is the only source of visible light. There are eight
state that the Sun is
planets that orbit the Sun at different distances. We can observe
a star
. the planets using the light they reflect from the Sun.
describe the layers of
the Sun
. describe the
The Sun
characteristics of the
eight planets and the The Sun is a bright flaming sphere of hot gas and is made up of
nhrra# nlanotc four main layers, the core, photosphere, chromosphere and
o construct a scale corona.
model of the Solar
System.
a aurora su nspots
a chromosphere
a core
a corona photosphere
a dwarf planets
a photosphere
a prominences
a solar flares cnromospnere solar flare
a sunspots
corona
prom I nence
The core is the innermost layer of the Sun. It has a temperature

of about 15 million kelvin (K), a temperature high enough for
thermonuclear fusion to occur. This nuclear fusion of hydrogen
nuclei into helium releases a tremendous amount of energy,
which is the origin of Sun's energy.
The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun. The Iight of the
Sun that we see from Earth is from here. The photosphere is one
of the coolest layers of the Sun even though it has a temperature of
about 6 000 kelvin (K) and is approximately 300 kilometres thick.
The chromosphere is the layer above the photosphere. It has a
temperature of about 6 000 to 20 000 kelvin (K) and a thickness of
about 10 000 km. During a total solar eclipse, we can see it as a red
Visible corona during total solar ring around the Moon.
eclipse
279
The corona is the outermost layer of the
Sun and extends millions of kilometres
into space. It has a temperature of about 1
million kelvin (K) and forms whitish_blue
rings which are visible during a total solar
eclipse.
Sunspots, solar flares and prominences I

are occurrences in the surface of the Sun.
Sunspots are dark patches that can be found
on the photosphere; they correspond to the
concentrations of the Sun's magnetic field
and are slightly cooler than the surrounding
photosphere. Solar flares are the result of violent
energy explosions in the photosphere. Solar
flares
cause.aurora, a phenomenon where the night
sky above
Earth's poles appears colourfur. prominences
are immense
clouds of glowing gases that erupt from the
upper chromosphere Beautiful display of lights
extending to the corona. (aurora) in lceland
The radiation zone and the convection zone
are regions that lie
in between the core and the photosphere of the S,.i".
Err..fy i,
transferred through these regions by radiation
and convection.
Describing the planets

The Solar System
(not to scale)
ill
Summary questions
O Draw a cross-section
of the Sun, then
label and write short
descriptions of its main
layers.
@ Sutmarise the
I
lr
differences between the
I
inner and outer planets.
@ vou can use a mnemon c

to remember the order
Helping to understand the sizes of the planets from the
of the planets Sun. For example 'My
Very Easy Method Just
It is be difficult to understand the size of the planets. Use
Speeds Up Names'.
the data from this table to make a set of planets from sporls
Each word has the same
balls and modelling clay. Work to a scale of 1 :1 O0O 000 000.
first lctter as lho nlenc{g
Draw a circle to mark out the size of the Sun. lts diameter is
and in the same order
1 391 000km, so it will have a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres in
Think up your own
the model.
mnemonic to help you
remember
4 B7B
12 104
5
@ *" see Jupiter and
l\/lqrc hanar rqo thorr
12
12756 l3 reflect sunlight towards

us. Jupiter is a much
6 787 7 larger planet than Mars.
142800 143 (a) Why does the
1 20 000 120
brightness of
I' rniln- +^
uuPrLEr ovlJudr
^^^^^r' LU
51 118 ct change over time'i
49528 50 (b) Why does Jupiter
often look brighter
You can use the data from the next pages to make a scale
than Mars?
model of the Solar System. Earlh would be 149.5 m from the
Sun using the scale for the planets model. You might find it
difficult to fit in any of the gas giants in your scale model. @ wnat is the difference
between a planet and
a dwarf planet?
Exploring conditions on other
planets
Although scientists haven't been able to send people to explore
should be able to: the other planets yet, they have sent a large number of robotic
e describe how
probes. These have made detailed measurements of the planets'
scientists collect data characteristics. They have also produced thousands of images that
about the planets help us understand the conditions on these planets.
and other objects in
the Solar System
o analyse data Sending probes
about the planets We can make basic observations
to find patterns about the objects in our Solar
in their behaviour
System using telescopes on Earth.
(correlations)
However, to get extra detail
. use secondary
we need to visit them. These
sources to collect
explorations are carried out by
data on the planets.
spacecraft, or probes, that also act
as robots.
The earliest probes visited the Moon

and then Venus and Mars as these
were the nearest objects to us. Now, as
technology advances, every planet in the
Solar System has been visited by robotic explorers.
At first the probes would just fly by the
planets collecting data over a few days. The .r. The New Horizons probe
in orbit around Jupiter
most recent probes now enter orbits and
The Curiosity rover is the most
recent and largest probe sent to stay for several years. Some land on the
Mars. lt landed in Auoust 2012 surface of the planets or drop modules into
the atmosohere.
.qFrr
-
Analysing data
Mercury Venus Earth Mars [upiter Saturn Ijranus Neptune
Mass (compared to 0.05s 0.815 I 0.107 318 95 15 I7
Earth)
Diameter (km) 4878 12r04 127s6 6787 t42800 120000 51 118 49 528
Density (g/cm3) s.43 5.25 5.52 3.93 L33 0.71 r.24 t.67
Distance from the 0.39 0.72 | 1.52 5.20 9.54 19.1 8 30.06
Sun (compared to
Earth)
Surface - 180 to 465 -289 -282 -2ts0 -2170 -2200 -2210
temperature ('C) 430 to58 to0
Orbital period (Earth 0.24 0.62 1 1.88 11.86 29.46 84.01 164.8
years)
Rotational 58.65 243 r 1.03 0.41 0.44 0.72 0.72
period (Earth days)
Number of moons 0 0 | 2 63 62 27 13
.t. Data collected about the eight planets from observations
The measurements taken from Earth and the probes have produced a lot of data. Scientists analysc
that data and use it to develop explanations about the planet's characteristics.
For example, the data in the table above can be used to show that the further a planet is away from the
Sun, the longer the planet takes to complete its orbit. This is because the length of the path the planet
takes is longer the firrther it is from the Sun.
i I r; I
'llLll
l
Use the data from

Scientists look for patterns in the behaviour of the planets the table to explain
(correlations) and then try to explain these patterns using why the planets have
scientific orincioles. been placed into two
. Use the data from the table and other sources to describe different groups.
the possible relationship between:
- the surface temperature of the olanet and its distance Why is it easier to send
from the Sun robotic probes to explore
the Solar System than to
- the mass of a planet and the number of moons it has send people?
- the rotational period of a planet and its distance from
the Sun.
Exploring the Solar
. Use graphs to show clear correlations when appropriate. System is very
. You can try to find other relationships too; for example is expensive. Could the
there a connection between how fast a planet rotates and mnna\/ rrearl h\a anan+
the time the planet takes to orbit the Sun? on other, more urgent
o Extend your exploration of the planets by finding additional projects or should space
information about each of them. You could research the exploration continue?
date they were discovered or the gravitational force on Write a short report of
their surfaces. your opinions based on
your research.
284
Beyond the planets
Our Solar System is only a tiny part of the Universe. There may
only be eight planets but there are hundreds ofthousands ofother
should be able to:
objects in the Solar System.
o describe some of the
other objects in the
Solar System Asteroids
compare asteroids,
Between Mars and |upiter
comets, meteoroids,
meteors, meteorites:
in the asteroid belt, there
their similarities and
are a huge number of iron
differences
rich rocks called asteroids.
Some of these asteroids are
plan and carry out
many kilometres across, each
an investigation into
asteroid impacts.
with a mass of trillions of
kilograms. Others are much
smaller, weighing only a few
kilograms each.
a asteroid L The asteroid lda photographed by
a asteroid belt the Galileo orobe
a comet Gomets
a meteor Comets are large balls of ice and dust that orbit the Sun in long
a meteorite elliptical paths mostly outside the orbits of the planets. When they
a meteoroid approach the Sun a dramatic change happens. The ice begins to
evaporate and a long tail of gas is pushed away from the Sun. This
a Universe
leaves the comet with a bright tail millions of miles long. Most
comets are found in the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud.
We can use mathematics to calculate when comets will appear.
Some only reach the inner Solar System every ten thousand years.
Others may visit every hundred years or so.
Halley's Comet is a large comet that passes through the inner
Solar System regularly enough for some people to see it twice in a
lifetime. It gets close enough to see every 76 years and last passed
closebyin 1986.
Meteoroids, meteors and meteorites

A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space.
Meteoroids are mostly fragments from comets or asteroids
orbiting the Sun, others are collision impact debris from bodies
such as the Moon or other planets. Meteoroids range in size from
small grains to bodies up to one metre wide.
Halley's Comet during its last

pass in 1986
Summary questions
@ Wf'en wittHailey's
Comet next be visible
from Earth? How old
willyou be? How old
willyou be when it visits
for a second time?
@ lf a large asteroid or
comet were to hit Eafth
it could cause massive
damage. Carry out
some research and
then write a short
reporl about whether
it is possible to protect
Earth from this danger.
lf it is, consider
whether it would be
worlh the cost.
@ Draw a tabte to
differentiate between
asteroids, comets,
meteoroids, meteors
and meteorites.
Changes in the model of the
Solar System
After this topic you Early ideas
should be able to:
Early sky watchers had only the evidence of their own eyes to
compare a prove their ideas about the Solar System. Nobody could feel Earth
geocentric model
moving through space (or rotating). So people assumed that Earth
of the Solar System
was standing totally still. It appeared that the Sun moved across
with a heliocentric
the sky during the day and the stars moved around us during the
one
ttco qonnnr{rnr night. So early astronomers based their ideas and models on the
vvv vvvv, ,vs, J
assumption that Earth was the centre of everything. This idea that
sources to outline
some of the history
Earth is the centre of eveqthing is called the geocentric model.
of discoveries about This system, based on centuries of ideas
the Solar System and data from many civilisations,
describe how was first described fully by a Greek
scientific theories astronomer Ptolemy. He came
change over time. up with explanations about the
paths of the stars and planets
around Earth. In this model
a the planets moved around on
a celestial soheres.
a
A new model r The celestial spheres
The Ptolemaic system was

complicated and could not easily explain the apparent motion of
all of the planets. As more observations were made by astronomers
with more advanced equipment the problems became more
difficult to explain.
In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus described a model of the Solar
System where it was the Sun at the centre, with the planets orbiting
around it. This is called a heliocentric model. Copernicus was not
Cnnornir'
'c the first to suggest this idea. However, he backed it up with a great
came up with deal of evidence and it was hard to find a fault with his model.
a model ofthe
Snler Svc+am
th:+ nl:nac +ha
In the early lTth century, Galileo Galilei developed the first
Sun at the centre
astronomical telescopes, and he gathered new evidence about the
Solar System. He found evidence that the Moon has mountains
and that fupiter has moons that move around it. This led him
to believe in the heliocentric model. His publications however,
were very different from the teachings of Catholic Church. So the
Church put him on trial, and confined him to his house until his
death in 1642.
i,i
Hundreds of scientists have made discoveries about the Solar System, galaxies and the Universe
Research any one of these scientists, summarise his work and explain why his discoveries are
impoftant
. AbU Rayhan al-BirUni, lsaac Newton, AbU'Ali al Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham,
Hipparchus, Aryabhata, Edwin Hubble, Johannes Kepler, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and
Stephen Hawking
Thc helioccntric moclel clf the Universe was revolulionaly ar-rcl it

was very harcl tbr scielrtists to irccept i1.'lhey founcl, horvel,er,
that it cor-rld explnin lhe observeci eviclcncc rlr-rch better thiin
the olcl geocentric icleas. Scientists eventlL:rlly acceptecl the
improved rnodel.
Ceres
Modern astronomy
Modern astronomers have cliscovered ir mtrch biggc'r
Universe than expectecl. 'lhe1, have discovcrecl that
the Sun is not the centre, irncl reither is thc Mill<y Way
galaxy. In firct, there is no centre of the Universc.
Scientists r-rse tools such rrs sprrce tclescopes iurcl radio
- .....--- ---
telescopes to garther infonnirtiou fronr the Universe. L)uring thc - -'
last hunclrecl years thei r eflorts htrr.e given Lls il uc\\/ undcrstanrling A diagram thaL uses ll-re
heiioc--ntric rrocl--l of the Solar
of the Universe iurcl our place in it. llLLt there iire still r.ntiny ntorc Systcrn drawn in thc I9th cenlury
puzzles to solve.
1z The square l<i ornetre array (Sl(A) racl o telcscope, soon Lo be buill n
ArsLral a.nd SouLh Alriea
What are the
differences between
the geocentric model
and the heliocentric
model of the Solar
System?
Why did iL Lake time for

scientists to change
their ideas about the
Solar System?
,i
t'
Research some of
the problems with the
npneontric mndal llca
this information [o give
an explanation of why
the heliocentric model
is a better one
Summary
Earlh takes 24 hours to rotate about its The Solar System contains one star
axis. This causes day and night. (the Sun) orbited by eight planets, dwarf
Earlh takes one year to orbit the Sun. planets and small Solar System bodies
(asteroids, comets and meteors).
Its axis is tilted and this tilt causes the
DUdJUI IJ. The Sun is made up of four main layers;
The shape of a planet's orbit around the the core, photosphere, chromosphere
Sun is an elliose. ano corona.
Kepler's laws of planetary motion are: Dwad olanets such as Pluto and Ceres
are planets that have not yet cleared
o First law: Law of orbits
their orbital path of other objects such as
o Second law: Law of areas comets and asteroids.
o Third Law: Law of periods A galaxy is a collection of billions of stars
The Moon orbits Eadh every 29.53 and their Solar Systems and the Untverse
days (Synodic month) while 27.32 days contains billions of galaxies.
(Sidereal month). Our ideas about the Solar System and the
The ohases of the Moon are caused greater Universe have changed over ttme
when we see different parts of the Moon's because with new ideas and technology,
sudace lit up by sunlight. we now have gathered more evidence.
Ocean tides occur as a result of the Moon
and Sun's gravitationalforces on Eadh.
Summative Practice
1 The contents in the table below have been (a) Draw a diagram showing the positions
muddled up. Copy and rearrange them in the of Earlh, the Moon and the Sun during a
correct order. lunar eclipse. t2l
(b) Draw a second diagram showing a solar
eclipse. t2l
Time it takes for Earth Copy and complete these sentences, using
to complete one orbit words from the list below.
around the Sun
Time it take for Earth to asteroids, eight, star, comets,
rotate about its axis elliptical, circular, moons
Time it takes for the
Moon to orbit Earth At the centre of the Solar System is our
the Sun. Around it orbits the
planets, which travel in almost
-
paths. Some of the planets have objects in 7 Copy this diagram. Label the four globes
orbit around them; these are called with the correct names of the seasons in the
Between Mars and Jupiter there are billions nofthern hemisphere. t4l
of rocks called _. There are also
objects called _ that are formed from ice
and dust that orbit the Sun in _ paths. December June
tll
4 (a) Which two of these objects are planets in
our Solar System?
Saturn, Vega, Andromeda,

Mercury, Halley pl
(b) Place these objects in order of size
h
stading from the smallest and moving to 5,1fl:::?'
the largest:
Astronomers collect information about
planet, moon, galaxy, star, the Universe by making observations with
Universe, Solar System, asteroid telescopes. They collect the light travelling
t7l from distant objects and analyse it
5 This table shows the length of year for the (a) Draw a table that shows which of the
different planets State the pattern revealed following objects produce their own light
in this data, and give two reasons for it. t3l and which can only be seen because
they reflect light:
asteroid, moon, star, planet

t2l
(b) Place the following in order of SZE
(starting with the largest).
Sun, Universe, Earth, asteroid,

Moon, galaxy
tsl
9 Astronomers have measured the speed of
the planets as they orbit the Solar System.
The measurements are shown in this table.
6 Two students are discussing the causes of

the phases of the Moon.
Student A: The phases of the Moon

are caused when dtfferent pads of
the Moon give out light.
Student B: Half of the Moon is
always lit by sunlight. We see the
phases because we can only see
different parts of the lit up side at
one time.
Which student is correct? What is the

evidence for this explanation? t2l
290
The asteroid belt lies between Mars ano 15 The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar
Jupiter. System. lt has four mdn layers.
(a) Use the data to estimate the speed of a (a) Draw a diagram and label the four main
typicalasteroid as it orbits the Sun. ltl layers. t4l
(b) A typical asteroid has a mass of billions of (b) Briefly describe the Sun's innermost layer.
kilograms. Using your understanding of t2l
energy transfer from Chapter 9, explain
16 Explain the difference between a planet and a
why an asteroid impact with Earth would
dwarf planet. t2l
cause a great deal of damage. t2I
17 Why is Ceres a dwarf planet of interest to us?
10 Every year astronomers detect thousands
of objects inside our Solar System. In 2010, t1l
the WISE satellite detected 11 new comets 18 Which of the following statements is related
and thousands of new asteroids. Using to Keoler's first law?
the information below, decide which is an A.All olanets move in circular orbits with the
asteroid and which is a comet. Explain your Sun as the centre of the Solar System
answers. B. All planets spin on their axis
C. All planets move in elliptical orbits with
the Sun as one of the focal points
D. All planets sweep out the same area in
equalvolumes ttl
19 Neap tides are tides that
t2l A. happen in spring
11 Which of these pieces of equipment are used B. are particularly weak
to gather information about distant galaxies? C. are elastic in nature
D. are pafticulady strong nl
20 Spring tides happen
A. during a solar eclipse
trl B. during a lunar eclipse
12 Astronomers use powerful telescopes to C. during a solar eclipse and lunar eclipse
search for olanets that orbit other stars. One D. none ofthe above nl
of the methods is to detect when the olanets
21 'The layer of the Sun where thermonuclear
move directly between their own star ano
Eafth.
fusion occurs to oroduce tremendous
amounts of energy'. This description refers to
What would happen to the amount of light
the Sun's
the astronomers were detecting from the
stars when this happens? A. core
t2l B. photosphere
13 In the 17th century most astronomers slowly C. chromosphere
changed from using the geocentric (Earth D. corona nj
centred) to the heliocentric (Sun centred)
model of the Solar System.
22 Select the correct arrangement of the
following objects in the order of furthest to
Suggest two reasons why it took some time
clo'sest to Eafth's surface.
for astronomers to move to the new model of
the Solar System. A. comet, meteoroid, meteorite, meteor
t2l B. comet, meteoroid, meteor, meteorite
14 (a) State the steps needed to draw an ellipse C. meteor, meteorite, meteoroid, comet
by hand. tsl D. meteor, meteoroid, meteorite, comet /7/
(b) Explain how an ellipse relates to Kepler's
first law. t1l
tl
I
I
Cold water is denser than warm water,
so it tends to sink. When water cools, the
molecules move slower and closer to one
another, as a result the density increases.
Meanwhile, when water warms up, heat
energy causes the water molecules to spread
out, and the density decreases. This effect
of sinking and warming of water produces
oceanic currents a Drocess known as
-
convection.
A Deep sea creatures like this anglerfish, have adapted

to live in dark and cold reqions of the ocean
Ocean temperature layers cold water
The temperature inside the ocean also changes.

Water temperature can affect the types of .^. Oceanic cuTrents formed from the sinking of cold
water Cold water also holds more dissolved gases
organisms living in it. The top layer is the surface than warm water does
layer which is influenced by solar energy. The
second layer is the thermocline where the In this chapter, you will study about differences
temperature decreases rapidly with an increase between temperatures and heat and then study
in depth. The third layer is the deep water which how thermal energy can be transferred.
is cold and dark.
Goncept map
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Temperature and scales
After this topic you should Temperature
be able to: Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldess
. state three different of an object. To measure temperature, an instrument called
scates or
^^^l^^ ^{ ler ilperarure
+amnn.a*
a thermometer is used. Temperature is measured in Celsius,
. convert from one scale Fahrenheit, Kelvin or R6aumur.
nf
v, iomnoratr
Lv, |,vvl rro tn
another.
Temperature scales
A temperature scale is a range of numbers to measure the level of
hotness of a substance. There are four types of scale which are the
a Celsius Celsius scale, Fahrenheit scale, Kelvin scale and Rdaumur scale.
a Fahrenheit
To obtain a standard scale on a thermometer, fixed points are
a ice point
normally chosen for the purpose of calibration. These fixed points
a kelvin must always be the same under a given condition so that they may
a steam point be readily reproduced in any laboratory in the world.
a temperature
a thermometer The Gelsius scale
To make the Celsius scale ('C), two lixed points are used:
. Ice point (lower fixed point), which is the temperature of pure
melting ice at standard atmospheric pressure. This is assigned
a value of 0 'C.
Example . Steam point (upper fixed point), which is the temperature
The length of the mercury
at which boiling water changes into steam at standard
atmospheric pressure. This is assigned a value of 100 'C.
column at the ice point and
steam point of an unscaled In the Celsius scale, the interval between the fixed points is divided
thermometer are 4 cm and into 100 equal parts for easy reading. Each division is one degree
30 cm respectively. In liquid Celsius ("C).
A, the length of the mercury
column is 20 cm. What is the
If the gradations are not marked in the thermometer, the
temperature of liquid A? temperature in degree Celsius (0) can be determined using the
following formula:
30 cm
x"
Temperattrre
' o=!!-" x loo"C
"iii-
4Cm
r;;
" r0(,
11nn oa\
, .ce poirt (0 "C) X
etoAm
^-int
ZU CM
Solution
Temperature,
^ 20-4
U = ---=-:------;- X IUU -L
5U-4
= 61.5 'C So ,
294
The Fahrenheit scale
The Fahrenheit scale ('F) is a temperature scale proposed by
physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit. It is commonly used in the
United States. The Fahrenheit scale uses a mixture of ice and salt in
fixed proportions to give the 0'F of the scale, and the temperature
of the human body, 96 oF, is for the steam point. On the Fahrenheit
scale, pure ice melts at 32 "F and water boils at 212 "F .
The Kelvin scale

The Kelvin scale is devised by Lord Kelvin. the zero of the scale is
based on the absolute zero (0 K), which is the lowest temperature
that can be attained by matter. The unit of the Kelvin scale is
kelvin (K). It is based on the average kinetic energy of particles.
Absolute zero corresponds with -273 "C on the Celsius scale. The
magnitude of a unit on the Kelvin scale is the same as that of the
Celsius scale.
.r. William Thomson, Lord Kelvin
The R6aumur scale

The R6aumur scale ('R) is a temperature scale that has an ice point
of water at 0 oR and boiling point at 80'R.
Calibrating a thermometer
We are going to calibrate an unmarked thermometer.

. First, prepare a beaker of iced
water and another of boiling water.
. Insert the thermometer with no
scale into the beaker of iced water.
Wait untilthere is no change in
temperature and make a mark.
o Next, insert the thermometer
into the beaker of boiling water.
Wait untilthere is no change in
temperature and make another
marK.
. Finally, cool the thermometer down
to room temperature and calculate
the temoerature.
o What equation will you use to find
the room temperature?
iced water
Temperature conversions Summary questions
Since a temperature difference of 1 'C is equivalent to I K, it is
easy to convert from oC to K, and otherwise by using the following @ The most common
conversion: temperature scale
used is the Celsius
scale. What are the
fixed points on this
Converting degree Celsius to degree Fahrenheit is more difficult scale?
oC
as I is not equivalent to 1 "F. The following conversion is used
to find the temperature in degree Fahrenheit from degree Celsius. @ Water heated from
50'C to B0'C is said
to have its temoerature
increased by 30 "C.
What is this increase in
Meanwhile, to convert degree Celcius to degree R6aumur, the temoerature measured
following conversion is used: on the Fahrenheit scale?
water boils
10 at sea level
-200
360 - 190
- 180
350 - 170 60
340
- 160
- 150 50
330 -140
- 130
40
320 -120
310 - 100 JU
= -90
r rnn
- JUU -80 20
= -70
r lnn
LAU
=
= -60
10
-50
=zao _Aa
=
=2fou
-n
- -5U 0
= ZOU -20
- -10
= -10
= z)l)
-0
= -20
absolute zero - all
molecular motion stops
Fahrenheit R6aumur
l, Comparison between the four temperature scales

Thermometers
There are several types of thermometers depending on the physical
should be able to:
conditions in which the thermometer is to be used, the range of
o recognise and the temperature to be measured and the accuracy required. To be
useful, thermometers need to be cheap, easy to read, safe to use,
describe the
various types of sensitive and can measure a wide range of temperatures.
thermometer.
Liqu id-i n-g lass thermometers
A liquid-in-glass thermometer is filled with alcohol or mercury,
which expands when heated.
expansron
graduations cna mDer
a thermocouples
a themistor
stem
The bulb is made of thin glass so that heat can be conducted quickly
to the liquid. The capillary tube of the thermometer is made of a
narrow bore to make it more sensitive so that a small expansion
of the liquid in the bulb will cause a big change in the length of the
mercury thread. The round glass stem acts as a magni4ring lens so
that the temperature can be read easily.
Mercury thermometers
A mercury thermometer consists of a thin-walled glass bulb filled
with mercury. The glass bulb is connected to a glass capillary tube
of equal diameter. This is the most common type of thermometer.
The mercury in the thermometer expands when heated and
pushes a thread of the mercury liquid up the capillary tube. This
indicates the rise of the temperature.
Mercury is used thermometers because it is a good heat
in
.^, Some manufacturers use
ethanol (a type of alcohol) in conductor, can be seen clearly because it is opaque and bright, has
alcohol thermometers a high boiling point and expands evenly when heated. However,
mercury is poisonous, so mercury thermometers should be
handled with care.
Alcohol thermometers
An alcohol thermometer is not toxic, and the alcohol expands
uniformly when heated. However, it has a lower boiling point
than mercury. Also, the alcohol has a tendency to stick to the wall
of the glass, making it difficult to take the temperature readings.
So, a dye is often added to make it more visible.
297
Comparing mercury and alcohol thermometers
We are going to compare a mercury thermometer and an alcohol thermometer.

.First, take a mercury thermometer and an alcohol thermometer.
.Then, prepare a beaker containing hot water and place the two thermometers together into
the beaker.
. Make a comparison of how quickly the two thermometers react.
. Think of other properlies of each thermometer that make them a thermometer of choice and
summarise them in the form of a table.
Examples of liquid-in-glass thermometers mtnrmum maxtmum
Maximum and minimum thermometers

"c 'c
A maximum and minimum thermometer is normally used to 40
study the weather as it is often necessary to record the maximum -20 35
30
and minimum temperatures of each day. It consists of a U-shaped -10 25
glass tube with separate scales in each column. 20
0 metal IJ
The expansion of alcohol records the temperature variation while indices

5 10
the mercury displays it. The minimum temperature is recorded 10 5
15 0
in the left column of the tube while the maximum temperature 20
is recorded in the right column. At the start of the day, there is 25 -10
a need to reset the thermometer. A magnet is used to move back 30

35 -20
the metal indices into position at each end of the mercury section.
40 -25
Clinical thermometers
A maximum and minimum
A clinical thermometer is designed to measure the temperature thermometer
of the human body. It has a range from about 35 "C to 42 "C and
is centred about the normal body temperature, which is about
37 "C.h also has a constriction in the capillary tube just above the
bulb of the thermometer.
As the temperature rises, the mercuryexpands into the capillary
tube. On cooling, the mercury contracts, but the constriction
prevents the mercury from flowing back. This enables the
patient's temperature to be read once the thermometer is
removed. Before the thermometer is used again, the mercury
thread has to be shaken back into the bulb.
Laboratory thermometers
This type of thermometers is usually found in science laboratories.
They have wider temperature scales and are used to measure
temperature in laboratories.
A clinical thermometer is used
to read the bodv temperarure
Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two wires of different metals joined
together at the end to form two junctions. When the junctions
are at different temperatures,a voltage is produced. The larger the
difference in temperature, the larger the voltage produced.
Iced water at 0 "C is normally used at the cold junction, so that
the voltages read zero when the hot junction is also at 0 "C. The
advantage of using a thermocouple is that it has a wide range
(normally from -200 'C to I 700 "C), and it responds quickly to
a change in temperature (sensitive). This type of thermometer is
commonly used in industry.
sensrtrve
voltmeter =6
.l Calibration of a thermocouole
cold junction
^l A simple diagram of how a thermocouple works
Electron ic thermometers
With the advance in electronics, most thermometers
used today are electronic thermometers. An electronic
thermometer uses a sensor known as a thermistor.
When there is a change in temperature, the resistance
of the thermistor changes. This change in resistance is
then processed by a computer to a digital read-out. A
modern clinical themometer has a thermistor and diqital
read-out to display body temperature.
A modern
Infra-red thermometer infra-red digital
thermometer
Recently, it was found that the eardrum is an extremely accurate
point to measure body temperature. Since the eardrum is very Summary questions
fragile, a special type of thermometer is needed to measure
temperature from the eardrum. An infra-red thermometer is
a thermometer used to measure infra-red radiation emitted by
O Name the type of
thermometer you would
the eardrum. It uses a sensor called the thermopile, which can use to determine your
be accurate to the tenth of a degree. Compared to other types of body temperature. Why?
thermometers, an infra-red thermometer is more accurate, more
sensitive and very easy to use. However, it is still quite expensive. @ n student tries to
sterilise a clinical
thermometer in boiling
water. Do you think his
action is right? Why?
llllt Thermal expansion
Most substances expand when heated and contract when they
be able to: are cooled. As a substance is being heated, the particles inside
o know that different
it vibrate. The increased vibration forces causes the particles to
suDsrances expano
move further apart, increasing the volume, causing the substance
differently to expand. As a substance cools, the volume decreases, and the
o understand how substance contracts.
thermal expansion can
be applied in daily life.
Expansion of solids
When two different metals of the same size are heated to the same
temperature, they expand at different rates. The table below shows
the expansion of different types of metal.
Expansion (mm) for a metre rod
aluminium 0.8
brass 0.6
brass (low
expansion) copper 0.5
iron (high
expansion) steel 0.4
(a) room temperature
b rass Bimetalic strip

tron
A bimetallic strip is made of two strips of different metals fixed
together. At room temperature, the strip is straight. As it is being
heated, one metal expands more than the other and the strip
bends. As it is cools, the strip bends the other way.
(c) hot temperature Thermostat

One of the most important uses of the bimetallic strip is as a
thermostat. A thermostat is used to control the temperature of,
for example, an electric iron. When cooled, the bimetallic strip is
flat. As the iron heats up, one of the metals in the strip expands
more than the other, causing the strip to bend and break
the electrical circuit. This principle can also be used in
an air conditioning system, hot water storage tanks
and many other items.
@- when cooled, the bimetalic strip is flat
@- as the iron metals

In the strip he
other, causi and
break the e
bimetallic strip
300
We are going to investigate the expansion and contraction of solids.
. Can the metal ball pass through the metal ring?
. Now heat the metal ball with a Bunsen flame for 5 minuies
. Try to pass the metal ballthrough the metal ring again.
. What did you find out? Why did it happen?
Concrete road surfaces

To prevent concrete roacl surfaces liom cracking clue to forces that
build up when the concrete expands, irn expansion gap betrveen
two road pieces is nornally macle. Expansion gaps are often seen
on bridges.
Electric cables
Dr-rring
'hr riay, wl-rcn it is hot, electric catrles expand and sag.
Conversely at night, when the tempererture is lower, they contract
and tighten. When the cables are put up, allowance have to be
made for the expa,nsion and contraction of the cables under the
two different conditions.
Expansion of liquids
lust like solids, liquids also expand when heated, and different A An expansion gap
on a bridge
liquids have different expansion rates. ln a thermometer, the
liquid mercury expands when temperature of the surroundings
rises. As the temperature drops, it contracts.
Expansion of gases
Compared to liquids and solids, gases expand the most. This is
because there are attlactive forces that hold the particles
togetherin solids and liquids. In gases, the forces that
hold the particles together are negligible. Hence,
when heat energy is applied to gases, the particles ./
move very fast and far away from one another, During the night, a
expanding more than a solid or liquid. creaking sound is often
heard in old houses.
How would you explain
this sound?
lf you were given a

bimetallic strip made of
brass and invar, how
would you find out
which side is brass?
301
v
Measuring heat energy

After this topic you should Heat capacity, C
be able to:
The heat capacity, C, of a substance is defined as the amount of
. define heat capacity, heat energy reqr,rired to raise the temperature of the substance by
specific heat capacity
and cnonifin latont I K or 1 'C. It can be expressed using the following equation:
heat of fusion and
vaporisation
._Q
v- 0
. calculate heat capacity,
specific heat capacity, where Q is the amount of heat absorbed or released and 0 is the
and specific latent heat change in temperature. The unit of heat capacity is l'C r.
of a substance.
Specific heat capacity, c

The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is defined as the
e heat capacity amount of heat required to raise the temperature of I kg of the
. substance by I K or I 'C. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is
specific heat capacity
. specific latent heat Ikg'KrorlkgrcCr.
. specific latent heat of A substance with a higher specific heat capacity becomes hot more
fusion slowly than a substance with a lower specilic heat capacity. This
. specific latent heat of is because more heat energy is required to raise its temperature
vaporisation compared to substance with a higher specific heat capacity. The
table below shows the specific heat capacity of different types of
substances.
Example
Specific heat capacity
When a piece of copper is (I kg-t'6-t;
heated from 20'C to 70 "C, the
amount of heat needed is 9 000 900
j. What is the heat capacity of 400
the piece of copper?
460
Solution
130
,-_
"- Q
e r40
_ 9000 1 o7__r
- (70-20)'" 4200
I
= 180 I'C Specilic heat capacity, c, can be expressed
Therefore, heat capacity for the using the following equation:
piece of iron is 180 | "C-1.
a
t= m0
where Q is the amount of heat gained or lost in joule, m is the mass

of the substance in kilogram and 0 is the change in temperature.
302
Specific latent heat
Energy is required for ice to melt into water. Energy is also required for water to boil into vapour.
The amount of energy needed by water to change from one state to another is actually unique. This
is called specific latent heat.
Specific latent heat, L, is defined as the amount of heat energy required to change
the state of 1 kg of substance at constant temperature. The specific latent heat
can be expressed using the following equation:
where Q is latent heat absorbed or released by a substance and m is

the mass of the substance in kilogram (kg). The unit is I kg-t.
Latent heat of fusion

The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of
heat needed to change I kg ofa substance from a solid state to a liquid
state without a change in temperature. The SI unit for latent heat of
fusion is I kg-1.
The latent heat of fusion can be expressed using the following equation:
(nani{ir lr+anr har+ n{

vaporisation measures the heat
where Q is amount of heat required and m is the mass of the change from liquid to gaseous
substance in kilogram (kg).
Latent heat of vaporisation Summary questions

The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a substance is the
amount of heat needed to change 1 kg of the substance from a @ f*o metal pieces are
being heated. One
liquid state to a gaseous state without a change in temperature.
shows a greater rise
The SI units for latent heat of vaporisation is also I kg-'.
in temperature. What
The latent heat of vaporisation can be expressed using the conclusion can be made?
following equation:
@ srgg"st a reason
why water is used
as a coolant in most
where Q is amount of heat required and m is the mass of the radiators in cars.
substance in kilogram (kg).
Heat transfer

be able to:
. understand that there
are three ways heat
can be transferred -
conduction, convection
and radiation.
\-/-\_/-\_/\
\-/^\-/'\-,z-\
o conduction \-/-\_/-\_/-\
o \_/-\_/.\_,/\
convection \-/^\_/\_A
o radiation radiation
There are three ways that heat can be transmitted. The processes
are conduction, convection and radiation.
Gonduction
Conduction is the process by which heat is transmitted through
a medium from one particle to another. An example is when
one holds a piece of metal rod and heats it in a flame. It does not
take long before the metal rod becomes too hot to hold. Heat is
conducted along the metal rod from the hot end. Most metals are
good thermal conductors. A material that cannot conduct heat is
called an insulator. Examples of insulators are plastic and wood.
Liquids and gases are also poor conductors.
Measuring thermal conductivig of ditferent substances
In this practical activity, we are going to investigate the

conductivity of different substances.
. Put several blobs of wax on copper, steel and glass
rods at distances of 5 cm, 10 cm and 15 cm from
the end.
. Heat the ends of the rods equally.
. Observe what happens to the wax on the rods.
. Which is the best conductor of heat? Which is the
worst conductor of heat? Whv?
fl
I
& Gonvection in liquids

*
*
,i:
In this practical activity, we are going to investigate convection in liquids.
. Put a few tiny crystals of potassium manganate into a beaker filled with water.
. Gently heat the beaker and observe the changes.
Exolain the observation and discuss it in vour class.
Gonvection
Convection is the process by which heat is
transmitted from one place to another by the
movement of the heated particles of a gas or coot sea Dreeze
liquid.
Convection takes place in liquids and gases.
This is because, particles in the hot liquid and
gas can transmit the heat energy. It does not
happen in solids because the particles in solids
cannot flow freely.
Examples of natural convection currents are
land and sea breezes on the coast. During the
day, the land absorbs heat from the Sun faster
than the sea does. This is because water has
a higher specific heat capacity compared to
land. As the air above the land absorbs heat,
it expands and rises. Cool air above the sea
moves inland to take its place and a sea breeze
is formed.
At night, the opposite happens. Due to its

higher specific heat capacity, the sea loses heat
more slowly than land does. Since the air above
the sea is warmer, it expands and rises. The
.1, land breeze
cool breeze from land moves out to the sea and
a land breeze is formed.
Summary questions
Radiation O How does a blanket

wrapped around your
Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not require body keep you warm on
any medium - it can take place in a vacuum. The source of heat a cold night?
transmits energy in the form of waves, known as electromagnetic
waves. The radiant heat travels at the speed of light in straight
lines and can be absorbed and reflected.
@ Wtrat would happen
if an air conditioner is
positioned on the floor
The hotter an object is, the more heat energy it radiates. One instead of the ceiling?
example is the heat energy radiated by the Sun to Earth.
The story of the vacuum
flask
The vacuum flask is an amazing product. It is designed
to keep cold liquids cold or hot liquids hot. The inventor
was a Scottish scientist named Sir |ames Dewar. He
invented it in 1892 to help his research in storing liquid
gases using the Dewar flask, which became known as
the vacuum flask.
The vacuum flask was originally manufactured not

for commercial use. It was only in 1904 that two
German glass blowers, Reinhold Burger and Albert
Aschenbrenner, founded a company called Thermos
GmbH. The name thermos which originates from
the greek word'therme'meaning heat, was obtained
from a contest held by the company to name the
'vacuum flask'.
How does the vacuum flask keeps food or drink hot
or cold?
The design of the vacuum flask makes sure that heat
loss or heat gain is minimised in several ways. The
vacuum flask consists of a double-walled silvered
glass container. The vacuum that is in between the
silvered double walls of the glass container ensures
that no heat can either enter or leave the flask by
convection and conduction.
The silvered surfaces of the glass greatly reduce
heat loss by radiation. The plastic stopper
also prevents heat loss due to convection and
evaporation.
As heat loss or heat gain is minimised in the
vacuum flask, cold liquids remain cold, while
plastic stopper
hot licuids remain warm.
vacuum
thin silvered
walls of glass
hot liquid
cork to hold
flask in place
Summary
Temoerature is a measure of how hot or The specific heat capacity of a substance
cold an object is with respect to some is defined as the amount of heat required
standard. to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the
Temperature is measured in degree substancebyl Korl'C.
Celsius ('C), degree Fahrenheit ("F), kelvin The Sl units of specific heat capacity are
(K)or in R6aumur ('R). JkglKrorJkg-roC-1
On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point The soecific latent heat of fusion is the
is the ice point (O 'C) and the upper fixed amount of heat needed to change a unit
point is the steam point (100 'C). mass of a substance from solid to liquid
Absolute zero is the lowest temperature without a change in temperature.
possible. Absolute zero (O K) is equal to The specific latent heat of vaporisation is
-273 "C. the amount of heat needed to change a
Mercury and alcohol are often used as unit mass of a substance from liouid to
liquids in thermometers. gas without a change in temperature.
Maximum and minimum thermometers Conduction is a process by which heat
are used to measure temperature ranges. is transmitted through a substance from
one particle to another.
A clinical thermometer measures
temperature over a very short range, that Metals are good thermal conductors but
nnnr inqr rlatnrq
is, around normal body temperature.
A thermocouple thermometer is suitable . Liquids and gases are poor heat
for measuring wide temperature ranges, conductors.
temperatures which vary rapidly and Convection is a process by which heat is
temperature at a point. transmitted from one place to another by
Different solids expand by different the movement of heated particles.
amounts when heated through the same Convection occurs in liquids and gases,
change of temperature. but not in solids.
a Gases expand more than liquids. Convection currents are caused by
a Liquids expand more than solids. changes in density. Hot liquids or gases
rise and cold liquids or gases sink.
a The heat capacity of a substance is
defined as the amount of heat required to Radiation is a process by which energy is
raise the temperature of the substance by transmitted in the form of electromaqnetic
1Kor1'C. WAVES.
The Sl unit of heat caoacitv is J K1 or

J "C-r.
307
Summative Practice
Explain why running hot water on the meta 10 Explain why a saucepan has a metal base,
lid of a glass jar makes it easier to unscrew. but a wooden handle.
When a heater is placed in a beaker of water,
the temperature of water changes by 50 'C.
What is the change in temperature when
measured in kelvin?
The temperature in a room is 28 "C. What is
the temoerature in Fahrenheit?
Describe the main features of a clinica
thermometer.
A piece of metal weighing 5 kg is heated from
11 The expansion of a substance depends on
25 'C to 50 'C, the heat needed is 7OO0 J.
its state. Which statement below shows the
Calculate:
expansion in decreasing order?
(a) the heat capacity of the piece of metal
(b) the specific heat capacity of the piece of A. Solid, liquid, gas
metal
B. Solid, gas, liquid
C. Gas, solid, liquid
lf the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is D. Gas, liquid, solid
336 J g-t and the specific heat capacity of 12 The figure below shows the length of metals
water is 4.2 J gJ o6-t, hoW much heat is
before and after heatino.
needed to change 20 g oI ice at 0 'C to water
aI25'C? K
L
Define the following: M
(a) conduction
(b) convection
(c) radiation The table below shows their thermal
expansion. What is K, L, M and N?
Why does a door made of wood feel warm,
while the door knob, which is made of
aluminium feelcold?
1.7 x 1O-5
Explain why newspaper wrapping keeps
hot things hot, such as nasi lemak, and cold 1 .3 x 10-5
things cold, such as ice cream.
2.5 x 1O-5
1 .2 x 1O-5
A. copper-iron-aluminium-steel
B. copper-steel-iron-aluminium
C. aluminium-copper-steel-iron
D. iron-steel-copper-aluminium
13 The density of a solid decreases when it is
heated. This is because its
A. mass is decreasing
B. mass is increasing
C. volume is decreasing
D. volume is increasino
14 When being heated, the volume of a gas 17 When given 15 kJ of heat energy, the
increases much more than that of a solid or temperature of a 5.0 kg block of metal
liquid. Why is that so? increases trom 20 "C to 30 'C. What is the
A. The particles of a gas expand more specific heat capacity of the metal?
B. Theattractiveforces between the oarticles A. 2oo J kg-r'6-r
of a gas are negligible B. 3OO J kg-r o6-t
C. The pafticles of solids and liquids cannot c. 6o0 J kg r'6-r
move D. 3000Jk9r"6-r
D. The molecules of gas are lighter
18 When latent heat of fusion is supplied to a
15 Alcohol is used in thermometers designed to substance, the substance
measure low temperatures. Why? A. melts
A. lt expands more than mercury B. freezes
B. lt has a low density C. vaporises
C. lt has a low boiling point D. condenses
D. lt has a low melting point
19 A metal spoon and a plastic spoon are both
16 By looking at the picture below, what is the at room temperature. The metal spoon is
equivalent temperature in "F? colder to touch because metal
A. has greater densit'y
B. is a better conductor of heat
C. is a good insulator of heat
D. is a good radiator of heat
20 The figure below shows a vacuum flask.
The main reason for the silvered glass wall

inclusive of the vacuum is to reduce heat
transfer due to
A. 60 "F A. conduction only
B. 1OB'F B. convection only
c. 140'F C. radiation only
D. 172 "F D. conduction, convection and radiation
{-i}..;
'y' -,!t
{,
{\/r <c'
<-\.,/
e,
t".,/
q>
r \/
n,t
Science in Contextt
History of length measurement
People all over the world today use the metre This new metre was convenient and stable and
as a standard to measure length. However, it so it was adopted worldwide. However, the
took many years before that happened. Let's go advantage of a 'natural' standard had not been
back several centuries to find out how length forgotten.
measurement evolved over time.
Some well-known early measurements are:
Around 4 000 BC, the Egyptions already tried
to standardise the system of measurement. They Description
defined the cubit as the Iength from the tip of the width of the thumb
the middle finger to the bottom of the elbow. To
the width of the finger
measure smaller units. the cubits were divided
into seven palms with each palm divided into the width of four extended
fingers
four fingers which were then further sub-
divided. the distance covered by the
spread hand
In 1791, the French National Assembly decided
on a standard that would be one tenth millionth
part of a quarter of Earth's circumference. A
platinum'end bar' was produce d in 1799,known
as the'Mitre des Archives'. That was the master
standard for the world's new measuring system,
the metric system.
In 1875, the Metre Convention was signed by by the
participating nations and the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) was
established. In 1889, a platinum-iridium metre
v Egyptian cubit rod found in a museum
bar replaced the Mdtre des Archives to become This cubit rod was used for
measlrrFmcnt nf lenoth
the International Prototvoe Metre.
310
inch
f--------------2
.r. Length measurement was quite difficu t since there was no real standard of length and these units varied
from person to person Usually, a leaderwas chosen and measurements were based on his body
In this chapter, you will learn about the skills required during scientilic experiments and understand
scientifi c measurements.
Goncept map
Planning fair Planning safe
tests tests
Planning to Planning to
collect data record data
Analysing your Evaluating

evidence your evidence
Base Derived Conversion of

SCIENTIFIC quantities quantities units
ENQUIRY
Length
Area Volume
-
Mass Density Temperature Time

- -
The skills of investigation (1 )
Scientists acquire scientific knowledge by carrying out scientific
be able to: investigations. Science process skills are used to obtain results in
. plan a fair test scientifi c investigations.
. plan a safe test.
Planning fair tests
Have you ever swung on a rope tied to a tree? If you have, you
were acting as a human pendulum. Without thinking about it,
you were finding out the answer to the question'What affects how
quickly a pendulum swings?'
You can find the answer more scientifically by carrying out a
. control variables
fair test.
. dependent variables First of all, you list all the factors, called variables, which might
o independentvariables affect how the pendulum swings.
On a planning grid like the
one shown on this page,
Planning a fair test'
fill the boxes at the bottom
of the grid with a 'sticky We will change:
note' for each variable. You the indePendent variable
can choose one of these We will measure its effect on:
variables to investigate. the dependent variable'
This is the beginning of We will keeP these variables

planning a fair test. the same:
the control variable'
) A planning grid to help

plan a fair test (to show
all the key variables)
On the planning grid you will see the term independent variable.
This is the variable that you have chosen to change in each test.
In your investigation, it will be the 'length of the string'. All the
other variables listed at the bottom of the grid that might affect
the pendulum are kept constant. We call these control variables.
We use a dependent variable to judge the effect of changing the
independent variable. In your investigation, it will be the 'number
of swings in 20 seconds'.
312
Completing a planning grid
Use an A3-sized planning grid and a pad of 'sticky notes' to plan a fair test using a pendulum.
Your investigation should answer the question 'How does the length of the string affects the
number of swings in 20 seconds?'
Planning safe tests

In any investigation, you must think about safety. Ask yourself:
. What could go wrong? In what ways might it be dangerous? The hazard might be caused by:
- the way you carry out your investigation
- the equipment you have chosen
- the materials you plan to use or which are made in your investigation.
You need to know the hazard symbols to judge this.

All hazardous chemicals will have one of these labels on the container:
Corrosive
These substances Summary questions
attack and destroy
lirrinn +iccr rac
A group of students were
including eyes and
investigating friction. They
skin.
wanted to see how the mass
in a box affect the force
Highly flammable lrritant needed to move the box.
These substances These substances
easily catch fire. are not corrosive
but can cause
@ fhe title of their
investigation was
reddening or phrased as a question.
blistering of the
ski n.
What is the title of the
investigation?
Oxidising
These substances
Toxic
These substances
@ Wf'at was the
independent variable in
provide oxygen can cause death.
their investigation?
which allows other They may have their
materials to burn polsonous effects
more fiercely. when swallowed, or @ wf'at was the
deoendent variable?
breathed in, or absorbed through
the skin
@ Wf icf,variables did they

. What is the risk of harm? How likely is it that someone could have io control?
get hurt?
. Can you change your plan to reduce any risks?

. If an accident did happen, what would you need to do?
Your teacher must check that your plan is safe before you start any
practical work.
313
The skills of investigation (21
After this topic you should Planning to collect data

be able to: Think about your pendulum investigation.
. plan to collect data
You will be changing the length of the string in each test. You will
. plan to record the data
be counting the number of swings in 20 seconds.
collected.
You should think about how accurate your data need to be. For
example, the length of the string measured with great precision
could be 10.10013 cm. However, for our investigation a ruler
with a millimetre scale will be good enough. It can give the same
measurement as 10.1 cm (as long as you read it properly!).
o accurate
. anomalous result
o precise
. range
.r. Which balance would give a more accurate measurement of mass?
Planning to record data

You should also think about how you will record your data.
Scientists record data in tables as they carry out tests.
They usually put the independent variable in the first column and
the dependent variable in the second column. Any unit can be put
in brackets. So in the pendulum investigation the table would be:
j?r l
AF
Some data can be difficult to collect. The data might not be reliable.
To help improve the reliability we can repeat readings. We can
accept that the readings are accurate if the repeats are all close
together. We say then that the readings are precise.
Ifone ofthe repeat readingsis very different from the others (an
anomalous result), we should ignore it and try the test again.
Carrying out trial runs
Carry out some trial runs of your pendulum investigation. These will help you to decide:
. How long should I make the string? What will be the shorlest and longest lengths? ffhis is
called the range.)
. How much should I change the length by between each test? How many different lengths
shall we test?
. How big should the bob at the bottom of the string be? Do I need to repeat readings?
Now you can draw a table to collect your data for when you carry out the investigation.
However, if you are doing something wrong in each test, repeating

the tests won't give more accurate data. Accurate data are near to Summary questions
the true value you are trying to measure.
A group of students
We record repeated readings in a table with the second row split were investigating how
up into smaller columns. For example: temperature affects the time
taken for sugar to dissolve in
water. lt was difficult to judge
exactly when the sugar had
completely dissolved in each
test. They decided to carry
out their investigation at 20,
30, 40, 50 and 60 "C and to
reoeat each test three times.
O Design a table for

recording their results.
@ Do they need a stop-

watch reading to one
hundredth of a second
!,"r". to record their timing?
"f*
ls the second hand of
the clock on the wall
You add up the three tests and divide the answer by three to work
good enough for this
out the mean (average).
investigation?
Now you can collect the data to answer the question below:
'How does the length of the string affect the number of swings in
20 seconds?'
Garrying out a fair test
Carry out your pendulum investigation, recording the data in

vour table from the orevious lesson.
315
The skills of investigation (3)
After this topic you should Analysing your evidence

be able to:
o Having carried out your investigation, you can now answer your
analyse the data you
original question. You need to analyse the data collected. The best
collect
way to see any patterns in the data is to draw a graph.
o evaluate your
investigation. You can draw a line graph because the independent variable, the
length of the string, can have any value. you might choose l0 cm
or 20 cm. But you could have chosen 10.2 cm, l3.g cm or any
other length. This type of variable is called a continuous variable.
Your independent variable always goes along the bottom of your
graph (on the horizontal axis).
o analyse The dependent variable, the number of swings in 20 seconds, goes
o categoric variable up the side (on the vertical axis).
o continuous variable
o You plot the points as small, neat crosses.
evaluate
. valid Then you draw a line of best fit through your mean results. Do not
join the points 'dot-to-dot'.
Here is some pendulum data presented on a graph:
:ii fl
l
t1
I. il
i1
lj 'll iL
ti r
fi
i:il, N
ili
o) lf
.;: i1
frf t
I tl
llII I
I t.
v0
I lli li
!N
IJ
ii IL
Ec
l'-
z riij
I l.'i
r,ii I iil
20
Length of string (cm)
In some investigations, the independent variable is described

by words, not numbers. Then we call the variable a categoric
variable.
For example, in the investigation to answer the question'Which
type of paper absorbs most water?' the independent variable is the
type of paper, e.g. tissue paper, filter paper, newspaper, writing
paper and so on. There are no values in between each type of
paper. So we cannot draw a line joining points together to form
a line graph. We should draw a bar chart, with separate bars for
each type ofpaper tested.
Evaluating your evidence
Can you draw a
As you carry out your enquiries, and certainly at the end, valid conclusion
you should always consider the strength ofyour evidence. using the data
collected?
Ask questions to help you evaluate your investigations.
The skill of evaluation enables you to improve your rs your
methods of data collection. evidence
reliable? Does the data
Can you draw a valid conclusion using the data answer your
collected? Does it answer your question? Was it question and
a fair test? For example, you might have chosen a was it a fair
poor range for the length of the string. It might be
a narrow range of 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4 and 10.5 cm.
This could give data that shows no pattern between
the length of string and the rate of swing. Also, was
the mass of the bob the same in each test (especially
ifyou did the tests over a couple oflessons)? lf you have large Suggest any
differences improvements
Is your evidence reliable? If you, or somebody else, within sets of you could make
ranaa+ \/^rrr
did the same investigation again would the data be data could be
the same? If the data is the same, you have collected unreliable
repeatable and reproducible data. These data provide
us with strong evidence for any conclusions you Think about the
size of the sample
come to. If you have large differences within sets of
you chose. Was
repeat readings, your data could be unreliable. Then it large enough
you can't place much trust in your conclusions. for you to be
confident in your
What could you do to improve your enquiry? Think conclusions?
of any changes you could make to your method and
explain why they would improve the data collected. Things to consider when you are asked to
'evaluate your investigation'
Ifyou are doing a'pattern seeking'enquiry, especially
those involving living things, think about the size of
the sample you chose. Was it large enough for you to Summary questions
be confident in your conclusions?
What is the difference
between a continuous
variable and a categoric
variable?
@ Classify the following

variables as categoric or
continuous variables:
distance moved
hair colour
type of material
volume of liquid
time to dissolve
JI (, Evaluate your pendulum

investigation using the
Scientists carry out plenty of tests and collect as many data required questions on this page.
before drawing out a valid conclusron
317
Gommon laboratory
apparatus
Apparatus is used to carry out experiments and make accurate measurements or observations.
crucible esh displacement / eureka can

Used in heating solids directly To allow a liquid to evaporate For a disolaced liouid to flow our
over a flame from a solution throuoh the soout
test tube gas Jar filter funnel

To contain small amounts of To collect gases To separate an insoluble solid
substances from a liquid with the use of a
niaro n{ fil+ar nrnar
tripod stand retort stand, boss and clamp Bunsen burner

To support the apparatus during To hold the apparatus during an To provide a flame for heating
heating. The wire gauze serves to experiment substances
conduct the excess heat away.
conical flask measuring cylinder

To contain chemicals or to collect To measure a volume of liquid to
liquids an accuracy of 1 cm3
Physical quantities
Experiments play an important part in science and most
experiments require measurements. A physical quantity is a
should be able to:
. name the seven base quantity that can be measured. Physical quantities can be further
quantities
divided into base quantity and derived quantity.
. understand that
derirrecl nr rantities
Yvur
formed from base

rLrL'vv are
L
Base quantity
quantities Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be expressed
o know how to use in relation to other physical quantities. There are seven base
prefixes, quantities in science. They are called SI base units, as in the
following table:
. base quantity
Name of unit Symbol for unit
. length merre m
derived quantity
o prefixes InASS kilogram kg
time second S
temperature kelvin K
electric current ampere
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
Derived quantity
From these seven base quantities, quantities such as area, volume,
density, force, weight and others can be derived. These types of
quantities are called derived quantities.
Symbol
Symbol Formula
for unit
area A length (m) x breadth (m) m2
length (m) x breadth (m)

volume v x height (m)
m3
density p mass (kg) + volume (m3) kg*'

mass (kg) x acceleration Newton, N
& force
? r#r f, /
t/
(- s')
mass (kg) x Earth
(kg m sr)
o weight
w gravil"ational acceleration kgm s'
(m s')
1, An ammerer is -sed lo "ecord electrica current in

ampere (A)
',ul
J
-d
Gonversion of units
The unit metre for length is used to measure lengths of various
W
ffi
Magnitude
l0'
objects. Longer distances are measured in kilometres (km). Short ffi 106
lengths can be measured in centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm).
M
W
103
103
x1000 x100 x10
ffiW 10'6
km cm M
W
10-,
10 12
+1000 +100 +10 l. Since a quantity measured can

De very rarge or very smailr
prefixes can be used to simplify
the numbers
The standard unit for mass is kilogram (kg). Small masses are
measured in grams (g) or milligrams (mg). Large masses are
measured in tonnes (t) or sometimes in quintal (Q) where
I quintal equals 100 kg.
x1000 x1000 x1000
tonne kg mg
\/\/\/
+1000 +1000 +1000
The area of an object is the size of the surface of the object. The
standard unit of area is square metres (m'z). Large areas can be
measured in square kilometres (km'). Other units for smaller
areas are square centimetres (cm'z) and square millimetres
(mm'). Hectare (ha) and acres are additional units used in area
Apparatus used in labs for the
measurement. measurement of liquid volume
x10002 x1002 x102
km2 m2 cm2
\/VV
+10002 +1002 +102
mm2
The volume (cubic metres, m3) of an object is a measure of the

space occupied by the object. Other units of volumes are cubic Summary questions
millimetres (mm'), cubic centimetres (cm3), millilitres (m) and
litres (l). The volume of liquids is usually measured in metric O *nu is it imporlant
to have an Sl unit in
units, such as litres (/) and millilitres (m/). The volume of a solid is
measurement?
measured in cubic centimetres (cm3) and cubic metres (m3) units.
@ *nu is the use of

prefixes necessary in
measurement?
Measuring length
After this topic you Length
should be able to:
A ruler or measuring tape can be used to measure length. The
. measure length using SI unit to measure length is metre. The metre is defined as the
a vernier caliper and
distance travelled by light in a vacuum in 11299 792 458 of a
a micrometer screw
gauge.
second. It is very important to measure length correctly as an
error due to parallax can occur while measuring. The diagram
below shows the correct position to read a scale.
A: Wrong A: Correct
posrtron
(8.3 cm) (B 5 cm) (B 7 cm)
micrometer screw N A
gauge P
\l
vernier caliper
Vernier caliper
A vernier caliper is a very useful tool to measure the outer dimension, inner dimension and the
depth of an object with a precision of up to 0.01 cm. There are two scales on the vernier calliper:
main scale has graduated intervals of 0.1 cm
vernier scale can slide on the main scale and has qraduated intervals of 0.01 cm.
To obtain the main scale reading, find the value on the main scale which is right before the '0'value
on the vernier scale. Then, to obtain the vernier scale reading, find the value on the vernier scale that
is exactly in line with any number on the main scale.
Finally, add both the main scale and vernier scale readings to get the dimension of the object.
jaws (for measurrng stem (for measuring
Inner otmenston) depths)
main scale
Vernier calliper reading

= main scale reading
+ vernier scale reading
= 3.3 cm + 0.06 cm
= 3.36 cm
0.06 cm
(vernier scale reading)
321
ll
(a) inner dimension (b) depth
Measuring the dimension of a pipe
In this experiment, we are going to measure the dimensions of

a pipe using a vernier caliper. Use the inner jaw to measure the
diameter of the hole and the outer jaw to measure the outer
diameter of the pipe. What is the thickness of the pipe?
Micrometer screw gauge

A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure the thickness of a small object such as a wire with a
precision of up to 0.01 mm.
To obtain the reading, the thimble is turned to grip the object gently. Then the ratchet knob is turned
until a 'click' sound is heard. The ratchet knob prevents excessive pressure on the object, which can
affect the accuracy ofthe reading.
spindle
a thimble scale has 50

divisions, each of
45 which is equal to
0 0'l mm
40
35
Summary questions
- t^^.,^ - -" -^t ;^
-
divisionsof05mm B5mm
O lf you were to measure
the diameter of a
(main scale reading)
copper wire, what
instrument will you use?
Micrometer screw gauge reading
= main scale reading + thimble scale reading @ Wf,at instrument will
you use to measure
= 8.5 mm + 0.40 mm
the internal diameter of
= 8.90 mm
a beaker?
322
Measuring area and volume
After this topic you Area
should be able to:
. measure the area
The area of regular objects such as squares and triangles can be
and volume of calculated using standard mathematical equations. The equations
regular and irregular commonly used are:
objects.
area of square = length (m) x breadth (m)
oftriangl"
area =
I x tength (m) x base (m)
+
area of circle: n x [radius (m)]'3 fu = 3.A2)
. area To measure the area of irregular objects, an approximation is

. displacement normally done. The shape of the object can be traced onto graph
o paper. The number of squares the diagram covers can then be
volume
counted. Incomplete squares which cover more than half the area
of the square are counted, while those that cover less than half
the area of square are ignored. To obtain a better estimate, graph
paper with finer divisions can be used.
/.r Volume
Just like the area of regular objects, the volume of regular objects
Y X can be calculated using standard mathematical equations. The
equations are:
T
The area of the irregular shape

ts 12 cm2
In the case of liquids, their volumes can be measured by using
a measuring cylinder, pipette, burette or a beaker. It is very
important that the volume of the liquid is read correctly. Different
liquids may have different meniscus. For instance, water has a
concave meniscus while mercury has a convex meniscus. The way
to read the meniscus is shown below:
--.1 A --/tl
I wrong reading ,} wrong reading
concave
mentscus -.-->./ convex
m en tscus
'--<--b./
.^,.^.+.-.4'^^ correct reading
: 56 cm3 = 36 cm3
.\t_\
v ,l \x
wrong reading wrong reading
A Reading the volume of water .L Reading the volume of mercury
The volume of irregular objects can be measured
using the displacement method. To do that, a
measuring cylinder with a known volume of
liquid is used. When the object is immersed,
there is a new volume reading. The difference
between the two readings gives the volume of
the object.
A displacement can is also used to measure the

volume of irregular objects.
I
To measure the volume of irregular shapes that

float on water, a sinker such as stones can be volume of cork
vo ume of
used. water
COTK
weight
[Vileasurrimg the volume off a Gork , t 't t i trr

r,li,ll i \'/ tr]irl iil:;'lill(!lr tllli
In this experiment, we are going to measure the volume of a vvnaT Ktno oT error
cork. can happen while
. Fill a measuring cylinder with water of a known volume. measuring the
. Place a weight in the volume of a liquid in a
measuring cylinder?
measuring cylinder wrth
a thread and record the
(.: What instruments can
volume.
be used to measure
. Attach the cork to the the volume of a liquid?
y cmj
thread and lower it into volume of cork
the measuring cylinder
and read the new cork
volume.
. What is the volume of
the cork?
weight
324
Other measurements
After this topic you Mass
should be able to: The mass of an object is defined as the amount of matter in it. The
. explain the SI unit used to measure mass is kilogram (kg). Beam balances are
measurements used to give accurate measurements of mass. However, nowadays,
involving mass,
electronic balances are preferred as they give accurate and quick
density, temperature
digital readings.
and time.
A triple beam balance is used to precisely measure mass. The mass for
^. this diagram is 300 g t 60 g t 4 g: 364 g
A compression balance
It is important not to confuse mass with weight. The mass of a
body is a property of an object and has a constant value, while
the weight of an object depends on the force of gravity acting on
it. The SI unit used to measure weight is the newton (N), where
I kg equals 10 N. Weight is measured using either a spring balance
or a compression balance.
Density
The density of a substance is defined as mass per unit volume. The
Greek symbol p is used to represent density. Mathematically, it is
exoressed as:
Where m is the mass of the object in kg and V is the volume in m3.

The SI unit for density is kq m-3.
325
Measuring the density of a stone
In this experiment, we are going to measure

the density of a stone.
o Measure the mass, m, of the stone usinq
a balance.
. Use a measuring cylinder to measure the
volume, t/, of the stone.
. Calculate the density of the stone using initial- - solid body
,.m
rne equailon, p=
immersed in
.V , water in the
measunng
cylinder
Temperature
Summary questions
Temperature is measured in kelvin (K) and is defined as the degree
of heat or cold. However, in daily use, temperature is measured on
@ low would you
the Celsius scale. measure the density of
a cork?
A thermometer, usually a mercury thermometer, is used to
measure temperatures accurately. The reading is taken by looking
at the scale against the meniscus of the mercury which .u*"i
@ Wnat mass of gotd has
the same volume of
upwards in the thermometer. 1O kg of water?
Our body temperature is measured using a clinical thermometer.

The scale on the thermometer is from3 2"Cto 42"C. Thermometers
used in the laboratory have a range of temperatures from -10 "C

to 110 'C.
Time
The SI unit of time is second (s). For
example, the time taken for an athlete
to complete 100 metres is measured in
seconds, using a stopwatch. Other
units of time are minutes, hours,
days, months and years.
Archimedes and gold
crown
Born in 287 BC, Archimedes of Syracuse was
regarded as one of the best scientists of all
time. He is most famous for the Archimedes
principle.
As the story goes, King Hiero II asked a
goldsmith to make a crown made of pure
gold. However, when the crown was
completed, the King suspected that the
crown was not entirely pure gold, but he
couldn't prove it. Archimedes, well known
for his intelligence, was summoned.
Archimedes was asked to determine
whether the crown was made of pure gold
or not but on one condition-the crown
must not be damaged!
It was a very difficult problem, even for
Achimedes. However, one day, as he was
having a bath, he noticed that as he got into the
bath tub, the level of the water in the tub rose. He
suddenly realised that he could do the same to the
crown to find out its volume. He was so excited. that
he ran around the city screaming'Eureka!'('I found it'!).
This is what Archimedes found. Water is incompressible.

So, when a crown was submerged in the tub, it would displace
an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of
the crown by the volume of water displaced, the density of the crown could be obtained. If a cheaper
and less dense metal was added to the gold, the density of the metal in the crown would be lower
than the density of pure gold.
Archimedes performed the test in front of the king and it was found that indeed silver had been
added to the gold!
When the crown is left fully submerged,

it's volume can be easily determined by
the water displaced
Sl units are used for most scientific The volume of regular solids can be
measurements. calculated using standard mathematrcal
There are seven Sl base units for seven equations.
haco nr rantitioc The volume of irregular solids can be
nh+ainnA
uuLdll luu uJll a llltiqour rrinn
' 'ninnlg d. il rv nrrlinr]or
wyilr rust nr
To denote multiples of Sl units. prefixes -âqr ul
r'liqnlrnamont nan
are used.
Vernier calipers are used to measure Mass is the measure of the amount of
mrttor in qn nhiont
lengths accurately up to O.O1 cm.
Micrometer screw gauges are accurate The mass of a body is constant
to 0.Ol mm. everywhere in the Universe.
n |.-^^- t-^t^^^^ i^
Thn
| | lV Ol ^+ v^^'
UO Ul IUguldl
'l^r vuJUULo .)n ho
^hion+a uur I uv ^ veqr | | uqror rwv ro USOO 10 measufe
calculated using standard mathematical MASS.
equations. a Densitv - fllASS = vnlr rme.
Th^
| | lU dl Ud
^r^^ aI
Ul i".â,,l^r
lllUVUld.r vulevLo nan I uE
vqt ho a The units are kg m 3 or g cm 3.
^hio^+e
estimated using graph paper
ruJ KYTffiffiffiWffi ffiMmmffitrffiffi}ffi
-l Name seven physical quantities and their

units.
2 Write down the value of:
(a) 1 463 mm in m
(b) 750 g in kg
(c) 6 ton in kg
(d) 28 ;rs in s
(e) 4.65 x lOag in kg
A book has 400 pages, and a thickness of
4.0 cm. What is the thickness ol each sheet
of paper in mm?
Name the instruments you would use to
measure the following:
/a)
\"/ the r-liameter nf a ggp
(b) the internal and external diameters of a
measuring cylinder
328
6 The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3 and silver is 12 A pendulum is set in motion and 40 complete
10.5 g/cm3. Using the table below, determine swings are timed. The time measured is 60
which crown is made of gold, which is made s. What is the time for one complete swing of
of silver and which is a mixture? the oendulum?
A. 0.67 s
B. 0.75 s
C. 1.50 s
D. 3.00 s
13 The table below shows the properties of
An empty measuring cylinder has a mass of substances P, Q and R.
500 g. Water is poured into the measuring
cylinder until the liquid level is at the '1OO cm3
mark. The total mass is now 850 g. What is
the density of the liquid in g cm-3?
A tank filled with water has a volume of
0.02 m3. State the volume in: What will happen to substances P, Q and R
(a) litres when they are placed a liquid with a density
(b) cm3 of l OOO kg/ms?
(c) ml
A. B.
What are the readings of the caliper below?
c. D.
't4 A full bottle of water has a mass of 1.30 kg.

When exactly half that water is poured away,
the mass of the bottle plus the remaining
10 A stone is gently and completely immersed in a water is O.9O kg. What is the mass of the
liquid (of density 1.0 g cm-3) in a displacemenl bottle?
can. The mass of the liquid which overflowed A. 0.40 kg
is 20 9. B. 0.50 kg
(a) What is the volume of the stone? C. 0.65 kg
(b) What is the mass of the stone if its density D. 0.80 kg
is 5.0 g cm-3?
15 A vernier calioer is used to measure the
11 Which instrument is suitable to measure the diameter of a wooden bar. The diagram
internal diameter of a water pipe as accurately below shows the measured value. What is
as possible? the diameter of the wooden bar?
A. A measuring tape 5mm 10mm
B. A metre rule
C. A micrometer screw gauge ll I
D. A vernier caliper 0 5 '10
A. 3.5 mm
B. 5.3 mm
c. 8.0 mm
D. 8.5 mm
16 A student tried to measure the volume of a A. 575 s
stone using the displacement method. What B. 635 s
is the volume of the stone? C. 435 s
D. 475 s
18 Which of the following numbers shows the

quantity with the correct Sl units?
A. l and2
B. 2 and3
A. 13 cm3 C. 2and4
B. 26 cm3 D. 3and4
C. 28 cm3 19 lf 1 inch is equivalent Io 25.4 mm, how many
D. 41 cm3
inches equals 1 m?
17 The stopwatch below shows the time Udin A. 0.025 4 inches
takes to complete a 100 m race. How long B. 3.93 inches
does it take for him to complete the race? C. 39.37 inches
D. 254 inches
Glossary
Alkaline - Describes a substance that forms a
solution with a pH value greater than 7.0
Abiotic - Non-living factors in an environment Basa - Deskripsi dari zat yang membentuk larutan
dengan pH lebih dari7.0
Abiotik - Komponen benda tidak hidup di dalam
lingkungan Analyse - Examining a set of data in order to
understand or explain it
Absorbent - Describes a substance that absorb
water Analisa - Memeriksa sebuah kumpulan data agar
dapat memahami atau menjelaskannya
Absorben - Benda yang mampu menyerap air
Anomalous result - A result that does not follow
Accurate - Very close to the true value
the same pattern as other data collected
Akurat - Sangaf dekat dengan nilai yang Anomali - Sebuah hasil menyimpang dari data
sebenarnya
Iain yang dikumpulkan
Acid rain - Rain that is produced when acidic gases
Antacid - A mild base used to treat excess acid in
such as oxides of nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, dissolve
the stomach
in the rainwater
Antasid - Basa lemah yang digunakan untuk
Hujan asam - Hujan yang dihasilkan saat gas asam
menetralkan keasaman berlebihan dalam saluran
seperti nitrogen oksida dan sulfur dioksida, larut
pencernaan makanan; penawar asam
dalam air hujan
Antagonistic muscles - Muscles that work in
Acidic - Describes a substance that forms a solution
pairs against each other in a joint
with a oH value of less than 7.0
Otot antagonis - Otot yang memiliki fungsi
Asam - Deskripsi dari zat yang membentuk larutan
berlawanan dengan pasangannya dalam suatu
dengan pH kurang dari 7.0
sendi
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS)
Antibiotics - Drugs that can kill bacteria or slow
- A disease that is caused by a virus, HIV
down the rate at which they grow
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome Antibiotik - Obat-obatan/zat kimia yang beiungsi
(AIDS) - Sebuah penyakit yang disebabkan oleh
sebagai pembunuh balderi, atau menghambat laiu
virus, HIV
peftumbuhan suatu bakteri patogen
Adaptation - A feature that makes an organism well-
Area - The size of flat surface
suited to its habitat
Area - Luas permukaan
Adaptasi - Kondisi saat makhluk hidup
menyesuaikan diri dengan lingkungannya Asteroid - A large lump of rock in the Solar System.
Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt
Air resistance - The frictional force produced on
an object as it moves through the air Asteroid - Benda langit kecil, anggota Tata Surya
yang jumlahnya puluhan ribu, menghuni ruang
Hambatan udara - Gaya gesek yang dihasilkan
antara planet Mars dan Yupiter; (dalam sabuk
benda ketika melewati udara
asteroid) planetoid
Algal bloom - Rapid growth of algae due to
Asteroid belt - The location of most of the asteroids
excessive nutrients in ponds, lakes or rivers
found in the Solar System. The asteroid belt is
Alga mekar - Perlumbuhan ganggang yang cepat found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
akibat dari nutrisi yang berlebihan di kolam, danau
oan sungal
Sabuk asteroid - Lokasiasteroid ditemukan dalam
Tata Surya. Sabuk asteroid berada di antara orbit
Alkali - A soluble base that will react with, and Mars dan Jupiter
neutralise acids
Atmosphere - Envelope of gas surrounding Earth
Alkali -Larutan basa yang ketika bereaksi
Atmosfer - Lapisan udara yang menyelubungi Bumi
menetralkan asam
Atoms - The smallest particle of an element Beetroot - Taproot portion of the beet plant
Atom - Unsur kimia terkecil, dapat berdiri sendiri dan Ubi bit merah - Akar tunggang dari tanaman bit
dapat bersenyawa dengan yang lain
Bimetallic strip - Two strips of metals witth
Aurora - A natural electrical phenomenon different thermal expansions, fixed together
characterised by the appearance of streamers of
Strip bimetal - Dua strip logam dengan koefisien
reddish or greenish light in the sky, especially near
muai berbeda yang direkat menjadi satu
the northern or southern magnetic poles
Aurora - Gejala alam berupa cahaya di langit yang
Biological weathering - A process where livrng
berbentuk berkas, pita, atau tirai, berwarna merah, things such as plants, animals and microbes
hryau, dan ungu, terjadi di dekat kutub utara atau
disintegrate rocks
selatan Bumi Pelapukan biologi - Proses pelapukan yang
disebabkan oleh makhluk hidup seperti tumbuhan,
Axis - The imaginary line that passes through Earth
binatang dan mikroba
from pole to pole. Earth rotates about this line
Sumbu - Garis imajiner yang melewati Bumi dari
Biomass - The living material that makes up an
kutub utara ke kutub selatan. Bumi berotasi oada organrsm
qaris ini Biomassa - Komponen kehidupan yang
membentuk suatu organisme
Biosphere - All the living organisms such as plants,
animals and microbes of Earth
Biosfer - Lingkungan yang berupa segala sesuatu
Bacteria - One of the most common types of yang hidup (manusia, hewan, tumbuhan)
micro-organism, some of which cause bacterial
diseases Biotic - Living factors in an environment
Bakteri -
Salah satu jenis organisme mikro yang Biotik - Komponen lingkungan yang terdiri dari
sering ditemukan dan sebagian dapat menyebabkan makhluk hidup
penyakit
Boiler - The parl of a power station where water is
Balanced -
Forces that are equal in size and heated and turned into high pressure steam
opposite in direction, so that the effect of the Ketel uap - Bagian dai pembangkit tistrik tempat
forces cancel each other out air dipanaskan sampai berubah menjadi uap
Setimbang - Beberapa gaya yang bekerja dengan bertekanan tinggi
arah yang berlawanan arah, namun memiliki nilai
Boiling - The change of state from a liquid to a gas,
yang sama sehingga hasil dari kedua gaya tersebut
at the boiling point of a substance
saling meniadakan/sama dengan nol
Mendidih - Perubahan wujud zat dari cah menjadi
Balanced ecosystem -
Interdependence among gas pada titik didih benda tersebut
living organisms and the environment which
creates a state of eouilibrium Boiling point - The temperature at which a
substance turns from a liquid to a gas, with
Ekosistem yang seimbang - Terjadi ketika
bubbles forming inside the liquid and rising to the
komponen biotik dan abiotik dalam ekosistem pada
surface
keadaan seimbang, baik secara jumlah maupun
peranan nya dal am I i n gku ngan Titik didih - Suhu saat sebuah benda berubah oarr
cair menjadi gas
Base - A substance that neutralises an acid, forming
a salt and water Brittle - Describes a substance that smashes when
struck with a hard object
Basa - Zat yang menetralkan asam dan menghasilkan
garam serta air Getas rapuh - Mudah pecah a
1
Base quantity - A physical quantity in a subset f,

of a given system of quantities that is chosen by I
convention, where no quantlty in the set can be ;{
expressed in terms of the others Garbohydrate - A class of food which supplies the
body with energy, such as glucose
Eesaran pokok -
Kuantitas fisika yang ditentukan I
berdasarkan konvensi dan tidak daoat diturunkan Karbohidrat - Golongan makanan yang fungsinya
tagt adalah untuk memasok tubuh dengan energi
seperli glukosa
Carbon dioxide - The gas which is produced as a Chemical energy - Energy stored in materlals,
waste product of respiration which can be released by chemical reactions
Karban dioksida - Gas yang dihasilkan sebagai Energi kimia - Energi yang tersimpan dalam
sisa dari proses respirasl senyawa-senyawa kimia dan dilepaskan oleh reaksi
kimia
Garnivore - An animal that feeds on other animals
Karnivara - Hewan yang memakan daging/hewan Chemical reaction - Also called chemical
tatnnya cnanges
Reaksi kimia - Disebut juga sebagai perubahan
Categoric variable - A variable whose values are
kimia
described by words, e.g. type of material
Variabel kategctrikal - Variabel yang nilai-nilainya Chemical weathering - The breaking down of
dideskripsikan dengan kata-kata, sebagai contoh materials by chemicals
jenis bahan Pelapukan kimia - Proses pelapukan yang
disebabkan oleh bahan kimia
Cell - The smallest single unit of a living organism
$e/ - Safuan unit terkecil dari sebuah orqanisme Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - Chemicals that
hidup damage the ozone laye
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - Bahan kimia
Gellular respiration - The chemical process that yang menyebabkan kerusakan pada lapisan ozon
releases energy from simple substances such as
grucose Chlorophyll - The green pigment in the leaves
espfrasr seluler which traps sunlight
- Proses kimia yang melepaskan
energi dari senyawa sederhana seperti glukosa Klorofil -Pigmen hijau pada daun yang berperan
utama pada fotosrntes
Celsius - A scale of temperature in which water
.100'C
freezes at 0 "C and boils at under standard Chromatography - A separation method in
conditions which a mixture is dissolved in a solvent, and the
ee/sius - Satuan suhu dalam skala termometer components are separated by the differences in
yang menggunakan suhu air membeku pada 0 "C their solubility
dan suhu air mendidih pada 100 "C Kromatografi - Sebuah metode pemisahan.
Cam puran dilarutkan, dan komponennya
Cementation - The process whereby dissolved dipisahkan berdasarkan perbedaan kelarutan
solids come out of solution to stick rock
fragments together, helping to form sedimentary Chromosphere - A reddish gaseous layer
rock immediately above the photosphere of the Sun
Semenfasi - Proses padatan terlarut keluar dari or another star which, together with the corona,
larutan/campuran yang menggabungkan sehingga constitutes its outer atmosphere
potongan - potongan batuan yang dapat Kromosfer - Lapisan gas tebal yang mengelilingi
membentuk batuan sedimen Matahari dan tampak sebagai pinggiran yang
bercahaya atau bervvarna merah muda (tampak
Centrifugation - A method to separate, through terang apabila terjadi gerhana matahari)
rotation, the lighter from the heavier parts of a
mixture Cilia - Small hair-like projections on cells that beat to
Sentrifugasi - Sebuah metode yang digunakan move the cell around
untuk memisahkan bagian ringan dan bagian berat Silia - Sepertl rambut kecil pada sel yang dapat
dari sebuah campuran melalui proses rofasi bergetar, befiungsi sebagai alat bantu pergerakan
se/ tersebut
Characteristic - A feature which is typical of a
pafticular species of organism Circulatory system - The organ system that
Karakteristik pumps blood around the body carrying food and
- Sifat khas yang dimilikispesles
oxygen and removing carbon dioxide and urea
terlentu dari sebuah organisme
from the cells
Chemical change - Processes in which a
Sl'stem peredaran darah
substance is changed into a different substance
- Srsfem organ yang
memompa darah ke seluruh tubuh sambil
Perubahan kimia - Proses yang terjadi ketika membawa makanan dan oksigen, ser-ta
sebuah zat berubah meniadi zat lain mengeluarkan karbon dioksida dan urea dari
dalam sel
Class - A level that ranks below a phylum but above Composite volcano - A conical volcano built up
an order, in the classification of organisms by many layers (strata) of hardened lava, tephra,
Kelas - Tingkat yang berada di bawah filum tetapi di pumice, and volcanic ash
atas ordo dalam klasifikasi organisme Gunung berapi komposit - Gunung berapiyang
tinggi dan mengerucut, terdiri dari lava dan abu
Classify - Placing living things, materials or objects
vulkanik yang mengeras
into groups
Klasifikasi - Menempatkan makhluk hidup, benda Gompost - The brown nutrient-rich material maoe
atau objek ke dalam kelompok by the action of bacteria on vegetable and garden
WaSteS
Clay - Tiny pieces of weathered rock found in soils
Kompos - Pupuk campuran yang terdiri dari bahan
Tanah liat - Potongan kecil batuan yang telah lapuk organik (seperti daun dan jerami yang membusuk)
yang ditemukan di dalam tanah dan kotoran hewan
Climate change - The long-term change in global Compress - To squash or apply pressure
temperature and rainfall
Kompres - Menekan atau memberikan tekanan
Perubahan iklim - Perubahan jangka panjang
terhadap suhu dan curah hujan di seluruh dunia Compression - The force that squashes a material
Kompresi - Gaya yang menekan sebuah benda
Collide - To bumo into each other
Bertabrakan I bertumbukan - Beradu satu Condensation - The change of state from a gas to
sama lain a liouid
Kondensasi - Perubahan bentuk dari gas menjadi
Colony - A large group of bacteria growing on a culture
vdtl
medium, which can be seen with the naked eye
Koloni - Kumpulan balfieri yang tumbuh dalam Condensation point - The temperature at which a
sebuah media kultur, dapat dilihat dengan mata gas liquefies
telanjang Titik kondensasi - Suhu ketikagas berubah menjadi
catr
Comet - A large mass of ice and rock that has a
very elliptical orbit around the Sun Conduction - The process by which heat is
Komet transmitted from one parlicle to another through a
-Sebuah benda langit dengan massa yang
medium
besar, terdiri dari batuan dan es, yang beredar
mengelilingi Matahari dalam suatu orbit eksentris Konduksi - Perpindahan kalor melalui zat
penghantar tanpa disertai perpindahan bagian-
Commensalism - An interaction between two
bagian zat tersebut
organisms in which one benefits and the other is
not affected Conservation of energy - A principle that says
Komensalisme that energy cannot be created or destroyed in any
- lnteraksi yang terjadi antara dua
transformation
organisme, salah satu mendapatkan faedah dan
yang lainnya tidak terpengaruh Kekekalan energi - Prinsip yang menyatakan
bahwa energi tidak dapat diciptakan atau
Community - All the organisms living in an ecosystem
dimusnahkan pada saat berubah
Komunitas - Kumpulan makhluk sejenis yang hidup
dalam sebuah ekoslstern Consumers - Animals that eat other olants and
animals
Gompaction - The process whereby pressure
Konsumen - Hewan yang memakan tumbuhan
builds up on sediment as layers are deposited
atau hewan lainnya
on top, resulting in the padicles fusing together,
forming sedlmentary rock Continuous variable - A variable that can
Pemadatan - Proses yang terjadi ketika timbul have any numerical value, so any variable that
tekanan pada sedimen akibat lapisan-lapisan yang is measured in an investigation is a continuous
terkumpul di atas, menyebabkan parlikel melebur variable, e.g. length, volume, time
bersama membentuk batuan sedimen Variabel kontinu - Variabel yang memiliki nilai
numerik. Setiap variabel yang diukur dalam sebuah
Competition - An interaction between organisms percobaan adalah variabel kontinu. Contohnya
that compete for the same resources
panjang, volume, dan waktu
Kompetisi - lnteraksi yang terjadi antara dua
organisme yang bersaing untuk memperebutkan
sumber daya yang sama
Contract - To shorten and thicken, e.g. muscles Corona - Astron cahaya semu di sekitar Matahari,
worKrng Bulan, atau sumber cahaya yang terjadi karena
Kantraksi - Memendek dan menebal, teriadi ketika penyebaran cahaya oleh titik-titik atau bagian kecil
otot bekerja benda dalam atmosfer
Control variables - The variables kept constant in Corrosive - Describes a substance that attacks and
an investigation in order to make it a fair test destroys living tissues, such as in the eyes and skin
Variabel kantrol - Variabel dibuat konstan dalam rssif - Deskripsi dari sebuah zat yang menyerang
sebuah eksperimen agar percobaan yang dan menghancurkan jaringan hidup termasuk mata
dilakukan adil dan kulit
Conduction - The process by which heat is Crumple zone - A part of a car that is designed to
transmitted from one particle to another through a fold up in a collision and reduce the force of any
medium rmpact
Konduksi - Perpindahan kalor melalui zat penghantar na ben*{rran - Bagian dari sebuah mobil yang di
tanpa diseftai perpindahan bagian-bagian zat desain untuk melipat pada saat terjadi tabrakan,
tersebut dan mengurangi gaya dari tumbukan
Convection - The process by which heat is Crust - The thin, outer, solid layer of Earth
transmitted from one place to another by the Kerak B i - Lapisan terluar Bumi yang tipis dan padat
movement of heated particles of a gas or liquid
Crystalline - Describes a solid made up of regular-
Kanveksi - Perpindahan kalor melalui zat penghantar shaped particles, e.g. the mineral grains in a
yang diserlai dengan perpindahan bagian-bagian crystalline rock
zat tersebut
tal - Benda padat yang terdiri dari partikel yang
Convergent boundary - An actively deforming tersusun rapi (berbentuk prisma) seperli butir
region where two (or more) tectonic plates or mineral dalam batuan kristal
fragments of the lithosphere move toward one
another and collide
Culture - To grow bacteria in the laboratory
Bafas konuergen - Wilayah tempat lempeng-
Kultur - Pengembangbiakan bakteri di laboratorium
lempeng tektonik bertumbukkan satu sama lain Curds - A substance that is produced when milk
turns sours, usually used to make cheese
Cooling curve - The line on a graph of temperature
against time, produced when a substance cools Aadih - Suatu zat yang diproduksi saaf susu
down m e n g al am i proses fermenfas i, b i as a nya d i g u n akan
pen ginan - Garis dalam grafik suhu untuk membuat keiu
Kurva
terhadap waktu yang dihasilkan ketika sesuatu
i n/ m engal am i pen uru nan tem peratu r
m end ing
Core - The innermost layer of the Sun. lt has a

temperature of approximately 15 million kelvin, a Day - The length of time it takes for Earth to rotate
temperature high enough to enable thermonuclear once on its axis. Other planets have days of
fusion to occur. All the heat and light energy of the different lengths as they rotate at different rates
Sun originates from the nuclear fusion of hydrogen Hari - Waktu yang dibutuhkan Bumi untuk satu kali
nuclei into helium in the core of the Sun berotasi pada porosnya. Waktu yang dibutuhkan
lnti - Lapisan paling dalam Matahari yang memiliki oleh planet untuk berotasi pada porosnya dapat
suhu sekitar 15 juta kelvin, suhu yang cukup tinggi berbeda tergantung kecepatan rotasinya
seh i n gga mem u n gki n kan perpad u an termon u kl i r Decomposers - Micro-organisms that break down
terjadi. Semua energi panas dan cahaya Matahari the bodies of dead animals, plants and animal
berasal dari fusi nuklir inti hidrogen menjadi helium waste, and release the nutrients back into the soil
di inti Matahari
Dekamposer - Organisme mikro yang memecah
Corona - The outermost layer of the Sun which kotoran hewan, hewan dan tumbuhan yang telah
extends millions of kilometres into space. lt forms mati, dan melepaskan nutrisi kembali ke tanah
whitish-blue rings which are visible during a total
Density - The mass per unit volume, measured in
solar eclipse. The Sun's corona is normally visible
g/cm3 or kg/m3
only during a total solar eclipse, when it is seen as
an irregularly shaped pearly glow surrounding the /Vlassa jenis - Massa per satuan volume; memiliki
darkened disc of the Moon satuan g/cm3 atau kg/m3
Dependent variable - The variable observed or Dwarf planet - Spherical celestial bodies that
measured in order to ludge the effect of changing revolve around the Sun, similar to planets but are
the indeoendent variable smaller in size, and have not cleared other celestial
Variabel terikat bodies from their orbital region. A dwarf planet is
- Variabel yang diukur untuk neither a planet nor a natural satellite
menentukan pengaruh perubahan variabel bebas
Planet kerdil - Benda angkasa berbentuk bulat
Derived quantities - Physical quantities which are
yang mengelilingi Matahari, mirp dengan planet,
derived from the base quantities
namun ukurannya lebih kecil dan belum
Besaran turunan - Besaran fisik yang diturunkan membersihkan daerah orbitalnya dari benda langit
dari kuantitas dasar lainnya. Planet kerdil bukanlah planet atau satelit
Dicot - A plant that is often woody. lt has branched alami
veins in its leaves and usually has brightly-coloured Dye - A substance used to give a colour to something
flowers
Pewarna - Zat yang digunakan untuk memberi
Dikotil -Tumbuhan berkayu. Memiliki vena warna pada sesuatu
bercabang di daunnya dan bunga yang berwarna
cerah
Digestive system - The organ system that breaks
down food into small soluble molecules Earthquake - A movement of Earth's sudace
Sistem pencernaan - Sr,stem organ yang caused by the sudden release of energy stored in
memecah makanan men|adi molekul kecil yang Eadh's lithosphere
dapat larut Gempa bumi - Getaran yang terjadi di permukaan
Dispersal - A process in which seeds are Bumi akibat pelepasan energi dari dalam secara
transported away from the parent plant tiba-tiba yang menciptakan gelombang seismik
Fenyebaran - Pergerakan biji atau benih tumbuhan Ecosystem - All of the different things that affect
dari tumbuhan induknya the home of an organism, e.g. other animals and
olants. the weather and the soil
Displacement - The distance moved by an object
in a oarticular direction Ekosistem - Segala sesuatu yang mempengaruhi
tempat tinggal sebuah organisme, seperli binatang
Perpindahan - Perubahan posisi benda dari
atau tumbuhan lain, cuaca dan jenis tanah
keadaan awal ke keadaan akhirnya
Efficiency - A measure of how good a device
Dissect - To cut open an organism into separate
is at transferring energy in a useful way. Higher
parts in order to study it
efficiency devices waste less energy
Mernbedah - Memotong organisme menjadi bagian
Efisiensi - Ukuran yang dipakai untuk mengetahui
yan g terpi sah u ntu k m em pelajari nya
seberapa baik sebuah alat dalam memindahkan
Distillation - A method to separate a liquid mixture energi secara bergu na/efektif
in which a liquid with a lower boiling point vaporises
Elastic potential energy - Potential energy
and condenses first
stored in elastic materials such as rubber bands,
Distilasi - Sebuah metode yang digunakan untuk bungee cords and springs when they are stretched
memisahkan campuran cairan, dimana cairan or compressed
dengan titik didih yang lebih rendah menguap dan
Energi patensial elastis - Energi potensial yang
mengembu n terlebih dahulu
tersimpan dalam bahan e/asfis seperti karet gelang
Divergent boundary - A linear feature that exists dan pegas ketika diregangkan atau dikompres
between two tectonic plates that are moving away (ditekan)
from each other
Electrical conductivity - The measure of the
Batas divergen - Ciri linear yang ada di antara dua ability of a material to pass electricity through it
lempeng tektonik yang saling menjauh
Kanduktivitas listrik - Kemampuan sebuah
Drag - The frictional force produced on an object as benda untuk menghantarkan listrik
it moves through a fluid
Electrical conductor - A substance that allows
Drag - Gaya hambat yang dihasilkan sebuah benda electricity to pass through it
ketika melewati fluida
Ka nd u kta r I i st ri k - Benda yang d apat men ghantarkan
listrik
336
Electrical insulator - A substance that does not External skeleton - A skeleton found on the
allow electricity to pass through it outside of the body
lsolator listrik - Benda yang tidak dapat rangka eksterna/ - Kerangka yang ditemukan
menghantarkan listrik di luar tubuh
Ellipse - An oval shape that has two focal points. All Extinct - All members of a soecies dies out. so rne
ellipses are ovals, but not all ovals are ellipses soecies is lost
s - Bentuk khusus oval yang memiliki dua titik trunak - Seluruh organisme dari suatu spesles mafi
fokal. Semua elips adalah oval, tapi tidak semua sehingga spes/rgs tersebut musnah
oval adalah elips
Energy - A thing that allows something to do work.

There are several forms of enerov described in
Tooic 10.1 Fahrenheit - A scale of temperature where water
freezes aI32'F and boils a1212'F under standard
ergr - Hal yang memungkinkan untuk melakukan
condition
pekerjaan/kemampuan untuk melakukan usaha.
Ada beberapa bentuk energi di dalam Topik 10.1 firenfieff - Satuan suhu dalam skala termometer
yang menggunakan suhu air membeku pada 32 "F
Energy flow - Flow of energy through the food chain dan suhu air mendidih pada 21 2 'F
"4 n energt - Aliran energi yang terjadi di dalam
Family - A level that ranks below order but above
rantai makanan
genus, in the classification of organisms
Energy transfer diagram - A diagram that shows Siuku - Level yang berada di bawah 'ordo' tapi di
the transfers involved in energy transformation atas 'genus' dalam klasifikasi organisme
g m pe fian ene i - Sebuah
Fats
diagram yang menunjukkan perpindahan yang - A class of food that contains more energy
than carbohydrate. Apart from providing energy, it
terjadi pada saat transformasi energi
^t^^ iluLS
atsu ^^+^ as ^^| i^^,,t^l
^^ i1t il lsutat:Of
Epicentre - The point on Earth's sudace that lies Lemafr - Golongan makanan yang mengandung
directly above the focus lebih banyak energi dibandingkan dengan
Fusaf ge a - Titik di permukaan Bumi yang karbohidrat. Selain sebagai penyedia energi, lemak
terletak tepat di atas fokus juga beftindak sebagai isolator
Evaluate - To make judgements on the strengths Fermentation - When micro-organisms use a

and weaknesses of a model or an investigation source of energy without oxygen and produce a
eniiai - Membuat keputusan mengenai kekuatan useful product
dan kelemahan sebuah model atau penelitian Fermenfasi - Peristiwa saat organisme mikro
menggunakan sumber energi tanpa oksigen, dan
Evaporation - The change of state in which a liquid
menghasilkan sesuatu yang berguna
turns into a gas, below the boiling point of the
substance Fertile - Able to reproduce
tr pora$'i - Perubahan benda cair menjadi gas di ubur - Dapat berkembang biak
bawah titik didih benda tersebut
Filter paper - Porous paper used in filtration
Excretion - Removal of waste products from the rtas $arit?gr - Kerlas berpori yang digunakan
body dalam filtrasi
sfrresi - Proses pembuangan sisa metabolisme
Filtration - A method to separate a solid from a liquid
dari dalam tubuh
en gan - Metode yang digunakan untuk
Excretory system - The organ system which memisahkan zat padat dari cairan
removes urea from the blood. and oroduces and
stores unne Flexible - Describes a substance that bends when
subjected to forces
"Sisfenr eleskresi - Slstem organ yang mengeluarkan
urea dari dalam darah dan mqtbuat serta menyimpannya FJe&sibel - Lentur, mudah dibengkokan
dalam bentuk air seni Fluorescent - A light source that relies on an
Expand - Io get larger electric current passing through a gas tube
ernuai - Menjadi lebih besar f;leqpendar - Sumber cahaya yang bergantung
pada arus listrik yang melewati tabung gas
337
Flower - The part of the plant which contains the Friction - A force between two surfaces that maxes
reproductive organs it difficult for them to move past each other
Bunga - Bagian dari tumbuhan yang mengandung Gesekan - Gaya antara dua permukaan yang
organ reproduksi mengakibatkan kesulitan untuk melewati satu sama
Fluid - A liquid or lan
a gas. The particles are free to
move past each other Fuel cell - A device that converts chemical enerov
Fluida - Zat cair atau gas. Paftiket dapat bergerak from a fuel into electrical energy
bebas terhadap satu sama lain Sel bahan bakar - Sebuah alat yang mengubah
energi kimia dari bahan bakar fosil menjadi energi
Focus (of an earthquake) - The point of release
listrik
of the energy within Earth's crust
Fokus (pada gempa) - Titik pelepasan stress dl Fungus (plural fungi) - A single-celled or
dalam kerak Bumi multicellular spore-producing organism that feeds
on organic matter
Food web - A network of interconnected food
cnarns
Jamur - Suatu organisme uniseluler atau multiseluler
yang membentuk spora dan bersifat heterotrof
Jaringan makanan - Jaringan rantai makanan
yang saling berhubungan Furnace - The place where fuels are burnt in a
power station to produce heat
Force-Apushorapull
Perapian - Tempat bahan bakar fosil dibakar di
Gaya - Dorongan atau tarikan dalam sebuah pembangkit listrik untuk
Fossil - The remains (or imprints) of animals and menghasilkan panas
plants that lived thousands or even millions of years
ago, made by the hard parts of their bodies getting
replaced by minerals
Fosil- Sisa tulang belulang hewan atau tumbuhan Galaxy - A collection of billions of stars held together
yang hidup beberapa juta tahun lalu, Pada by gravitational forces
umumnya, hanya bagian-bagian keras dari hewan Galaksi - Sebuah kumpulan dari milyaran bintang
atau tumbuhan tersebut yang menjadi fosil/menjadi yang terikat oleh gaya gravitasi
mineral (tulang, cangkang, gigi, dan kayu)
Gas - A substance that has, on average, large
Fossil fuel -
Fuels such as petroleum, coal, or
spaces between its fast-moving particles. A
natural gas, which are formed from the remains of gas has very low density, takes the shape of its
dead organisms buried deep underground over
container and can flow
millions of years
Gas - Zat yang, secara rata-rata, memitiki jarak yang
Bahan bakar fosil - Bahan bakar seperti minyak sangat besar/luas antar paftikel yang bergerak
bumi, batu bara, dan gas alam, terbentuk dari
dengan cepat. Gas memiliki massa jenis yang
sisa-srSa organisme mati yang terkubur di bawah
sangat rendah, mengikuti bentuk wadahnya, dan
tanah selama jutaan tahun
dapat mengalir
Fragmental - Describes the texture of rock maoe Generator - A device that converts kinetic enerqv
up of randomly-shaped fragments or grains that do
into electrical energy
not fit together neatly
Generator - Sebuah atat yang dapat mengubah
Fragmen - Deskripsi dari tekstur batuan yang terdiri
tenaga kinetik menjadi tenaga listrik
dari fragmen berbentuk acak atau butiran tidak
tersusun rapi Genus - A principal taxonomy category that ranks
above species and below family. lt is denoted by a
Freezing - The change of state from a liquid to capitalised Latin name
a solid
Genus - Bagian dari sistem taksonomi yang memiliki
Pembekuan - Perubahan benda cair meniadi urutan di atas'spesies' dan di bawah'suku'.
padat
Ditandai dengan nama Latin yang diawali dengan
Freezing point - The temperature at which a liquid huruf kapital
solidifies
Titik beku - Suhu saat zat cair berubah meniadi zat
oadat
]*
338 I
Geocentric - A model of the Solar System that
places Earth at the centre with all other objects
orbiting Earth. This model has been shown to be
tr
Habitat - The place where organisms live
incorrect
Habffaf - Tempat organisme hidup
eosenfrrs - Sebuah model Tata Surya yang
menempatkan Bumi sebagai pusat dari Alam Harmful - Describes a substance that causes some
Semesta, benda-benda langit lainnya mengelilingi damage to the body if swallowed, breathed in or
Bumi. Model tersebut telah lama dibuktikan tidak absorbed through the skin
benar Eerbahaya - Deskripsi zat yang menyebabkan
Germ theory - The idea that lnfectious diseases kerusakan terhadap tubuh ketika ditelan, dihirup,
are caused by microscopic organisms known as atau diserap melalui kulit
germs Haze - Fine particles, dust or smoke in the
*ri kaman - Sebuah ide yang menyatakan atmosphere that reduce visibility
bahwa penyakit disebabkan oleh organisme buf asap - Paftikel halus, debu atau asap di
mikroskopik yang dikenal dengan nama kuman atmosfer yang mengurangi visibilitas
Gills - The organs through which gaseous exchange Heat capacity (of a body) - The amount of
takes place in many aquatic organisms such as fish thermal energy required to raise the temperature
and tadpoles of a substance by 1 'C
dnsang - Organ pernapasan yang berfungsi sebagai pasftas kalor Besaran terukur yang
peftukaran gas yang dimiliki oleh sebagian besar
-
menggam barkan banyaknya kalor yang diperlukan
makhluk hidup di dalam air seperti ikan dan untuk menaikkan suhu suatu zat (benda) sebesar 7 'C
kecebong
Heat energy - This is also known as thermal
Graphite - A soft, slippery form of carbon that energy. lt is a form of energy that transfers
conducts electricity between padicles in a substance through the
rafit -Salah satu bentuk karbon lunak dan licin kinetic energy of those particles. The higher the
yang dapat menghantarkan listrik kinetic energy of the particles in an object, the
faster the particles move, and the higher the
Gravitational energy - A potential energy held by temperature of the object
an object because of its high position compared to
a lower position. lt is energy associated with gravity Fnergi Panas - Disebut juga sebagai energi termal.
Energi panas adalah sebuah bentuk energi yang
ergi gravitasi - Energi potensial yang dipindahkan oleh partikel dalam sebuah zat melalui
berhubungan dengan ketinggian suatu objel</benda.
energi kinetik dari paftikel tersebut. Semakin tinggi
Energi ini berhubungan dengan gaya gravitasi
energi kinetik parlikel dalam suatu benda, semakin
Gravitational force - The amount of force thar cepat parlikel bergerak, dan semakin tinggi suhu
acts on each kilogram of material on a particular benda
planet. On Eadh the gravitational force is
Heating curve - The line on a graph of temperature
approximately 10 N/kg
against time, produced when a substance is
Gaya glrau,itasi - Besar gaya yang dirasakan setiap warmeo up
kilogram materi di planet terlentu. Kekuatan
rua peman asan - Garis dalam grafik suhu terhadap
gravitasi di Bumi sekitar 1 0 N/kg
waktu yang dihasilkan ketika sesuatu dipanaskan
Greenhouse effect - The warming effect on the Heliocentric - A model of the Solar System with
surface of Eafth caused by the layers of greenhouse
the Sun at the centre and the planets in orbit
gases such as carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
around the Sun
k ru ah kaca - Efek pemanasan yang terjadi #osenfris - Sebuah model Tata Surya dengan
di permukaan Bumi karena lapisan gas rumah kaca
Matahari adalah pusatnya dan planet-planet
seperti karbon dioksida di atmosfer
mengelilinginya
Growth - When an organism gets bigger and Herbivore - An animal which feeds on plants
stays bigger
Herbivora - Binatang pemakan tumbuhan
Perturnrlut? an Peristiwa yang terjadi ketika
-
seb uah organ me tu m b u h/ men galam i peru bahan
is Highly flammable - Describes a substance that
dalam ukuran (berlambah besar) burns easily
Mwdah terbakar - Deskripsi dari benda yang
mudah terbakar
339
Human immunodeficiency virus (HlV) - A virus Indigestion - The condltion caused by excess acid
that causes the disease, AIDS in the stomach
l"luman immunodeficiency virus (HlV) - Virus Gangguan pencernaan - Kondisi yang disebabkan
yang menyebabkan penyakit, AIDS oleh kelebihan asam di dalam lambung
Humus - The organic material found in soil Infectious disease - Disease caused by micro-
ffumus - Komponen organik yang ditemukan di organisms known as pathogens which can be
dalam lapisan tanah passed from one person to another
Penyakit menular - Penyakit yang disebabkan
Hydrogen bond - Attractive forces between the
oleh organisme mikro dikenal dengan patogen
hydrogen atom of a molecule with the oxygen atom
yang dapat menular dari satu orang ke orang
of a neighbouring molecule
latnnya
lkatan hidrogen - Kekuatan tarik menarik antara
atom hidrogen dari sebuah molekul dengan atom Inner core - The central region of Earlh, made of
oksigen dari molekul tetangganya solid iron and nickel
Hydrosphere - All the water on or near Earth,

lnti - Bagian dalam Bumi yang terdiri dari padatan
besi dan nikel
which includes the oceans, rivers and lakes
ilidrosfer - Seluruh air yang berada di permukaan Insulation - Material used to reduce the flow of heat
Bumi, termasuk lautan, sungai, dan danau energy from one place to another
lsolasi - Benda yang digunakan untuk mengurangi
Hypha (plural hyphae) - The thin thread-tike
hantaran energi panas dari satu tempat ke tempat
structures that makes up most of a fungus
Iainnya
ffffa -Struktur tipis menyerupai benang yang
merupakan penyusun utama jamur Interlock - To join neatly together
Terikat - Tergabung bersama dengan rapi
lnternal skeleton - A skeleton found inside the body
Kerangka internal - Kerangka di dalam tubuh
lce point - The freezing point of water, equal to 0 'C
or 32 "F or 273 K Invertebrate - An animal without a backbone, e.g.
starfish, jellyfish, worms, molluscs and arthropods
Titik es - Titik beku dari air. Sebesar 0 "C atau 32 "F
atau 273 K lnvertebrata - Binatang tanpa tulang belakang
seperti bintang laut, ubur-ubur, cacing, moluska,
lgneous rock - Rock types formed by the dan arthropoda
solidification of molten rock
Satuan beku - lon - A charged atom or molecule. lt is charged
Tipe batuan yang terbentuk dari
pemadatan batuan cair because the number of electrons do not equal to
the number of protons
lmpulse - A signal transmitted along a nerve fiber. lon - Sebuah atom/molekul yang bermuatan listrik.
It consists of a wave of electricity and chemical Hal ini disebabkan jumlah elektron (muatan negatifl
activity in response to a stimulus yang tidak sama dengan jumlah proton (muatan
lrnpuls- Sebuah sinyal yang ditransmisikan/dialirkan positi| dari molekul tersebut
sepanjang serat saraf yang mengandung
gelombang listrik dan aktivitas kimiawi sebagai
lrritant - Describes a substance that is not corrosive
but can still cause reddening or blistering of the skin
respon dari rangsangan
Iritasi
- Deskripsi dari sebuah benda yang tidak
Independent variable - The variable that is under korosif, namun dapat menyebabkan gangguan
investigation and is changed systematically in the pada kulit
investigation
Variabel bebas - Variabel yang diukur dan diubah
secara srstematk di dalam sebuah penelitian
Indicator - A substance that changes colour in Joule - The unit for measurement of energy, also
acidic and alkaline conditions written as the symbol, J. One joule is a small
lndikator -Zat yang berubah warna pada kondisi amount of energy
asam atau basa Jaule - Satuan yang digunakan untuk mengukur
energi. Simbol yang digunakan adalah J. Satu joule
adalah sejumlah kecil energi
Light energy - The only form of energy that is
visible to our eyes. lt is a type of electromagnetic
energy that travels at a speed of approximately
Kelvin - The Sl base unit of thermodynamic
300 000 km/s. Sunlight is an example of light
temperature, often used in conjuction with the
energy
Celcius degree
iril::lr,,rn - Satuan unit termodinamika suhu dari
ffi€ r ca&aya - Sebuah bentuk energi yang dapat
dilihat oleh mata kita. Energi cahaya adalah sebuah
besaran pokok SI. Sering digunakan sebagai
bentuk energi elektromagnetik yang bergerak
konjungsi dengan derajat Celcius
dengan kecepatan cahaya (sekitar 300 000 km/s).
Kilocalorie - A unit of energy usually used for food. Contoh dari energi cahaya adalah cahaya matahari
One kilocalorie is the same as 4 2OO J
Liquid - A substance that can flow, take the shape
iirkal*:ri - Satuan energi yang biasanya digunakan of its container and is made up of randomly-
untuk makanan. Satu kilokalori sama denqan moving padicles that are very close together
4200J
ai n - Zat yang dapat mengalir, mengikuti bentuk
Kilojoule - A unit of energy equal to 1 000 joules wadahnya dan terdiri dari partikel yang dapat
ou/e - Satuan energi dengan besar sama bergerak bebas dan berjarak dekat antara satu
dengan 1 000 joule dengan lainnya
Kinetic energy - The energy of motion. Any object Lithosphere - The outer solid part of Earth, including
that moves possesses kinetic energy the crust and uppermost mantle
r:rie I ne{ii; - Energi gerak. Setiap benda yang {-sfosfen - Lapisan kulit Bumi yang terdiri dari kerak
bergerak memiliki energi krnetik dan bagian atas mantel Bumi
Kingdom - The first and the largest level, in the Loam - A type of soil comprising a mixture of large
classification of organisms and small grains of rock
er arz - Tingkat pertama dan terbesar dalam Lernpung - Jenis tanah yang mengandung campuran
klasifikasi orqanisme batuan butiran besar dan kecil
Lubricant - A liquid that reduces frictional forces by
separating surfaces
ela;mra.s - Cairan yang digunakan untuk
Lactic acid - An organic compound with the mengurangi gaya gesek dengan memisahkan
empirical formula C3H6O3. Produced when glucose kedua aermukaan
is broken down and oxidised
memilki rumus empiris CsH60s. Diproduksi ketika

glukosa dipecah dan dioksidasi Magma - Molten rock beneath the ground
Lava - Molten rock that escaoes from inside Eafth agr??a - Batuan cair yang posisinya di bawah
through to Eafth's surface tanah
l.;;n* - Batuan cair yang keluar melalui permukaan Malleable - Describes a substance that can be
Bumi dari dalam perut Bumi hammered into different shapes
Leaf - The green part of a plant where most of the l-unak - Deskripsi dari sebuah benda yang mudah
photosynthesis takes place dibentuk melalui proses penempaan
fi{.rr, - Warna hijau pada tumbuhan saat proses Mantle - The layer of Earth beneath its crust
fotosintesis terjadi
mfef - Lapisan Bumi yang berada di bawah
LED - A light emitting diode, a modern form of kerak Bumi
electrical lighting
Melting - The change of state from a solid to a liquid
!- -Diode pemancar cahaya, bentuk modern dari
{L|encair Perubahan benda dari padat menjadi cair
pencahayaan listrik -
Melting point - The temperature at which a solid
l-eprosy - A disfiguring disease caused by a bacteria
turns into a liquid
usfa - Penyakit yang menyerang kulit, sistem saraf
perifer, selaput lendir pada saluran pernapasan
fr Mbwr - Suhu ketika sebuah benda padat berubah
meniadi cair
atas, serfa mata. Penyakit ini disebabkan oleh
bakteri
34'l
Metal - A material that is typically hard, opaque, Mikrometer sekrup - Sebuah alatyang menggunakan
shiny and has good electrical and thermal sekrup berkalibrasi secara luas dipakai untuk !
conductivity mengukur komponen secara tepat seperli
Logam - Sebuah materi yang secara fisik keras. ketebalan suatu plat logam {t
padat, mengkilap dan sebagai kondul<tor, baik
Microscope - An instrument for magnifying very
listrik dan panas yang baik
small things and making them look bigger
Metamorphic rock - Rocks whose structure ano/ Mikroskop - Sebuah alat yang digunakan untuk
or mineral content has been changed by the action memperbesar benda yang sangat kecil agar terlihat
of heat and/or pressure lebih besar
Batuan metamort - Batuan yang struktur dan/
Milky Way - The galaxy that contains our Solar Sysrem
atau kandungan mineralnya telah berubah karena
pengaruh panas dan/atau tekanan Bima Sakti - Galaksi Tata Surya kita berada
Metamorphism - The change in the compositron
Models - Theories, mathematical equations or
of a rock by physical or chemical conditions computer simulations that help scientists to explain
their observations
Metamortisme - Perubahan bentuk dan ukuran
partikel batuan oleh kondisi fizik atau kimia Model - Berupa teori, persamaan matematika
maupun simulasi komputer yang dapat membantu
Meteor - Commonly known as a 'shooting star'. ilmuwan untuk menjelaskan observasinya
A meteor is a meteoroid that is entering Earth's
atmosphere and being heated up to the point of Molecules - A substance that consists of two or
luminosity due to the tremendous air friction. lt is more atoms that are chemically bonded
seen as a streak of light in the sky Molekul - Zat yang terdiri dari dua atau lebih atom
Meteor - Dikenal juga sebagai bintang jatuh, meteor
yang terikat secara kimiawi
adalah benda angkasa yang meluncur di angkasa Monocot - A plant which is not usually woody and
luar, masuk ke atmosfer dan menyala karena has lots of veins running side by side in the leaves.
gesekan udara, pada umumnya habis terbakar It usually has green or brown flowers pollinated by
sebelum mencapai permukaan Bumi the wind
Meteorite - A meteor that survives its journey Monokotil - Tumbuhan yang biasanya tidak
through the atmosphere and hits Earth's surface memiliki unsur kayu dan memiliki banyak vena di
Meteorit - Benda padat srsa meteor yang mencapai dalam daunnya. Biasanya tumbuhan tersebut
permukaan Bumi memiliki bunga beruvarna hijau atau coklat yang
penyerbukkannya oleh angi n
Meteoroids - A small rocky or metallic body in
outer space. Most meteoroids are fragments from Movement - Moving something from one place to
comets or asteroids orbiting the Sun, while others anotner
are collision impact debris from bodies as the Bergerak - Berpindah dari sebuah tempat ke
Moon or other planets. Meteoroids range in size tempat lain
from small grains to bodies up to one metre wioe
Multicellular - An organism made up of more than
Meteroid - Benda langit padat ukuran kecil di one cell
angkasa luar, biasanya merupakan fragmen dari
komet atau asteroid yang mengorbit Matahari. Hat
Multisel - Organisme yang terdiri dari dua sel atau
lebih
lainnya adalah sisa tabrakan dari benda-benda luar
angkasa seperti Bulan atau planet lain. Meteorid Mutualism - An interaction between two oroanisms
berukuran dari yang paling kecil, berupa butiran in which both benefit
hingga yang panjangnya mencapai satu meter Mutualisme - lnteraksi yang terjadi antara dua
Micro-organisms - Very small organisms, most of organis me, ked u any a m en dapatkan m anfaat
which can only be seen under the microscope
Organisme mikro - Organisme yang sangat kecil,
biasanya hanya dapat dilihat melalui mikroskop
Micrometer screw gauge - Neap tides - Particularly weak tides that occur
A device incorporating
a calibrated screw, widely used for precise
when the gravitational forces of the Sun and the
measurement of components like thickness of a Moon are perpendicular to one another, relative to
metal olate Earth, e.g. during the first quarter Moon and the
third quarter Moon
Pasang laut perhani - Terjadi ketika Bumi, Bulan,
dan Matahari membentuk sudut tegak lurus. Pada
saat itu akan dihasilkan pasang naik yang rendah
Obesity - A medical condition where a person is so
dan pasang surut yang tinggi. Pasang laut perbani
overweight that their health is affected
ini terjadi pada saat bulan kuafter pertama dan
kuarter ketiga Obesitas - Penumpukan lemak yang sangat tinggi
di dalam tubuh sehingga membuat berat badan
Nerve - Bundles of hundreds or thousands of berada di luar batas ideal
neurones
Observation - Looking very carefully to gather
Saraf - Ratusan atau ribuan ikatan neuron
information
Nervous system - The organ system in animals Observasi - Meninjau secara cermat untuk
that coordinates the activities of the body mendapatkan informasi
Sistem saraf - Slsfem organ dalam binatang yang Omnivore - An animal which eats animals and plants
mengkoordinasikan aktivitas tubuh
Omnivora - Hewan yang memakan daging dan
Neutral - A substance that has a pH value of 7.0, tumbuhan
and so is neither acidic nor alkaline
Opaque - Describes a substance that does not let
Netral Sebuah zat yang memiliki pH 7.0 sehingga
- light pass through it
tidak asam atau basa
Opaque - Benda tidak tembus cahaya
Neutralisation - The chemical reaction between an
acid and a base Orbit - The path a planet takes around the Sun or
the path a Moon takes around its planet
Netralrbasi - Reaksi kimia yang terjadi ketika asam
dan basa dicampur Orbit - Lintasan yang dilaluioleh sebuah planet
mengelilingi Matahari atau lintasan yang dilalui oleh
Newton - A unit of force, also written as the Bulan mengelilingi sebuah planet
symbol, N
Order - A level that ranks below a class but above a
Newton - Satuan dari gaya, dapat direpresentasikan family, in the classification of organisms
dengan simbol, N
Ordo - Level yang berada di bawah 'kelas' tapi di
Newtonmeter (forcemeter) - A device used atas 'suku' dalam klasifikasi organisme
to measure forces, usually a spring attached to a
scale Organ - Several tissues working together in the
body to perform a specific function
Newtonmeter - Sebuah alat yang digunakan untuk
mengukur gaya, biasanya pegas dengan skala Qrgan - Kumpulan beberapa jaringan yang berkerja
sama untuk melakukan tugas tertentu
Non-metal - A substance that does not have
metallic orooerties Organ system - Several different organs working
together to carry out a pafticular function in the body
Non-logam - Zat yang tidak memiliki sifat logam
Slstem argan - Beberapa organ yang bekerja sama
Non-renewable - An energy source that is limited untuk melaksanakan fungsi tertentu dalam tubuh
because it will run out
Outer core - The layer of Earth between the mantle
Tidak terbarukan - Sumber energi yang terbatas
and the inner core, made up of molten iron and
karena akan habis
nickel
Nuclear power - Using the energy stored in the lnti luar - Lapisan Bumi yang berada di antara mantel
nucleus (centre) of atoms to generate electricity dan inti dalam yang terdiri dari besi dan nikel cair
Daya Nuklir - Menggunakan energi yang tersimpan Oxidising - Describes a substance that provides
pada nuklir dalam inti atom-atom untuk
oxygen, which allows other materials to burn more
meng hasi I kan tenaga I i strik
fiercely
Nutrients - The food substances needed bV an Pengoksid - Deskripsi dari suatu benda yang
organrsm menyediakan oksigen untuk memudahkan benda
Nutrien - Bahan makanan vano dibutuhkan lain terbakar
organisme
Oxygen - The gas taken in from the atmosphere in
Nutrition - Making or taking in food breathing, which is used for respiration in the cells
Nutrisi - Proses pemasukan dan pengolahan zat Oksigen - Gas yang dihirup dari atmosfer ketika
makanan oleh tubuh bernafas, digunakan dalam proses resprrasl se/
Ozone hole - The region in the ozone layer which of the Moon from different anqles durino the lunar
has become thinner due to the oresence of CFCs month
in the atmosphere Fase Eulan - Urutan bentuk Bulan yang terlihat
Lubang ozon - Daerah lapisan ozon yang telah berubah-ubah dari Bumi dalam satu bulan
menjadi tipis akibat dari keberadaan CFC di atmosfer
Phloem - A plant tissue that is responsible for
transporting food
Flaem - Jaringan tanaman yang memiliki peran
untuk mengangkut makanan
Parasite - An organism which takes what it needs
to live from another living organism (known as its Photosphere - The visible surface of the Sun. lt
host). The host is harmed by the parasite has a temperature of about 6 000 kelvin and is
approximately 300 kilometres thick. The visible light
Parasit- Organisme yang hidup dan mengisap of the Sun that we see from Earth orioinates from
makanan dari organisme lain yang ditempelinya
the photosphere
(host)
Fotosfer - Permukaan Matahari yang tampak oleh
Parasitism - An interaction between two organisms mata. Suhu fotosfer sekitar 6 000 kelvin dengan
in which one benefits, the other is harmed ketebalan sekitar 300 kilometer. Cahaya tampak
Parasitisme - lnteraksi terjadi
antara dua organisme dari Matahari yang terlihat dari Bumi berasal dari
yang satu mendapatkan manfaat, sedangkan yang fotosfer
lainnya dirugikan
Photosynthesis - The process by which plants
Particle theory - The theory that all matter is make their own food using energy from the Sun,
made up of parlicles. The theory describes the carbon dioxide and water, to make simple sugars
arrangement and motion of these particles Fotostntesis - Sebuah proses tumbuhan membuat
Teori partikel - Teori yang menyatakan bahwa makanan menggunakan energi dari Matahari,
semua materi terdiri dari parTikel. Teori menjelaskan karbon dioksida dan air untuk membuat
aturan/susunan dan gerakan partikel gula sederhana
Pasteurisation - The process of heating food to kill Phylum - A level that ranks below a kingdom but
most of the micro-organisms and prevent it from above a class, in the classification of organisms
going bad Filum - Level yang berada di bawah 'kerajaan' tapi
Fasteurisasl -Proses pemanasan makanan untuk di atas 'kelas' dalam klasifikasi organisme
membunuh sebagian besar organisme mikro yang
Physical change - A process in which the physical
menyebabkan makanan menjadi basi
form is changed, but not its composition
Penumbra - The area where the light source is only Perubahan fisik - Proses perubahan bentuk fisik,
partially blocked during an eclipse tan pa perubahan komposisi
Penumbra - Area sumber cahaya hanya terblokir
Physical weathering - The breaking down
sebagian saat terjadi gerhana
of materials physically, without change in the
Pesticide - A chemical that kills insect oests chemical composition
Pestisida - Bahan kimia yang digunakan untuk Pelapukan fisika - Pelapukan material secara fisik
membasmi hama tanpa perubahan komposisi kimia
pH scale - A chart of colours to match against the Phytoplankton - Microscopic organisms that carry
colour of a Universal Indicator, in order to oive a out photosynthesis
oH value Fitoplankton - Organisme mikroskopik yang
Skala pH - Sebuah grafik benuarna yang dapat m elaksan akan folosinfesis
dicocokan dengan warna, dihasilkan oleh lndikator
Universal untuk mengetahui nilai pH
Plants - Living organisms which make their own
food by photosynthesis
Phagocytosis - A process of engulfing substances, Tumbuhan - Organisme hidup yang membuat
food for instance, by phagocytes makanan melalu i proses fotoslnfesls
Fagositosis - Suatu proses se/ fagosrt menelan
Polio
atau menggulung sel-sel asing - An infectious disease caused by viruses, that
can result in paralysis and death
Phases of the Moon - The sequence of shapes Palio - Sebuah penyakit menular disebabkan oleh
we see from Eadh as we view the lit-uo surface virus yang dapat menyebabkan kelumpuhan dan
kematian
344
Pollination - A process in which pollen grains are Protein - Food used in the body for growth and
transferred from the anther to the stigma of a flower repair of body
clllnasi - Proses jatuhnya serbuk sari pada tein - Zat makanan yang berfungsi sebagal
permukaan putik pembangun dan pengatur bagi tubuh
Pooter - A simple piece of equipment for picking up Protozoa - Unicellular micro-organisms that are
small invedebrates visible under microscope and belong to kingdom
F*rangkap seran€fga - Alat sederhana yang Protista
digunakan untuk menangkap serangga Pratazaa - Organisme uniselular yang hanya dapat
dilihat di bawah mikroskop dan dari kelompok
Porous - Describes a substance that will absorb Protista
WAIET
Pseudopodia - A temporary extension of the
erpori -
Deskripsi dari benda yang dapat
cytoplasm of an organism
menyerap atr
/3seudopodla - Disebut juga sebagai kaki semu,
Potential energy - Energy that is stored in an
meru pakan perpanjangan sementara yang
object because of the object's shape or position
dihasilkan oleh sitoplasma sel
ergf potensial Energi yang tersimpan di dalam
-
sebuah benda karena bentuk atau posisinya Pyramid of numbers - A pyramid that shows the
number of organisms in each level in a food chain
Precise -
Describes results that, when repeated, are
Urufan p r"ml - Piramida yang menunjukkan
closely grouped together jumlah organisme di setiap tingkat dalam rantai
slsr - Deskrpsi hasil percobaan yang konsisten makanan
d i d apatkan keti ka d i I aku kan beru I ang
Prefixe - A letter olaced before an Sl unit to indicate

multiples of 1O tr
Frefix -
Huruf yang digunakan pada satuan SI untuk Quadrat - A piece of equipment with a known area
menandakan kelipatan 1 0 Ke.;aCraf - Alat yang digunakan dengan area tertentu
Prey-predator - A relationship between prey, an
organism that is hunted by a predator, and an
organism that hunts, kills and feeds on the prey E
Mangsa dan pernangsa - Hubungan antara Radiation - A method of heat transfer that does not
mangsa (organisme yang diburu) dengan require any medium. lt can take place in a vacuum
pemangsa (organisme yang memburu, membunuh Ra si - Perpindahan kalor tanpa memerlukan zat
dan memakan mangsanya) perantara
Primary consumer - An animal that eats plants Radio telescope - An instrument used to detect
Kernsurnen primer - Binatang yang memakan radio emissions from space
tumbuhan Teleskop ra - Alat yang digunakan untuk
Producer - An organism that produces its own food mendeteksi emisi radio dari ruang angkasa
hrr nhninqrrnthocic
Random - Without any predictable pattern
Frodusen Organisme yang menghasilkan
- Acak - Tanpa pola yang dapat diprediksi
makanannya sendiri melalui proses fotosnfesirs
Range - The maximum and minimum values of the
Prominence(s) -
Solar prominences; an eruption independent or dependent variables, e.g. 10 cm to
of a flamelike tongue of relatively cool, high density 54 cm
gas from the solar chromosphere into the corona
where it can be seen during a solar eclipse
,iarak - Nilai maksimum dan minimum dari variabel
bebas dan terikat seperli 10-54 cm
l-idah api tWatahari - Erupsi lidah api yang relatif
dingin, dengan massa jenis gas tinggi dari lapisan Record - Write down observations or measurements
kromosfer pada Matahari ke dalam korona, dapat during a practical investigation
dilihat sewaktu terjadi gerhana matahari Rekam - Pencatatan observasl dan pengukuran
yang dilakukan pada saat melakukan percobaan
Property - A description of the way a substance
looks or behaves
Srfaf - Deskripsi tampak atau perilaku sebuah benda
345
Relax - The opposite of contract. When a muscle is Sankey diagram - A type of energy transfer
relaxed it can be pulled long and thin again diagram that shows the amount of energy that is
Kendur - Lawan dari kontraksi. Ketika otot kendur. transformed in different ways
otot memanjang, dan menjadi tipis kembali Diagram Sankey - Diagram yang menunjukkan
perubahan energi ketika berubah dari satu bentuk
Renewable - An energy source that does not get
ke bentuk lainnya
used up and will not run out
Terbarukan - Sumber energi yang dapat diperbarui Secondary consumer - An animd that eats
dan tidak akan habis herbivores (primary consumers)
Konsumen sekunder - Binatang yang memakan
Reproduction - Making more of the same type of
h erbivo ra (ko ns u m en pri m er)
organisms, producing offspring
Reproduksi - Menghasilkan lebih banyak organisme Sedimentary rock - Rock types formed from the
dengan jenis yang sama, berkembang biak compaction and cementation of sediment
Respiration - The breakdown

Batuan sediment - Batuan yang terbentuk dari
of food to release
pemadatan dan penyemenan sedimen
energy, often using oxygen
Respirasi - Pemecahan makanan untuk menghasilkan Seismometer - Also known as seismograph, it is
energi, seingkali dengan menggunakan oksigen an instrument used to measure the intensitv of an
earth0uake
Respiratory system - The organ system that
Seismometer - Dikenal juga sebagai seismograf
brings air into the lungs and allows gas exchange
adalah alat yang digunakan untuk mengukur
to take place
intensitas gempa bumi
Sl'stem respirasi - Slstem organ yang membawa
udara ke dalam paru-paru dan memungkinkan Sensitivity - Responding to changes in the world
narh tknren naq inside or outside of the body
Sensitifitas - Menanggapi perubahan yang terjadi
Resultant force - The result of adding all the
di dalam atau luar tubuh
forces on an object together, taking into account
their direction Sewage - Human waste and run-off rainwater
Gaya resultan - Hasil dari penjumlahan beberapa Selokan - Sistem pembuangan limbah rumah
gaya yang bekerja terhadap suatu benda dengan tangga dan aliran air hujan
memperlimbangkan arah
Shield volcano - A broad, domed volcano with
Richter scale - A scale used to measure the gently sloping sides, characteristic of the eruption
intensity of an earthquake of fluid, basaltic lava
Skala Richter - Skala yang digunakan untuk Gunung berapi perisai - Gunung berapi
mengukur intensitas gempa bumi berbentuk miip perisai, tercipta karena magma
yang keluar sewaktu erupsi bersifat sangat encer
Root - The parl of a plant that is underground
Akar - Bagian dari tumbuhan yang berada di bawah Skeleton - A strong structure found in animals
tanah which may be inside or outside the body. lt is
important for protection, support and movement
Root hair cells - Specialised plant cells found
Kerangka - Sebuah struktur kuat yang dapat
close to the tips of growing roots which increase
berada di dalam atau di luar tubuh hewan. Sanoat
the surface area for the absorotion of water and
penting untuk melindungi, mendukung, dan
mineral ions
aergeraK
Sel akar rambut - Sel tumbuhan khusus yang
berada pada ujung akar dan berfungsi untuk Smog - A form of air pollution in which fog is mixed
meningkatkan luas permukaan untuk menyerap air with smoke
dan mineral Asbut - Suafu bentuk polusi udara kabut bercampur
dengan asap
I
Softness - How easily a substance can be deformed
Kelembutan - Ukuran kemudahan suatu benda i
Sandy soil - A type of soil containing a large dapat mengalami perubahan bentuk I
proportion of large-grained sand particles

Tanah berpasir - Jenis tanah yang mengandung
sebagian besar butiran besar partikel pasir
Solar eclipse - When the Moon is directly between Specific latent heat - The amount of heat
the Sun and a point on the surface of Earth, leaving required to change one state of a substance to
this point in shadow another without a change in temperature
e ana w'tatahari - Kondisi Bulan berada di r fafen - Besaran terukur menggambarkan
antara Matahari dan Bumi. Bayangan Bulan banyaknya kalor yang diperlukan untuk sebuah zat
menutupi sebagian permukaan Bumi berubah keadaan tanpa ada perubahan suhu
(padat menjadi cair, atau cair menjadi gas)
Solar flare - A brief eruption of intense high-energy
radiation from the Sun's surface. lt occurs when Specific latent heat of fusion - The amount
magnetic energy that has accumulated in the solar of heat needed to change 1 kg of a substance
atmosphere is suddenly released from solid state to liquid state without a change in
e buran n'tatahari - Sebuah letusan singkat temperature
dengan radiasi tinggi dari permukaan Matahari. Hal Kalor lebur - Banyaknya energi yang diperlukan
ini terjad ketika energi magnetik yang terakumulasi untuk mengubah 1 kg zat dari bentuk padat ke
di atmosfer Matahari tiba-tiba dilepaskan bentuk cair tanpa diseftai perubahan suhu
Solid - A substance that has a fixed shape and Specific latent heat of vaporisation - The
volume, made up of regularly-arranged, touching amount of heat needed to change 1 kg of a
particles that vibrate in fixed positions substance from liquid state to gas state without a
enda padaf change in temperature
- Sebuah benda dengan bentuk dan
volume tetap, terdiri dari parlikel yang teratur, l{alar uap - Banyaknya energi yang diperlukan
bergetar dalam bentuknya yang tetap untuk mengubah 1 kg zat dari bentuk cair ke
bentuk gas tanpa disertai perubahan suhu
Soot - A black powder, consisting mainly of carbon
which is produced by incomplete combustion Spring tides - Particularly strong tides that occur
J*faga - Serbuk hitam, komponen utamanya terdii when Earth, Sun and Moon are in a straight line,
dari karbon, dihasilkan dari pembakaran yang tidak e.g. during a solar eclipse or a lunar eclipse. lt is
sempurna stronger during a solar eclipse. Spring tides are
very strong because of the combined gravitational
Sound energy - A mechanical wave produced by forces of the Sun and Moon acting on Earth
the vibration of matter. lt requires a medlum such
Pasang laut purnama - Terjadi ketika Bumi,
as a solid, liquid or gas to be transferred from one
Bulan, dan Matahari berada dalam suatu garis
point to another
lurus. Pada saat itu akan dihasilkan pasang naik
ergi bunyi - Gelombang mekanis yang dihasilkan yang sangat tinggi dan pasang surut yang sangat
oleh vibrasi materi. Energi bunyi membutuhkan rendah. Pasang laut purnama ini terjadi pada saat
media (dapat berupa zat padat, cair, atau gas) bulan baru dan bulan purnama
untuk merambat dari satu titik ke titik lainnya
Starch - A type of carbohydrate that is stored in
Specialised - A cell which is adapted to carry out a olants as food reserve
particular function in the body
Pafi - Salah satu jenis karbohidrat yang disimpan
usus - Sel yang melaksanakan fungsi terlentu di oleh tanaman sebagai cadangan makanan
dalam tubuh
Steam point - The temperature at which boiling
Species - Animals or plants of the same type that water changes into steam at standard atmospheric
can reproduce together successfully to produce pressure. This is assigned a value of 100 'C
fertile offspring
Titik didih - Suhu ketika air mendidih dan berubah
pesles - Binatang atau tumbuhan dengan jenis menjadi uap pada tekanan atmosfer standar (100 "C)
sama, dapat berkembang biak bersama untuk
menghasilkan keturunan yang subur Stem - The pad of a plant that suppods the leaves,
buds and flowers
Specific heat capacity - The amount of heat Batang - Bagian dari tumbuhan yang menyangga
.1
required to raise the temperature of kg of the
daun, tunas, dan bunga
substancethrough 1 Kor 1'C
ayrasifas $ra/or spesifik -
Besaran terukur Stimuli - An agent that causes a reaction
menggambarkan banyaknya kalor yang diperlukan $fi'mulf - Agen yang dapat menyebabkan reaksi
untuk menaikkan suhu 1 kg suatu zat (benda)
sebesar 1 Katau 1'C
347
Streamlined - An object that is shaped so that air Tension - The force that stretches a material, for
can move smoothly over its surface and so lower example the forces in a rope
the air resistance of the object Tegangan - Gaya yang dihasilkan dari tarikan
Streamline -
Sebuah benda yang dibentuk agar benda, contoh gaya yang dihasilkan tali
udara dapat mengalir melalui permukaannya dan
mengurangi hambatan udara dari benda tersebut
Texture - Describes the way the grains in a rock fit
together
Sublimation - The chanqe of state from a solid Tekstur
directly to a gas
- Deskripsi butiran-butiran di dalam sebuah
batuan beftaut
Sublimasi - Perubahan benda padat meniadi benda
Thermal conductivity - A measure of the ability
9as
of a material to pass heat energy through it
Sunspots - Darker areas that temporarily appear Konduktivitas panas - Kemampuan sebuah
on the photosphere as a result of cooler surface benda untuk menghantarkan energi panas
temperatures caused by the Sun's rising magnetic
field in that area Thermal conductor - A substance that allows
heat energy to pass through it
Bintik matahari - Bagian dari permukaan Matahari
(fotosfer) yang dipengaruh i aktivitas magnetis Konduktor panas - Benda yang dapat
hebat, yang mengakibatkan terhambatnya konveksi menghantarkan panas
sehingga membentuk daerah bersuhu lebih dingin
r'lan lorlihal nalan
Thermal insulator - A substance that does not
allow heat energy to pass through it
Symbiosis - An interaction between two organisms lsolator panas - Benda yang tidak dapat
in which at least one of the organisms benefits menghantarkan panas
Sr'mbiosis- lnteraksi yang terjadi antara dua Thermistor - A type of electrical component whose
organisme setidaknya satu organisme diuntungkan resistance is temperature dependent. Therefore
Synovial fluid - The fluid formedby the synovial used to measure temperature
membrane which lubricates the joint Thermistor - Komponen atau sensor elektronika
Cairan sinovial - Cairan yang dihasilkan oleh yang dipakai untuk mengukur suhu
selaput sinovial dan berlindak sebagai pelumas
Thermocouples - A thermoelectric device used for
untuk sendi dan tendon
measuring temperature, consisting of two wires of
different metals
Termokopel - Perangkat termoelektrik yang
digunakan untuk mengukur suhu, terdiri dari dua
Taxonomy - The science of classification of kabel logam yang berbeda
organisms based on their characteristics and
similarities
Thermometer - A tool to measure temoerature
Taksonomi Termameter - Alat ukur suhu
- Salah satu slstem yang digunakan
u ntu k m en g g ol o ng kan
o rgan i s me berd asarkan Thermostat - A component which senses the
karakteristik dan kesamaannya temperature of a system so that the system's
temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint
Tectonic plates - Huge slabs of rocks from
Earth's crust and upper mantle Termostat - Alat yang dapat mendeteksi suhu dan
mengatur suhu secara otomatis
Lempeng tektonik -
Lapisan terluar Bumi terbuat
dari lempengan tipis dan keras Tsunamis - A series of huge waves created as a
result of earthquakes under the sea
Temperature - A measure of how hot or cold an
object is with respect to some standard Tsunami - Serangkaian gelombang besar yang
dihasilkan akibat gempa bumi di bawah laut
Suhu - Besaran yang menyatakan derajat panas
dingin suatu benda Thrush - A fungal disease of the skin
Tendons - A connective tissue that connects Guam - Penyakit kulit yang disebabkan oleh jamur
muscle to the bone
Tissue - Many specialised cells working together to
Tendon - Jaringan yang menghubungkan otot carry out a particular function in the body
dengan tulang
Jaringan - Sekumpulan sel khusus yang bekerja sama
untuk melaksanakan funcsi tertentu di dalam tubuh
Toxic - Describes a substance that can cause death }r s*finr*,am g - Jumlah gaya yang besarnya
when swallowed, breathed in or absorbed through tidak sama sehingga menghasilkan gaya resultan
the skin
. :lts Benda (bersifat racun) yang dapat Unicellular - An organism that has only one cell
- u,:srlir/rr' - Organisme yang hanya memilikisatu se/
menyebabkan kematian jika ditelan, dihirup, atau
diserap melalui kulit Universal Indicator - A mixture of dyes that
produce a range of colours depending on the pH
Transfer (energy) - When energy moves from
place to place or object to object of the solution being tested
$t:*rnim ham fera* i) - Terjadi ketika energi

lr: kalar {,friiysrsa{ - Campuran pewarna
menghasilkan berbagai warna sesuai dengan pH
berpindah dari satu tempat ke tempat lainnya
dari larutan yang diuji
Transform boundary - Also known as transform
fault, it is a strike-slip fault occurring at the
Universe - All of physical existence; the Universe
contains billions of galaxies
boundary between two plates of Eadh's crust
han t r:lsfc asi -
Lempeng-lempeng
/.:ila $ {r$ffi - Seluruh eksistensi fisik yang ada;
Alam Semesta terdiri dari milyaran galaksi
bergerak saling bergesekan tanpa menyebabkan
adanya penghancuran pada litosfer Upthrust - A force produced when an object rests
in a fluid. The upthrust acts against the welght of
Transformation - When energy changes from one
the object
form to another during a transfer
ii'i,V (j m arr kr:,
"? -q - Gaya yang dihasilkan ketika
i,r"firrs asl -
Terjadi ketika energi berubah dari
sebuah benda berada dalam cairan. Dorongan ke
satu bentuk ke bentuk lainnya pada saat berpindah
atas rnelawan berat benda
Transparent - Describes a substance that lets light
pass through it Urea - A waste produced by the body from the
breakdown of excess orotein
':
rarp i' {t - Tembus pandang
ilrea - Kotoran yang dihasilkan oleh tubuh dari
Trophic level - The position of an organism in a pemecahan sisa protein
food chain. Producers such as plants are always in
'''i
the first trophic level
i:;i t;a n fr$ ,i - Posisl dari organisme di dalam
llt
v
sebuah rantai makanan. Produsen seperti
Vaccination - A way of stimulatlng the immune
tumbuhan selalu berada pada tingkat perlama
system and producing immunity to a disease
Tuberculosis (TB) - A bacterial disease which can - Penanaman bibit penyakit yang sudah
,fi,'i{.errlt;i.$i
affect the lungs and other pafts of the body and dilemahkan ke dalam tubuh manusia agar kebal
causes many deaths around the world every year terhadap penyakit tersebut
f'.l;,ber&crfelsis - Penyakit yang disebabkan oleh
Vaccine - The material out into the bodv in a
bakteri yang dapat mempengaruhi paru-para dan
vaccination
bagian tubuh lainnya menyebabkan kematian di
dunia setiap tahun &.s - Bibit penyakit yang sudah dilemahkan
dimasukan ke dalam tubuh melaluiproses
Turbine - A set of metal blades in a oower station vaksinasi
that are rotated by steam
"{arbin Valid - The suitability of an investigation to answer
-
Satu set baling-baling logam di dalam sebuah
the questions being asked; an investigation will
pembangkit listrik yang digerakan oleh wap air provide valid data and conclusions if a fair test is
carried out and the results are reliable
Sahih - Kecocokan sebuah investigasi untuk
menjawab pertanyaan yang diberikan. Sebuah
Umbra - The darkest part of a shadow, where the investigasi akan menghasilkan data dan kesimpulan
light source is completely blocked during an eclipse sahih ketika tes yang dilakukan adil dan hasil dapat
w?ht a - Bagian tergelap di belakang benda tidak dipeftanggungjawabkan
tembus cahaya yang terkena sinar, disebut juga
sebagai bayang-bayang inti
Vaporisation - The process of changing a liquid
into gas
Unbalanced - Forces that are uneoual in size so {?erz g u a an - Proses p erubahan dari cair menjad i gas
that thev oroduce an overall resultant force
Variation - The differences between individuals of Weight - The force that attracts an object towards
the same species and between different species the centre of a planet. Weight is caused by gravity
Variasi - Perbedaan antara individu darl spesies Berat - Gaya yang menarik suatu benda jatuh ke
yang sama dan dari spesies yang berbeda pusat/inti sebuah planet. Gaya berat disebabkan
oleh gravitasi
Vernier caliper - A measuring device that consists
of a main scale with a fixed jaw and a sliding jaw Whey - The remaining liquid after milk has been
with an attached vernier curdled
Jangka sorong - AIat ukur yang terdiri dari skala Air dadih - Cairan yang dihasilkan susu setelah
utama dengan rahang tetap dan rahang geser mengental
dilengkapi dengan vernier
White blood cells - Cells in the blood that defend
ji^^^^^
Vertebrate - An animal that has an internal skeleton ^^î^^+
ouoil tDL utDvd-u
which includes a backbone made up of a number Set darah putih - Sel datam darah yang berfungsi
of small bones called vertebrae untuk melawan penyakit
lleftebrata - Binatang yang bertulang belakang
Vibrate - To move back and forlh about a fixed E
g
oosition
Bergetar - Bergerak berulang-ulang dari sebuah X-ray photograph - Taking an image using X-rays
posisi teftentu which can see through the soft tissue of the body
Virus - Tiny parasite which can reproduce only within Foto sinar-X - Sebuah cara untuk mengambil
gambar dengan menggunakan sinar-X yang dapat
the cells of another living organism
melihat melalui jaringan lunak di dalam tubuh
Virus - Parasit terkecil yang hanya dapat berkembang
biak di dalam sel organisme hidup lainnya Xylem - A plant tissue that is responsible for
transpoding water and minerals. lt also provides
Volcano - A rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass support for the plants
object, such as Eadh, that allows hot lava, volcanic
ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber
Xilem - Jaringan tanaman yang memiliki tugas untuk
menyerap air dan mineral. Xilem juga berfungsi
below the surface
sebagai penopang tubuh tanaman
Gunung api - Rekahan dalam kerak Bumi tempat
keluarnya cairan magma atau gas atau cairan
lainnya ke permukaan Bumi
Volume - The amount of soace that a substance or

Year - The length of time it takes Earth to complete
object occupies
one orbit around the Sun. Other olanets have
Volume - Banyaknya ruang yang ditempati oleh different year lengths from Earth as they take
suatu obiek different times to complete an orbit of the Sun
Tahun - Waktu yang dibutuhkan oleh Bumi untuk
mengelilingi Matahari. Waktu yang dibutuhkan
sebuah planet untuk mengelilingi Matahari dapat
Waterproof - Describes a substance that does not berbeda dengan waktu yang dibutuhkan oleh Bumi
let water pass through it untuk mengelilirtgi Matahari
Kedap air - Benda yang tidak dapat kemasukan Yeast - A type of fungus used for making bread and
atau dilalui oleh air alcoholic drinks
Weathering - The wearing away or change in Ragi - Sejenis jamur, digunakan untuk membuat roti
appearance or texture (of something) from long dan minuman yang mengandung alkohol
exposure to the air Yoghurt - A food made by the action of bacteria
Petrapukan -
Proses alterasi dan fragsinasi batuan on milk
yang disebabkan proses fisik, kimia, dan biologi Yogut't - Sebuah jenis makanan yang terbuat dari
karena pemaparan yang sangat lama di udara proses bakteri di dalam susu
lndex
Carnivore, 68-70, 75
Categoric variable, 31 6
Cell, 3, 7, 87, 90, 1 04, 130, 2'14, 216,
Abiotic, 66 Decomposers, 44-45, 66, 68-69, 79
Absorbent. 54-1 55. 1 68
1
249-250,263-264 Density, 1 41, 1 50-1 51, 229-230,232,
Cellular respiration, 250
Accurate, 140, 256,299, 31 4-31 5, 325 293,319,325,327
Celsius, 296
Acid rain,90,92,174 Dependent variable, 31 2, 31 4, 31 6
Cementation, 190
Acidic, 90, 1 44, 1 66, 168, 172, 174, Derived quantity, 319
Centrifugation, 1 28, 1 30
177-'t78, 1 80, 1 82, 194, 204 Dicot, 1 10
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
CFCS, 90-91, 94 Digestive system, 2, 14,20,23
(ArDS), 3s Characteristic, 4-5, 102-104, 1 06-1 07,
Dispersal, 79
1 1 2-1 1 3, 1 28, 1 80, 1 90-1 91 , 1 96,
Adaptation, 82, 84, 86-89 Displacement, 318,324
284
Air resistance, 225 Distillation, 129-130
Chemical changes,144
Algal bloom, 91 Divergent boundary, 201
Chemical reaction, 152, 176, 191,
Alkali, 1 65, 1 68-1 69, 176, 178, 182 Drag,2'13,225
240-241
Alkaline, 168,172,182 Dwarf planets, 2B'l -282
Chemical weathering, 1 93-1 94
Analyse,284,316 Dyes,170,172
Chlorophyll,'16, 36, 223
Anomalous result, 138-139, 314
Chromatography, 129-130, 132
Antacid, 181
Chromosphere, 275-280
Antagonistic muscles, 26
Antibiotics, 32,48-49
Cilia,46-47
Cinder, 203-204 Ecosystem, 63, 66-67, 72,78-79
Area, 17 ,60, 63-64, 67 , 81 , 92, 94,
Circulatory system, 19, 23 Elastic potential energy, 241, 244-246
1 1 3, 1 98, 202-203, 207, 234, 276,
Class, 102, 107 Electrical conductivity, 1 56-1 57
319-320,323
Classify, 101-1 02, 1 04-1 06, 112, 127, Electrical conductor, 1 56
Asteroid, 27 0-27 1, 281 -282, 285
196 Electrical insulator, 1 56-1 57
Asteroid belt, 270, 282,285
Clay, 67, '144, '154, 191 , 1 96 Ellipse,272-273
Atmosphere, 69, 91, 94, 1 98, 208,
Climate change, 94, 113 Energy flow, 72-73
276-277
Atoms, 128, 135, 141, 262, 300 Collide,121,205 Energy transfer diagram. 247
Colony, 34 Epicentre, 204-205
Aurora, 280
Comet. 281. 285 Evaluate, 31 7
Axis,272-274,277,316
Commensalism, 74-75 Evaporating/evaporation, 1 33, 142, 306,
Community, 63, 66, 72, 187 318
Compaction, 190 Excretion, 4-5, 7, 22, 73
Competition, 74 Excretory system, 14, 23
Bacteria, 32-36, 40-43, 45-48, 50, Composite volcano, 203-204 Expand, 1 23, 125, 141 , 1 44, 1 51 , 1 93,
52-54, 63, 67 -78, 79, 1 80-1 82 Compost, 45 218, 297-298,300-301 , 305
Balanced, 220, 231-232 Compress, 121 -1 22, 1 25-1 26 External skeleton, 1 05-1 06
Balanced ecosystem, 72, 7B-79 Compression, 325 Extinct, 94, 1 1 3, 208
Base.164.168 Condensation, l33,139
Base quantity, 319 Condensation point, 133, 139
Beetroot, 1 80 Conduction, 304, 306
Bimetallic strip, 300 Conservation of energy, 255-256
Biological weathering, 1 93-1 94 Consumers, 66, 70, 72-73 Families, 102
Biomass, 70-71 Continuous variable, 31 6 Fats. 21 6
Biosphere, 1 98 Contract, 14, 26, 193,298, 300-301 Fermentation, 53-54
Biotic, 66 Control variables, 31 2 Fertile, 113
Boiler, 261 Convection, 201 , 280,293, 304-306 Filter paper, 10, 129, 132, 316, 31I
Boiling, 1 33, 139, 1 44, 294-295 Convergent boundary, 202 Filtration, 129-130
Boiling point, 1 29-1 30, 134, 139, 142, Cooling curve, 1 38 Flexible, 29,149, 152
152,157-158,297 Core, 199-200, 279 Flower,22,64, 69, 84, 110
Brittle, 152, 157, 180 Corona, 279-280 Fluid,27,203,257
Corrosive, 90, 1 65-1 68, 31 3 Fluorescent, 259-260
Crumple zone,234 Focus, 9-1 0, 204-205, 245
Crust, 1 99, 201-202,204,208 Food web, 6'l ,72-73, B0
Carbohydrate, 242,250 Crystalline, 188 F or ce, 21 2-21 7, 220-222, 224-225,
Carbon dioxide, 7-8, 22, 34, 41, 67, 69, Culture. 35. 43 227 -228, 231, 233-234, 277 -27 I,
78, 81, 90-91, 93-94,120,182 Curds, 42 300-301 , 31 9, 325
Fossil, 93-94, 1 86-1 87, 1 90-1 92, Internal skeleton, 105 1 21, 1 91, 195, 201-202, 204-205,
207-208,261-263 Invertebrate. 65. 1 05-1 07 216, 224-225,240-241 ,250, 272
Fossil fuel, 90, 236, 265 lons,128,180 Multicellular, 14, 34, 37, 103
Fragmental, 1BB lrritant. 131 . 166-167 Mutualism. 74. 76
Freezing, 1 33, 1 38-1 39
Freezing point, 133, 138-139
Friction, 204-205, 21 6-221, 224, 254
Fuel cell,264
Fungus (plural fungi), 32-34, 37,40,45, Joule.241-242.302 Neap tides, 278
48-49, 51 , 63-64, 67-68, 72, 103 Nerve, 1 4-1 5, 18, 23,'104
Furnace, 261 Nervous system, 23, 49
Neutral, 1 72, 1 76-1 78, 1 80
Neutralisation, 1 65, 1 76, 1 78, 1 81
Kelvin, 279-'lB0 , 294-296,31 9, 326 Newton, 21 5, 222-223, 244, 31 9, 325
Kilocalorie,242 Newtonmeter (forcemeter), 2'l 5, 231
Gas, 7, 41, 67, 69, 88, 91, 93-94, Kilojoule, 241 Non metal,128-129, '149, 156-158
1 1 8-1 22, 1 24-1 25, 1 26, 128, 1 30, Kinetic energy, 234,240-241 , Non renewable, 262
1 33, 1 39, 142, 144, 151 , 157 , 174, 245-246, 253, 256, 261, 295 Nuclear power, 262
1 82, 1 98, 203-204,206,225,228, Kingdom, 34, 36, 1 01 -1 04, 1 09 Nutrients, 35, 44, 67 , 69,79, 196, 217
241 , 247 ,261-262, 279-281 ,285, Nutrition. 4-5. 8
301, 304-306, 31 B
Generator. 64. 235
Genus, 102-103
Geocentric, 287-288 Lactic acid, 41-42,175
Germ theory, 54-55
Lava, 192, 203-204 0besity, 242
Gills. 89. 108 Leaf, 1 6, 21-22,70, 1 1 0, 230 0bservation, 7, 32, 1 35-1 36 , 272, 283,
Graphite, 156 LED, 259-260 287,318
Gravitational energy, 246 Leprosy, 40 0mnivore, 69-70
Gravitational torce, 222 Light energy,'16, 73, 21 4, 249, 279 0paque,153,297
Greenhouse effect, 90, 94, 281 Liquid, 7, 42, 119,122-127, 1 29-1 30, Otbit, 27 0, 27 2-27 5, 27 9, 281, 283-285
1 33-1 34, 1 37-1 39, 141-142, Orders,102
Growth, 4-5, 7, 17, 35, 73, 77, 93, 242,
250 144, 148, 1 55, 1 57, 1 66, 1 99, 21 8, Organ system, 14
225, 228, 241, 281, 297 -298, 301, Outer core, 1 99-200
303-306, 318, 320, 323-324 0xidising, 167,313
Lithosphere, 198,204 0xygen, 5, 7-8, 35, 37-38, 53, 67,
Loam, 196 78-79, 87-90, 120, 128, 141 , 144,
Habitat, 62-70, 81-82, 84, 86, BB, 92, Lubricant, 218-219 1 67, 1 98, 249-250, 281 , 31 3
94 0zone hole, 94
Haze, 90
Heat capacig, 302-303, 305
Heat energy, 94, 1 56, 218, 253, 256,
260,281,293,301-305 Magma, 1 91-1 92, 20'1,203-204
Heating curve, 1 36,1 38 Malleable, 153, 157 Parasite, 36, 76
Heliocentric, 287-2BB Mantle, 1 98-1 99, 201 -203 Parasitism, 74, 76
Herbivore, 69-70 Melting, 94, 1 1 3, 133, 157 ,294 Particle theory, 1 19, 121
Highly flammable, 313 Melting point, 1 29, 1 33, 1 38-1 39, 1 52, Pasteurisation, 53-54
Human immunodeficiency virus (Hl$, 157-158,180 Penumbra, 276
39, 48 Metal, 4, 64,92,124,128-129, 153, Pesticide, 77, 80-81 , 91 -92
Humus. 67. 196 156-158, 160, 199, 236,239,212, pH scale, 165,172
Hydrogen bond,141 222, 27 0, 298-300, 304, 327 Phagocytosis, 36
Hydrosphere, 1 98 Metamorphic rock, 191 Phases of the Moon, 275
Hypha (plural hyphae), 37-38 Meteor, 285-286 Phloem. 16. 1B
Meteorite, 285-2Bo Photosphere, 279-280
Meteoroids, 285-286 Photosynthesis, 1 6, 22, 67 -68, 7 0, 7 8,
Micro organisms, 33-37, 39, 41, 43-50, 88, 90, 249-250, 256
52-55, 57, 63, 66 Phylum, 1 02, 1 06, 1 09-1 1 0
lmpulse, 1B Micrometer screw gauge, 322 Physical changes, 144, 193
Independent variable, 31 2,
31 4, 31 6 Microscope, 3, 9-1 1, 1 3, 34-37, 39, 55 Physical weathering, 1 93
Indicator, |65, 168-170, 172, 180 Milky Way, 286,288 Phytoplankton, 88
Indigestion, 181 Models, 1 35-1 36,282,287-288 Plants, 7-8, 11 , 16, 17-19, 21 , 34,
Infectious disease, 36, 46, 53-54 Molecules, 23, 128, 1 41 , 256, 286, 42, 44-51 ,63-64, 66-73, 78-79,
Inner core, 200 293, 300 81-82, 84-86, 88, 90, 92, 94,
Insulation, 260 Monocot, 1 1 0 1 03-1 05, 1 09-1 1 3, 144, 170, 194,
Interlock, 1 88, 1 90-1 92 Movement,4-5, 8, 18, 23,25,27,88, 1 96, 207 -208, 245, 262, 27 0
3s2
Polio, 39, 49, 52 Shield volcano, 203 238-240, 245-247,
Transf ormation,
Pollination, 79 Skeleton, 24-26, 105, 107 249-251, 253, 255, 257, 265
Pooter, 61, 65 Smog, 90-91 Transparent, 153
Porous, 1 54, 1 88, 1 90 Softness, 1 5 1 Trophic level, 70, 72-73
Potential energy, 24 1 , 244-246, 249, Solar eclipse, 276-280 Tuberculosis (TB), 46, 48
zao Solar flares, 279-280 Turbine,253,261
Precise, 102,215,314 Solid, 41-42, 119, 121-122, 124-127 ,
Prefixes, 320 1 29-1 30, 1 33-1 34, 1 36-1 39, 1 41 ,
Prey predator, 74-75 1 57, 1 80, 1 90-1 9'1 , 1 98-1 99, 21 4,
Primary consumet, 70, 72-73 227 -228, 232, 28't, 300-301, 303
Producer, 66, 70, 7 2, 1 04 Soot,90-91 Umb'a,276
Unbalanced, 221
Prominences, 280 Sound energy, 241
Specialised, 14-16 Unicellular, l4, 34, 36-37, 103
Propefty, 126, 129, 1 50-1 51, 205, 325
Species, 62, 7 4-7 6, 1 02-1 03, Universal indicator, 172
Pseudopodia, 36
113-114,208 Universe, 285-286, 288, 27 1 -27 2
Pyramid of number, 72-73
Specific heat capacity, 302-303, 305 Upthrust, 231-232
Specific latent heat, 303 Urea,7
Specific latent heat of fusion, 303
Specific latent heat of vaporisation, 303
Quadrat, 60, 64 Spring tides, 278
Starch, 10, 12, 104
Vaccination, 48-49, 52
Steam point, 294
Vaccine, 54-55
Stem, 7, 16,18,22,68, 83, 86, 109,
Valid,317
297
Vaporisation, 303
Radiation, 81, 280, 299, 304-306 Stimuli,lB
Variation, 1 13-1 14, 298
Radio telescoDe, 2BB Streamlined, 89,21 3, 225
Vernier calioer. 321
Random,60,121 Sublimation. 130. 133
Vertebrate, 24, 105, 107
Range, 33, 67, 1 06, 172, 214, 216, 221 , Sunspots, 280
Vibrate, 125, 134, 300
281 , 285,294, 297-259, 317 , 326 Symbiosis, 74-75
Virus, 32, 34, 3S-40, 46-50, 55
Record, 7, 61 , I 1 4, 187 , 212,224, 298, Synovial fluid,27
Volcano, 191 , 202-205
31 4-31 5
Volume, 1 21, 1 23, 1 26, 229-230, 300,
Relax, 14, 26
31 9-320. 323-325.327
Renewable, 236-238
Reproduction, 4-5,7 ,73,79, S1
Respiration, 4-5,7 , 67 ,78, 250 Taxonomy,102
Respiratory system, 23, 46 Tendons, 26
Resultant force, 221 Tension, 259
Waterproof, 109, 154
Richter scale, 206 Texture. 41-42.188 Weathering,'144, 1 93-1 94
Root, 1 6-1 8, 22, 51 , 68, 82-83, 86, 92, Thermal conductivity, 1 56-1 57 Whey, 42
.1
1 09-1 1 0, 1 44, 94, 1 96 Thermal conductor, 1 56, 304 White blood cells, 47, 49. 130
Root hair cells, 17 Thermal insulator, 156
Thermocouoles. 299
Thermometer, 294, 297-299,301 , 326
Thermostat, 300
Thrush, 40, 49 X ray photograph, 24
Sandy soil, 196 Tissue, 3, 1 4, 1 6-1 8, 26-27 , 46-51 Xylem, 16, 18, 51
Sankey diagram, 225 foxic,77,167,297,313
Secondary consumer, 70, 73 Transfer, 35, 240-241 , 245, 247 ,
Sedimentary rock, 1 90-1 91 253, 255-257, 260-261, 27 0,

Seismometer, 206 304-305
Sensitivity, 4-5, 39 Transform boundary, 202 Yeast, 37-38, 41, 49, 53, 103
Sewage, 34, 45, 91, 81 Transform tault,202 Yoghurl, 34, 41 , 43,53, 1 66
Acknowledgements
Cover image: fay Ondreicka/Shutterstock
Alamy: WILDLIFE GmbH, p37 (right); Nicola Margaret, p4l (bottom); matt griggs, p49(right); Nigel
Cattlin, p50 (bottom); david pearson, p53; Science Photo Library, p86 (left); National Geographic
Image Collection, p89 (left); PHOTOTAKE Inc., pl06 (bottom left); Daniel Dempster Photography,
p113; Celia Mannings, p146 (right); Art Directors & TRIB pt52 (left); Eye Ubiquitous, p153 (top);
blickwinkel, p170; Isolated Products (John Boud), pl82; sciencephotos, p262 (top); p264; Simon
Balson, p213 (right); Stocktrek Images, Inc., p270 (left); epa european pressphoto agency b.v., p27l;
PSL Images, p272; Art Directors & TRIP, p2S5 (left); Corbis: Nigel Pavitt / JAI, p8; Courtesy of the
Chemical Heritage Foundation Collections: pl48 (left); Ecoscene: Sally Morgan, p174; FLPA: Nigel
Cattlin, p5l; Dirk Funhoff, p80 (top); ImageBroker, p86 (bottom); Fotolia: p5 (top); p6 (top); p33; p35;
p37 (left); p39 (bottom); p44 (top); p63; p70 (top); p8z (bottom); p83; p85; p89 (left); p104 (bouom
right); p106 (middle left, bottom left);p149 (top);pt77; p212 (bouom left); p218; p219 (top); p229 (top);
p232; Getty Images: David Haring, p98 (bottom); feffrey Coolidge, p151; Ian Couchman: pl7; Institut
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p25 (left); p26;p30; p39 (top); p4l (top); p42;p44 (bottom); p46;p50 (top); p6S; p69;p7r (top); p80
(left); p82 (top); p84; p87; PB8; p99 (bottom); pl00; pl04; p106 (top left, top right, middle left, bottom
middle); pl09;p127;p120;p123;p124;p125;pr35;p142;p148 (bottom); pl50; pl54; pl52 (right); pl53
(bottom); pl56 (top); p156 (bottom); p159; p164 (bottom right); pl65; p167 (bottom); pt67(top); pt75;
p178 (bottom); plTB (top); pl81; pl89; p200; p207; p240 (excluding Electrical energy); p247; p253;
p254; p25s (top); p256; p251; p252; p257; p258; p259; p243; p26t; p267; p2t2 (left, bottom righr); p213
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(bottom); Martyn F. Chillmaid, p214; Andrew Lambert Photography, p2l5; Susumu Nishinaga, p219
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Darren Forbes . Richard FosberV .

oxford university press is a department of the university of oxford.

First Edition published in 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

You must not circulate this work in any other form

ISBN 978 967 2Ir3 23 2

Scientific Inquiryt Cells under an

t.7 Animal and plant tissues 18

Ghapter 6 Material properties 148

Chapter 7 Acids and bases 164

*Note: Scientific enquiry should be taught prior to other chapters.

Learning outcomes ... Practical activity Science in Contextl

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= bnh lffi2a hoE lo

h a6 s rtd 6^d hts ,Do tu

lbt Dr.w astund daqBmshowres ek

d.dl th( .b4 ..i|d

Stalagmites and stalactites in Gong Cave, Pacitan, Indonesia

We are surrounded by living things and non-living things.

O lmagine you are

Look carefullv at oictures

Growth and reproduction

Sensing the world around you @ nri kept a plant by the

After this topic you What is a microscope?

A water flea (inset) cannot be seen with

body tube - holds

Step 4: Select the lowest power

Step 6: Turn the coarse focus

Step 7: Turn the fine focus knob to

O (9 onto a crean (O methvrene brue to

;"";'y,:Uiili: iJ;i ii.lfl,:|, ru:::!;:ff:'J'" ilit"1'"f":r

nucleus - this is cell membrane - this is the outer layer

vacuole - tiny spaces containing air, fluid or

Modelcells Summary questions

Has cell membrane, cltoplasm and a nucleus @ foot at the animal

Usually absent but if , Has a large central

Glycogen granules Foodstorage Starch grains

Animal cell Plant cell

After this topic you should

Specialised animal cells

.r. Cell organisation begins with

Muscle cells - Contract and Bone cells - Suoport the softer

axon to transfer eiectrical

cell membrane no nucteus/ flexible shape to pass Summary questions

@ Oraw a table as below

Ciliated epithelial cells - These cells are covered with tiny,

Cells for making food

c.) C), C--- O

-r, A leaf cell

@ Siti observed the cells

The contraction of muscle tissue enables movement. The

skeletal muscle cardiac muscle

Vascular tissue consists of

gall bladder pancreas

large intestine urinary bladder

A Organs {ound in a dissected frog L An MRI scan

- carries air in and out

@ Using the diagram of

Aftar thic innin rrnr r

. digestive system provides

lver Circulatory system

O *nu do tissues usually

After this topic you should