00 CSS European History Notes

History of Modern Europe
CSS SYLLABUS
Part I
Chapter One: The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (1789-1815) ……………… 3
Chapter Two: The Concert of Europe (1815-1830) ……………………………………..23
Chapter Three: Forces of Continuity and Change in Europe (1815-1848)………………29
Chapter Four: The Eastern Question (1804-1856) ………………………………………..36
Chapter Five: Unification of Italy ……………………………………………………………39
Chapter Six: Unification of Germany …………………………………………………………..42
Chapter Seven: The Origins of First World War (1890-1914) …………………………………..45
Part II
Chapter Eight: Europe between War Period: WWI aftermath ………………………………………51
Chapter Nine: Dictatorships in Europe ………………………………………………………………..55
Chapter Ten: The World War II and its effects on Europe …………………………………………….63
Chapter Eleven: Post- War Europe …………………………………………………………………….75
Chapter Twelve: Cold War Europe (1955-1991) …………………………………………………… 89
Chapter Thirteen: Europe (1991-2012) …………………………………………………………… 101
Compiled by Shakoor Kakar

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CSS Syllabus
Part –I (Marks 50) Part –II (Marks 50)
I. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era VIII. The First World War and its aftermath
(1789-1815) The War (1914-1918) and peace treaties
The causes of French Revolution The League of Nations
The consequences of Revolution
Napoleon rise to power IX. Dictatorships in Europe
Creation of Empire Fascism in Italy under Mussolini
The Continental system Hitler, Nazism and Germany
The fall of Napoleon Russia , Marxism Revolution and its working under
II. The Concert of Europe (1815-1830) Stalin
The Congress of Vienna Great Depression and its effects on Europe
Metternich’s Era Appeasement
The Concert of Europe and Congress System The Arm race
Balance of Power The Sudetenland Crisis (1938)
III. Forces of Continuity and Change in Europe The distraction of Czechoslovakia (1939)
(1815-1848)
Nationalism X. The World War II and its effects on Europe
Liberalism
Romanticism XI. Post- War Europe
Socialism The post war settlements
Industrial Revolution The United Nations
Colonialism Economic Recovery of Europe, Marshal Plan
Consequences German Question
IV. The Eastern Question (1804-1856) NATO
The nature of the Eastern question Decolonization
The Crimean War
Russo Turkish War 1877 XII. Cold War Europe (1955-1991)
Consequences Effects of cold war
V. Unification of Italy Warsaw Pact (1955)
The effects of the revolution of 1848 The European Economic Community (EEC)
The obstacles to unification Nuclear Non-Proliferation Agreement
Cavour and the unification of Italy Charles Degaule and France
The Process of Italian unification (1859-1871) Spread of communist regimes in Europe
VI. Unification of Germany
The rise of Bismarck XIII. Europe (1991-2012)
Diplomatic events The Gorbachev and Disintegration of USSR
The Austro-Prussian War (1866) The reunification of Germany
The Franco- Prussian War (1870-1871) The Balkan crisis of 1990s
The triumph of Bismarck and process of unification The European Union
Role of Europe in War against terrorism
VII. The Origins of First World War (1890-1914) Global Economic Crisis and Europe
Formation of Alliances and Counter Alliances
The Balkans War (1912-1913)
The outbreak of the World War 1
3 CSS: European History
Historical Background of Modern Europe
 Before embarking on the landmark event of Modern Europe; The French Revolution, we should briefly discuss
the period of transition of Europe from Medieval to Modern age. Without historical background many of the
subsequent events would be incomprehensible for the students of History. Renaissance is the essential
background of Modern Europe. It was actually the Modern Europe in making.
 It is conventional to divide human history into Ancient, Medieval, and Modern periods (Time periods Details)
 The transition of Europe from Medieval to the Modern age was characterized mainly by Renaissance and
its variant features, age of Discoveries, and Reformation and climax; the age of reason, (details)
 “While in Modern times, if two events molded and directed the course of human destiny, they were French
Revolution (political), and Industrial revolution, (economic), and so on…
i. Renaissance:
 Italy was the cradle of Renaissance: (details) Students and merchants of other parts of Europe visited
Italy…
 It ushered an era of change in attitude toward conventional believes in all walk of life.
 It released new progressive and secular forces, brought development in philosophy, theology, religion,
sciences, art.
 Humanism (Anthropocentric Apporach) was the prominent feature, intellectual movement that advocated
the study of history and literature, advocated secular and progressive learning and activities. Man’s role on
earth was more secular
 Participation of the individual in civic affairs.
 Advocated the liberty of thoughts, spirit of enquiry, rationalism,
 Humanism, Secularism, Individualism, was prominent feature.
 Development of Nationalism, decay of feudal system, Many other Secular Political thoughts…
ii. Discoveries:
 Many discoveries in the field of Science and geography; Newton, Galileo, Copernicus, Columbus, Vasco
Digamma, etc, (details)
 Discovery of America 1492 and the route Cape of Good Hope 1498, Austria, Circumnavigation of
Earth,1505,
 These discoveries broaden the horizon of minds, the venue of trades, movements, interaction, the sphere of
social sciences and cultural studies etc
iii. Reformation
 Meanwhile in Germany, another move toward secularism was in progress. Martin Luthar (1517) raised
standard of revolt against Roman Catholic Church, Protestant emerged, It became national movement in
Germany, because…
 Many German Princes saw in it an opportunity to weaken Holy Roman Empire1, and gain independence
from them, The start of Nationalism, Secularism…
 Main features of Reformation, Protestantism were: Salvation by faith alone without the erstwhile role of
Catholic Roman Pope. Before Pope was all in All, A king with divine rights, conferring it to other king as
well. Opposition of hereditary principle in clergy, Each man can serve Bible and God in his own calling
not only in church. Marriage divorce matter not dictated by church, Bible is only authority not Pope, priest
etc. This was the severe blow to Roman Catholic Church and Pope, priests etc…
 This bitter struggle resulted into 30 year war (1618-1648) and treaty of Westphalia The Thirty Years War
(1618-48) is often seen as Europe’s last religious war. Details….
Three events influenced renaissance
 The Sack of Constantinople in 1453 by Ottoman, the wide scale of Christian Scholar to Europe fully loaded
with books, and Ideas.
1 Holy Roman Empire: 962 AD to 1806 AD, The napoleon Conquest brought about its end. It was confederation of 350 states
include the areas of Whole Europe
 In the wake of the Black Death, 1351, faith in the power and significance of the church declined.30 Million
death
 The Invention of Printing Press by John Gutenberg in 1454
 French, German and Spanish Invasion of Italy in 1494 to 1530, It spread to other parts of Europe from
Italy.
iv. The Age of Reason 1600’s and 1700’s: The consequence of Renaissance:
The Age of Science of the 1600s and the Enlightenment of the 1700s, also dubbed as a whole, the Age of Reason,
The Renaissance greatly contributed to the Age reason. People began looking for secular answers to various
problems. It introduced countless new concepts to European society. These ideals still greatly permeate modern
society today.
a. Scientific Revolution 1600’s

In the seventeenth century, a new generation of thinkers who rejected this notion started a movement known as the
Scientific Revolution. Industrial revolution of was the next phase of the Scientific revolution.
Descartes, Deductive reasoning: To start with a premise and to then discard evidence that doesn't support the
premise
Sir Francis Bacon Inductive Reasoning: gather evidence and then reach a conclusion (Scientific Method)
Others, Nicolaus Copernicus d. 1543 Galileo Galilei d. 1642, Isaac Newton d,1727
b. The Age of Enlightenment 1700’s

 The principles of the Enlightenment were in some ways a continuation of the discoveries and theories of
the Scientific Revolution in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
 Enlightenment philosophers argued that knowledge can be derived only from experience, experiment, and
observation and reasoning.
 Rigorous application of the scientific method can answer fundamental questions in all areas of inquiry. The
human race must be educated.
 The ideas of the Enlightenment clashed with Church dogma. Most Enlightened philosophers considered
themselves to be followers of deism.
 Their scientific ideas and finding shock the foundation of Bible and old testament
 Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Leviathan (1651) - life is "nasty, brutish, and short" - people are naturally bad
and need a strong government to control them.
 John Locke (1632-1704) Voltaire (1694-1776) Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778)
 Later on in late 18th century onward Romanticism represented reaction against emphasis on reason, they
stress emotion and contemplation on nature. They trusted emotion and spontaneous feeling more than cold logic.
v. The Seven Years War (1756-63)

Between Catholic league and Protestant league, The Seven Years War engaged Austria, France, Russia, Spain,
Sweden, and Saxony against Prussia and England. The purpose of the war was many fold. At the Peace of Paris in
1763, the war concluded, and Prussia got to keep all of its territory, including Silesia. France ceded Canada to
Britain, the U.S. interior to Spain, and removed its armies from India. It did, however, get to keep the West Indies.
At this point, Great Britain became the supreme naval power. 2
1600-1789: Is also known The Age of Monarchs, It was characterized by….
Absolutism: A system of Government in which king’s power were not limited by constitutional restraints.
2
In Political systems prevalent in Europe England was somewhat of an exception. The Glorious Revolution of 1688
concluded a long struggle between Parliament and the Stuart kings and essentially replaced the absolute
monarchy with a constitutional monarchy, in which laws limited the monarch’s powers.
Divine rights of King: They received their authority from God, answerable only to God. The Roman Catholic
Church and Clergy enjoyed the important position.
The feudal/Nobles: They were Semi cores of the monarchs (core) The courts were dominated by hereditary
Nobles. Later one The feudal were to share power and influence with wealthy merchant…
Enlightened Despotism: (1763-89) The philosophers urged ruler to use their power for the good of general
people. They did not support democracy. Thomas Hob
The French Revolution 1789
The most important events in both French and European history, It marks the rise of the 3rd class. Historians agree
unanimously that the French Revolution was a watershed event that changed Europe irrevocably, following in the
footsteps of the American Revolution, which had occurred just a decade earlier.
Based on revolutionary principle of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity; generated new political forces, swept France
and was responsible for the overthrow of many absolute monarchies and feudal lord in The whole Europe.
French Monarchy: All the other European Rulers of 18th Century; Frederick of Great Prussia, Catherin of Russia,
Joseph II of Austria were greatly moved by the spirit of the age of reason and reforms. But it was not so with the
French Monarchy (The Bourbons)3. Both Louis XV and Louis XVI utterly incompetent and rigid.
The Causes of French Revolution

“Waqt karta hai parwarish Barsoo; Haadsa Aik Dam nai Hota”
Expected Dimensions of the Questions

Q: 2016: The connection between the ideas of French Philosophers and the revolution was indirect and remote. The
philosophers did not preach revolution rather they undermined the faith of people in the old order. Discuss. (20)
Q: 2012: What were the similarities and differences in the views of Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau?
Enumerate their achievements.
Q: 2011: Do you think the French revolution was inevitable? Defend your opinion.
Q: 2010: A little part of the middle of the 18th century, the mental Revolution –necessary fore-runner of the actual
revolution had already taken possession of the major section of French society (F.Scheville).Discuss it
Q: 2009: “The French Revolution was precipitated by economic factors and the train which had been laid by
finance”. (Guedella). Comment.
Q: 2006: Was the French Revolution inevitable? Could it have been averted? Discuss.
Q: 2004: Highlight the influence of French philosophers to bring about French revolution of 1789.
Q: 2001: Write down the main causes of the French Revolution.
Q: 2000: The Philosophers exposed the French Society in such a way that the Revolution (1789) became inevitable.
Discuss.
Introduction
For the Sack of Convenience we shall divide the Causes into Social, Political, Intellectual and Financial.
“Ideas shapes the actions of people”
3 The Bourbons succeeded France in 1598. Under Louis XIV (1643-1715) France made tremendous progress. Their Only remain
rival in Europe was England under William III. In the age of Louis XV (1774-92) the French declined started and resulted in great
catastrophe of the French Revolution 1789.
1. Social Causes:
o “The nobles fight, the clergy pray, the people pay” French maxim
o Three classes or Estates;
i. Clergy: First Estate: (2 % population with 20% of land) 130000 clergy, out of Total population 25000000
o In lieu of spiritual services they were granted large estate) and many privileges. It was an hereditary class,
 They did not pay taxes, while did not contribute anything to state economy. The peasants were to pay tithe
tax to them.
 Eg, Archbishop of Strasbourg had annual income of 300000 Dollar, kitchen made of silver, 180 horses,
ii. Nobles: Second Estate (3% population with 25% land) Royal aristocrate, 150000 nobility out of Total population
25000000
 Lazy, idle life, Most absentee land lords. Depended on the taxes of peasant living and working in their
estates.
 Exclusive fishing, hunting shooting rights.
 The key jobs were reserved for them.
iii. The Commoner: The Third estate: (95% of the population) the rest of the people, Peasants, Middle class-
shopkeepers, merchants, lawyers, Urban workers.
 They did not have any political right or privileges.
 They all were almost under the yolk of serfdom, slavery to their feudal lords. Heavy punishment for
breaking feudal laws.
 The peasants were four-fifth, subjected to triple taxation, they pay the taxes to the king, to Church and land
lords. The net result was that they paid almost 4th fifth of their produce.
 Taxes, Taille land tax, Vingtiems income tax, Gabelle Salt tax, Tithe levied by clergy on Crops,
 “After paying all taxes the French peasant were left only with 20% of their income”
 The unmarried peasant had to do compulsory military training.
The rise of Bourgeoisie: (The town people)

 The special characteristic of 18 Century was the rise of a new class Bourgeoisie, they stood between clergy
and nobility on one hand, and commoners on the other.
 They were merchant, traders, shopkeepers, lawyers. But they also belong to unprivileged class, and
subjected to taxation.
 They were extremely enlighten people and became intellectually far superior to Nobility and Clergy.
 They became inspired by the French Philosophers and American Revolution. They attacked they privileges
of the Clergy and Nobility. They became very dynamic section of the Third estate. They were in forefronts
of the Revolution.
 “The only class which has both mind and money” Voltaire
 “They were the real maker of Revolution”
2. Intellectual Causes
 The French philosophers were the masterminds of the Revolution, and in the hard times in France before
1789 really pushed the people to revolt. The characteristics of the French philosophers, their ideas, theories,
etc were the backbone of the Revolution.
 “They did not preach revolution, and were usually ready enough to lend support to any absolute monarch
who was prepared to patronize them and adopt their teachings” Thompson
 The Philosophers thought had fostered a critical and irreverent attitude toward all existing institutions.
 "It is too soon to tell" was the reply that Zhou En-Lai gave to a question about the impact of the French
Revolution on human civilization.
Montesquieu: d. 1755
 His influence was great in political sense.
 Montesquieu traveled through much of Europe to observe people and political constitutions. He stayed in
England for eighteen months and praised Britain's constitutional monarchy.
 Himself as a lawyer in his book “The spirit of Laws” He stood for the separation of Power. Magnum opus
in pol science
 All kinds of stakeholder have the right to discuss and amend the law.
 He was opposed to republicanism and disliked democracy, which he saw as mob rule. He saw government
as benefiting from the knowledge of society's elite
He was both catholic and monarchist,
Voltaire: d. 1778
 Like Montesquieu, he developed an admiration for British institutions, freedom of press and jury.
 Voltaire had also been influenced by Newton and Locke. He disliked theories not supported by observation
and experiment.
 He flooded French society with plays, poems, satires, histories, philosophical tales, diatribes, anti-biblical
pamphlets.
 His chief attack was Church and Clergy, the worst enemies of free thought. However he was not atheist. He
was Deist.
 He was also not a republican. He supported reforms in French monarchy. Stood for benevolent despotism.
 He showed remarkable capacity of writing satiric verses as weapon against French society, and nobles and
clergy, and undermined even the faith of privileged classes under themselves.
 He write numerous plays, novels, histories, lampoons etc
 He was essentially a destroyer.
 “He was intellectual ruler of His age”
Jean Jacques Rousseau: d. 1778

 “There would have no revolution but for Rousseau, there was a magic in what he say” Napoleon
 Personally he was immoral, with uneasy life, unsuccessful in several professions, and not faithful to his
own wife and children, yet he swayed France with his ideas.
 “Man is born free but everywhere in Chain” His ideal was the ‘state of nature’ where man live with
freedom. People makes contract and sacrifice this state of nature in order to enjoy the benefit of
government.
 He explained “how by means of social contract the state was created” Under social contract Ruler are
servants, if they failed masses have the right to change the Government.
 His theory was “the Sovereignty of General will” Also by Thomas hobs and John Lock . General will
should be the ruling force of society.
 Unlike the other, he wanted the wholesale destruction of French institutions, he wanted government by the
people for the people.
 All societies are artificial, sweep away all the false fabric of society.
Holbach: indicated this vices of King, slavery, To his atheism, materialism were the only true philosophies of life,
“Religion and political errors have changed the world into a valley of tears”
Diderot: editor of encyclopedia,
Analyses
 “The seeds sown by these remarkable writers fell upon a fertile soil” Milet
 “The 18th century writer sapped the foundation of ancient regime”
 “They did not preach revolution, and were usually ready enough to lend support to any absolute monarch who
was prepared to patronize them and adopt their teachings” Thompson
3. Political Causes
i. Degeneration of French monarchy
 The weak successor of Louis XIV,
 Louis XV “His rule was nothing but confusion, scandal, and injustice” Comte
 Louis XVI when ascended the throne in 1774 was only 20 years old. And his princes 19, though religious
and Moral but lacked all qualities of leadership.
 He was too much under the influence of His Young Queen Marie Antoinette daughter of Queen of Austria
Maria Theresa. As a foreigner, arrogant and extravagant she was hated by French.
 The monarchy failed in solving the economic crises, curtailing the expenditure of Court and privileges of
Nobility and Clergy.
 “Louis XVI seeing resignation of one official said” How fortunate you are, I wish I could resign too”
ii. Absence of National representative Institution

 There was Absence of National representative Institution like English Parliament
 There was one medieval institution “State General” an assembly of Three Estates. But it had not met since
1614. Moreover it too had not legislative power and to oppose the schemes. It was summoned very rarely
by king.
 It met in three bodies separately, the nobles, the Clergy and the commoners. The vote of two states as a
whole could outweigh the the vote of third.
 Rotten French administration, ill-defined and overlapping jurisdiction of various dept,

 Legal system was full of confusion
iii. Centralized and despotic GOvt

 “I am the state” Louis XIV
 All Europe except England and Switzerland was under the despotic rule under the logic of Divine rights.
 The French administration has been highly centralized, everything was decided by Council at Versailles,
Deprived all the local official of their role and say.
iv. Influence of American Revolution

 Ironically in The revolt of American colonies in 1776-83 against England, France had joined them against
England. The French soldiers fought in leadership of Lafayette against England.
 Their declaration of bill of rights, constitution based on the principle of equality, liberty and fraternity, and
separation of Power as enunciated by Montesquieu.
 Deeply influenced the returning French soldiers
v. The worn out Feudal system in France

 Unlike in other European countries, the feudal system in France lost it vitality, The nobles enjoys
exemption but deprived from their authorities and powers.
4. Religious Causes
 The Catholic Church and Protestants rivalry at its peak
 Though Christianity had been torn asunder in 16th century, event than the Catholicism remained the religion
of state in France and Italy, Spain. The Catholic Clergy in France still remain very influential in state
affairs and enjoyed many privileges.
 Church held 20% of land (20% of land with One lac 30 thousands populace)
 There were serious differences between Protestants and Catholics. The Protestants considered the pope as
merely a Roman Prince.
5. Economic Causes: The short-term and immediate factors

 There had been considerable economic progress in 17th Century under Colbert ministry, but situation
deteriorated.
 France was under massive public debt, by financing Seven year war and American revolution
 Feudal lord and church controlled the larger part, on other hand Industry was growing rapidly, the power
was shifting toward middle class
 Sever difficulties in trade among the nations of Europe… separate and undefined custom barriers…
 The commoners bear the brunt of taxation. Almost Fifty percent amount was snatch from Commoners,
while the Royal and upper class had a luxurious life.
 The only way to save state from bankruptcy was to persuade the nobles and Clergy to surrender their
ancient privileges and subject themselves to taxation, but they all remain adamant.
 Turgot was appointed in 1774-76 but his policies were opposed by nobility and clergy and was dismissed.
“Turgot and I are the only persons who love the people” Louis XVI
 Jacques Necker 1776-81 He raised loans to fight against England in American Revolution. He issued a
pamphlet which drew the people attention toward colossal expenditure at court. Martie Antoinette
persuaded King to dismissed him. The dismissal of popular Necker was blunder. Necker was reappointed
after the pressure of Paris mob.
 The short-term and immediate factors were primarily economic: government debt, a financial crisis, and a
bad harvest year and food shortage. The financial crisis led the king to call a meeting of the Estates General
in 1789, and from there events cascaded out of control.
Why Revolution started in France
 The worn out Feudal system in France, unlike in other European Countries
 Another reason was the presence of enlighten middle class which was not to be found in other European
countries
 The Economic conditions were worse than in France than other Country
The Course of French Revolution
The Ten years Course of French Revolution can be studied under the following five Main heading: The State
General; The National Assembly (1789-91; Legislative Assembly (1791-92); The Convention (1792-95); The
Directory (1795-99)
1. The State General
 In 1776, Louis XVI (in the wake of acute financial crises) tried to increase taxes to fund Seven year war
and the Americans’ fight for independence, but the plan for a new tax was rejected by wealthy and
powerful nobles and clergymen. He was forced to borrow money to help the rebellious Americans. The
economic conditions deteriorated.
 May 1789: After the grave financial Crises and failure to convince the Nobles and clergy, the king called
The Estate General (after 174 years) Its decisions had been always advisory not binding.
 It was agreed that the number of Third estate would be equal to the combined strength of the other two
estate (hitherto, it was not the case, and policy was one vote one estate) It was decided that the voter of
each province could send suggestion “cahiers” All of the Cahiers were unanimous in supporting a
monarchical rule and demanding reforms and abolishing inequalities.
 The two grave issues during the meeting emerged.
 The Third estate demanded a joint Session of all the Estates, hitherto it was separate.
 The third Estate also demanded “vote by heads not by order”
 This dispute developed in a national Crises. The Clergy, Nobility and King opposed this setup. The third
Estate was adamant. The King threaten to use force. The Paris filled with Mob supporting the Third Estate
stance.
10 June 1789: The third Estate declared itself as National Assembly.
20 June 1789: The king opposed it and shut the door of the Hall. The Third estate held meeting outside the Hall on
a tennis Court by the Oath of Tennis Court decided they would not disperse till new constitution was drafted. This
was the beginning of popular revolt. The King meanwhile dismmiessed the popular finance minister Necker.
14 July 1789: The Paris Mob was infuriated and on 14 July stormed the Bastille (A prison) the symbol of Bourbon
Despotism. The mob murdered the governor and released the prisoners. This was hailed as the end of Absolutisms
and marked as beginning of Great French Revolution. The 14 th July is celebrated as a national day by the French
ever Since.
In October 1789, Women played an important part in the revolutionary events in France, including the march on
Versailles to bring Louis XVI back to Paris, where he would be more accessible and accountable to the people.
Women received no equality in (Declaration of Rights of Man and citizen) Thousands of hungry, angry women of
Paris, fed up with high prices and bread shortages, seized arms and cannon, marched 12 miles to Versailles to
express their frustrations to the National Assembly and the king. Upon arriving at Versailles, the mob stormed the
palace, killed guards, (The queen nearly escaped the death) and demanded that the king and his queen, Marie
Antoinette return with them to live in Paris. Next morning the king and queen were taken into coaches to Paris
surrounded by marchers carrying heads of some guards on their pikes. Likewise, the National Assembly left
Versailles and returned to Paris. Lafayette as head on National Guard succeeded in restoring order.
2. The National Assembly 1789-91
The third Estate had already declared itself as National Assembly on 10 June 1789. After the storming of Bastille the
civil authority Broke down. The power was captured by Paris Commune. They raised the National Guard. A new
tricolor flag was adopted. The mob Violence increased in whole France. The administrative collapsed in all over the
country. Anarchy prevailed. The noble began to flee.
1. Declaration of Rights of Man and citizen: 27 August 1789:
The national assembly realized the danger. So in August session it passed a number of reform which completely
destroyed the ancient regime. The National Assembly adopted the declaration of Rights of Man and citizen It
embraced Enlightenment ideals like liberty, equality, freedom from oppression, freedom of the press, and the right
to property.
All the privileges abolished. The equality of all man was proclaimed. The taxes levied on all the citizens. Feudal,
and Church taxes abolished. The old administrative system was abolished and replaced by local elected bodies. The
church and noble’s property was confiscated.
2. New Constitution:
 Under the inspiration of Mirabeau and Sieyes the national assembly drew up a new constitution based on
separation of power
 Monarchy was retained, but king was to be a constitutional ruler and had no power over army. He had no
absolute veto power.
 A unicameral Legislative assembly was to be elected. Only active citizen (who pay taxes) could caste vote.
 The member of National Assembly were not allowed to stand for election in Legislative Assembly. (This
was a grave blunder, the legislative assembly was to deprived from the best man of the country)
 King Under duress signed the constitution. He tried to flee the country with his family. He was captured
and declared as enemy of state as he was in league to the émigrés who had fled and now were persuading
the foreign countries to invade France. This shock the vanity of French nation. And the king also lost the
little remaining respects among French masses.
3. Legislative Assembly (1791-92)
OCT 1791: It was made of 750 members and met in oct 1791
1. Two Groups in Assembly
 Constitutionalist: Led by Lafayette who supported Constitution of 1791 and supported limited monarchy.
 Radicals: Led by Danton Marat and Robespierre, who wanted to continue the revolution and to achieve
social and political democracy, abolishing Monarchy completely.
2. The Quarrel between King and Legislative Assembly: When the legislative assembly passed decree
confiscating the property of the émigrés, and to end feudalism, the king used suspended veto. The Assembly
convinced that the king was in secret league with the émigrés and not loyal to constitution.
Activities of Emigres: Meanwhile the large number of powerful emigres noble and clergy lead by the younger
brother lobbying other states to help them overthrow the new regime in France. Marie Antoinette made appeal to her
brother to intervene to restore Louis Xvi. This fear was a great uniting force and entire nation combined together to
fight the emigres and their foreign allies. Prussia and Austria issued a declaration threatened France with an
invasion if the king and Queen was not treated with respects. The emigres succeeded and finally persuaded Austria
and Prussia to invade France 1792.
Danton rose to the occasion. His strategy was to crush the royal support inside. King was suspended making him and
his family virtual prisoner; and reorganized the armed forces of revolutionary France. A large number of Royalist
massacre in September 1792.
Thus Danton saved revolutionary France from Utter Collapse.
4. The Convention (1792-95)
Since the constitution of 1791 had failed (It retained Monarchy) and it was decided to call a new national convention
to draft a new constitution. The Convention was divided into three political groups
The rise of Political Clubs and Radical Leaders:
1. The Girondins: Moderate republicans. Mostly well to do bourgeoisie
2. The Jacobins: Extremist revolutionaries, and through their clubs they were very organized. They wanted social
and political democracy. They were mostly supported by Proletariat and Paris Communes. Their leaders were
Danton, Robespierre and Carnot.
3. The Plain or Marias: A very large number belong to this group led by Sieyes. They had no fixed policy and took
decisions on merit.
The head committee of the Convention was the Committee of Public Safety, which started the reign of terror,
worked to suppress dissent and protect the revolution. The Committee was led by Robespierre. While Carnot a
militant nationalist became as head of Arm forces.
The reign of Terror 1793-94“O liberty! What crimes are committed in thy name” (Madam Roland).
The Jacobin grasped the power under Maximlien Robespierre who combined his forces with Danton and established
the reign of Terror. This was the period of great cruelty and ruthlessness thousands of men send to Guillotine.
The King was trialed and send to Guillotine on 21 Jan 1793, on charges, in league with émigrés, to write letter to
other monarch to restore him and to bribe the member of convention. The execution of king caused violent outburst
in many part of the country, but ruthlessly crushed by Jacobin under Robespierre. European countries were shocked
and infuriated by the king execution. Even England which had been somehow sympathetic hitherto…
Queen Marie Antoinette was also Guillotine on 16 Oct 1793 including many other members of king family
including his sister “Dear God, guide and protect us. We are too young to reign” Marie Antoinette
When Danton preached moderation he was also sent to guillotine.
However when Robespierre came with proposal for a new law to take away immunity of the legislature, the whole
convention in sheer self-defense rose against him. He was shot at Hotel Deville and in bleeding condition he was
rushed to the same guillotine. 
A National Army
 By far the biggest achievement of the Convention was to rouse a spirit of nationalism in country and to
raise a National Army to find invading armies.
 Under the able guidance of Carnot a well-trained, well-led army of over 700000 soldiers was raised. It
replaces the old royal army within a short time
 The soldiers were imbued with patriotism and loyalty. Their new song “Marseillaise” later became a
national anthem of France.
Achievement of Convention
 It abolished monarchy completely and established Republic under new constitution “Directory”.
 It roused great national enthusiasm in Country. Carnot’s militant nationalism produced the most efficient
army of the Europe.
 The enemies of France were driven away.
 It marked the second stage of revolution
5. The Directory (1795-99)
The convention had abolished monarchy completely and established Republic under new constitution “Directory”
The Directory was the first constitutional republic, which had an executive body of five directors, instead of one and
a bicameral legislative body.
In 1799, the first free elections were held, and the people of France astonished members of the Directory by electing
a majority of royalists to the legislature.
Against Second coalition France suffered several defeats in Italy and Germany. These defeats, combined with
continuing political and financial disorder at home, weakened the government of the Directory.
In an attempt to prevent freely elected royalists from taking control of the Directory in 1799, members of the
bourgeois sent Napoleon Bonaparte and his army to defend the Directory and the annulment of the elections.
However, Napoleon took advantage of this situation he intrigued with one of the director Abbe Sieyes and in the
Coup of Brumaire abolished Directory and took control of the nation.
The consequences of French Revolution
"It is too soon to tell" was the reply that Zhou En-Lai gave to a question about the impact of the French
Revolution on human civilization.
The French Revolution, though it seemed a failure in 1799 and appeared nullified by 1815, had far-
reaching results. The long-term impact on France was profound, shaping politics, society, religion and
ideas, and polarizing politics for more than a century. It stirred the whole Europe.
The French revolution caused abhorrence in all European Countries except Great Britain because like
France they all were absolute monarchies, where the nobility and the clergy enjoyed special privileges.
The First coalition 1793-1797 Austria, Prussia, Holland, Spain, England fought against France in 1993.
France survived.
1. Rule by divine right and absolute monarchy were challenged by the principle of national sovereignty
proclaimed by the Revolution.
2. A hierarchical society divided into social orders (estates), headed by a privileged nobility set apart by
birth and caste, was challenged by the inclusive concept of citizenship and equality before the law.
Though later on In France the bourgeois and landowning classes emerged as the dominant power.
3. Nationalism: The Revolution unified France and enhanced the power of the national state. The
Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars tore down the ancient structure of Europe, hastened the advent of
nationalism, and inaugurated the era of modern, total warfare.
4. Although some historians view the Reign of Terror as an ominous precursor of modern totalitarianism.
Some argues that this ignores the vital role the Revolution played in establishing the precedents of such
democratic institutions as elections, representative government, and constitutions.
5. The right of property was regarded as sacred one in Europe. Once, the Property started to confiscate;
more and more socialistic thinking become popular. France was regarded as first socialist. During 19 th
century a powerful socialist movement started in Germany. The failed attempts of the urban lower middle
classes to secure economic and political gains foreshadowed the class conflicts of the 19th cent.
6. Liberty, equality, fraternity: these were among the potent revolutionary symbols and ideas for which
people were willing to die – and to kill.
7. Before revolution the entire education system in Europe was under the Roman Catholic Church.
Education system became the responsibility of state.
8. Stimulus to Humanitarianism: France became spokesman of the human race
9. Revival of Romanticism: “Establishment of human life on the basis of pure feelings”
10. Ironically, the influence of Roman church strengthened in reaction.
11. Socialism: After weakening of idea of the sanctity of property, Socialism ceased to be a speculative
doctrine and became a political programme.
12. France emerged as the great political, social and economic power of Europe
13. Influenced Warfare, alliances system, Diplomacy, IR
14. Ushered new era of reform politics
While major historical interpretations of the French Revolution differ greatly, nearly all agree that it had
an extraordinary influence on the making of the modern world.
Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1815)
 “He proudly said, I am the child of revolution” nonetheless he undid some work of revolution. Some says, He
destroyed the Revolution, a reverse revolution, Bonapartism etc…
 Admittedly, The people took sigh of relief in his dictatorship because they were weary of the atrocities of
revolution and anarchy.
 His reforms ushered the era of prosperity, Progress, peace and stability.
 Though Napoleon himself established a monarchy, yet he based his government on the revolutionary theories of
equality, liberty and fraternity. But he did not believe in political liberty.
Background
 Napoleon one of the greatest general of the world, “the man of destiny” first earned the name when in 1795 he
was called to deal with The mob violence in Paris (Against Convention on passing law of two third) he did the
task with remarkable speed.
 He became very popular in French masses and his soldiers in revolutionary France wars against First Coalition. In
1797 he won overwhelming victory in Italy against Austria. In in 1798-99 he was sent to Egypt against Second
coalition. He returned in time to overthrow the Directory.
 He was appointed first consul for ten years in 1799, and in 1802 for life. In 1804 he was elected with
overwhelming majority by senate as emperor of France with the right to designate his successor. He was only
thirty years old. Wtf (France really lacked leaders) 
 From 1799 to 1815 the destiny of whole Europe depended on his whims and fancies. The whole Europe arrayed
against him.
Napoleon rise to power
The Brumaire Coup: Nov 1799: In an attempt to prevent freely elected royalists from taking control of the
Directory in 1799, weak policies, financial crises due to corrupt and incompetent Directors, members of the
bourgeois sent Napoleon Bonaparte and his army to defend the Directory and the annulment of the elections.
However, Napoleon took advantage of this situation he intrigued with one of the director Abbe Sieyes and in the
Coup of Brumaire abolished Directory and took control of the nation. He initially installed an enlightened
despotism4 known as the Consulate.
4
Enlightened Despotism is a form of government, in which ruler to use their power for the good of general people.
They did not support democracy. The philosophers eg Thomas Hob support this style of Government.
Creation of Empire (Work and Reforms)
1. Political Reforms (Work)
i. The consulate 1799-1804
He centralized the whole system,
Consuls: There were three Consuls, the first Consul (Napoleon) was in full control of all internal, external policies
and Army. The other two Consuls (Sieyes and Ducos) were assistants. Napoleon wad elected First Consul for ten
Years, but in 1802, he was appointed first Consul for life. “Consulate was the most successful and clean government
the France ever had”
The consul of State: The first Consul appointed it. It proposed legislation.
The Senate: The Three Consuls appointed the Senate of 60 members. Their duty was to appoint Tribune, and
legislature, and to act as custodian of constitution.
The Tribune: To discuss the legislation proposed by council of State. It has no right to vote.
The legislative body: It voted on the laws without discussing them.
ii. He invited the emigres back to France and promised to restore their property if it had not been sold already. They
were allowed to hold public offices.
iii. Concordat with Pope: The views against church was in fashion, but The vast majority of French were still
Catholic. The non-jury Pops were still influential
Napoleon felt that the spiritual forces is needed for soldiers and masses
The Napoleon recognized the Roman Catholic Church And brought under state control. The concordat was the
compromise between the extreme views of both the parties.
Napoleon reopened the churches, the salaries of Clergymen were restored. The Pope accepted the work of
revolution.
iv. The legion of honour: This institution was to reward those who had rendered distinguished services to the state,
this institution became very popular in France.
v. Napoleon as emperor: 1804: The senate approved new constitution which declared him as emperor with the right
to name his successor. “I found the crown of france lying on the ground and I picked it up with my sword”
vi. The Idea of liberty was substituted with Idea of Authority. He was hostile to the idea of liberty.
vii.
viii.
2. Legal Reforms:
 The law was codified and multiple legal system was repealed and replaced with uniform system. Pocket note
books indicated some general legal principles.
 The codes: The most durable part of his work, The following codes were Compiled:
 The Civil Code: Father absolute authority over family” Wife under complete control of husband, However,
contrary to Catholic Church the right of divorce was admitted.
 Criminal procedure and Penal Code: Capital punishment, life imprisonment, deportation, confiscation of goods,
were provided.
 Commercial Code: it dealt with general commerce, maritime, bankruptcy , but unsatisfactory.
 Judges were to be appointed by Central Govt instead by election. But Women did not enjoy the same position
and punishment were still very severe.
 These codes were also introduced in conquer territories.
 Strict Censorship of Media


3. Financial Reforms
 Napoleon knew the fate of monarchy and directory was only due to financial bankruptcy.
 In 1800, The bank of France was established, “ It was one of the soundest institution of the world”
 Rigorous and careful collection of taxes were ordered
 Corruption was punished severely.
 He was able in reduction of government expenditure.
 A special fund called “Extra ordinary Domain” was raised from indemnities imposed on vanquished countries
to meet the expenses of Army.

4. Educational Reform:
 A new Education System was introduced, which would teach people loyalt and uniformly on problem.
 “The education system is a division of the political organization” Napoleon,
 Every Commune would have a primary school, Every town a High School. The schools were under central
government.
 The University of France would maintain uniformity in educational system.
 All teaching was based on the principle of Christianity, loyalty to the head of state.
“The purpose of education for girls should not be that they think, but that they should believe” Religious education
is all important for them” It should not produce women of charm but women of virtue”
 Intellectual repression: He left no stone unturned to suppress liberty of thought and expression. Printing strictly
under control, limited to 60, require to take oath of allegiance to govt,
 Newspaper number in Paris fell from 70 to 4 in 1800-1810.
5. Public Work
 A large number of highways, bridges, canal were constructed.

 A large number of land including marshy land were brought under cultivation.


Critical Analyses
 The difference between France of 1799 and 1815 was the work of Napoleon.




The Continental system (1806-7)

Background
The French armies under Napoleon after fighting many wars had established undisputed superiorities on land. All
the European countries had to submit. England was the very soul of every coalition made against France. Only Great
Britain still continued to fight. The France was master of land, and England was master of the sea. Now how a lion
could attack a shark; for this Napoleon introduced the “Continental system”
Reasons
Napoleon defeated Austria in Battle of Austerlits, 1805, Prussia in Battle of Jena 1806, Russia in battle of Friedland
1807, But France humiliating Naval defeat by England in Trafalgar 1805,
Great Britain “The queen of Sea” depended upon her colonial and sea-borne trade. Britain jealously wanted to
maintain his hegemony on sea trade. Napoleon called them the “nation of shopkeepers” The continental system was
a kind of Commercial war against England.
 “It is only through her commerce that England must be attack” Mont Gaillard presentation to Napoleon
 “France is self-efficient country, but England is manufacturing and trading country, her vulnerable spot is
foreign trade”
 Napoleon argued “Not like in revolutionary France; In England political power was still disputed between
monarchy and aristocracy, and the farmers and shopkeepers, the country was torn up by rival interests,
These difficulties were supposed to be aggravated”
For Napoleon It is impossible to attack England by crossing English channel due to English Naval defense, He said
“It is easier to send troops from Paris to Delhi, than from Boulogne to Folkestone”
Events
1806: Napoleon announce the plan in Berlin decrees; declaring a general blockade of the British Isles, and
European ports were closed to British Shipping, to stop raw material and manufactured good to and from Industrial
hub Great Britain.
1806: In reaction, Great Britain, issued “order in Council” All ships trading with France and her allies would be
seized. Neutral Ships must touch British ports before going to continent.
1807: Napoleon retaliated; Issuing Decree of Milan, “even neutral ships would be seized”
In 1810 he issued decree that the British good be burnt if they found way to European ports.
 Austria and Prussia had been beaten by Napoleon; they could not raise their heads. Friendly Russia agrees,
Scandinavian also block their ports, Holland under own brother of Napoleon defied the decree, he was abdicated,
and Holland was annexed to France.
Results
England
 British trade was hit hard for some time. But at the same time Britain made it sure that no foreign good
could reach Europe.
 The Economic warfare found G Britain involved in war with neutral powers. Denmark refused to submit,
England bombarded its capital and Denmark became ally of France. England has also trouble with USA.
 The only real danger of England was the starvation of her population” But that was avoided as Napoleon
allowed the export of France wheat through special permit”
Europe
 “Europe was depended upon England, could not live without it. No wonder the European were to defy”
 Scarcity of food in Europe, Rise in prices, contributed to unpopularity of Napoleon. Napoleon had to make
exception. Smuggling of British good become common, and defeated the purpose of Continental system.
France
 Napoleon had to fight war against those who defied the continental System due to shortage of foods in their
respective countries. i.e. Portugal.
 Napoleon attacked Portugal crossing his armies via Spain. British came for help, and peninsular war
started.
 People rioted against Spain King for allowing Napoleon army a way to Portugal, Napoleon made his
Brother Josep Bonaparte was made king of Spain in 1808.
 His Brother Louis Bonaparte Prince of Holland also refuse to respect continental system, he was deposed,
Holland was annexed in 1810
 Pope also refused he was put in prison and Papal States added to the Italy. That was nice move, Lol 
 Cloths, coats and leather for French army were brought from England in defiance of Continental system.
Causes of Failure of Continental System:

 The commercial war against Britain could not be successful because…
 The British Army was supreme at sea and successful carried out the blockade of Europe and France and
almost starved them. While France could not blockade successfully the British Islands.
 The allies of France could not cooperate. They encouraged smuggling.
 The British goods were sought eagerly, Even Napoleon own troops needed British cloths and boats.

Critical Analyses
“It was physical impossibility”
“Europe was depended upon England, could not live without it. No wonder the European were to defy”
“Napoleon not only roused the people of France against his empire but also lost the confidence of his middle class”
Napoleonic Wars
Europe forged one, two, three, four, five coalition to curtail France.. 
First coalition 1793-1797: When convention took aggressive steps, Great Britain came into war, and organized first
coalition. French armies under Napoleon defeated all except GB. Napoleon returned to France and captured power.
Second coalition: 1798-1802: Great Britain again persuaded, Russia, Turkey, Austria, Prussia. GB became queen of
sea, France lion of land…
Third coalition: 1805-1807: Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sweden. Napoleon defeat them and became real
master of Europe. Treaty of Tilsit 1807.
Fourth Coalition 1813: Quadruple Alliance: ended the chapter of Napoleon battle of waterloo 1815
Features of His Wars
 After assuming power and setting his house in order, He launched new offensive against the absolute
monarchies of Europe with main purpose of spreading revolutionary Ideals to them, and also to glorify
himself and France. Some of the earlier wars were fought exclusively to intact Continental System,
though…!
 But there was difference in Revolutionary France 1792-1802 and Napoleonic Wars onwards. The farmer
were considered as hopes of deliverance, helpers and saviors. But the later as oppressors.
Spain and Portugal: The continental system soon involved France in a bitter struggle with Portugal and Spain;
Napoleon invaded Portugal and placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne of Spain. This action outraged
Spanish people. Spanish nationalism aroused, Spanish troops known as Guerrilla with guerrilla tactics attacked; The
concept thus coined. Meanwhile British offered help to both. But Napoleon retained Spain.
1809: Austria: After success of Spanish patriots, Austria too reasserted their national self-respect and revolted
against Continental System. But Austria were defeated again and humbled. Napoleon divorced his wife and married
Austrian princes.
1812: Russia: On refusal of Tsar to respect continental system and some other differences, Napoleon declared war
on Russia. Russian strategy was to retreating backward and devastating village and crops. It was scorched earth
tactics to defeat Napoleon’s army. Napoleon reached Moscow. Russian also destroyed the city and food. The sever
Russian winter started. Napoleon in distress tried to retreat. His army suffered miserably due to, Russian Guerrilla
attacks, shortage of food, stormy rain, snow. French losses were 5,00,000. (See onward, the Hitler will also commit
the same blunder by attacking Russia in winter ) (The winter frost had always been the best ally of Russia. 
1813: The war of Liberation of Quadruple Alliance: After disastrous defeat of France in Russia, The defeated
Prussia also followed the foot-steps of Austria and Spain. Also, Great Spirit roused of German Nationalism against
French oppression as a result of writing by poet and philosophers. Resultantly the fourth coalition was raised by
Great Britain, Russia and Prussia against France. Austria under Metternich played a waiting game. But when
Napoleon did not accepted Austrai Demands, Austria also joined The Fourth coalition. The allies decisively defeated
Napoleon in Battle of Leipzig 1813 also known as The Battle of Nations
Under Metternich The allies offer very liberal the term of peace; Napoleon should recognize the independence of
Germany, Italy, Holland and Spain. Napoleon rejected…!
1814: Allies invasion on France: The allied armies marched from all sides. At Paris he was overwhelmed. The
French senate deposed Napoleon.
The allies made personal treaty with Napoleon; He should renounce his claim to the throne of France. He should
retire to the Island of Elba with title of emperor there. Annual pension of two million was granted. Napoleon retired
to Elba. Lois xviii, brother of Louis xvi was restored to throne.
Treaty of Paris: with France: French boundaries reduced to pre 1792. No indemnity, No army occupation, Bourbon
were restored, The Congress of Vienna was called to redraw the boundaries of all Europe in 1815.
The Hundred Days: While the diplomat at Congress of Vienna were indulge in merry-making. Napoleon escaped
from Elba, and landed in France amidst great rejoicing, led a triumphant march with old soldiers at Paris, Louis vxiii
fled. Napoleon grievances was that the allies did not send him pension 
The Battle of Waterloo, 1815: He was defeated by allies led by the great British General Wolsey (Duke of
Wellington). Napoleon addicted in favour of his son and surrendered himself to English Captain. He was exiled to
St. Helena, where he died in 1821.
The end of Drama. French boundaries this time restored to 1892, Heavy indemnity imposed on France. The allies
army of occupation was sent.
The fall of Napoleon (Causes of His Downfall)
Personal Causes:
 The limitation of individual genius: The entire empire depends on the mind of one man. He was thoroughly
selfish and egoistic. “The victories made him proud and haughty, his egoism became mania and he would
listen to th advise of others” Prof Holland
 Limit of human energy, fatigue and Exhaustion: Decline in Napoleon Military capacity: in growing age he
could not exhibited that great military genius. “The causes of his decline may be summed up in a single
word, Exhaustion” Dr. Sloane. Yhis view is however not accepted by Holland.
 His treatment of his relatives was also partly responsible for his failure, He was kind to them but mostly
proved ungrateful. “My relatives has done more harm to me than I have done them good”
 No toleration and Idea of Compromise: The continental system was a chimera, “Do you wish to descend
from the height to which I have raised the France” One he cries, “The Munich must burn”
Military Causes:
French militarism led to Militarism in other countries: Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was their combined militarism
that brought about the fall of Napoleon. “God march with the biggest Battalion” Napoleon
Militant and tyrannical nationalism of French armies: They fought for personal glory, the foreigner considered them
as oppressor. So It led to national apprising against French invaders.
Enormous Losses in Wars: He lost Ten Lac soldiers in Russian Campaign and War of Liberation.
French Army was not homogenous: consisting Germans, Italian, they could not be imbued with revolutionary spirit
of French.
British Naval Supremacy: France lost her colonial contact, British navy also successfully carried out blockade of the
continental system.
Napoleon invasion of Russia in 1812 was a blunder. Grand army retreated from Moscow and completely destroyed
with his prestige.
Political Cause:
Continental System A great blunder: It could not be enforced without Naval superiority. It also led to tne breach
with allies like Spain, Italy, and Russia.
Spanish Ulcer: “It was Spanish Ulcer that ruined me” Napoleon. It was his determination to exclude English goods
and nationals from Portugal and Spain. The resistenc was stiff and continuous,
The entire empire and diplomacy based upon militarism. No alternative systems, works, Ideal in conquered
countries.
He had too many enemies due to his policy of conquest and personal ambitions.
England: was the only country which never fell in line with him. English diplomacy, Military power, and tactics
brought Napoleon under knees.
Rise of Nationalism in conquered countries: The other countries aspired to overthrow their despots. But instead of
carrying liberal ideals to other countries; He made complete disregard of the national feelings of the conquered. He
placed his own brothers and kinsman on the thrones.
Lack of diplomatic Foresight: Napoleon missed several opportunity of retaining power. Eg. At treaty of Leipzig the
allied offered him very liberal terms.
Internal strife: “Within Franc from 1809 onward a mounting discontent and war weariness which undermined the
stability of govt. Leo Gershoy
Analyses
Napoleon was the child of revolution; he was the child who killed his mother. 
The Congress of Vienna 1815

Q: 2007: Critically examine the terms of political arrangements reaached at the congress of Vienna
Q 2005: In all the territorial readjustments during the Vienna Settlement, there was little that was permanent and much
that was temporary.
“Standing on the boundaries lines between two ages, the legislation of Vienna forms a landmark in History” Prof Fyffe
 Napoleon badly mutilated the Map of Europe. After his fall the problem for European diplomats was how
to redraw the map.
 It was aimed at to give peace and deal with a number of political problems and upheavals caused by the
wars of revolutionary France.
 All big and small countries of Europe, except Turkey, were invited. Austrian Capital Vienna and her
Chancellor Metternich was selected to preside over the congress.
The leading Actors
The big Four: Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria
Tsar Alexander I: Orthodox, Idealist and dreamer, a lethal combination of shrewdness and mysticism’
King Frederick William III: of Prussia, timid, slow, and fascinated by Tsar, fearful of Austrian Hapsburg
Metternich: Chancellor of Austria, Shrewd, statesman, The greatest diplomat of that time, the vehement opponent of
Liberalism and revolutionary ideals,
Talleyrand: King Louis XVIII’s foreign minister, found himself in the difficult position of representing the interests
of his defeated country. Cunning Shrewd, and quick to take advantages from the differences of other power. He
saved France from utter humiliation by flattery, and intrigues.
Castlereage Foreign minister of England: Supporter of non-intervention, also supported efforts to restore the balance
of power.
1. Problem Before the Congress/ The aim of Congress
i. France: What should be the future govt and boundaries of France. What be her punishment,
ii. Reconstruction of Political map of Europe: Due to The wars of revolutionary France, Holy Roman empire and
over 200 petty states in Germany, abolished. Many states came into being. Boundaries of Austria, Russia, and
Prussia had been altered.
iii. The problem whether to restore or not the old princes of Europe dispossessed by France,
iv. Revolutionary ideas should be nipped in the bud, All germs of liberal opinion must be destroyed, by means of
(Concert of Europe)
v. To surround France by a ring of Strong States: Prussia, Netherland and Sardinia were made strong by addition of
large territories to make a bulwark against any future French aggression.
vi. To distribute the spoils of War among the allies: Territories snatched away from France or her allies were
distributed among those who fought against France
2. Three main principles of Congress of Vienna
i. The Principle of Legitimacy: (On the pursuance of Talleyrand ”Legitimate govt can alone be strong and
durable”) To restore as far as the rightful rulers to their old states: Bourbon to the throne of France and Spain;
House of orange to Holland, etc. Territories were relocated to old states, but Great Britain the main player in
defeating France, kept many territories he acquired by France.
ii. The principle of Balance of Power: Big fours: (See The bellow heading; territorial readjustments)
iii. To Suppress Republicanism:
3. The territorial readjustments/ Balance of power/ Criticism
Balance of power: This was really a unique principle of 18th century diplomacy designed to prevent any one state
from gaining a dominant position in Europe
France: Limited to her pre 1892 territories: later reduced to pre 1890 boundaries after Battle of Waterloo…
Holland: she received Belgium, the house of Orange was restored (thus a strong barriers state in N-E of France)
 Catholic Belgium was annexed to protestant Holland. and culture, language all were different
Prussia: Was enlarged by addition of many surrounding territories 2/5 of Saxony and Rhineland; The whole of
Westphalia, another formidable state in East of France.
 The biggest gainer with rich mineral resources, by and large a German state now,
Austria: She was compensated for the loss of Austrian-Netherland, by cessation of Venetia of Italy, and territories
from Poland; A German Confederation was formed under Austria.
 She substitute France in Central Europe, and in order to maintain her hold in Italy and German states she
ushered an reactionary era…
 The Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs was a polyglot combination of German, Hungarian, and Slavic
peoples.
Russia: Got the lion share of Poland: and Finland from Sweden (Sweden was compensated by giving Norway which
was taken away from Denmark)
 Thus crushed the hopes and Aspiration of Poles nationals
Great Britain: Retained most of her colonial conquest.
4. Critical analyses
 Italy’s patriot hope to unite all National Italy was reduced to only a geographical expression.
 German Unity also could not achieved (King Frederick William III of Prussia was timid could not stand
the Hapsburg of Austria, Metternich was hostile toward German Unification.
 A new German confederation of thirty-nine independent states was created to take the place of an earlier
confederation and the Holy Roman Empire. “Germany” did not yet exist, and central Europe was divided
among several dozen small and middle-sized states, such as Bavaria and Prussia, with largely German
populations.
 Portugal, Spain, France, and England were more or less unified nation-states by that time, but none of the
rest of Europe had assumed the configuration of nation-states that it is today.
 The principle of Nationality ignored while upholding the principle of legitimacy,
 Principle of Legitimacy, on other hand was also set aside when not suited the big four, many of German
princes, and republic of Venice Genoa, were not restored.
 It created the balance of power that lasted till the Unification of Germany 1871
 It also did not provide the satisfactory solution of the eastern Question. The sick man of Europe remained
great puzzle. All the European wanted to have Constantinople and it was impossible to arrive at any
settlement.

Estimate
 “The fine Phrase about the ‘reconstruction of social order, The regeneration of Political system of Europe,
and enduring peace founded on redistribution of forces, were intended to tranquilize the people, However
the real objective was to Divide the spoil of war among the conqueror” Gentz Secretary of COV
 “In all its these territorial readjustment there was little that was permanent, and much that was temporary”
Pro Hayes, as the subsequent event proved
 “The settlement was all the game of dynastic aggrandizement in so far the people was concern it was
defective” Prof Hayes
 “I have called the new world into existence to redress the balance of the old” Canning
 Still it was not so bad as the Paris settlement of 1919
 “Standing on the boundaries lines between two ages, the legislation of Vienna forms a landmark in
History” Prof Fyffe

The Concert of Europe 1815

Q 2006: Do you understand by concert of Europe ? How far do you agree with the view that it was a " league to bind
Europe in chains."
Background
Holy Alliance: Sept 1815: Russian Tsar an intensely devoted person to Christianity was against the “irreligious
revolution” under his inspiration, the Three powers, Russia, Austria, and Prussia organized themselves into holy
alliance. Great Britain gave a cold shoulder. It was not that much effective…
While, on other hand Metternich put forward the idea of Quadruple alliance to preserve conservative idea and
autocracy. It was rather an unholy alliance. Holy alliance was a group within Quadruple alliance; while Quadruple
alliance as whole was more effective and powerful entity.
The Concert of Europe: The Signatories of the Quadruple alliance; Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain,
agreed to act Jointly under “Concert of Europe’ to stop future wars and to solve international Dispute. This was a
system of diplomacy by conferences; it was the most interesting example of 19th century.
Metternich organized several congresses of the European leaders during the 1820s (Also call the era of Congresses)
to discuss intervention against political unrest on the Continent.
1. Objectives of Concert of Europe
 To maintain general peace in Europe, To make ensure Treaty of Paris with revolutionary France, To make
France harmless, To maintain Balance of Power, To meet at intervals for consultation to solve international
disputes.
 But actually, the aim of this four power alliance (also fifth France 1818, Quintuple Alliance) was to keep
the brother monarchs of Europe safe on their throne against any future outburst of the popular movements.
2. Differences between Great Britain and Holy alliance group:
 Holy alliance under Metternich wanted to use Concert of Europe/Quadruple alliance as an instrument of
repression of all liberal movements, and to act as police force in Europe.
 But Great Britain opposed any intervention in internal affairs of states, viewed that the alliance was chiefly
made against French aggression, Therefore the cleavages was to occur bw GB and three eastern powers…
 In 1818 when France satisfied the great power, France under monarchy was also included to Quadruple
Alliance thus it became a Quintuple alliance.
3. Three Congresses were called by Concert of Europe to discuss the emerging issues.
 The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle 1818; (See details in Ragobir Dayal Page 137)
 The Congresses of Troppau and Laibach 1820 ((See details in Ragobir Dayal Page 138)
 The Congress of Verona 1822 (See details in Ragobir Dayal Page 140)
4. Liberalism raised head in different Countries
Spain: The Spanish patriot drafted a liberal constitution in 1812, but Ferdinand VII abrogated it. Again, In 1820 the
repressive policy to restore Bourbon, Colonel, Reigo revolted, Ferdinand restored the old constitution. It alarmed the
Metternich and holy alliance.
On pressure The king of Spain again abrogated the liberal constitution and asked the holy alliance to restore his
Absolut power. Austrian forces successfully crushed all revolutionary movements.
The kingdom of Two Sicily: It was part of Italy; patriot there also demanded liberal constitution.
A congress was summoned at Troppau: The three eastern power (holy alliance) strongly denounced these liberal
movements and support the collective intervention. While the Great Britain strongly protested against it.
Piedmont: Italy, on Army revolt, the king granted liberal constitution, But with the help of Austrian army the revolt
was again suppressed.
The Spanish Colonies in South America in Revolt: The holy alliance wanted to restore them to Spain. GB again
strongly opposed and offered USA for joint act. but The famous Monroe Doctrine of no intervention was issued By
USA 1823.
Portugal: A revolutionary party in Portugal also demanded a liberal constitution. Ironically, This time Britain
warned the holy alliance not to intervene and crushed the revolt herself.
Greek Independence: Revolution against Turkish rule broke out in Greece in 1821, and often brutal fighting
continued for several years. By 1825, the Turks had almost crushed the revolt. The revolt was led by prince
Ypsilanti. Metternich imprisoned him for 7 years. Great Britain, France, and Russia (Not Austria) agreed in the
Treaty of London of 1827 to demand that the Ottoman Empire recognize Greek independence and to use force, if
necessary, to end the fighting. An allied fleet defeated a Turkish force.
Belgium’s independence: In late August 1830, a revolt against Dutch rule broke out in Belgium. In November, a
national congress declared Belgium’s independence.
5. Causes of Failure of Concert of Europe
i. The principle of intervention in other state divided the powers nto two camps. England vehemently opposed it.
ii. Autocracy and constitutionalism cannot go together, No wonder The concert of Europe a clique for preservation
of autocracy.
iii. Concert of Europe was only a bulwark against Napoleonic war, When French danger was over the unity among
allies was gone.
Concluding remarks
o Great Britain as champion of liberal movement, she succeeded in Portugal and Spanish colonies, and Monroe
doctrine finally brought about the collapse of Concert of Europe.
o
o
Metternich Era 1815-48
Q: 2010: Why is the period between 1815 - 1848 in Europe is called ' the age of Metternich'? Describe the main
features of political and diplomatic system which prevailed at that time?
He was Chancellor and foreign minister of Hapsburg King of Austria-Hungry Empire. The most dominant diplomat
of Europe from 1815-1848; In Europe, the period from 1815 to 1848 is known as the Age of Metternich. This
Austrian chancellor, dominated not only the Hapsburg Empire of Austria but also the German Confederation and the
Italian states…
1. Characteristics of the Era
 Reactionary and Conservative: Committed to the principle of conservatism

 Opposition to all liberal and constitutional movements: Liberalism as threat to European order. The case of
Italy, Spain…
 To maintain an absolute form of Government: Man is evil by nature and strong government is need to
control them, Only an arbitrary govt could keep the various nationalities together.
 Bitter hostility to nationalism: Nationalism as threat to European peace. The nationalist Ideals of Italy,
Germany, and polish ets dashed to the ground
 The right of intervention: in the internal affairs of Europe, was the doctrine of Metternich. He succeeded in
suppressing many revolts and revolutionary movements,
 Due to The racial admixture, he did not allow any loosening, The reign of tyranny and repression,
 Education system, press under control, Spies in education systems, no foreign literature was allowed.
2. Metternich and Congress of Vienna: Already Discussed

3. Metternich and Concert of Europe: Already Discussed
4. Metternich and Austria Hungry: Already Discussed
5. Metternich and Germany:
 Germany 38 sovereign states, loosely united under Austria,

 Metternich did not allow the German Unification, Prussia (A big German state) was not strong enough to
led the German Unification. King Frederick William was too loyal to Hapsburg, Hapsburg would not allow
the Prussia to led German unification as they were they rulers of German for Centuries.
 Austria composed of heterogeneous races (including large portion of German race) opposed German
Unification,
6. Metternich and Italy: Italy was mare geographical expression, The Hapsburg rulers of petty Italian areas,
Naples, Saxony, Sicily etc were restored to their thrones and with all evils and despotism, were supported by
Austria. A revolt also crushed in piedmont. Lombardy and Venetia (Italy areas) were ruled directly by Austria.
“Italy was bound hand and foot to the triumphant reactionary chariot of Austria” Prof Hayes
7. Metternich and Spain: Metternich intervened to help Spanish king against his own people, to restore his
autocracy and in Congress of Verona commissioned France to send her armies to help Spanish despot and restored
him. He also helped Spain to win back American colonies. But England and later Monroe Doctrine foiled his
attempt.
8. Metternich and France: He restored Bourbons and made Quadruple alliance to chiseled France, Later France
itself was included, and it became Quintuple alliance.
9. Metternich and Greece: He did not supported Christian Greek against Turks, rather help the Turks. The Greek
revolt was led by prince Ypsilanti. Metternich imprisoned him for 7 years.
10. Metternich and England: England defies Metternich. England Canning English FM not only supported
American Spanish colonies against Spain but also supported Portugal against the wishes of Metternich. He secretly
helped Greeks. Thus Concert of Europe became ineffective.
Analyses
 “Metternich was fighting for the lost cause” He fought a losing game bravely” Gruttwel
 “in spite of Metternich the old regime was to to be doomed and could not be saved” Prof Hayes
 “For the timid and tired generation he was the necessary man” Prof Alison
 “It was Austria destiny that in the years of crises it was guided by Metternich” Henry Kissinger
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Forces of Continuity and Change in Europe (1815-1848)
Nationalism
o “A group of People which have common language, Culture, history, Common interest, common heroes and
enemies, Common experiences, (Preferably have a state) is called nation, Common aspiration in Future,
Hope of glorious future,
o In fact many so-called nation states are not homogenous rather heterogeneous
o “A group when it feels itself different from other” “The will to live together”
o The story and role nationalism: Historically its role evolved: Common language, Common culture, The
belief of superiority, A movement to achieve national self- rule, Then to secure self- interest,
o Hans Morgenthau suggests, “the nation needs a state. One nation, one state is the political postulates of
nationalism”
Marxist approach: Nationalism itself was the creation of Capitalism: The rising bourgeoisie interest demanded the
overthrow of feudal system, free market, imperialist exploitation. Unity were beneficial…
1. History
The idea of nationalism emerged from the breakdown of Feudalism. This was so when mobility increased and
people recognized the benefit of Unity. The print and publication in several languages (as against the hitherto Latin
and Greek) people began to identify themselves by nations.
i. 30 Year war, 1618-1648: Treaty of Westphalia:
 Nationalism became as dominant Idea in defining a state

 It gave nationalism a legal and political sanction, First recognition of Sovereignty of state
 Secularization of International politics
 Nation state became as powerful entity….
ii. England can be sited as first form of Nation state, Patriotism, Liberty, and Public participation
iii. French revolution; The war of Revolutionary France stirred nationalism in other state against French aggressive
and superior nationalism
iv. Nationalism promoted the disintegration of the Austrian Empire, as the various subject peoples of the Hapsburg
emperor came to acquire consciousness of their own nationalities.
v. Unification of Germany, Italy in Germany and Italy, nationalism proved to be a unifying force, and
vi. The Congress of Vienna, Metternich, Suppress Nationalism
vii. Eastern Question: Balkan crises
viii. After the Second World War, a third generation of very different nation-states emerged from the process of
decolonization, primarily in Africa and Asia.
xi. Finally, with the collapse of the Soviet Empire, the trend towards the formation of independent nation-states in
Eastern and Southern Europe.
2. Forms of Nationalism
i. Aggressive nationalism: 1750-1914
ii. Totalitarian nationalism: 20th century, Fascism, Nazism , Russian nationalism under marx gospel, Chines socialist
nationalism
iii. Integral Nationalism: Late 20 Century, Morgenthau, “Nationalism Universalism” Claim to impose one’s own
values over other nations,
iv. 21 century nationalism: Faced with unique set of Challenges, migration, diaspora, People binf together by same
fashion, culture, values, Globalization,
Other Variant:
Ethnic Nationalism
Religious nationalism
Stateless Nationalism
3. Decline of Nation state
 Often these states, which were founded within the frontiers established by the former colonial regimes,
violating the spirit of nationalism and natural connections, which can be seen in form of various
heterogeneous and unnatural states
 Globalization: The border of Nations, and nation states are becoming soft: Globalization is on its way
 Increased dependence:
 Rise of Powerful non-state actors: MNC, NGO’s, work for human rights
Socialism
o As an Idea: The socialism has roots in Plato work “The republic” Details…
o As a movement: The socialism has its roots in French revolution; In French Revolution The need of
reorganization of society was felt and carried out.
1. Evolving Idea of Socialism in 19th Century
o Saint Simon: D. 1825: “Man Must Work” He coined the slogan “From each according to its Capacity, to
each according to its work, need”
o Proudhon: D 1865: and Bakunin: D 1876: Proudhon is “Father of Anarchism” “What is Property,
property is theft” He was communist in the sense that in first place state should be eliminated; Communism
from Bellow. Marx opposed him and came with new thesis that the first step must be to occupy Political
and governmental machinery, state government. Marx gave comprehensive plan. Marx expelled Proudhon
from Party. The Bakunin also empathetically rejected all the institutions of political control.
o In French Revolution the need of complete reorganization of society was felt, realized, and carried out.
o The industrial revolution prove as stimuli for the socialism
o 1830-1848 “These were the years when socialism transformed itself from a doctrine into a movement”
Lichtheim
2. Karl Marx: D 1883: Came with the complete Gospel of Communism
He was the only true and first socialist to scientifically elaborate socialism; and begin the organization of an
international socialist movement. He was expelled from Germany, was not allowed to live in Europe, moved to
London where he stayed the rest of his life.
1848: When Revolution broke out in France, Marx was commissioned by Communist league to write “Communist
manifesto”. Later he elaborated the theory beyond into “Das Capital” 1867
The Manifesto called for a worldwide workers’ revolution that would overthrow capitalism and establish a society in
which all property would be publicly owned.
1864: The First International: Marx founded it. The working man has no Country. Bakunin Anarchist also joined
this International. Marx Supported Germany for first Revolution, Bakunin Supported France.
By the time of Marx’s death in 1883, Marxist-based socialist parties were challenging governments all over the
Continent. In 1917, communist revolutionaries seized power in Russia, establishing the world’s first government
based on Marxist ideology, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or the Soviet Union.
1889: Second International: Founded after the death of Marx. Left wing adhered to the idea of violent revolution
and dictatorship of Proletariat. The right wing were agree to compromise with liberal democrats in order to gain
legislations.
1917: Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
3. Main feature of the theory
i. Historical materialism: Economic factors (Materials) are the cause of historical change. Historical progress is the
class struggle between two classes, Haves and haves not. History is a dialectical process
ii. Class struggle: Between two antagonist classes; Bourgeoisie and proletariat, “The history of all hitherto existing
human society is the history of class struggles,” he contended. All societies begin in the primitive-communal stage,
move through a system of slavery (the dominant class being the slave owners), then feudalism, then capitalism, and
eventually communism, at which point classes would no longer exist. Marx believed that proletarian revolution
would occur naturally and inevitably in every society.
The middle class- owners of capital and means of production, and Proletariats, The workers, so, The worker of the
world (The essentially important class of society) must unite, to overthrow the existing order.
iii. Socialist state: “The establishment of a new state and society without classes and without private property.”
“Work From each according to his capacity: Payment to each according to his needs”
iv. Surplus Value: Overproduction: The workers receive in wages only a fraction of the value of the products they
produce. The factory owners (the bourgeoisie) keep the rest as “surplus value.” This leads to the accumulation of
goods that people cannot afford to buy and to periodic crises of overproduction in capitalist societies that force
entrepreneurs to scale back production and lay off workers. This has two consequences: periodic and increasingly
severe economic crises and the increasing “immiseration” of the working class as wages decline and more and more
workers are unemployed. These crises foster growing class consciousness by the proletariat. Finally, during one of
these economic depressions, workers will simply seize control of factories in a revolution that will displace the
bourgeoisie and initiate a new stage in history.
v. International economy:
 First law: Law of disproportionality, due to anarchy of market,

 Second law: Capital accumulation among wealthy class,
 Third law: As capital accumulates, the rate of return and invest declines,
 Final Law: By Lenin, As capitalist economies mature, they compelled to seize colonies. “imperialism is the
highest stage of capitalism”
Romanticism (1800-50)
Background: The Age of Science of the 1600s and the Enlightenment of the 1700s, also dubbed as a whole, the
Age of Reason or Rationalism. These philosophers argued that knowledge can be derived only from experience,
experiment, and observation and reasoning.
Later on, in Germany, in late 18th century onward Romanticism represented reaction against emphasis on reason,
they stress emotion, Imagination and contemplation on nature. They trusted emotion and spontaneous feeling more
than cold logic; thus called the age of romanticism.
During the age of Reason both feeling and imagination were kept under restraint of the taste and decorum. A
cultured person was expected to check his feeling and imagination. For instance, Lord Chesterfield told his son he
had not laughed since he had the use of his reason. Fontanels never laughed, ran or wept. This restrain was expected
to be maintaining in literature and fine arts.
Instead, the romantics emphasized feelings and emotions, faith and intuition, and imagination and spontaneity.
While romanticism was a complex and diverse phenomenon, romantic thinkers, writers, artists, and composers were
united in reaction against what they regarded as the Enlightenment’s excessive emphasis on the supremacy of reason
in human affairs. Many of the romantics rejected the Enlightenment’s optimistic belief in the perfectibility of
human beings and human society, although they continued to emphasize the importance and value of the individual
and to promote individual freedom.
Main Expression/ Features of Romanticism

Romanticism did not leave any area of life untouched, but it found it found its widest expression in literature.
Novalis, “The heart is key to the world” Goethe, “Feeling is everything” Madame De Staei, “Feeling far surpasses
reason as a means of arriving at the truth” Lamartine, “Man is really and only under the stress of powerful feelings”
i. Individualism: As feeling and imagination differ in each person, the romanticist accentuated individualism. Thus
they also considered a common man, the low classes as true primitive man and a repository of goodness. While the
Advocate of reason had regarded the common people “too stupid to be depicted in literature” Prevost
ii. Love of Nature: The feeling rose that human had gone too far from nature. They asked people to go back to the
nature. They asked man to be true child of nature and obey the true impulses of nature. They criticized Urban life.
iii. Folk Poetry: They regarded it as the only true poetry because it was the spontaneous expression of the natural
impulses of man.
iv. Nostalgia: The romantics also manifested a reverence for the past and an awareness of the emotional ties which
joined the present with the past and gave a sense of order and stability to society and its institutions. In particular,
many romantics had a fascination for the culture of the Middle Ages, an age of faith, which stood in contrast to the
eighteenth century age of reason. They regarded middle ages as golden Age.
v. Music: In classical music Beauty of Forms was primary aim. Emotional contents were subordinated to form. In
romantic Music emotional contents comes first and forms subordinate to it. Each musician and composer tried to
express himself in a unique manner.
vi. Romanticism: Nationalism: One of the more interesting side effects of the Romantic movement was the
promotion of nationalist sentiments.
 Emphasize shifted to the pride in Nationalism. It stirred pride in folk tales and past heroisms.
 All these expression appealed to the sentiments of separatism.
 It made it easy to abandon rationalism for nationalism.
 The Greek war of Independence: against Turkey, aroused very impulse behind romantic movement. It
recalled Crusades in its heroism and in struggle between the cross and crescent. It evoked the old sense of
the unity of Christendom. Louis XVIII and Pope contributed money to Greek Cause. In France, Shelley and
many poets supported the Greek War of Independence. Shelley declared “We all are Greeks”
vii. Romanticism: Religion

 The religion in Middle ages, was mere acceptance of certain dogmas and obedience to the authority of
Church, Gradually the religion had become cold. But there had been reaction in Roman catholic Church
against Reason of enlightenment. Romanticism looked consistent with it. It asserted the value and dignity
of human soul, with emphasize on God love for individual. There hymns were full of emotions.
 “The spirit of Christianity” by chateaubriand Published in 1802, heralded the advent of sentimental
Catholicism. He did not consider religion as merely collection of theological dogmas but a living creed, an
aesthetic force. Madame Hamelin Wrote “Christianity is perfectly delightful”
 Kant, a German philosopher, began the revolt against extreme rationalism in philosophy. A professor at the
University of Konigsberg in East Prussia, Kant wrote the Critique of Pure Reason and the Critique of
Practical Reason (1790). While reason could neither prove nor disprove the existence of God, he argued,
faith and intuition can lead one to an understanding of spiritual truths, including the existence of God, the
immortality of the soul, and rewards and punishments after death.
 For Hegel, history represented the unfolding of God’s plan for the world. Idealism… Romanticist
 In the early nineteenth century, the romantics’ emphasis on the mystical and supernatural led to a revival of
traditional religious belief.
Analyses
It is perhaps ironic that Romanticism blossomed at exactly the same time industrialization swept the continent.
Romanticism embraced nature. Whereas scientists and intellectuals examined the biological aspects of a flower or
the geologic conditions of a mountain, Romantics saw the beauty and majesty. The Romantics lamented the
destruction of nature and the pollution of the natural world by the factories of the Industrial Revolution
Liberalism
 Liberalism was an approach toward International peace, economy, and Institutions.

 Human nature is essentially good and capable of good deeds.
 Human welfare and advancement of human civilization is concerned of all, Global efforts are needed.
 Bad human behavior is product of bad environment and bad institutions.
 Individualism: Individual liberty in religion, ideas, way of life, in economy,
Economic liberalism: Natural resources are not evenly distributed; hence state must facilitate trade with one
another without any protectionism. It replaced mercantilism. Ots founder Adam Smith “The Wealth of Nation” 1776
 Economic and politics must be separated;

 Govt should encourage free trade and free markets
 Increasing interdependence among economies will lead to greater economic development and peace.
Industrial Revolution
o Industrial Revolution was coined by Auguste Blanqui, a French economist in 1837 to denote the economic and
social change in Britain. It come into vogue when Arnold Toynbee used it in 1882.
o Industrial revolution period is about 1740 to about 1850 in Britain; and from 1815 to the end of 19th Century in
Europe.
o As France struggled with a revolution during the late eighteenth century, Britain enjoyed a revolution of its
own. The Industrial Revolution began in the late eighteenth century in Britain, then spread to the continent after
the warfare subsided. Like the Agricultural Revolution, the Industrial Revolution changed the economy of
Europe, the social structure, demographic patterns, and the way people lived.
 It was a process which overwhelmingly transformed the agricultural society into an industrial society. The
process of industrialization arguably grew out of the textile industry, primarily domestic. The cotton industry,
textile, Mining and metallurgy, Transport construction, Means of Communications, Electricity, Petroleum
and Rubber, are some fields of Earlier Industries…
o The first factor, though not necessarily the most important, was the mercantilist economic system and colonial
empire. The overseas colonies provided England and other staes with all the raw materials it needed for
booming industries.
Why it began in England

 England Political and economic condition in later half of 18th century were most suitable.
 The Agricultural Revolution saw major progress in England, and the English farmers reaped the rewards of
abundant harvests (This harvest was also possible by agricultural machinery, like drill and scientific
agriculture, which transformed land into agriculture laboratory). So the prosperity and The small amount of
extra money could be spent on luxury items, like leather instead of wooden shoes, an extra blanket, or even
underwear.
 Britain’s isolation from Europe in political issues, also played a major role.
 The overseas colonies provided England with all the raw materials it needed for booming industries
 Nature was also specially kind to England. She has vast stores of iron and coal, the life and blood of
Industry.
RESULTS AND IMPACTS
i. Economics Sphere
 Factory system, Standardization of Process, division of Labour
 It created surplus wealth owned by a capitalist class which help the growth of industry more and more.
 It arose the necessity of foreign Market that ultimately led to imperialistic expansion and colonial system of
economy.
 The Expansion of Trade all over the world
 Impacts on Agriculture by agricultural machinery, like drill and scientific agriculture, which transformed
land into agriculture laboratory
ii. Social Sphere

 Emergence of new class of society, Middle class, Bourgeoisie
 Migration of Worker
 Strife between Capitalist and Worker class
 The Children and Women labour mercilessly exploited, easy to control them.
 Mass unemployment became one of the gravest social problem
iii. Political Sphere

 Strengthening of Middle class, The political position of Bourgeoisie strengthened; eg French revolution,
July Revolution of France in 1830, were in fact Bourgeoisie revolutions
 The Labour also became a great political force
 Military superiority a main political element, became dependent upon the extent of Industrialization in one
country.
 The Ideal of “opposition of Interference by Government in business” Liberalism, Adam Smith, “the wealth
of Nation”
 Secularization: propagated by Mass circulation of newspapers, motion pictures; all supplied men with a
whole new set of interest.
 Urbanization impacted the life style, public opinion and large scale of political engagement.
The Eastern Question
Q: 2010: What is the eastern question, Write down its developments from the treaty of Adrianpole (1829) to treaty of
Berlin (1878).
Q: 2005: 'The eastern question had long perplexed the powers of Europe, and had, at the same time, lured then on to
seek their own advantage in its labyrinthine mazes'. Discuss.
Q: 2007: Research the nationalist ideology of the Pan Slav movement which began to emerge following the end of the
wars in 1815.
Q 2005: Define “Eastern Question”. Describe its main phases from 1820 to 1878.
o The ottoman Turks carved out a vast empire in Eastern Europe in 16 th and 17th Century, there were bitter wars
bw them and Christian rulers of Europe. In 1682 they even Siege Vienna and reached Paris, but were defeated,
with this defeat begin the steady decline of Ottomans which lasted up till first WW.
o The decline of Ottoman gave rise to an interwoven tangle of conflicting interest of European powers and to the
problem of filling up the vacuum created by the gradual disappearance of Turkish empire from Europe. This
problem has been popularly called The Eastern Question.
The main Problem

i. What was to happen to the Balkan States; Bulgaria, Serbia, Rumania, Greece, etc
ii. Control of Black sea and Mediterranean Sea: It was also inevitably associated with the control of Black sea,
Bosporus and Dardanelles strait opening toward Mediterranean Sea… Russia had since been dreaming the control of
Mediterranean. Should Russia be allowed by western European power to control them…
iii. The Britain and France suffering from Russo-Phobia
iv. Religious factor: The presence of Foreign religious militant (Muslim) in Christian Europe. The majority of
Balkan were Christian.
v. Nationalism: French revolutionary principles and wars had roused the spirit of nationalism in Balkan. But they
were composed of different nationalities which complicated further the issue.
Austria under Metternich supported the Sultan against any revolutionary uprising in Balkan. As Austria was also
composed of different nationalities
Serbs were first to Rebel,
Greek Independence: Revolution against Turkish rule broke out in Greece in 1821, and often brutal fighting
continued for several years. By 1825, the Turks had almost crushed the revolt. The revolt was led by prince
Ypsilanti. Metternich imprisoned him for 7 years. Great Britain, France, and Russia (Not Austria) agreed in the
Treaty of London of 1827 to demand that the Ottoman Empire recognize Greek independence and to use force, if
necessary, to end the fighting. An allied fleet defeated a Turkish force.
Egyptian Uprising: Mehmet Ali Sultan’s viceroy of Egypt raised the standard of revolt. Russia and Sultan signed
treaty to suppress the revolt.
The Crimean War 1854-56

Q: 2010: Discuss the motives of different European powers who participated in the Crimean war'?
Q 2009: The Crimean War in a sense was watershed of European History.
The main event of Eastern Question; Immediate cause was the disputes among France, Britain, and Russia that who
should control the Christian holy sites in Palestine, Bethlehem; Russia supported Orthodox Christian while France
Catholic. Russia claimed the protectorate over Christian subjects of Sultan.
Russia Mobilized forces toward some eastern principalities Moldavia and Wallachia. Britain and French fleet
reached Dardanelles strait (On pretext to save the Sultan of Turkey from possible rising of Muslims) The Sultan
issued ultimatum to Russia to evacuate, It was rejected, Turkey attacked Russia. But Turkish fleet terribly defeated.
Later France and England also issued ultimatum, on refusal they also declared war on Russia in 1854 while Prussia
and Austria remain neutral.
Austria threaten to side with France and England, Russia withdrew from principalities. Austria occupied them with
the permission of Sultan.
Embolden England and France under Napoleon III invade the Crimea in Sep 1854: Austria still wait and see policy;
The allies demanded four points (see below in Paris treaty ) Piedmont under Cavour also took side of Western
powers and declared war on Russia.
War fought at Crimean Peninsula, most of the casualties were from disease and the proverbial Russian frost.
Hospital were made by new govt of England for soldiers. Remember the Florence nightingale “The Lady with the
lamp” story
Tsar Nicholas I died in 1855, New Tsar accepted the Four points demands of allies...
Treaty of Paris: March 1856

 Black sea was neutralized
 Navigation of Danube open to All nations
 Freedom of Moldavia, Wallachia and Serbia under nominal suzerainty of Sultan
 All powers gave up their right to interfere in internal affairs ottoman Empire
 Turkey was admitted to the Concert of Europe.
 Sultan promised to bring reforms and confirm the privileges of the Christian subjects
Concluding Remarks
 A fresh lease of life was given to the Ottoman Empire. On promise to set his house in order and respect
minorities. But Turkey remained unreformed and irreformable.
 Russia expansionist designs received a set-back. But Russia continued to exercise her influence in Balkan.
 The neutralization of Black sea was also short lived, Russia was the first to break the treaty of Paris.
 Unfortunately, this war undid much what were achieved in Congress of Vienna
 Piedmont gained Sympathy of Western power later she was to led the unification of Italy against Austria.
 Austria Isolation: Austrian attitude was treacherous and selfish, her occupation of that principalities, not
only antagonized Russia but also England and France. Thus her isolation created condition which were
favorable for the achievement of German and Italian unification in 1871
 After this war Britain isolated herself from the affairs of Europe. This was a long isolation, was to be ended
when England joined triple entente
Russo Turkish War 1877
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Eastern Orthodox coalition
led by the Russian Empire and composed of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.
Background: Given a chance after Crimean war treaty of Paris 1856, The Turkish Sultan did not bring reforms in
Balkan. In 1875 a new wave of Nationalism called Pan-slavism started in Balkan (Herzegovina, Bosnia, Bulgaria
and Serbia) against Turkish rule. If Italy and German could unite and achieve independence why could not the
Slavs.
o The Slavs naturally looked toward their kinsmen Russian for help
o The Three emperor of Russia, Austria and Germany in conference guaranteed armistice in condition of
reforms by Turkish Sultan, if not threatened by joined action. France and Italy supported the memorandum.
England PM Disraeli rejected it. It was another blow to Concert of Europe.
o The internal trouble roused in Turkey led by “Young Turks” against Sultan Abdul Aziz. He was deposed
and later killed or suicide. His Nephew S Abdul Hameed elevated to the Throne.
o Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria declared war on Turkey. Turkey committed atrocities. England on
internal pressure gave proposal for peace. Turk rejected it. Upon Russia ultimatum Turks accepted the offer
of armistice.
Russo Turkish War

But later in Conference of Constantinople the Turk dilatory tactics had exhausted the Russia. Russia securing
Austrian neutrality (on condition of temporarily occupying Bosnia and Herzegovina) Declared war on Turkey.
Turkey suffered defeats and sued for peace. A treaty of San Stefano was agreed upon in 1878.
This was the end of Ottoman empire in Europe. The independence of Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro was recognized.
Greater Bulgaria was to be constituted. But this treaty clashed with the interest of Big powers.
Later in Congress of Berlin The terms of treaty of San Stefano was modified to suit the other great powers and check
Russia influence in Balkan.
Consequences
o
o

Unification of Italy
As we saw in earlier topics, the nation-state, a political unit bringing together most people of one nationality. This
sense of national identity was fostered in the nineteenth century by artists, writers, musicians5, and linguists in
almost every national culture.
Background
o Vienna Settlement 1815: In Congress of Vienna 1815 the aspirations of Italians patriots were dashed to the
ground. Instead of Unifying, Italy was divided into large number of state. Sicily and Naples Under
Ferdinand, Papal states and Rome under pope, Parma, Modena, and Tuscany given to members of
Hapsburg family, Lombardy and Venetia annexed by Austrian Empire, and Kingdome of Piedmont.
o Louis XVIII: 1815-1824 did not try to restore the ancient regime and retained much of revolutionary work.
In 1824 Louis XVIII died and was succeeded by his younger Brother Charles X (1824-30)
o Revolution of 1830: Charles X learnt nothing from revolution and wanted to restore the ancient regime
which finally led to another July Revolution of 1830. Louis Philippe (Bourgeoisie monarchy/ a liberal
monarchy) supplanted his cousin Charles X after revolution of 1830.
o Revolution of 1848: Louis Philippe’s setup was a liberal monarchy. He portrayed Napoleon as national
hero. But it also drifted toward its doom at the hands of socialist and radicals. France declared as republic
for second time and Louis Napoleon elected as president. He won reelection and later declared himself as
Emperor Napoleon III in 1852.
1848 Revolution
Impacts in Austria: There was already unrest in these countries; the 1848 revolution added fuel to the fire. There
were outbreaks of revolt in several provinces of Austrian Empire and Italy.
Liberals in Hungarian demanded autonomy. The worker and students in Austria took the streets, demanded a
constitutional government and demanded the dismissal of Metternich. Metternich tendered his recognition and took
shelter in England. His flight was a great event. Emperor Ferdinand granted a liberal constitution. The revolt was
crushed with the aide of Russia.
Impacts in Italy:
 Italy has been described as “Geographical expression” by Metternich.
 In Congress of Vienna, It had been broken into a number of States: The kingdom of two Sicilies, The Papal
States, Tuscany, Lucca, Modena, Parma, Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont. Lombardy and Venetia was
directly controlled by Austria and the rest by Hapsburg princes.
 News of Metternich’s fall on March 13 led to the outbreak of rioting in Milan, the capital of Lombardy,
which Austria had annexed along with Venetia in 18 15.
 Sardinia (also known as Piedmont) in the northwest, had the only native Italian dynasty in Italy.
 However, In 1848-1849, the liberal national idealists had been defeated in their efforts to unite Italy and
Germany.
5
The great Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi wrote operas with nationalistic themes (including his popular
masterpiece Aida), leading many to consider him the musical figurehead of the struggle for Italian independence
and unification.
The Course of Italian Unification
Q 2006: Do you agree with the view that, "Italy as a nation is the legacy and life work of Cavour" Elaborate.
Q: 2009: What part did Mazini, Cavour, Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel play in the history of Italian unification?
So, following the defeat of the Italian nationalist in revolution of 1848, Italy remained divided into three broader
parts.
i. In the south, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was ruled by a king of the Bourbon dynasty. In the center, the pope
governed the Papal States. In the north, several small states, including Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, were subject to
Austrian domination.
ii. In addition, the northern Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia had been an integral part of the Austrian
Empire since 1815.
iii. Northern Italy also included the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, frequently referred to simply as Piedmont, ruled
by the House of Savoy. Piedmont retained its liberal constitution.
Piedmont was the premier state which was to take a lead in achieving the Italian Unification. Its king was Victor
Emmanuel and PM Cavour.
The Carbonari
 Secret societies began to spread all over Italy. Carbonari was the most important.
 Also known as society of Charcoal burner, origin in Naples, a vast liberal organization, a purely
revolutionary and Italian patriotic body.
 All classes, Nobles, military officers, peasants, priests joined it.
1. Giuseppe Mazzini:
 Young Italy movement of Giuseppe Mazzini the poet philosopher of the movement for Italian unification,
(1805–1872), Who was a nationalist revolutionary,
 He founded The young Italy society in 1831 which supersede the Carbonary as center of nationalist
agitation. “Place Youth at the head of insurgent multitude”
 In 1859 Mazzini opposed Napoleon help in Austro-Sardinian war,
 But Mazzini work was done, he was surpassed as Italy now needed warriors not philosophers.
2. Garibaldi:
 He joined Young Italy society if Mazzini
 In 1833 He joined conspiracy mission of Mazzini, His part was to enter Sardinian Navy and win over the
sailors. He was caught and condemned to death by Govt. He ran away.
 1836-1845 he in South Americ took part in local guerella wars and got experience.
 1848 he came back to Italy, and led war against Austria. Later im 1849 fought to defend republic of Rome
against Austria, managed to escape with 4000 Men. Austrian army had to follow him in Mountains and
forests for month. He again escaped to America.
 1856 he came back and joined Cavour later parted way and again mobilized militant youth against Austria
 1860: when revolution break in Sicily Garibaldi reached to help them and sought support of Cavour.
Cavour was in dilemma. He conquer the whole Sicily Island.
 Garibaldi became more and more impatient and suspicious of Cavour double game.
 There was a long and intense race between Garibaldi and Piedmont Cavour forces to ocuppy territories.
 Later Garibaldi formally resigned and asked the people to Obey the king Victor Emmanuel.
 “It is difficult to find a more selfless patriot in the history of the world, as Garibaldi”
3. The Role Cavour

The Italian movement for national unification was known as il-Risorgimento (the resurgence) after a newspaper
founded in 1847 by Count Camillo di Cavour (1810–1861), the prime minister of Sardinia after 1852.
Internal policy of Cavour (PM of Piedmont)

Economic Reforms: Encouraged industrial revolution, liberal and farsighted economic policies
Army Reforms: 90000 trained and equipped army was organized
Established National Society: to enlist the support of other Italian states. This secret organization operated in several
northern Italian states, promoting revolts against the local pro-Austrian rulers.
His External Policy

Austria as a major obstacle: Realizing that Piedmont alone was not strong enough to defeat Austria, he sought to
gain French assistance.
In Crimean War: The Kingdom of Sardinia (also known as Piedmont) also joined in the war against Russia, mainly
to win support from England and France for the idea of a united Italy.
The Peace of Paris 1856: After Crimean war, the piedmont was invited, recognized as power, leader of Italians. Won
over the support of Napoleon III,
He entered into alliance with France: Napoleon III was sympathetic to Italian Unification. France was to help
Piedmont only on the condition of aggression by Austria.
Austro-Sardinian war 1859: Cavour mobilized forces at Austrian border, compelled Austria to attack thus proved
it as aggressor. Napoleon III came to rescue his ally. Austria was defeated. Lambordy was liberated. Venetia
remained with Austria.
By plebiscite in central Italy, Cavour annexed Modena, Parma, Tuscany, etc, but France help was needed, by
agreement, Savoy and Nice ceded by France, thus France discredited in eyes of England and lost the gratitude of
Italian.
The annexation of kingdom of two Sicilies and Rome 1860: Cavour secretly encouraged patriots revolt there.
Garibaldi the disciple of Mazzini played outstanding role there by organizing “Red Shirt” army there. Plebiscite
decided in favor of Union and weakened Garibaldi and strengthens Cavour.
 1861: Only Venetia and Rome now remained out. King Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed as king of Italy.
Cavour Died. “Italy as a nation is the legacy, The life work of Cavour”
1866: Autro-Prussian War: Annexation of Venetia: In April 1866, Italy concluded an alliance with Prussia, which
defeated Austria in the Seven Weeks’ War during the summer. Austria ceded Venetia to the Italians.
1870: Annexation of Rome: After the kingdom of Italy was created in 1861, French troops remained in Rome to
defend the pope’s possession of the city and its surroundings. When the French withdrew these troops during the
Franco-German War of 1870, the Italians occupied and annexed Rome, which now became Italy’s capital. The
annexations of Venetia and Rome completed the process of unification.
The Unification of Germany

Q 2005: Highlight role of Bismarck as an architect of German Unity.
The unification of Germany proceeded in a similar fashion to that of Italy, with a strong leader, Otto von Bismarck
(1815–1898), of a powerful core state, Prussia.
Background
i. Congress of Vienna: 1815; Shattered the hopes of German Nationals, instead of unifying they got German
federation of 39 sovereign states. Provision for Federal diet presided by Austria.
ii. The Burschenschaften: 1817: The greatest challenge to the conservative order in the German Confederation came
from university students who had been imbued with liberal and nationalist ideals. Jena became center. Dreaming of
constitutional government and national unity, these students organized associations known as Burschenschuften In
1817. Metternich By Carlsbad Decree, 1819 A special representative was appointed by Ruler in Universities with
powers to tackle the movements.
iii. Zollverein: In 1819, Prussia launched the Zollverein (customs union) and began to conclude treaties, which
abolished internal duties heavy duties on importing goods, Thus Prussia became trade free area. By 1834, most of
the members of the German Confederation, with the notable exception of Austria, had joined the Zollverein.
“Germany Fiscally Unified, For the first time Germany became a fiscal Unit” Marriot
“The political Union was carefully avoided for the time being”
iv. Revolution of 1830 1848: The French July revolution of 1830 had also effects of Germany. The net result was
while Prussia remained unchanged the smaller states got liberal constitution. Following the 1848 revolution, the
fundamental rights were agreed in Germany, right of civil, religious equality, freedom of press, etc. The German
Confederation was reestablished as a loose union of the thirty-nine German states under Frankfurt Parliament. Of
these states, the most powerful were Austria, ruled by the Hapsburg dynasty, and Prussia, ruled by the House of
Hohenzollern. Holding the presidency of the German Confederation, the Austrians dominated Germany much as
they dominated Italy.
1. Role of William I: 1861

 He became King of Prussia after death of his brother Frederick William iv.
 William I was the man of part. “A man at the right time at the right place and right position” He was
nationalist to the core, a judge of men.
 He was convinced the Germany could only be liberated by a strong Prussian Military power.
 For military reforms there was a great deadlock in Prussian Parliament, Landtag. “there three alternative
before king of Prussia, He could give up the reforms of Army, He could abdicate, He could suspend the
constitution and send the member to home. Ultimately he decided to invite Bismarck from Paris to handle
the situation.
2. OTTO VON BISMARCK (1815-1890)
 In September 1862, William I named Bismarck Prussia’s minister-president. Bismarck, like his Italian
counterpart Cavour, proved to be one of nineteenth-century Europe’s most brilliant statesmen.
 As told earlier, William I introduced a program to strengthen the Prussian army up to half a million but the
liberals in the Prussian refuse to approve the new taxes.
 So, Bismarck was appointed as minister-president. Bismarck presented his views forthrightly. “The great
issues of the day, he declared, would not be settled by parliamentary debate and majority vote. Instead,
they would be settled by “blood and iron.” Acting unconstitutionally, Bismarck proceeded to collect the
taxes anyway, and the military reform program was carried out.
Blood and Iron Policy

 He knew well that his aim could not be achieved by peaceful means, In his memorable speech in parliament
in 1862 he said, “The great issues of the day, he declared, would not be settled by parliamentary debate and
majority vote. Instead, they would be settled by “blood and iron.”
 The policy therefor demanded that he firstly build up a strong Military Machine. The army alone could him
achieve his objectives.
 At first he had to handle with internal liberals
 All danger of International intervention should be eliminated.
 He was to pose Prussia to win over war against Austria, Denmark, and France.
Bismarck Foreign policy: Prussia Fought Three Historical Wars
1. 1864: Danish War:

Schleswig and Holstein were two duchies located south of Denmark. The Danish king ruled one duchy. In 1863, the
Danish parliament annexed Schleswig as well, an action that infuriated German nationalists.
 Bismarck proposed a Prussian alliance with Austria and Prussia and Austria went to war against Denmark
in 1864. Denmark was quickly defeated
 In Treaty of Vienna 1864 Denmark surrendered the two duchies. Austria occupied Holstein and Prussia
Schleswig.
 There he saw ultimate possibility of quarrel with Austria over spoil of war
 He also tested the strike power of Prussian war Machine.
2. 1866: The Austro-Prussian War

Now, cleverly, before moving against Austria, Bismarck sought to gain assurances of French and Russian neutrality.
He promised Napoleon III of Some territorial gains, Helped Russia in suppressing revolt in Poland 1863, and formed
alliance with Italy on promise of taking Venetia from Austria.
 It is called seven week war. Austria had to fight on two fronts. It is true that Italian were defeated.
 The Prussian army decisively defeated the Austrians.
 After victory the Prussian troops marched toward Vianna, Bismark convinced the king to Avoid it. They
imposed very nominal war indemnity on Austria. (This two moves were to win Austria later against France.
 Treaty of Prague 1866: Prussia gained full possession of Schleswig and Holstein and also annexed the
northern German states. Italy acquired Venetia.
Effects of War: Prussia emerged as leader of Germany, It Military efficiency was recognized in Europe, Bismarck
discredited the internal liberals of Prussia, Only Rome remain for Italy Unification, Austria and Hungry divided,
3. 1870-71: The Franco- Prussian War

For centuries, France had benefited from a divided Germany. Napoleon III opposed a further increase in Prussian
power. Bismarck believed it would be necessary to fight a war against France in order to gain control of the south
German states.
Bismarck Moves:
 Bismarck cautiously avoided the annexation of Southern state with the help of Force. There was possibility
for their seeking help from France. Bismark followed the policy of winning over them with Aid, training
etc.
 Isolation of France: Italy also annoyed, with French troops at Rome. Russia had not forgotten defeat in
Crimean war by French, Austria was treated leniently in treaty of Prague 1966 for not occupying Vienna,
and less war indemnity.
 Mobilizing efficiently, the German armies invaded France. On September 2, Napoleon III and a large
French army surrendered to the Germans.
Results
o In Paris, rebels proclaimed the establishment of the Third Republic, which sought to continue the war.
o On January 18, 1871, while the German siege of Paris was still in progress, King William I of Prussia was
proclaimed German emperor before an assembly of German princes in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of
Versailles. The unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia had been accomplished.
o Treaty of Frankfurt: 1871, France and Germany signed the Treaty of Frankfurt, ending the Franco-German
War. The French ceded the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany and were also obliged to pay an
indemnity of 5 billion gold francs ($1 billion) till the Germans hold the siege of Paris.
o “The treaty of Frankfurt remained the open sore for Europe after 1871, France never forgot it, Alsace and
Lorrain were captured by mere force against the protest of Locals” Hazen
o French Troops also withdrew from Rome, and Italian troops entered the same. Thus Italian Unification also
completed.
o Russia also took advantage and repudiated the Black sea Clause of Treaty of Paris.
o National Unification in Italy and Germany altered the European balance of power at the expense of Austria
and France. Germany now became the most powerful state on the European continent.
So, the ruthless diplomacy of Bismark achieved GU within one decade, Austria ousted, French humbled,
Prussianized the Germany, as result of his policy of “Blood and Iron”
Bismarck served as chancellor of the German Empire until his dismissal by Emperor William II in 1890.
The Origins of First World War (1890-1914)

“Despite its name, World War I was primarily a European conflict, fought over European issues”
The assassination of the Austrian archduke Francis Ferdinand, in Sarajevo, in 1914, unleashed a catastrophic war
that lasted four years, cost ten million lives (and probably only one in ten saw the man who killed him). To trace the
origin of This war we have to excavate very deeply.
Formation of Alliances and Counter Alliances/Foreign Policy of Bismarck, Continued
1770’s 80’s: In European international relations, the 1870s and 1880s were truly the Age of Bismarck, During these
decades, Bismarck’s Germany dominated European diplomacy, establishing ties with Austria, Russia, and Italy and
maintaining cordial relations with Great Britain. Bismarck feared the war of Revenge from France, As a
consequence, France remained isolated. After Bismarck was dismissed as Germany’s chancellor in 1890, Germany
Foreign policy suffered. And France broke the Isolation.
1873: The Three Emperors’ League

Bismarck’s efforts to keep France isolated achieved their first success in the formation of the Three Emperors’
League (the Dreikaiserbund) in 1873. Germany’s Emperor William I, Austria’s Emperor Francis Joseph, and
Russia’s Tsar Alexander I1 pledged to cooperate in efforts to maintain peace and the status quo.
1879: Dual Alliance: Austro-Russian interest conflict in the Balkans led to the collapse of the Three Emperors’
League. Bismarck had to make a choice. In 1879, Bismarck concluded a secret defensive alliance with Austria. This
Dual Alliance provided for mutual aid in the event either partner was attacked by Russia. If attack by any other
power one should remain neutral, The term should be secret.
1881: Revival of the Three Emperors’ League; Bismarck’s in his efforts succeeded with the reestablishment of the
Three Emperors’ League. the German, Austrian, and Russian rulers.
1882: The Triple Alliance: Italy joined Germany and Austria in a secret defensive alliance, the Triple Alliance.
(Because, In 1881, the French established a protectorate over Tunisia in North Africa. This angered the Italians)
Bismarck had secretly encouraged both to occupied it. Thus, He won Italy.
 If France, Russia attacks any signatory, other two will help.
 Italy made it clear not to fight against England
 Remember, Germany had alliance with Russia, still it entered an anti-Russian alliance…!
 “A declaration was made that the alliance in any case is not directed against England”
 Soon the later events would show that the Triple Alliance was diplomatic mockery
Bismarck now had ties with Italy as well as with Austria and Russia. In addition, Germany remained on good terms
with Great Britain. France was thus more completely isolated than ever.
Italy left the alliance Because Italy still claimed some its northern areas under Austria, Italy tendency to Democratic
France, 1902 Italy and France agreed in secret to be neutral against war of one, 1904 Entente Cordial with England.
“Insatiable Italy with furtive glances roves restlessly hither and thither” Bismarck predicted earlier.
1887: The Reinsurance Treaty of Germany and Russia: Again, Austro-Russian tension in the Balkans led to the
Russian decision in 1887 not to renew the Three Emperors’ League. However, the Russians wanted to maintain their
relationship with Germany, and the two powers signed the Reinsurance Treaty of 1887.
This time the treaty provided for benevolent neutrality in case either partner became involved in war with a fourth
great power.
1890: The Dismissal of Bismarck: The Young Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck as Germany’s chancellor.
“I discovered that my minister regarded themselves as Bismarck officials”
Bismarck’s successors proved weak. Germans did not renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, fearing it would
be impossible to balance Germany’s commitments to both Russia and Austria. The Germans believed that autocratic
Russia and revolutionary, republican France were so ideologically antagonistic…! This belief proved to be
mistaken.
--------------------------------------
The Diplomatic Moves Of France

As we noticed earlier, Germany was playing Double game. In Austro-German, Dual alliance 1879 he was to help
Austria against Russia, while in reinsurance treaty was to Remain neutral in war against Russia. Germany was in
dilemma
1893: The Franco-Russian Alliance: France broke the isolation, isolated France and newly isolated Russia began
to draw together. They signed a secret military alliance in 1894. At the time, the Franco-Russian alliance seemed
directed primarily against Great Britain, the main rival of both France and Russia in the Mediterranean and Asia.
 In 1895 to 1902 there was unusual cooperation between the two alliances. They both showed antagonism to Japan
and Great Britain in Far east and S Africa. The result was Anglo Japan Alliance.
1902: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The first step in Britain’s abandonment of isolation came in 1902, when the
British signed an alliance with Japan. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was directed primarily against the threat of
Russian expansion in East Asia.
1902: Secret Italo-French Agreement: Germany’s international position had deteriorated considerably. The Triple
Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy remained in effect, but Italy reached a secret agreement with France,
promising to support French efforts to establish a protectorate over Morocco in exchange for French support of
Italian ambitions elsewhere in North Africa. And Italy agreed to Remain neutral in France war against Triple
Alliance. As Italy improved its relations with France, Austria became Germany’s only reliable ally.
1904: The Anglo-French Entente Cordial: Great Britain broke her splendid Isolation of 19th Century: In the wake
of all these alliances and counter alliances England isolation and her overseas interests were becoming Dangerous.
Germany with best arm forces now started Naval Program, which send the warning queen of the sea.
 Although an element of tension to Anglo-French relations, the French believed that Germany, rather than
Great Britain, posed the greater threat to France.
 This diplomatic understanding dealt with colonial issues, not a military alliance. It was a new chapter in
troubled history of Anglo-french relations. .
1907: The Anglo-Russian Entente: The Russo-Japanese War of 1905 created a difficult situation for France.
Russia, France’s ally, was at war with Britain’s ally, Japan.
With the encouragement of the French, London and St. Petersburg sought to resolve their differences. The Anglo-
Russian Entente of 1907 recognized a Russian sphere of influence in northern Persia and a British sphere in the
south. The Russians agreed to withdraw from Afghanistan, while both countries promised to respect the territorial
integrity of Tibet.
1907: The Triple Entente: The Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907 merged into Triple Entente of France, Great
Britain, and Russia. It was a nonmilitary alliance. The Triple Entente faced the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria,
and Italy.
Summary
 We can see that The root of all these activism was that the proud French ware defeated in 1871 and
humiliated by Germany and Alsace and Loraine were taken from her, she sooner or later bound to wage
war of vengeance to wrest the two provinces. She needed allies, Germany was to keep her isolate.
 In the years since Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890, the diplomatic balance of power in Europe had shifted
dramatically in France’s favor.
 The national, Political, economic and colonial rivalries for great power divided Europe into two armed
camps. Triple Alliance and Triple entente, both armed to teeth.
 As noted above, Italy was less than completely faithful to its alliance partners.
 England remain neutral as long as her Supremacy in sea and colonial interest were not challenged.
 By their very nature these alliances developed mutual hatred, suspicion and fears. These in turn led to
unhealthy race of Armaments.
 Triple alliance was weak and become weaker and weaker than Triple Entente. Main Trouble was Austria,
She was badly entangled in Balkan. While Triple entente was much stronger and reconcilable.
The Race of Armaments

 Side by side with diplomatic activities a competition in armaments also went on.
 German program of Naval expansion 1898 and 1907
 First Hague conference 1899: Tsar called the international conference 29 countries attended. Germany was
not prepared to stop her naval Prog. Court of Arbitration established, Codification of International law,
 Second Hague Conference 1907: Another attempt by Tsar and US Roosevelt, attended by 44 nations. But
Germany irreconcilable
The Balkan Wars
Background: In 1911, Italy went to war against the Ottoman Empire in an attempt to take control of Tripoli (Libya)
in northern Africa. The Italians easily defeated the Turks. Thus, Italy’s easy victory over the Turks encouraged the
small Balkan states to press their demands against the Ottoman Empire.
Balkan League 1912: Under Russian patronage, Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece had formed the Balkan
League. In 1912, the Balkan League went to war against Turkey. Under the terms of the Treaty of London (May
1913), the defeated Ottoman Empire lost all its territory in Europe except for the area immediately adjacent to the
Turkish Straits.
An international conference held in London in 1913 and a new Balkan state, Albania, was created which contained
Serbia’s expansion and denied Serbia an access to the Adriatic Sea.
1913: The Second Balkan War

Having been denied access to the Adriatic, Serbia (The strongest state of Balkan; 1878 independence from Turkey)
demanded part Macedonia as compensation which clashed with Bulgaria claim. These disputes among the Balkan
states resulted in the outbreak of the Second Balkan War in 1913. Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Rumania, and
Turkey joined to defeat Bulgaria. The Treaty of Bucharest (August 1913) forced Bulgaria to cede territory to
Rumania, while Serbia and Greece gained most of Macedonia.
Russia’s ambitions in the Balkans and the Turkish Straits again had also been frustrated. Russia humiliated.
The Crux of Balkan Problem: Serbia sufficiently enlarged, was in much stronger position, She had not forgotten
the Austrian usurpation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Like Italy and Germany She was dreaming of uniting all Slav
states, Greater Serbia or Yugoslavia; (With exception of Greece and Rumania all Balkan States speaks the same
Slavic Language) the only obstacle was Austria-hungry, A-H considered Serbia as greatest Threat now, in 1908
Austria annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina enraged the Serbs. The Balkan Entangle was further complicated by
Russian support to Serbia.
Meanwhile Germany was expanding her influence in Ottoman Empire, Training Turk armies, construction railways,
resented Russia and Serbia. Austria-Hungry and Germany wanted to isolate Serbia in Balkan, Romania and Bulgaria
had rulers of German descent. Only Serbia was out of Control of Germany.
General Causes of First World War
1. Franco-German rivalry over Alsace and Lorrain; 1871, The root cause which initiated all the subsequent
Alliance competition, Public desires in France to get back them.
2. Secret Alliance: A unique diplomatic anomaly
3. Growth of Militant Germany: from the very outset was a military state. Her demand of naval power,
4. Race of Armaments: The German war Engine evoked the race of armaments. Hague conferences failed due to
rigid attitude of Germany, The competition for military supremacy and for economic resources abroad were
complicated by entangling alliances,
5. Division of Europe into two armed Camps:
6. The Balkan Problem: No single event influenced the outbreak of war more than the Balkan War. The clash of
interest of great power was the outstanding cause of complicated the relations further.
7. Imbalance of Power: With the Unification of Germany the balance of Power designed in 1815 Congress of
Vienna became imbalance. Later The balance of power turned to the system of forging alliances. The modern war
technologies, and secret alliances obscure the power statuses.
8. Narrow nationalism and competitive patriotism. Love of one country demanded hatred of other.
9. Economic Imperialism: To capture markets, German colonization and Tariff war
10. Poisoning of public opinion by Newspaper, propaganda
11. Character of William II: Very arrogant, Haughty, Ambitious, Racist, humiliating and biased views against
French and English race. Believed in “world power or Downfall”
12. International system: The General cause of WWI was International System. Lack of Any Machinery to control
IS.
0. The immediate Cause: The heir to the Habsburg throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863–1914), visited
Sarajevo in Bosnia, which was controlled by Austria-Hungary. As Ferdinand drove through the streets of Sarajevo
on June 28, 1914, a radical Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip (1894–1918) attacked the motorcade and
assassinated the archduke and his wife. He belonged to The Serbian Secret terrorist society ‘Black hand” Austrian
Barchtold acquiring support of Germany, sent and Ultimatum (10 Point Demands) to Serbia on 23 July, Dissolution
and punishment of Secret societies, and suppression anti-Austrian Propaganda, Serbia accepted 8, and also ordered
mobilization of Armies.
The outbreak of the World War 1 (The Curtain Left)
Russia: Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. The ally of Serbia warned Austria not to attack Serbia,
France affirmed her support to Russia, Both Russia and France sent suggestion to Austria for friendly discussion
over the issue, but Austria Rejected. In response, Russia mobilized its forces. Germany then issued an ultimatum to
Russia to stand down. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia. Since France was an ally of Russia, Germany
declared war on France two days later. Britain warned Germany that if it invaded neutral Belgium to get at France,
Britain would be forced to retaliate.
28July: Austria declared war on Serbia. Kaiser tried last minute efforts to localize the war and requested Russia. But
Russia ordered general mobilization.
Germany: 31 July sent ultimatum to Russia for demobilization and To France for neutrality. They rejected. Germany
ordered General mobilization. Meanwhile Germany tried to Secure British Neutrality in Franco-German war on
condition to respect the territorial integrity of France not its Colonies. Britain Reply was dignify, “It would be a
disgrace for Us to do this Bargain”
On 3August Germany Declared war on France: And demanded Belgium for passage of troops, she rejected.
Germany Violated its neutrality. Great Britain Declared war on Germany. Japan also declared war on Germany,
Turkey Declared War on Russia, England and France also declared war on Turkey, Other small power also joined
the sides.
The Allies of World War I included, first, the nations of the Triple Entente: France, Russia, and Great Britain.
Serbia, Belgium, Italy, Rumania, and Greece ultimately supported the Allied cause, as did the United States and
Japan. Although the Japanese had no interests at stake in Europe, they hoped to acquire Germany's concessions in
China, as well as the German-held islands in the North Pacific.
The Central Powers, Germany and Austria-Hungary, won the support of Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire.
Two Fronts or War For Germany: Germany decided to concentrate on Western front and capture Paris first, as
Russian machinery was slow. By September the Germans were forcing an Allied retreat through France and the
French government left Paris in case the Germans occupied the city. The Germans crossed the Marne River and
French at the First Battle of the Marne. The battle involved more than two million troops. With the battle fought to a
draw, both sides trenches. The war on the Western Front consisted mostly of trench warfare. Thousands of miles of
mazelike trenches covered France and led to four years of virtual stalemate.
Italy: Italy member of Triple alliance did not joined Germany and Austria, she held that Germany was not fighting a
defensive war. Rather, she joined Central power in 1915 because she had differences with Austria over some Italian
Area.
England and Germany: On naval front Germany started indiscriminate war. England captured all German Colonies.
and carried out intense blockade. German realized that the real enemy is England. Germany intensified War on
Western front. England used Tanks for first time, completely surprised Germans. The British Naval Blockade fell
heavily on German economy, shortage of food.
US enter the war: 6 April 1917: Germany was to break Naval blockade, Germany began attacking on all neutral
ships. When the US ships were attacked She entered the war.
Russian Revolution: 1917: The war was grossly mismanaged, Russia Tsar were forced to abdicate later killed with
his family. Russia declared as republic. But later in October Bolshevik revolution under Lenin and Trotsky put aside
the republic and declared socialism. Russia withdraw from war.
Germany Concentrated on Western Front: If war prolonged the defeat of Germany was certain. Thus they put
everything at stake on Spring offensive of 1918. In July of 1918, British, French, and American forces engaged the
Germans at the Second Battle of the Marne and turned the tide for good. For the first time, the Central Powers did
not have the upper hand. Meanwhile Bulgaria, Turkey, Austria surrendered.
3 Oct German made an offer of peace to Wilson, but he turned it town, and said that He would deal only with
people’s government. The Kaiser had meanwhile abdicated the throne and fled to Holland.
On 11 November 1918: The Armistice was accepted and signed. WW I came to an end.
 So, we can notice, The end of the war came not so much from any particular military successes on the battlefield,
but rather from general exhaustion and from two events occurring in 1917: the Russian Revolution, which was soon
to take Russia out of the war, and the entry of the United States into the war.
Consequences of War
i. World War I, the “war to end all wars,” altered Europe like no other war or revolution before or since. The human
casualties alone were devastating: Some eight million men were killed and another twenty million. (A 1916 British
propaganda poster reads, “Shells made by a wife may save a husband’s life.”)
ii. The war also marked the final end of absolute monarchies in Europe, culminating a process that had begun with
the French Revolution of 1789. With the defeat of the Central powers, the autocrats of Germany, Austria- Hungary,
and the Ottomans were banished, and with the 1917 revolution in Russia, the tsar was ousted and then executed by
the Bolsheviks. This time, unlike after previous revolutions and wars, the monarchies would not reappear. Out of the
old empires emerged many incipient democratic states based on eighteenth-century ideals of popular sovereignty
and nineteenth-century ideals of liberalism and nationalism.
The Peace Conference in Paris/ Treaty of Versailles 1919
“I don’t know whether war is an interlude during peace, or peace is an interlude during war.” Georges
Clemenceau
The Allied victors assembled in Paris in the winter of 1919 to draw up peace treaties dealing with each of the
defeated states. The representatives of “the Big Four” met at the Paris Peace Conference to work out the formal
details of a treaty. Georges Clemenceau represented France, David Lloyd George represented Britain, Vittorio
Orlando represented Italy, and President Woodrow Wilson represented the United States. Germany was represented
but had no say in the proceedings. Russia, busy dealing with domestic problems, was not represented. Bulgaria and
Turkey, home of the Ottomans, weren’t involved at Versailles but signed the Treaty.
Wilson approached with his Fourteen Points, Wilson’s Fourteen Points were democratic, liberal, enlightened, and
progressive. Key aspects were to disallow secret treaties in the future, allow freedom of the seas, provide for arms
reduction, allow the self-determination of nations, and to establish the League of Nations, which Wilson saw as a
key instrument to prevent future war.
But Clemenceau (PM France) and Lloyd George (PM England) hoped to exact revenge on Germany and deliver a
crippling blow to it. In the end, Clemenceau and Lloyd George got their way.
1. THE TERMS OF PEACE
i. Territorial Readjustments
 France regained Alsace and Lorraine, Still not satisfied, claimed Rhineland to feel more secure from
Germany, but on pressure by USA UK to defend her, she withdrew.
 The Rhine was later demilitarized to serve as Buffer zone between Germany and France. A Rhine
Commission was to supervise all the important Railway, Waterways, ports of Germany to give better sense
of security to France.
 North Schleswig decided in favour of Denmark by plebiscite
 The Saar Basin and its coal mines were given to France for 15 years as part of Reparation.
 Danzig was taken away from Germany and made free city.
 Poland was reconstituted and a corridor was given to sea. This Polish corridor divided Main Germany from
Prussia. A constant eyesore for Germans.
 Austria was considerably reduced in Size, deprived from access to sea. Not allowed to unite with Germany.
 Yugoslavia created as new state, comprising old Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzgovina etc
 Czechoslovakia was created as new state.
 All the German colonies in Africa and Asia were confiscated
ii. The Fate of Germany:
 Germany had surrendered on the basis of Wilson 14 points. But those were not made the bases of
settlement.
 The harsh treaty crushed Germany emotionally as well as fiscally
 The Treaty of Versailles required that Germany accept all responsibility for the war, fairly or not.
 It ordered that France would control the Saar valley, rich in coal and iron, for 15 years, and that France
would have Alsace-Lorraine returned.
 The Rhineland between France and Germany would be demilitarized Zone as a buffer zone between the
two nations.
 Germany’s colonies were divided between France and Britain, and Germany itself lost all together 13.5%
of land and 12.5% of her population.
 Treaty of Versailles served as the major peace settlement, other treaties dealt with the smaller nations
involved in the war. The other treaties redrew political boundaries and resulted in the creation of many new
nations.
 German king William II was charged with “supreme offense against International morality” But Netherland
Government refused to hand over the Emperor to the Allies.
 Do you Know, The Final ceremony took place in “the hall of mirror” at Versailles, The same place where
Bismarck proclaimed the Unification of Germany.
iii. Disarmament
 The treaty placed serious limitations on the German military. The treaty limited Germany’s army to
100,000 men and no craft, no tanks, and no heavy artillery. Likewise, the treaty limited the German navy to
15,000 men and no submarines, only 6 battle ships, 6 destroyers
 Austria army was reduced to 30000, Hungry 35000, Bulgaria, 20000
 Compulsory military training was abolished in all countries
iv. The reparation
o Germany was to for reconstruction of civilian property and pensions of widows. Germany was forced to
pay brutal war reparations in the amount of 24 thousand million pounds, a figure actually reduced from
over 200 billion gold marks. The sum was still unrealistically high. Germany surrendered merchants ship of
over 1600 tonnage.
o Austria and Bulgaria too had to pay war indemnities.
v. The treaty of Severe 1920
It was concluded with Turkey, The Turkish Provinces, Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq) were take away, and were
placed under British Mandate, while Syria to France. Macedonia was given to Greece, Egypt and Arabia became
independent Kingdoms.
vi. New States
o Out of the defunct empires were carved seven new independent states in Europe: Finland, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. Austria and Hungary were now small, separate states.
Romania was enlarged by the addition of parts of Russia and Hungary. Greece acquired territory from
Turkey.
o With the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, Turkey emerged as an independent republic, and Syria, Lebanon,
Palestine, and Iraq were given as League of Nations mandates to France or Britain. Theoretically, these
new states and border changes were all based on nationality, in accordance with Wilson’s Fourteen Points.
2. Impacts of Treaty
 Wilson was disappointed, on not stipulating his 14 points, and on Colonial issues, USA was not to interfere
in the affair of Europe…
 The Treaty of Paris provided for the League of Nations to intervene in military aggression. Members in the
League were to be obligated to defend other members who were attacked in the future. Because the
American Congress had the sole constitutional power to declare war, the Congress refused to give that
power away by signing such a treaty.
 The Treaty of Versailles left Germany as the sole guilty party, a fact that would create deep resentment in
Germany.
 Immediately after the war, the Weimar Republic of Germany encountered severe economic problems.
Millions of demobilized soldiers arrived home to find little or no work.
 In addition, France and Britain owed war debts to the United States, and in order to pay them demanded
reparation from Germany. Germany was unable to pay, so France seized the industrial towns of the Ruhr
valley and many mineral rich areas
 In the late 1920s, prosperity returned to Germany, primarily as a result of U.S. efforts through the Dawes
Plan of 1924 and the Young Plan of 1929. These plans provided loans to the Weimar Republic and gave the
Republic a realistic plan for reparation payments, helping to restore economic stability.
Criticism
 The hope of equality, justice and making world safe and democratic were dashed to the ground.
 It was dubbed by Germans as “dictated peace” outrage, Shame, Robbery, Selfish and even Vulgar. In 3
months of process no German official was consulted. Only call for sign.
 It was unduly harsh to republican Germany. Having thrown its monarchy she deserves milder terms.
 Germany could never bear the Polish corridor.
 Giving few million Germany of Sudentland to Czechoslovakia was unjust.
 The heavy amount of reparation was expected from the Germany who has lost all his rich areas
 Allies disarm the Germany but themselves disagree upon a scheme of general disarmaments.
 Russia had played important part in early period of War, therefore the Bolshevik Russia deserves
understanding.
League of Nation
As we noticed, earlier before WWI, there was no organization which was responsible for maintaining European
peace and political stability. This is basically why, arms race went on unchecked, antagonistic alliances were also
formed in order to safeguard against hostility and things of that nature.
The other great brainchild of Woodrow Wilson was the “general association of nations,” which emerged from the
Paris meetings and officially inaugurated on 10 January 1920. The League was based on the principle of collective
security, which held that all countries collectively would be responsible for protecting the sovereignty and
independence of every other country.
Member states pledged not to resort to war and to utilize the institutions of the League, headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland, to discuss and settle international disputes peacefully. As a universal organization with all nations
represented, the League would replace the old system of alliances, balance of power, and war as an instrument of
policy.
In 1928, 65 nations signed the Kellogg Briand Pact, rejecting war as a means of policy.
1. Objectives and Work
The League of Nations’ primary objective was to settle disputes by any means other than outright war
The Mandate system: As a result of the war, the territories (under the sovereignty of Germany and the Ottoman
Empire) as their inhabitants were at this time considered incapable of ruling themselves, it was to be ruled by
mandate, whereby Belgium, the British Empire, and France were entrusted with the governance of the mandated
territories.
The Saar and the Free City of Danzig: One of the unique responsibilities assigned to the League of Nations was
the supervision of the former German border territories of the Saar basin and the Free City of Danzig. The Saar
basin was to be placed under the administration of the League of Nations for 15 years. And as compensation for the
war, France was given control of its coal mines. In 1935, by plebiscite, over 90 per cent of the votes cast called for
the immediate reintegration of the Saar into Germany
The Polish Corridor: The inhabitants of the Free City of Danzig and the territory surrounding it were primarily of
German nationality. However, Poland needed to have access to the sea. Poland was reconstituted and a corridor was
given to sea. This Polish Corridor divided Main Germany from Prussia, a constant eyesore for Germans.
The Greco-Bulgarian conflict: In 1925, a border conflict broke out between Greece and Bulgaria. The Bulgarian
Government appealed at once to the League of Nations, an Extraordinary Session of the Council was called, and
subsequently held in Paris. Under the observation of the British, French and Italian military attachés, the hostilities
ceased and the evacuation of the territory occupied by Greek forces was carried out without incident.
Locarno Pact: 1925: In Locarno, Switzerland 1925 a meeting resulted in the Locarno Pact, signed by Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom. It prepared the ground for reconciliation between Germany and
her neighbors Belgium and France, , Germany unconditionally guaranteed the borders of France and Belgium and
pledged to never violate the borders of Czechoslovakia and Poland. In 1926, Germany joined the League of Nations.
In 1934, Russia joined the League of Nations.
Mussolini and Corfu: An Italian general was killed while he was doing some work for the League in Greece. The
Italian leader Mussolini invaded the Greek island of Corfu. The Greeks asked the League to help, the League
condemned Mussolini, and told him to leave Corfu. told Greece to apologize to Mussolini, and to pay the money to
Italy. The Greeks did as the League said. Then Mussolini gave Corfu back to Greece.
Slaves The League attacked slave traders in Africa and Burma and freed 200,000 slaves.
Prisoners of War: The League took home half a million World War One prisoners of war.
2. Failures
i. Invasion of Manchuria by Japan: The Japanese army invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria. China
immediately appealed to the world’s powers for their intervention. Under the chairmanship of French PM Aristide
Briand, LON gave recommendations, Japan did not accepted the recommendations and, withdrew from the League
of Nations in 1935.
ii. Italy and Ethiopia: In 1933, the Fascist Government of Benito Mussolini attacked on Ethiopia with the intention
to expand the colonial territory of Italy, captured it in 1936, Mussolini ignored all League of Nations proposals.
iii. Failure to reduce armament: While the armies of defeated power were reduced to the barest minimum, on
other hand the other power carried on Program of Armaments.
iv. Invasion of Austria by Hitler in 1938: The league was hopeless spectator when Germany annexed Austria
3. Causes of Failure of League of Nation
 Forty-two countries joined the League at the start. In the 1930s about 60 countries were members. This
made the League seem strong.
 The most powerful countries in the world were not members. The USA did not want to join. The Russians
refused to join – they were Communists and hated Britain and France. Germany was not allowed to join
until 1926. Without these three big powers, the League was weak.
 Theoretically, the League was allowed to use military force, but the League did not have an army of its own
so if a country ignored it, in the end, there was nothing the League could do.
 The biggest weakness was that the League’s organization was a muddle The different parts of the League
were supposed to act together; but in a crisis, no-one could agree.
 Depression 1929: the world-wide Depression made countries try to get more land and power. They were
worried about themselves, not about world peace.
 Almost from the beginning, then, the League of Nations was fatally weakened, and when Hitler began
challenging the European status quo in the 1930s, the League proved ineffectual.
Dictatorship in Europe
In the years known later as the interwar years, in the wake of post war calamities, the people looked for strong
leaders to take command and lead them to a better life. Three men in particular rose above all others and took
command. In Russia, Stalin; in Germany, Hitler; and Italy, Mussolini, dictators rose and took control of the national
governments. The circumstances of each dictator’s ascension differed from nation to nation, as did the politics of
each dictator, but each ruled with an iron fist, trampling human rights—and human life. In the end, their citizens
were not sad to see them go.
1. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia
Introduction
The Bolshevik Revolution of Russia in Oct 1917 was the greatest political, social, and economic revolution of the
world.
The Bolsheviks and Mensheviks emerged as rival factions within the Russian Social Democratic Labor party.
Leninʹs followers, became known as Bolsheviks (majority), and Martovʹs backers were dubbed Mensheviks
(minority). The Mensheviks adhered to the belief of a bourgeois‐led, democratic revolution bringing Russia into the
capitalist era would have to precede the socialist revolution. Lenin, Bolshevik on the other hand, argued that a
revolution of workers and peasants, if properly led, could establish socialism in one stage. The two factions finally
split into separate parties in 1912. The Bolsheviks, however, gained control of key workersʹ soviets (councils) and
toppled the provisional government in November (October, O.S.) 1917.
Causes:
o First World war
o Loss of support of Army that quelled 1905 revolution
o Food shortage
o Lack of leadership and weak political setup of Czar
o Social System70% peasant
o Industrial Revolution
White Army: Between 1918 and 1922 the Bolsheviks were confronted with civil war, intervention by foreign
troops, and terrible famine. ʺWhiteʺ armies of soldiers loyal to the czar challenged the Bolshevik ʺRedʺ armies.
NEP: A program allowing limited capitalism, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced in the USSR by V.I.
LENIN in 1921 to alleviate the economic failings and political discontent. for forced collectivization of agriculture
and rapid industrialization.
Leon Trotsky: He was second only to Vladimir Ilich LENIN. A charismatic orator and superb tactician, he was also
a brilliant theorist whose writings greatly influenced socialist movements worldwide. His practical skills enabled
him to plan the Petrograd uprising in November 1917 and to create the Red Army that saved the Bolshevik regime
in the ensuing Civil War (1918‐20). But his fierce independence and aloofness prevented him from gaining broad
party support after Leninʹs death, in his unsuccessful struggle for power with Joseph STALIN.
STALIN
In 1924, Lenin died, with no plans for a successor (NEP).
Stalin became general secretary of the partyʹs Central Committee. Stalin became the preeminent Soviet leader after
the death of Vladimir I. LENIN in 1924. From 1929 until his own death in 1953, Stalin held absolute authority.
Outwardly modest and unassuming and intellectually unimpressive, he applied a shrewd, practical intelligence to
political organization and manipulation. Because he rarely appeared to be what he was, Stalin was consistently
underestimated by his opponents, who usually became his victims. He brought his country to world power status but
imposed upon it one of the most ruthless regimes in history.
Stalin’s work
The Five years Plane: In 1928, Stalin instituted the first of the Five Year Plans, the economic replacement for
Lenin’s NEP. Stalin’s goal was a new, industrialized Soviet Union. The first Five Year Plan, to run from 1929 to
1933, Stalin arranged for about one out of every five peasants to give up their own land and work on collective
farms. In a process known as collectivization, Stalin moved the poorest peasants to collective farms. This peasants
with large land (in fear of leaning toward capitalism) were killed or sent to Siberian labor camps. This plan did not
pay off. Stalin actually told Winston Churchill that he estimated 10 million of his own people died during the
process.
The process of industrialization, however, greatly improved under the plan. Steel production alone increased five-
fold during the first two plans. Society suffered, though, and dealt constantly with food shortages.
The Great Purges: The Great Purges began in the 1930s. In order to become an absolute, autocratic ruler, Stalin
had to eliminate people around him, who opposed his regime. In all, Stalin purged several million Soviets. Some
estimates place the number of dead near 7 million; other estimates soar as high as 10 million. These deaths were the
result of executions as well as deaths in labor camps. Those targeted in the purges either died, suffered torture, or
found themselves in Siberian labor camps. The result, Stalin’s purges, was one of the worst tragedies in all of human
history.
The Soviet Union under Stalin’s iron-fisted regime certainly wasn’t what millions of Communist followers
envisioned when Lenin took control years before.
World War II
In world affairs, Stalin began to fear the growing power of Nazi Germany. After abortive attempts to reach an
accord with the Western democracies, he concluded (1939) a nonaggression treaty with Hitler. After Germany
invaded Poland at the start of World War II, Stalin acted to expand Soviet influence in Europe by occupying eastern
Poland and attacking Finland. The nonaggression pact with Germany, however, proved short‐lived when German
troops invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941.
Last Years
In 1945, Stalin was at the height of his power and prestige, regarded as his countryʹs savior by millions of his
subjects. The period between 1945 and his death in 1953, however, saw a new wave of repression and some of
Stalinʹs worst excesses. Returned prisoners of war were incarcerated in concentration camps. New duties on peasants
reduced many to the status of serfs, and his imposition of Communist regimes on Eastern European nations helped
create the perilous climate of the COLD WAR. Stalin now turned on many of his closest associates. In early 1953 he
announced that he had uncovered a plot among the Kremlinʹs corps of doctors; new arrests seemed imminent, and
many feared another great purge. Stalin suddenly died, however, on Mar. 5, 1953. Stalinʹs reputation declined in the
USSR after Nikita KHRUSHCHEV revealed many of Stalinʹs crimes in 1956.
Impacts
 Like French counterparts, the Russian revolutionaries claimed that their ideology was universal, and they
fully believed that the revolution in Russia would be the spark to ignite revolutions throughout the world.
 Communist International III 1919 (Comintern) formation of Communist parties in many countries
 Redefinition of Democracy: Political rights without social and economic rights are not enough, rational
 Economic Policy: only state play active role in regulating all finance, business, Anarchy of International
market led to concentration of wealth
 Dignity of Labor
 Internationalism
 Discourage imperialism: USSR openly supported the cause of Colonies, independence, “Imperialism is the
highest stage of capitalism”
 Division of the world into two block
Russian Revolution and The Cold War of Ideologies
The communist ideology of the new Russia was both anti-capitalist and atheistic, so the Western governments,
especially the United States, feared and distrusted it. The U.S. government hoped and expected that the communist
regime in Russia would fail and refused to extend diplomatic recognition to the new government until 1933. The
fear and hostility between Russia and the West were intensified by the communists’ stated desire to spread
communism elsewhere in the world, including into Western Europe and the United States. These tensions were
muted somewhat during the interwar years because both the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR), the new name for the communist state, were focused on internal, rather than international, issues,
and then during World War II because of their common alliance against Hitler’s Germany. But with the end of
World War II and the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as the world’s two superpowers, those
tensions reemerged and dominated international politics during the Cold War.
Much of the cold war antagonism between the Soviet Union and the United States can be traced back to this episode
in the history of American and European foreign policy.
Fascism
Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) was the original practitioner of the form of government known as fascism. Fascism is
a political system in which the state has all the power. Fascists had as their primary motive the promotion and
glorification of the state. Industry and war were two of the primary ways fascists glorified the state. State interest is
primary. All citizens must work for the country and the government. A popular dictator is the head of such a state.
Fascism first appeared after World War I when Benito Mussolini came to power in Italy. In Germany of the 1930s
Adolf Hitler’s National Socialism rose to power. Fascism also appeared in Japan, Spain and Argentina.
1. Fascist states were characterized by:
1. Blind loyalty to a leader who is often very popular

2. Use of violence and terror
3. Strong military and war machine for glorification of Nation state
4. Censorship and government control of news
5. Extreme nationalism and Superiority, proud, Biasness
6. State control of the economy
7. Strict discipline
8. Rule by popular dictator
2. Fascism and Contemporary International System
o Fascism was the production of Complicated international System:

o IS was dominated only be France and England
o Competition over colonies
o Anarchy was not yet tamed
o USA and UK prepared wait and see policy
o Each country was preoccupied by external threat and internal threat of Chaos and Socialism
o
3. Causes of Fascism
 Most states had no experience with democracy because they were ruled by a king or queen.
 After World War I many people were disappointed and angry because the war destroyed a lot of their
country or because some of their land was taken away from them, the emotions were exploited by
demagogues.
 In the 1920s and 1930s, a worldwide economic depression caused many people to lose faith in democracy
and capitalism. Communists celebrated what they saw as the failure of capitalism. Strong leaders arose who
supported intense nationalism, militarism, and a return to authoritarian rule.
 Most of the members feared the spread of communism and socialism into Italy.
MUSSOLINI IN ITALY
1. Italy after WWI

Italians were not satisfied with the way other countries treated them after World War I. Italy was in trouble after
WWI. Many war veterans could not find jobs. Trade was slow, taxes were high, and many workers were on strike.
Specialists were on their way. Benito Mussolini took advantage of the unrest, gathering a following of war veterans
and other unhappy Italians. He called his group the Fascist Party and pledged to solve the nation’s problems,
strengthen Italy and gain more land for Italy. He also vowed to outlaw rebellion among workers and get rid of
communism. He created his own private army with their own uniforms. Mussolini’s followers were aggressive and
started fights with other citizens and regular soldiers in the streets. Finally, in 1922 Mussolini became dictator of
Italy.
2. Mussolini Rise to power

Mussolini joined parliament in 1921. Parliament proved inefficient and, in Mussolini’s opinion, inept. Mussolini
organized a squadron of thugs known as squadristi, who terrorized and threatened socialists and Communists not to
run for election. In 1922, Mussolini and his fascists organized a massive march on Rome to demand a new
government.
King Victor Emmanuel III knew that he had to give power either to the fascists or the socialists in order to prevent a
civil war between the two groups. In October 1922, Victor Emmanuel named Mussolini prime minister, the
youngest ever in Italian history. Victor Emmanuel remained king of Italy, although the power lay with Mussolini.
With the help of parliament Mussolini assumed dictatorial powers for one year to fix Italy’s problems.
In 1925‐26, after a lengthy crisis with the parliament following the assassination of the Socialist leader Giacomo
Matteotti, he imposed a single‐party, totalitarian dictatorship. They ended free elections, free speech, and the free
press. They killed or jailed their enemies. Grasping desperately for order, Italians put the goals of the state above
their individual rights. He used propaganda to spread the message of fascism and to hype himself as “the great
leader,” or il Duce
3. His policies
In the mid‐1930s, Mussolini turned to an aggressive foreign policy, conquering (1935‐36) Ethiopia and helping
General Francisco FRANCO in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR. Rapprochement (1936) with Hitlerʹs Germany was
expanded into a military alliance (1939). In April 1939, Mussolini rashly ordered his armies to occupy Albania.
However, he kept Italy out of World War II until June 1940, when the fall of France was imminent and the Germans
seemed to be winning the war.
Decline
After a series of Italian military disasters in Greece and North Africa, the leaders of his party abandoned Mussolini.
The king dismissed him on July 25, 1943, and had him arrested. But on September 12 the Germans rescued him,
making him puppet head of a government in northern Italy. In April 1945, Mussolini and his mistress, Clara Petacci,
tried to flee advancing Allied forces. Captured by Italian partisans at Lake Como, they were shot on April 28 and
their bodies were hung in a public square in Milan. Mussolini was later buried at Predappio, his birthplace. Although
popular with most Italians until the late 1930s, Il Duce (ʺthe leaderʺ) lost their support when he dragged his country
into a war it was unprepared to fight. Few expressed regret over either the overthrow of fascism or his death.
Hitler In Germany/Nazism
After WWI, the Kaiser stepped down. Germany was in chaos. A new democratic government, the Weimer Republic,
was blamed for agreeing to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Inflation (high prices, low wages) created
major economic problems. The troubles of the time led to Nazi rise to power.
The abortive Communist revolution in Germany and the dictated Peace of Versailles determined Hitlerʹs decision to
enter politics. In 1919 he joined a small political faction in Munich and within the next year formed the National
Socialist German Workersʹ party (NSDAP). He directed the organization with an iron hand and used its meetings to
deliver forceful rhetorical assaults on Germany’s ʺenemies.ʺ In 1923 he led the party into the ill‐fated MUNICH
PUTSCH. This action resulted in his imprisonment. While in prison at Landsberg, Hitler wrote MEIN KAMPF,
which became the standard work of Nazi political philosophy.
Hitler ran for president in 1932 but lost. Then in 1933, unable to cooperate with the Nazi-dominated Reichstag,
President Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934) appointed Hitler chancellor. In February, the Reichstag fell victim to
arson and Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to suspend civil liberties “until further notice.” The March 1933 elections
once again put Nazis in control of the Reichstag and giving Hitler dictatorial powers. Shortly thereafter the
government banned all other political parties. When President Hindenburg died in 1934, the government combined
the offices of president and chancellor, and Hitler had total control of the government as Fuhrer for four years. With
supreme power, Hitler declared “A Thousand Year Reich,” or empire. Hitler’s Germany, called the Third Reich was
a totalitarian state. Hitler instituted a system of fascism much like Mussolini in Italy.
1. Totalitarian State of Nazi Germany
i. One Party System: He built a one-party government, Third Reich, and abolished all the parties.
ii. Propaganda: The government controlled all sources of information – newspapers, radio, movies, and books.
Schools taught Nazi ideas and children joined the Hitler Youth. Forbidden books were burned. Goebbels
Propaganda minister adroitly orchestrated themes that were synchronized with Hitlerʹs successes in both domestic
and foreign affairs. He used education and the arts as propaganda tools to push these policies.
iii. Lack of Civil Liberties: Only the Nazi Party was allowed and rival political parties were outlawed. The Gestapo
(secret police) arrested and executed people without a trial. Ended civil rights, silenced his enemies with force,
iv. Extreme Racism: He stated that the Germans were a superior race who was destined to build a new empire, and
rule the weak, German are more intelligent than any other people. Hitler believed that Germany could survive only
if it got rid of the weak Jews. In the course of the war the Nazis killed over 6 million Jews
v. Anti-Semitism: At first, Nazis organized boycotts of Jewish businesses, but by 1938 they were seizing the
property and businesses of Jews and selling them to non-Jews. The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 took away the political
rights and German citizenship of Jews. Jews lost their property and citizenship. Their shops and synagogues were
destroyed. They were forced to wear a yellow Star of David on their clothing. They were moved to ghettos and
concentration camps.
vi. Economic Controls: Put all businesses under government control, and employed many people in large works
programs. Germany’s standard of living rose. Agricultural and industrial production was controlled. Labor unions
and strikes were outlawed. Germans were put to work building public works and weapons. They were drafted into
the military.
vii. The role of German Masses: The most astonishing was that the only a Few German citizens worried about
Hitler’s policies. Most were pleased at the growth of German pride and Germany’s increased military and economic
power.
viii. Military: Hitler rearmed Germany and built its military which violated the Treaty of Versailles.
2. Causes of Hitler Rise
 Treaty of Versailles, humiliated and insulted Germans, the country of proud, honorable and intelligent
people
 The Character of German national was not Democratic. They wanted a strong man to take them out of the
mess created by unruly republicans, Weimar Republic.
 The decline of Protestantism, having lost their enthusiasm in Religion they need some other job of
devotion. They found it in national socialism of Hitler.
 Having overthrown the imperial govt the democratic regimes deserved milder term, but they crippled the
democratic regime (Weimar republic) economically, France and England was equally responsible for this.
 Miserable Economic conditions also helped Hitler rise.
 The occupation of Alsace, Lorraine, Sudetenland, polish corridor and it port city Danzig
 The France insatiable security appetite to chiseled Germany was one of the main cause of Nazism rise, EH
Car
 The political elites were more frighten by communist
 England ignored the rise of Hitler, she want to balance of power in Europe against France and Russia
 USA alienated itself from European affair after ignoring Wilson 14 points
 Uncertain and Complicated International system (Anarchic World System)
3. HITLER’S FOREIGN POLICY

Hitler’s foreign‐policy goals were spelled out in Mein Kampf:
i. To overturn the Versailles settlement and unite all Germans in a single Greater Germany,
ii. To destroy Bolshevism,
iii. And to conquer and colonize Eastern Europe.
1933: At first he proceeded cautiously. He withdrew Germany from the League of Nations as early as October 1933,
but he offset criticism by repeated declarations of his peaceful intentions and by concluding a series of bilateral
agreements,
1934: He concluding a nonaggression pact with Poland. As the indecisiveness of his opponents became clear, Hitler
acted more forcefully.
1935: He announced the rearmament of Germany in open violation of the Treaty of Versailles. He was rewarded by
Britainʹs concurrence in the form of an Anglo‐German Naval Pact (June 1935).
1936: The following year, without warning, he remilitarized the Rhineland, and France remained immobile. The two
major European democracies, fearful of war, seemed set on the course of appeasement.
Also, He formed the Rome‐Berlin AXIS and the Anti‐Comintern Pact with Japan, Hitler outlined his war plans to
the German military leaders in a secret meeting in November 1937. Several of them objected and were promptly
dismissed.
1938: In March he annexed Austria (the Anschluss). Britain and France joined Italy in signing the Sudetenland over
to Germany.
1939: Chamberlin visit to Germany to appease Hitler, not to annex Czechoslovakia, gave Sudetenland to Germany,
Nazi soviet Pact 1939: Ten Years no-aggression pact: In the Nazi‐Soviet Pact of Aug. 23, 1939, a vehemently anti‐
Communist Germany shocked the world by coming to terms with the USSR, a necessary preliminary to Hitlerʹs
imminent attack on Poland. The Soviets, having failed to achieve a working relationship with Britain and France,
chose to make a deal with Nazi Germany instead.
1939: 1st Sept: Invasion of Poland: Britain advised Germany that Poland would receive British assistance if Hitler
invaded. Nevertheless, Hitler invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, and took it in just four weeks using a style of
warfare known as the blitzkrieg, or lightning war. The invasion of Poland generally marks the beginning of the war.
Britain and France mobilized their troops, belatedly,
Comparison of Fascism and Nazim

o Nazism though one form of Fascism, both rejected liberalism, Marxism, democracy,
o Fascist were not racist, but nationalist, Nazizm a racist, and aggressive nationalist
o For Fascist state was important but for Nazim the race was important.
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900). The German philosopher emphasized in his works the fact that Western society
has always repressed the individual and discouraged creativity. Nietzsche believed Continental Quotes that religion,
particularly Christianity, did the same thing. He argued that religion was for the meek, the weak, and the masses
who were unable to think. Nietzsche argued that religion led humans to “slave morality” or the willingness to submit
the individual will to the strong. The individual or superman, should be the goal of man. Man should not be satisfied
with being part of the herd. Nietzsche’s thought, combined with aggressive German nationalism, contributed to the
rise of a new Germany in the interwar years under Hitler.
FASCISM IN OTHER COUNTRIES
Japan: The situation in Japan was similar. The economy was in bad condition and people had little to eat. Many
Japanese wanted the military to take over the government and Japan to be a strong country again. In the 1930s Japan
started expanding its power. It hated other Asian countries and wanted all of Asia under Japanese control.
Spain: Spain was another fascist country in Europe. General Franco led a nationalist movement in the Spanish Civil
War, in which he got help from Italy and Germany. After winning the war Franco became dictator of Spain and
ruled the country until he died in 1975.
Argentina: In Argentina Juan Peron led a fascist movement that lasted for a decade and in Chile a military group
under the command of Augusto Pinochet held on to power for almost two decades.
NEO FASCISM
 Although fascist parties were forbidden in many counties after World War II fascism wasn’t completely
dead. Neo-fascist groups have emerged throughout the world. Their members have different views of the
values of society. They want strict anti-immigration laws. Foreigners should leave the country.
o The police should have more rights. There should be more law and order in a country. Neo-fascists do not
want relations with other countries.
o Neo-fascist movements perform acts of violence and are sometimes involved in terrorist attacks but they
are too small to start a wide-scale rebellion in a state.
o Fascist Regime Supported each other in Second World War: “The dog of Same street bark alike”
o Undemocratic regime tended to attract each other
World War II: “Turning the World Upside Down”

Before Heading toward Second World War; we should briefly discuss the two important topics (Stipulated in CSS
Syllabus) as a background; The great depression and Policy of Appeasement. After that we will discuss the events of
WWII and then we will summarize its Causes and Effects in the end.
The Great Depression 1929
One reason to study the Great Depression is that it was by far the worst economic catastrophe of the 20th century. It
happened so, The first years after the end of the First World War were characterized by obvious economic hardships
as well as agricultural difficulties often directly caused by the destruction of the war.
Causes
o Millions of people in Europe and the United States invested borrowed money, money that would have to be
paid back one day. As investors poured more and more money into stocks and other investments, stock
prices soared to unrealistically high levels. As a result, the stock market in America crashed in 1929 and
left speculators and investors with nothing except debt.
o As the American economy started down the slippery slope toward disaster, banks called in loans from
everyone. American banks also called in loans from foreign countries that had borrowed for the war or for
the rebuilding process after the war. The foreign nations of course could scarcely afford the interest on
those loans.
o With the supply of money seemingly disappearing, consumers without cash, Spending dropped, so
producers dumped as many goods as they could, thus causing prices to fall dramatically.
o As demand slowed, so did production. As production slowed, so did employment. Unemployment
skyrocketed. Then, in 1931, the leading bank in Europe, the Credit-Anstalt, collapsed.
o Some economists point a finger at protectionist trade policies and the collapse of international trade.
o Some historians have called the Depression an inevitable failure of capitalism.
o Others blame the Depression on the “excesses” of the 1920s: excessive production of commodities,
excessive building.
Impacts
 It was against this economic backdrop that the strong leaders of the interwar years emerged.
 The unemployment rate in Germany, Austria and Poland rose to 20% while output fell by 40. By
November 1939, every European country had increased tariffs.
 Germany's Weimar Republic was hit hard by the depression as American loans to help rebuild the German
economy now stopped.
 Repayment of the war reparations due by Germany were suspended in 1932 following the Lausanne
Conference of 1932. By that time, Germany had repaid 1/8 of the reparations. People were devastated about
how the Weimar Republic dealt with the economy.
Appeasement—Seemed Like a Good Idea at the Time
As we have studied, The Germany picked itself up under Hitler and dusted itself off. Italy and Japan were also rising
with fascist orientation, Franco of Spain another Fascist were talking in Same idioms.
1. Appeasement toward Italy: Mussolini rise was welcome in British Circle as Bulwark against communism. At
conquest of Abyssinia by Italy Britain followed muddle headed policy. 1937 Britain signed “Gentleman’s
agreement”
2. Appeasement toward Japan: Britain did not take any action against Japan invasion of Manchuria in 1931. And
occupied whole china and spartly Island..
3. Appeasement toward Germany:
In May, 1937, Neville chamberlain became prime minister of Great Britain. His program for dealing with Hitler was
one of appeasement, that is, of attempting to meet German grievances in hopes of avoiding war. Hitler believed,
arrogantly but correctly, to challenge the dictated treaty. Hitler took advantage of this policy by annexing Austria on
March 13, 1938. He then demanded the return to Germany of the Sudetenland, a part of Czechoslovakia inhabited
largely by Germans.
On September 29, 1938, Mussolini, Chamberlain, and Premier Edouard Daladier of France met with Hitler in
Munich. Without consulting the Czechs or the Soviets, who were allied with the Czechs, they agreed to the German
annexation of the Sudetenland and other border areas of Czechoslovakia. The Munich Agreement gave Hitler the
Sudetenland as long as he agreed to stop there. Of course Hitler agreed. Britain’s Chamberlain returned to England
and told cheering crowds that he believed they had secured “peace in our time.” Meanwhile, Due to appeasement the
Germans were able to capture the Saar land, Rhineland, Austria and also the whole Czechoslovakia in 1939 with no
resistance by the league of nations.
But, On March 31, 1939, Chamberlain announced complete support of Poland in its long-simmering dispute with
Germany over the Polish Corridor and access to Danzig. France joined in supporting the Poles. Guarantees of
protection for other small states menaced by the Axis were also announced by Britain.
Hoping to avoid another war at all costs, the European powers had repeatedly ignored Hitler, his rearmament, his
aggression toward weaker states, and his blatant disregard for the Treaty of Versailles.
Appeasement was abandoned in Sept of 1939 with the Polish invasion.
4. Why Appeasement?
i. Intense fear of Communism and USSR in Britain: The powers generally did not fear Hitler the way they feared
Stalin, so perhaps they didn’t take him seriously. Britain and Russia had clash of interest in Middle East, China
and Europe. The Activities of Comintern, there was fear of rise of communism even in Britain, Panic in Britain
propertied Class. So Germany, Italy and Japan took advantage of Russo phobia in Britain.
ii. To Maintain BOP in Europe: Britain aim was that the Germany, USSR and Japan would check and exhaust
each other by their mutual conflict.
iii. Britain saw that a weak Germany would be open invitation to Communism. A strong Germany will serve as
bulwark. :Hitler also know this fear of Britain, he become more vocal against Communism.
iv. Military and Economic weakness of Britain: The policy of appeasement was popular between 1933 and 1939,
because it won time and space for Britain and France to rearm, rebuild their economy.
v. Political and moral support: The people of Britain viewed that Treaty of Versailles was harsh and Hitler’s
actions all seemed reasonable. and get political support for war, won Chamberlain an election. It meant that,
when war eventually came, Britain had the morale advantage. Appeasement meant that, when Chamberlain did
eventually declare war, the British people went to war knowing that they had done everything in their power
and more to keep the peace.
vi. As we know, pretty much every member of the League agreed to use force if a member nation were attacked,
but the League wasn’t unanimous on the way using force against belligerent nations. No nation in Europe had
the budget to rearm after the First World War.
Second World War “Turning the World Upside Down”

Hitler’s Foreign Policy
Hitlerʹs foreign‐policy goals were spelled out in Mein Kampf:
i. To overturn the Versailles settlement and unite all Germans in a single Greater Germany,
ii. To destroy Bolshevism,
iii. And to conquer and colonize Eastern Europe.
1933: At first he proceeded cautiously. He withdrew Germany from the League of Nations as early as October 1933,
but he offset criticism by repeated declarations of his peaceful intentions and by concluding a series of bilateral
agreements,
1934: He concluding a nonaggression pact with Poland. As the indecisiveness of his opponents became clear, Hitler
acted more forcefully.
1935: He announced the rearmament of Germany in open violation of the Treaty of Versailles. He was rewarded by
Britainʹs concurrence in the form of an Anglo‐German Naval Pact (June 1935).
1936: The following year, without warning, he remilitarized the Rhineland, and France remained immobile. The two
major European democracies, fearful of war, seemed set on the course of appeasement.
Also, He formed the Rome‐Berlin AXIS and the Anti‐Comintern Pact with Japan, Hitler outlined his war plans to
the German military leaders in a secret meeting in November 1937. Several of them objected and were promptly
dismissed.
1938: In March he annexed Austria (the Anschluss). Britain and France joined Italy in signing the Sudetenland over
to Germany.
1938: The Holocaust Begins: 17-year-old Herschel Grynszpan (GRIHN•shpahn), a Jewish youth from Germany,
was visiting an uncle in Paris. When he came to know that after living in Germany for 27 years, his father had been
deported to his native Poland. On November 7, wishing to avenge his father’s deportation, Grynszpan shot an
employee of the German Embassy in Paris. When Nazi leaders heard the news, they launched a violent attack on the
Jewish community.
1939: construction began on Nazi concentration camps to kill Jews and members of other groups.
The “Final Solution” officially reached its final stage in early 1942. At that time, the Nazis built extermination
camps equipped with gas chambers for mass murder. The Nazis built the first six death camps in Poland. Six million
Jews died in the death camps and in Nazi massacres. Fewer than 4 million European Jews survived the horrors of the
Holocaust.
1939: Chamberlin visit to Germany to appease Hitler, not to annex Czechoslovakia, gave Sudetenland to Germany,
Nazi soviet Pact 1939: Ten Years no-aggression pact: In the Nazi‐Soviet Pact of Aug. 23, 1939, a vehemently anti‐
Communist Germany shocked the world by coming to terms with the USSR.
Hitler hated communism, as Stalin despised fascism. Nonetheless, Hitler did not want to fight both fronts the Allies
and the Soviet Union. And Stalin wanted to keep his country out of a costly European war. Stalin got fed up by
trying to establish cordial relationship with capitalist Europe.
In the public part of the pact, Germany and the Soviet Union promised not to attack each other. Secretly, however,
they agreed that they would divide Poland between them. They also secretly agreed that the USSR could take over
Finland and the Baltic countries (Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia).
1. 1939: 1st Sept: Invasion of Poland:
Britain advised Germany that Poland would receive British assistance if Hitler invaded. Nevertheless, Hitler invaded
Poland on September 1, 1939, and took it in just four weeks using a style of warfare known as the blitzkrieg, or
lightning war. The invasion of Poland generally marks the beginning of the war.
Stalin sent Soviet troops to occupy the eastern half of Poland. Stalin then began annexing the regions in the second
part of the agreement. Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia fell without a struggle, but Finland resisted. In November
1939, Stalin sent nearly 1 million Soviet troops into Finland.
The Phony War: For almost seven months after the fall of Poland, there was a strange calm in the land fighting in
Europe. French and British had stationed their troops along the Maginot (MAZH•uh•noh) Line. There they waited
for Germans to attack—but nothing happened. Both stared each other for seven months “The phony war.”
Fall of Denmark and Norway: Suddenly, on April 9, 1940, the phony war ended. Hitler launched a surprise
invasion of Denmark and Norway. He planned to build bases along the Norwegian and Danish coasts to strike at
Great Britain. In just four hours after the attack, Denmark fell. Two months later, Norway surrendered as well.
2. Fall of France
In May of 1940, Hitler began a dramatic sweep through Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg. This was part of a
strategy to strike at France. Keeping the Allies’ attention on those countries, Hitler then sent an even larger force of
tanks and troop trucks to slice through the Ardennes (ahr•DEHN). This was a heavily wooded area in northeastern
France and Luxembourg.
Italy Entry: France seemed doomed to defeat. On June 10, sensing a quick victory, Italy’s Benito Mussolini joined
forces with Hitler and declared war on both Great Britain and France. Italy then attacked France from the south. By
June 14, Paris had fallen to the Germans. Nazi troops marched triumphantly down the city’s main boulevard. After
France fell, a French general named Charles de Gaulle (duh GOHL) fled to London. There, he set up a government-
in-exile committed to reconquering France.
3. Invasion of Great Britain
Hitler now turned his mind to an invasion of Great Britain. His plan—Operation Sea Lion—was first to knock out
the Royal Air Force (RAF) and then to land 250,000 soldiers on England’s shores. Germany’s air force, began
bombing Great Britain.
Two secret weapons helped turn the tide in their favor. One was an electronic tracking system known as radar.
Developed in the late 1930s, radar could tell the number, speed, and direction of incoming warplanes. The other was
a German code-making machine named Enigma. With Enigma in their possession, the British had German secret
messages open to them. With information gathered by these devices, RAF fliers could quickly get to their airplanes
and inflict deadly harm on the enemy.
 The Battle of Britain continued until May 10, 1941. Stunned by British resistance, Hitler decided
to call off his attacks. The Battle of Britain had ended. And, from it, the Allies had learned a
crucial lesson: Hitler’s advances could be blocked.
Italy and England in Africa: Meanwhile within a week, Italian troops had pushed 60 miles inside Egypt, forcing
British units back. Then both sides dug in and waited. in December, the British decided to strike back. The result
was a disaster for the Italians. By February 1941, the British had swept 500 miles across North Africa. They had
taken 130,000 Italian prisoners. Hitler had to step in to save his Axis partner.
4. INVASION OF USSR (Eastern Front)
Instead, he turned his attention east to the Balkans and the Mediterranean area—and to the ultimate prize, the Soviet
Union. Balkan countries of USSR were key to Hitler’s invasion plan.
Fall of Yugoslavia and Greece: In the face of overwhelming German strength, Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary
cooperated by joining the Axis powers in early 1941. Yugoslavia and Greece, which had pro- British governments,
resisted. On Sunday, April 6, 1941, Hitler invaded both countries. Yugoslavia fell in 11 days. Greece surrendered in
17. In Athens, the Nazis celebrated their victory by raising swastikas on the Acropolis.
Operation Barbarossa: June 22, 1941, the roar of German tanks and aircraft announced the beginning of the
blitzkrieg invasion. The Soviet Union was not prepared for this attack. With its 5 million men, the Red Army was
the largest in the world. But it was neither well equipped nor well trained. He called that plan Operation
Barbarossa.
Battle of Leningrad: As the Russians retreated, they burned and destroyed everything in the enemy’s path.
Russians had used this same strategy against Napoleon. By September 8, Germans had surrounded Leningrad and
isolated the city from the rest of the world. More than 1 million people died in Leningrad that terrible winter. Yet the
city refused to fall.
Battle of Moscow: Turning point of WW II: Seeing that Leningrad would not surrender, Hitler looked to Moscow,
the capital and heart of the Soviet Union. A Nazi drive on the capital began on October 2, 1941.
 By December, the Germans had advanced to the outskirts of Moscow. Soviet General Georgi
Zhukov (ZHOO•kuhf) counterattacked. As temperatures fell, the Germans, in summer uniforms,
retreated. Their fuel and oil froze. Tanks, trucks, and weapons became useless. Ignoring
Napoleon’s winter defeat 130 years before, the Führer sent his generals a stunning order: “No
retreat! They held the line against the Soviets until March 1943. Nonetheless, Moscow had been
saved and had cost the Germans 500,000 lives.
5. Entry of USA (The Real Hero had to jump in)
Between 1935 and 1937, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts. The laws made it illegal to sell arms or lend
money to nations at war. But President Roosevelt knew that if the Allies fell, the United States would be drawn into
the war. In September 1939, he persuaded Congress to allow the Allies to buy American arms.
On September 4, a German U-boat suddenly fired on a U.S. destroyer in the Atlantic. Roosevelt ordered navy
commanders to respond. They were to shoot German submarines on sight. The Unite States was now involved in an
undeclared naval war with Hitler. To almost everyone’s surprise, however, the attack that actually drew the United
States into the war did not come from Germany. It came from Japan.
6. Japan: (The Naughty Dwarf)
Like Hitler, Japan’s military leaders also had dreams of empire. Japan was overcrowded and faced shortages of raw
materials. To solve these problems— and to encourage nationalism—the Japanese began a program of empire
building that would lead to war. Japan overrun China and Indochina an area now made up by Vietnam, Cambodia,
and Laos.
By August 1940, Americans had cracked a Japanese secret code. They were well aware of Japanese plans for
Southeast Asia. If Japan conquered European colonies there, it could also threaten the American controlled
Philippine Islands and Guam. To stop the Japanese advance, the U.S. government sent aid to strengthen Chinese
resistance.
Pearl Harbor attack in Hawaii: Early in the morning of December 7, 1941, American sailors at Pearl Harbor in
Hawaii awoke to the roar of explosives. Within two hours, the Japanese had sunk or damaged 18 ships, including
battleships—nearly the whole U.S. Pacific fleet. Some 2,400 Americans were killed—with more than 1,000
wounded. News of the attack stunned the American people. The next day, Congress declared war on Japan.
In January 1942, the Japanese marched into the Philippine capital of Manila. The Japanese also hit the British,
seizing Hong Kong and invading Malaya. By February 1942, the Japanese had reached Singapore. After a fierce
pounding, the colony surrendered. By March, the Japanese had conquered the resource-rich Dutch East Indies (now
Indonesia), After Malaya, the Japanese took Burma,
By the time Burma fell, Japan had conquered more than 1 million square miles of land with about 150 million
people. According to the centuries-old warrior code called Bushido, a Japanese soldier must commit suicide, or hari-
kari, rather than surrender. So Japanese soldiers had contempt for Allied prisoners of war.
In April 1942, the United States wanted revenge for Pearl Harbor. So the United States sent 16 B-25 bombers under
the command of Lieutenant Colonel James H. Doolittle to bomb Tokyo and other major Japanese cities. The bombs
did little damage.
The Battle of Midway: Japan next targeted Midway Island, west of Hawaii. The island was home to a key
American airfield. American pilots destroyed 332 Japanese planes, all four aircraft carriers, an one support ship.
Yamamoto ordered his crippled fleet to withdraw. By June 6, 1942, the battle was over. One Japanese official
commented, “The Americans had avenged Pearl Harbor.” The Battle of Midway had also turned the tide of war in
the Pacific against the Japanese.
General Douglas MacArthur was commander of the Allied land forces in the Pacific. In February 1943, after six
months of fighting on land and at sea, the Battle of Guadalcanal finally ended. After losing 23,000 men out of
36,000, the Japanese abandoned the island they came to call “the Island of Death.”
Germany’s victories slowed considerably during 1942. The United States had entered the war, boosting the Allies’
morale and strength.
 Churchill urged that Britain and the United States strike first at North Africa and southern Europe. The strategy
angered Stalin. He wanted the Allies to open the second front in France.
On July 20, 1944, a plot to assassinate Hitler by a group of German officers failed. Under torture, one conspirator
accused war hero General Erwin Rommel of involvement in the plot. However, many believe that he knew nothing
of the plot. Hitler believed that he did. He offered Rommel a choice—a public trial or suicide and a state funeral. On
October 14, 1944, Rommel took poison and died.
7. The Battle of Stalingrad:
Turning Point at Stalingrad: On February 2, 1943, some 90,000 frostbitten, half-starved German troops surrendered
to the Soviets. These pitiful survivors were all that remained of an army of 330,000. Stalingrad’s defense had cost
the Soviets over 1 million soldiers. The city they defended was 99 percent destroyed.
Mussolini toppled: On July 10, 1943, Allied forces of 180,000 soldiers landed on Sicily and captured it from Italian
and German troops by August. The conquest of Sicily toppled Mussolini from power. On July 25, King Victor
Emmanuel III fired the dictator and had him arrested. On September 3, Italy surrendered.
But the Germans seized control of northern Italy and put Mussolini back in charge. Finally, the Germans retreated
northward, and the victorious Allies entered Rome on June 4, 1944.
On April 28, 1945, as the Germans were retreating from northern Italy, the Italian resistance ambushed some trucks.
Inside one of them, resistance fighters found Mussolini disguised as a German soldier. The following day, he was
shot, and his body was hanged in the Milan town square.
8. The D-Day: Battle of Normandy:
By 1943, the Allies began secretly building a force in Great Britain. Their plan was to attack the Germans across the
English Channel. The D-Day Invasion By May 1944, the invasion force was ready.
Thousands of planes, ships, tanks, landing craft, and 3.5 million troops awaited orders to attack. American General
Dwight D. Eisenhower, the commander of this enormous force, planned to strike on the coast of Normandy, in
northwestern France. the invasion of Normandy was the greatest land and sea attack in history. The day chosen for
the invasion to begin—called D-Day—was June 6, 1944.
Despite heavy casualties, the Allies held the beachheads. A month later, more than 1 million additional troops had
landed. On July 25, the Allies punched a hole in the German defenses. Soon, the Germans were retreating. On
August 25, the Allies marched triumphantly into Paris. By September, they had liberated France, Belgium,
Luxembourg, and much of the Netherlands. They then set their sights on Germany.
9. The Battle of the Bulge: Partian shots of Germans to save their homelands
As Allied forces moved toward Germany from the west, the Soviet army was advancing toward Germany from the
east. Hitler now faced a war on two fronts. In a desperate gamble, the Führer decided to counterattack in the west.
After the Battle of the Bulge, the war in Europe neared its end. By the middle of April, a noose was closing around
Berlin. Three million Allied soldiers approached Berlin from the southwest. Six million Soviet troops approached
from the east—some of them just 40 miles from the capital.
10. The end of Hitler: The end of horror Movie
While Soviet shells burst over Berlin, Hitler prepared for his end in an underground headquarters beneath the
crumbling city. On April 29, he married his long-time companion, Eva Braun. He also wrote his final address to the
German people. In it, he blamed Jews for starting the war and his generals for losing it. “I myself and my wife
choose to die in order to escape the disgrace of . . . capitulation,” he said. “I die with a happy heart aware of the
immeasurable deeds of our soldiers at the front.” Two days later, Hitler shot himself after taking poison. His new
wife simply swallowed poison. The bodies were then carried outside and burned.
On May 7, 1945, General Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of the Third Reich from the German
military. President Roosevelt, however, did not live to witness the long-awaited victory. He had died suddenly on
April 12, as Allied armies were advancing toward Berlin. Roosevelt’s successor, Harry Truman, received the news
of the Nazi surrender.
The Japanese Retreat By the fall of 1944, the Allies were moving in on Japan. Nevertheless, on June 22, the
bloodiest land battle of the war ended. The Japanese lost 110,000 troops, and the Americans, 12,500.
Atomic bomb: The first atomic bomb was exploded in a desert in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. President Truman
then warned the Japanese. He told them that If they did not surrender, they could expect a “rain of ruin from the air.”
The Japanese did not reply. So, on August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, a
Japanese city of 365,000 people. Almost 73,000 people died in the attack. Three days later, on August 9, a second
bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, a city of 200,000. It killed about 37,500 people.
 On the morning of August 6, 1945, the B-29 bomber Enola Gay, flown by commander Colonel Paul W.
Tibbets, Jr., took off from Tinian Island in the Mariana Islands. At precisely 8:16 A.M., the atomic bomb
exploded above Hiroshima, a city on the Japanese island of Honshu.
The Japanese surrendered to General Douglas MacArthur on September 2. The surrender took place aboard the
United States battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay. With Japan’s surrender, the war had ended. Now, countries faced
the task of rebuilding a war-torn world.
Analyses
o The war was at any rate a dispute over port city Danzig and its corridor. In contrast tp earlier crises;
Nothing was done to negotiate and solve this last dispute.
o Hitler success in War depended on the isolation of Europe from the rest of the world. He gratuitously
destroyed the source of this success. In 1941.He attacked Soviet Russia and declared war on the United
States, two World Powers who asked only to be left alone. In this way a real World War began. We still
live in its shadow.
o

o
 The United States survived World War II undamaged, allowing it to become a world leader.
Results of WWII
o By the end of World War II, Europe lay in ruins. In Europe alone, there were probably fifteen million
military casualties and almost twice that many civilian deaths. More than twenty million died in the Soviet
Union, more than 10 percent of the entire population. Nobody really knows the exact count, but some
estimates place the overall casualties from the war, in both Europe and Asia, at sixty million men, women,
and children.
o Führer Adolf Hitler, SS chief Heinrich Himmler, and Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels had escaped
trial by committing suicide. However Of the 22 defendants, 12 were sentenced to death. Göring cheated the
executioner by killing himself. The rest were hanged on October 16, 1946. They were cremated in the same
ovens that had burned so many of their victims.
o The nuclear incineration of Hiroshima and Nagasaki; The scope and scale of warfare had changed forever.
o Even after these disasters, some Japanese military leaders wanted to continue the fight. In a radio broadcast
on August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito urged the Japanese people to lay down their arms and work together
to rebuild Japan.
o In February 1946, MacArthur and his American political advisers drew up a new constitution. It changed
the empire of Japan into a parliamentary democracy like that of Great Britain. The Japanese accepted the
constitution. It went into effect on May 3, 1947. Still bitter over Pearl Harbor, Americans did not provide
much aid for rebuilding Japan. The United States did send 2 billion dollars in emergency relief.
General Causes Of World War II
i. Invasion of Poland was immediate cause of WW II. While Polish corridor was the main cause of German
Attack on Poland
ii. Broadly speaking, Treaty of Versailles contained the germs of WWII, Germany resented punitive terms
imposed by victors, heavy war indemnity, The loss of Alsace and Lorrain, polish corridor,
iii. Domestically German aggressive Nationalism to regain the lost provinces
iv. Structural Weaknesses of League of Nations, Germany was denied the membership of League of Nation
until 1926.
v. International System, Anarchic, uncertainties…
vi. The rise of Fascism -Nazi regime championing racism animated the extreme version of Realism “power
politics” “everything for state nothing out of states.
vii. Weakness of democratic states and a sense of overconfidence in their strength among axis power. Soon
after peace settlement of 1919 Britain and France began to drift. USA alienated,
viii. Failure of the disarmament efforts,
ix. Economic need and material interest of European powers, struggle of raw material, markets for exports,
and colonies for increasing population.
x. Proximate Cause: Why did the Germany was permit rearmament? The England hope Anglo-American
collaboration to maintain world order vanished when USA repudiated Versailles treaty ! Britain prepared to
preserve a new balance of power by encouraging German rearmament and revival as counterweight against
the chance tha France or Soviet Union might dominate continental Europe.
xi. Chamberlain agreement to Hitler demands in Appeasement Policy.
xii. Great Depression of 1930’s ; The collapse of International economic system also contributed to the war.
xiii. Japan imperialism: invasion of Manchuria in 1937, Italy’s absorption of Abyssinia complicated the
situation “militarist Fascist acted in the same ways”
xiv. The Great crime of Stalin The nonaggression pact with Germany 1939
xv. In final analyses, Hitler was no doubt the main cause; the war would not have been possible without Adolf
Hitler and his plans.
Consequences of WWII
i. The USSR absorbed six hundred thousand territory

ii. Poland was compensated with the land taken from Germany.
iii. Germany was itself divided
iv. Pro USSR regime assumed power throughout the Eastern Europe. {Paved the way for transformation in
world politics
v. Creation of New international organizations
vi. The US and Russian now held their hands the destinies of half of mankind; as foreseen in 1835by French
sociologist Alexis Tocquevile.
The post war Europe

1945: Yalta Conference
In February 1945, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin met at the Soviet resort town of Yalta to
plan the final stages of World War II and to negotiate the postwar order in Europe.
The Anglo-Americans were not in a very strong bargaining position because they had liberated only France, whereas
the Soviet army had pushed the Germans out of most of Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and
Romania and were only about one hundred miles from Berlin (which they would take three months later) (USSR
Strong Position) Among the provisions of the Yalta Agreements, as these negotiations came to be known, (leaving
parts of eastern Poland to the Soviet Union), the temporary division of Germany into occupation zones (with the
Soviets occupying the eastern part), and the agreement that the nations of Eastern Europe were to be democratic and
“friendly” to the Soviet Union. The three leaders also agreed to begin work on a new international organization to be
called the United Nations (UN).
In later years, Yalta became a symbol of betrayal for many of the peoples of Eastern Europe who felt that the Allies
had given Stalin a free hand in the region. Indeed, in the three years following the Yalta Conference, the Soviets
systematically undermined democratic politics and established Soviet-style communist regimes throughout the area.
From the Soviet point of view, and especially from Stalin’s, “friendly” meant “socialist”
So consequently Britain requested USA to assume the management of Europe. USA in order to assist Turkey and
Greece from further communist onslaught issued Monroe Doctrine with a pledge to assist the democracy in the
Europe. This pledge to assist democracy everywhere, known as the Truman Doctrine, marked a sharp departure
from traditional American isolationism and was a virtual declaration of leadership of the free world.
The Mighty USSR: During and after World War II, eleven European countries with one hundred million people
came under communist rule. Moscow seized Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia during the war and incorporated them
into the USSR. Yugoslavia and Albania (neither one adjacent to Soviet territory) adopted communism but pursued
their own paths more-or-less independently of Moscow. Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria,
and Romania were gradually converted into “people’s democracies” with political leaders subservient to Moscow
and Soviet-style political and economic institutions.
Truman Doctrine 1947

It was enunciated under following circumstances: The Communist selected Italy, France, Greece and Turkey as their
main target. Greece and Turkey were weak and their situation was critical one.
Greece: A civil war taking place between the Greek monarchy and communist guerillas, and there was a severe
economic crisis. 13000 Communist Guerilla supported by Communist neighbors Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Albania.
In Dec 1946 Greece complained to Security Council. It was that time when Britain also decided to wind up its
business in Greece.
Turkey: USSR refused to renew the treaty of Friendship. She demanded that Turkey must Share the control of
Dardanelles strait. an old claim of two eastern Turkey provinces was also revived by USSSR. A propaganda
campaign was also started against Turkey Govt. The Turkish Govt asked USA for Help.
Britain Surrender: Both Turkey and Greece had in modern times depended on Britain's diplomatic and economic
support, but it now seemed that London planned to pass this responsibility on to the United States. Then, in February
1947, the British government – which had been helping the Greek and Turkey government resist Communist rebels
– announced that it could no longer afford to keep its soldiers there.
Addressing a joint session of Congress on March 12, 1947, President Harry S. Truman asked for $400 million in
military and economic assistance for Greece and Turkey and established a doctrine, aptly characterized the Truman
Doctrine, that would guide U.S. diplomacy for the next forty years. President Truman declared, "It must be the
policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or
by outside pressures." “The free peoples of the world look to us for support in maintaining their freedoms”.
May 1947 The US Congress authorized 400 Million Dollars. The Guerilla wer completely eliminated from Greece,
peace was restored. Traffic and economy was restored. Thousands of houses were built in Greece. Same was the
case in Turkey. First election were held. The one party govt disappeared.
The Truman Doctrine bypassed The UN charter.
In this way, the Truman Doctrine led directly to the Marshall Plan – the plan to contain communism by helping the
economies of Europe to get going again – which was ratified by Congress in 1948. It set a precedent for the
principle of ‘collective security’ – building up a network of allies and friendly states to which the US gave military
aid free of charge (this became known as the Military Assistance Program). Ultimately, it was to lead to NATO. It
marked the American policy of ‘containment’
The sanction of aid to Greece and Turkey by a Republican Congress indicated the beginning of a long and enduring
bipartisan cold war foreign policy.
Economic Recovery of Europe, Marshal Plan
o After World War II the countries of Europe were faced with finding ways to reconstruct their economies.
There was a need of massive economic plan to avert Great depression like economic Crises.
o The weak economies were dubbed as failure of liberal economic system by Communists parties in France,
Italy and England. .
o Britain after the war was heavily in debt. The bombing of major urban centers and exhaustion of manpower
due to war casualties further added to the financial difficulties. All the other were suffering from the same
situation.
o France and Italy condition were great source of Anxiety for USA. Their communist parties were gaining
strength day by day. They were exploiting precarious economic conditions as outcome of liberal policies.
o All over Europe the expectations was one of a return to normality and economic strength though it soon
became obvious that this could only be achieved with American aid.
o The Marshall Plan (Named after, George C. Marshall, the American Secretary of State) was passed into law
by President Truman in April 1948 under the formal name of the ”European Recovery Program”. USA
congress passed the bills of almost 11 Billion Dollars in aid. It was to be spent in four years 1947-51.
o The Marshall Plan was to apply to all the areas of Europe that had been ravaged by war regardless of
whether the recipient had been an Ally or member of the Axis. Specially in Britain, France, Italy and
Austria.
o Stalin rejected the plan therefore ensuring that East Germany, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia and other
countries then under post-war Soviet occupation or influence were excluded.
o In many respects America’s involvement in the war had been conditional on Britain dismantling its
colonial power base with the USA viewing it as an obstacle to their own ideas of trade and free-market
capitalism.
German Question
After World War II, according to agreements reached between the ally powers, Germany was divided into 4 zones;
Western zones were placed under American and Western European control, while the eastern zones came under the
control of the Soviet Union. The division of Berlin was a precursor to the Cold War.
 On the 18th June 1948 the Allies issued a new currency called the Deutsche Mark which replaced the
Reichsmark and on the same day Russia suspends all road and train travel to and from Berlin. On the 4th
August the Allies officially started the airlift to supply Berlin.
 In 1949, the two areas were formally split into the Federal Republic in the West and the German
Democratic Republic (GDR) in the East. In addition, the Basic Law, Germany’s constitution, came into
effect in 1949.
 From 1949 until 1963, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, a member of the Christian Democrat Party (CDU),
came to power in West Germany and pursued a policy of integration with NATO and the US led Western
alliance. Adenauer successfully resisted domestic political pressures for Germany to adopt a policy of
neutrality between the Cold War blocs as a path to reunification.
 In 1961, East German authorities, with Soviet backing, erected the Berlin Wall to stop the flood of refugees
escaping to the west. This is where the Cold War started and this is where it would have to end.
 From 1969 until 1974, Chancellor Willy Brandt, of the Social Democrats (SPD) came to power. He enacted
Ostpolitik , a policy of economic friendship and trade with the eastern bloc and East Germany.
 In 1989 Chancellor Helmut Kohl was in office when the Berlin Wall fell, as Gorbachev abandoned the
Brezhnev Doctrine of Soviet protection for other communist regimes. In 1990 the two portions of Germany
reunified, but the East German economy lags far behind that of West Germany, even today. After elections
in 2006, Angela Merkel became Chancellor.
NATO: 1949
In April 1949, the United States sponsored the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which
guaranteed U.S. military protection for Western European countries under attack.
This was the first peacetime military alliance for the United States since the time of the Revolutionary War and was
yet another indication of the shift of power—political, military, and diplomatic—from Europe to the United States.
The western allies—United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Canada, Portugal, Norway, Belgium,
Denmark, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Iceland—signed the North Atlantic Charter.
The key article of the treaty--that an attack on one member would be treated as an attack on all—accorded with the
principle of collective self-defense enshrined in Article 51 of the UN Charter. In practice, the cornerstone of the
alliance was the commitment of the USA to defend Western Europe.
The Soviet Union responded by forming the Warsaw Pact.
Criteria for Membership
i. Fully democratic Government.

ii. Civilian control of Military.
iii. Peaceful relations with neighbors.
iv. Respects for minorities
Many of the members resolved border disputes, minority treatment, streamlined their military as part of their efforts
to Qualify.
Analyses
 In reality, the NATO meant the willingness of the United States to use nuclear weapons to deter Soviet
‘aggression’. At that time USA was only Nuclear state.
 It is emphasized that there has been no war in Europe since the NATO came into existence.
 The Communist made no any territorial gain in Europe.
 NATO as strong bridge between Europe and Americas
 Critiques says that the establishment of NATO fomented the Cold War rivalry to its full strength
NATO enlargement
 When cold war ended in 1989- many observer questioned whether NATO had future, The Balkan War of
1990 largely answered the Question.
 Promoting European Security became main goal
 9/11 further demonstrated the importance of strong and integrated alliance
 The Russia Intervention in Ukraine showed that the Republic Bear still have Cold war memories in mind
 NATO took global terrorism as new enemy
 Peace keeping, As a new role
 Iraq War, NATO went under near death crises
 Relief Operations
 Syrian Crises, Further demonstrate that a mighty alliance is inevitable.
Decolonization
Decolonization is the process whereby a colonial society achieves constitutional independence from imperial rule. It
started in 1947 and continues till 90’s. In this period more than three Dozens of new states in Asia and Africa
achieved autonomy.
It is the reverse of colonization which is the period of European expansion into Africa, Asia, the Americas, and the
Pacific between the fifteenth and the early twentieth century that is generally associated with colonialism as a
system of rule.
Decolonization coincided with Cold war and early development of UN, often effected the superpower structure.
1. Reasons of Decolonization
There are a number of reasons why decolonization occurred during this period.
i. WWII: the European states were financially and militarily exhausted. France and Belgium are exceptions here.
They hung on to their colonies with much more determination than the British.
ii. Role of USA: the United States pressured the European states, USSR also support the cause of decolonization.
iii. Self-determination Ideal: It was an important political ideal in international relations throughout the twentieth
century and it took root in the colonies and fed resistance movements.
iv. Public opinion within Europe began to turn against colonial domination.
v. The UN proclaimed the equality and freedom of people. In 1945 the Article 73 “the declaration regarding non
self-governing territories” In1960 Declaration on Decolonization also known as charter of Independence; A special
committees were constituted for decolonization process.
vi. Nationalism: Great role was played by nationalism to arouse popular support against Colonialism. The British in
India (1940–47), the French in Indo-China (1946–54) and Algeria (1954), the Dutch in Indonesia (1945–49), and the
Belgians in the Congo (1959–60) are just some of the many examples where the colonial states became involved in
difficult and protracted struggles against local insurgents.
2. DECOLONIZATION OF AFRICA AND MUCH OF ASIA
USA: The first to initiate the process and granted independence to Philippine in 1946
British Empire
o Policy: Very flexible, Support distinctive way of life and autonomous development. Provided increasing
share to the people in Land, economy, services and Politics,
o In 1945, the British Empire extended across the globe. Between 1947 and 1980, 49 territories were granted
independence.
o Withdrawal from India, the ‘Jewel in the Crown’ of the empire, in 1947 was the most dramatic. What is
clear is that Indian independence was largely an exception in the early post-war years, as successive British
governments were reluctant to rush towards decolonization.
o End of empire in Africa came towards the end of the 1950s and early 1960s. British withdrawal from
Africa was relatively peaceful, save for conflicts with indigenous revolutionaries, notably in Kenya (1952-
6) and Malaya (1948-60)
o However the white minority was aided and abetted by the South African government. Under apartheid,
after 1948, the South Africans engaged in what many saw as the internal equivalent of imperialism.
o From a European perspective, the British experience was more successful than the French.
France
 The French experience of decolonization stood in contrast to that of the Britain.
 In Indo-China after 1945, Paris attempted to preserve colonial role, only withdrawing after prolonged
guerrilla war and military defeat at the hands of Vietnamese revolutionary forces.
 In Algeria, however, the French refused to leave. Algeria was regarded by many French people to be part of
France itself. The resulting war, from 1954 to 1962, led to up to 45,000 deaths, and France itself was
brought to the edge of civil war.
Japan
 During WWII Japan was significant colonial Power. Soon after it surrender Indonesia and Vietnam
Cambodia got independence.
Portugal
 The Oldest colonial power. Quite different than all the other. She did not provide education, Kept them
away from modernity. The last European empire in Africa Portugal collapsed when the military
dictatorship was overthrown in Lisbon.
3. Cold War Influence
 While USA (A torch bearer of Democracy) generally supported decolonization- cold war complicated US
position, how…
 US support was upset by Americans concerns over communist takeover in colonies. Communist takeover
in Vietnam, socialist in Egypt 1952 served to enforce such claims.
 Several NATO members also asserted that colonies provide economic, military strength to ally. And must
be retain in COLD war struggle
 Keeping in view all this aspects; USA started to use mighty aid packages. Thus The Cold War Started…
 USSR deployed similar tactics to encourage new states to join the communist bloc.
 NAM: Many of new nations resisted the pressure tobe drawn in struggle ans rivalries, They joined NAM
1955.
4. IMPACTS
o The colonial draw arbitrary boundaries, dividing ethnic and linguistic groups and natural features, Laid the
foundation of numerous state lacking geographic, ethnic or political affinities. State were named after a
name of tribal chieftain. Eg, Pakistan, Kurds, Palestine, Far east, Middle East,
o BOP in UN: Was another significant factor, in 1946 UN member were 35, By 1994 member swelled to 180
o Neocolonialism: All the colonies were left ill equipped for self-rule, Local economies and market withered,
Multinational companies occupied the market, exercise their influences
o Civil Wars: Political and power vacuum created leading to vicious civil war.
o Undermine local indigenous culture, religious beliefs, however in some cases there was development and
modernization
5. Analyses
 Emerson, “The possession of colonies so long a matter of pride and prestige, now (Post war Period)
became now became a sin”
 The First World War produced the collapse of four European empires (the Russian, German, Austro-
Hungarian, and the Ottoman Empire in Turkey). Later on, at the same time that Europe was recovering
from World War II and being split in half by the Cold War, it was shedding its colonies.
 Different European powers had different attitudes to decolonization after 1945: some, such as the British,
decided to leave, while others sought to preserve their empires, in part (the French) or whole (the
Portuguese).
 The speed at which colonies achieved independence after 1945 varied greatly. In some cases, it was
achieved relatively quickly. In others the transition to self-rule was a gradual process. European powers
adopted different attitudes to different regions/countries. For example, British withdrawal from Asia came
much more quickly after 1945 than from Africa.
 Different colonies have had to employ different strategies to achieve independence. They had different
experiences. The Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) has adopt militant approach, Mahatma Gandhi
preached non-violent and Ho Chi Minh had to fight a long guerrilla war, first against the French and then
the United States.
 Decolonization has not always been accomplished easily or been successful.
 The process of decolonization was relatively peaceful in many cases: it led to revolutionary wars in others
(Algeria, Malaya, and Angola), whose scale and ferocity reflected the attitudes of the colonial power and
the nationalist movements.
 One may also regard the end of USSR rule over eastern Europe, as phase of Decolonization.
 The struggle for independence/national liberation became embroiled in cold war conflicts when the
superpowers and/or their allies became involved, for example Vietnam.
United Nation
1. Background
Two years after the outbreak of the Second World War the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met with
President Roosevelt of the United States. Between them they issued a document called the Atlantic Charter, setting
out their war aims. Apart from the defeat of Nazi Germany, they sought peace, freedom, collaboration, and security
between states, overseen by a wider and permanent system of general security. In 1945, 51 states met at the United
Nations Conference in San Francisco to debate the terms of the UN Charter.
2. Purposes
UN was founded on 24th October 1945. The UN has its headquarters in New York. UN Charter with 19 chapters
and a preamble with Article 1 highlight the purpose and objectives of UN.
Three main purposes:
 To maintain international peace,

 To develop friendly relations among states, and to cooperate internationally in solving international
economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and
 To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
2001.
3. Organs
i. the General Assembly

The only time that all member states meet together is in the General Assembly. Here representatives from each of
the 193 member countries, that make up the UN gather every year to discuss the world’s problems in a global
parliamentary setting. Much of the Assembly’s work goes on in its six committees:
First Committee – disarmament issues, outer space, political and security issues
Second Committee – economic and financial issues
Third Committee – social, humanitarian, and cultural matters
Fourth Committee – colonial matters
Fifth Committee – administrative and budgetary matters
Sixth Committee – legal issues.
Power: The Assembly has little influence in world politics. It can debate any issue it chooses, adopt Resolutions
with a two-thirds majority, help elect members of other UN bodies, and vote on the UN budget. Ultimately,
whatever power it has depends on its moral authority as a reflection of global opinion.
Weaknesses OF UNGA
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ii. The Security Council
The Security Council is the most important agency and powerful body in the UN. It remains ready to meet at any
time whenever there is a threat to international peace and security. There are 15 members of the Security Council.
Five are permanent (the P5), and ten non-permanent members are elected for a period of two years from regional
groups within the UN: Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Western Europe, and Oceania. The P5 are the
United States, Russia, China, France, and Britain.
 Its decisions are binding on all UN members and have the force of international law.
 The Council may impose economic sanctions, such as halting trade with a country it considers an
aggressor.
 Decisions of the Council require nine votes. But any one of the permanent members can veto an important
decision. This authority is known as the veto right of the great powers.
Failures of Security Council

o Disagreements in the Security Council about military action and intervention are seen as having failed to
prevent the 1994 Rwandan Genocide,
o failed to provide humanitarian aid and intervene in the Second Congo War,
o failed to intervene in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre and protect a refugee haven by authorizing
peacekeepers to use force,
o failure to deliver food to starving people in Somalia,
o failure to implement provisions of Security Council resolutions related to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,
o continuing failure to prevent genocide or provide assistance in Darfur.
Weaknesses of SC
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Secretary General
Secretary General is a powerful public figure who can bring to the Security Council any matter that might threaten
world peace. The secretary general has the authority to serve as a neutral mediator in international conflicts and to
bring hostile parties together to negotiate. The secretary general’s personal attention to a problem can often help
bring about a resolution.
The secretary general also works to build consensus among the five permanent members of the Security Council
The secretary general is formally chosen by the General Assembly. But the secretary general must first be
nominated by the Security Council and win the consent of all five of its permanent members. The secretary general
serves a five-year term, which may be renewed. No woman has yet served in this position.
iii. The UN Secretariat
It is now down to about 8500 people. Has a budget of about 1.5 billion a year, but is currently scaling down.
iv. International Court of Justice
International Court of Justice also known as the World Court, is the judicial arm of the UN. It is located in The
Hague, Netherlands. It is the main arbitration body when member states bring issues to it. It has 15 judges, elected
by the Security Council and the General Assembly.
Weaknesses
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v. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
(ECOSOC) works under the authority of the General Assembly to coordinate the economic and social work of the
UN. It promotes the goals of "Article 55," the human rights article. Has about 54 members, elected for three-year
terms. It's one of the ways NGOs can penetrate into the UN system.
ECOSOC coordinates studies and recommends actions on international topics such as medicine, education,
economics, and social needs. It promotes higher living standards, full employment, respect for human rights, and
economic and social progress.
ECOSOC coordinates the work of many specialized agencies which operate independently but work with other
programs in the UN. Those agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Bank, the
International Monetary Fund; the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the
International Labor Organization (ILO), & the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). ECOSOC also works
closely with the private sector and with more than 2,000 nongovernmental organizations.
vi. (Trusteeship Council):
Trusteeship Council was established to oversee the transition of a handful of colonies to independence. The last of
those colonies, the Palau Islands, gained independence in 1994, making the Trusteeship Council obsolete. It has
suspended operation in 1994.
Other Specialised Agencies
Apart from the other four organs, the UN includes a variety of bodies known as Specialised Agencies, which
regulate specific activities and set world standards. They include the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World
Bank, the World Health Organisation (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the United Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), the UN International Children’s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF), the UN High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
4. Selected Articles of the UN Charter
The UN Charter contains references to both the rights of states and the rights of people.
The Preamble of the UN Charter asserts that ‘We the peoples of the United Nations [are] determined to reaffirm
faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and
women and of nations large and small’.
Article 1(2) states that the purpose of the UN is to develop’friendly relations among nations based on respect for
the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen
universal peace’.
Article 2(7) states that Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in
matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state’.
Chapter VI deals with the ‘Pacific Settlement of Disputes’.
Article 33 states that ‘The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance
of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation,
arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own
choice’.
Chapter VII deals with ‘Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of the Peace, and Acts of
Aggression’.
Article 42 states that the Security Council’ may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to
maintain or restore international peace and security’ The Security Council has sometimes authorized member states
to use’ all necessary means’ and this has been accepted as a legitimate application of Chapter VII powers.
Article 99 authorizes the Secretary-General to’ bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his
opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security’.
5. Role Of UN
During the cold war, it was paralyzed from playing a major role in maintaining international peace and security
because of the constant use of the veto by the great powers. Nonetheless, the UN did oversee the complex process of
decolonization, which led to a rapid expansion in the number of member states in the 1950s and 1960s. It also
developed the practice of peacekeeping, which was in part designed to prevent the superpowers from intervening in
conflicts that might then escalate into a direct confrontation between them.
i. 1946: Iran Formally Charged The Soviet Union with Interference and asked SC. The SC asked two Govt to settle
it by Direct negotiation. 1946 Both announced that USSR forces evacuated.
ii. Greece: USSR complain about England forces in Greece, Greece alleged evoking communism. UN appointed
Commission.
iii. 1948: Kashmir War
iv. 1948: Palestine
v.1950: North Korea Attacked South Korea: UN SC Directed NK to withdrew, they didn’t. UN appointed Gen
Macarthur as Supreme Commander of the Forces sent to Koreas.
vi. Berlin Blockade: UN played man role in lifting Berlin blockade
vii. 1956: Suez Canal issue: UN called upon England, Franc and Israel to withdraw their force from Egyptian
territories. Ceasefire was arranged. UN force was stationed. And canal open for navigation.
viii. In the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the United States used the UN as a forum to challenge the Soviet Union in
front of the whole world.
ix. 1965. Vietnam war:
ix. 1779: USSR Invasion: UN SC council failed to force USSR to withdraw.
From 1988 to 1992, the United Nations enjoyed a brief period of success, although this was a direct consequence of
the end of the cold war. No longer did the threat of a great power veto produce either gridlock or an ineffectual
compromise.
x. 1991: Gulf War: The United Nations reached its peak of popularity, especially in the United States, after the Gulf
War in 1991 by providing the auspices for successfully challenging Iraq’s conquest and annexation of Kuwait. This
aura of achievement was reinforced by a series of seemingly successful mediation efforts from 1988 to 1990 related
to long-festering regional conflicts: Iran–Iraq, Afghanistan, Cambodia, Namibia, and El Salvador. This string of
successes lent some temporary credibility to expectations of what United States President George Bush called a new
world order. The world would be guided by international law and peace would be upheld by a robust United Nations
that would be strengthened gradually as public confidence in its effectiveness increased.
In a few short years, the number of UN peacekeeping operations doubled to nearly 20, the annual budget for
peacekeeping quadrupled to almost US$4 billion, and the number of peacekeepers deployed around the globe
skyrocketed to almost 80,000. By 1993, tens of thousands of blue-helmeted soldiers were viewed as instruments of
salvation in areas ranging from Kuwait and Somalia to Bosnia and the Great Lakes region in Central Africa. These
soldiers were the clear expression of the Clinton Administration’s devotion to a policy that Madeleine Albright, then
its UN Ambassador, had christened assertive multilateralism.
x. Somalia: A badly mishandled military operation in the streets of Somalia’s capital of Mogadishu left 18
American soldiers dead. Although the operation had been conducted by American troops under sole US command
and without the UN’s knowledge or involvement, President Clinton and the Congress placed the blame firmly on the
UN Secretary General at the time, Boutros Boutros-Ghali. The failure of the UN Protection Force in Bosnia to
provide the citizens of that unfortunate country much in the way of protection only added to Washington’s
disillusion with the United Nations.
x. Rwanda: As a result of this change of heart, US policy towards the UN; As a first indication of this new
stringency, Washington argued against bolstering the small UN force in Rwanda, even though its commander
pleaded for 5,000 troops to halt a genocide that would eventually take the lives of some 800,000 Rwandans. UN
failed to stop the 1994 genocide in Rwanda that killed hundreds of thousands of civilians. Second, there was
growing reluctance in the US Congress to pay for the exploding costs of large UN peacekeeping operations,
particularly since Washington (as the UN’s largest member) was responsible for 31 per cent of the total cost. Instead
of paying its share (which in the mid-1990s ran to more than US$1 billion) Congress balked, appropriating only a
small percentage of the total. As a result, US debts to the organisation mounted through the 1990s.
6. Reason for Failure of UN
First, The representatives are typically just spokesmen for their country's agendas and are relatively powerless in
their own country.
Furthermore, countries governed by non-peaceful dictators and regimes typically use these debates to delay and
obfuscate issues in their favor.
For instance, Iraq was under U.N. backed economic trade sanctions for over a decade. As a result, the Iraqi people
suffered greatly while Saddam Hussein continued playing games with the United Nations by only periodically
allowing inspections for weapons of mass destruction, inconsistent disarmament of known weapons, and illegally
finding ways around the oil for food agreements that the U.N. imposed. As a result, economic sanctions were an
abyssal failure...
Yet again, the United Nations is considering this same “solution” that has never worked to be used against North
Korea because of its nuclear weapons program and testing. And Iran is keeping a close eye on what the world does
to North Korea, since Iran has similar nuclear ambitions for their non-peaceful agenda too.
Second, the United Nations is unable to take direct and independent actions without support from its members. In a
world filled with war-mongering dictators and suppressing regimes who know the U.N. lacks any real power;
regimes are almost completely free to do whatever they want. For example, North Korea has tested nuclear weapons
and threatens to do so again, with the United Nations only considering sanctions.
Third, the United Nations has five nations that can veto any resolution that the majority of the U.N. members
agreed upon. The countries with this veto power are China, France, Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), the United
Kingdom, and the United States of America. These countries have this power because they were the founding
countries of the United Nations that wrote the rules for the U.N. after World War 2. Unfortunately, this non-
democracy fails for several reasons. First, only a true democracy among nations is unbiased and fair. Thus, the
complete structure of the U.N. needs a major overhaul. This too is not likely to happen, since the countries with
vetoing power are unlikely to unanimously agree to give up this right for fairness sake.
The fourth and final reason why the United Nations is useless is terrorism. The U.N. does not formally recognize
any country as a terrorist state. Furthermore, terrorists are not interested in the politics of debating in a public forum.
As a result, the United Nations is completely blind to terrorist groups, has no plans of address terrorism, and has no
intentions of changing. The fact that the United Nations, as the largest international organization that promotes
peace, is completely unable to address terrorism is further proof that the U.N. is ineffective.
7. Reform/ Need for reforms in UN
The P5 represent the victors of the Second World War rather than the most important states of the twenty-first
century. Some commentators argue that Japan, Germany, and India deserve greater recognition and status in the
Security Council. In addition, there has been much debate over whether and how to provide the UN with more
financial and military power to respond to crises deemed to be within its remit.
In 2005, then-Secretary General Kofi Annan published his report In Larger Freedom, a proposal for reform of the
UN.
Some want the UN to play a greater or more effective role in world affairs, while others want its role reduced to
humanitarian work.
There have also been numerous calls for the UN Security Council's membership to be increased, for different ways
of electing the UN's Secretary-General, and for a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly.
1997: An official reform programme was begun by Kofi Annan in 1997. Reforms mentioned include changing the
permanent membership of the Security Council (which currently reflects the power relations of 1945), making the
bureaucracy more transparent, accountable and efficient, making the UN more democratic, and imposing an
international tariff on arms manufacturers worldwide.
2005: In September 2005, the UN convened a World Summit that brought together the heads of most member states.
Kofi Annan had proposed that the summit agree on a global "grand bargain" to reform the UN, renewing the
organization's focus on peace, security, human rights and development, and to make it better equipped at facing 21st
century issues.
8. Main Reasons For The Decline Of The United Nations
There are three main reasons for the decline of the United Nations in the 1990s.
First, patterns of war have changed. The Charter of the UN is based on the principles of sovereignty and non-
intervention in the internal affairs of states. The UN is unable to respond effectively to armed conflict that blurs the
line between civil and interstate war.
Second, despite the end of the cold war, the UN is only as effective as its member states, particularly the P5, allow it
to be. The UN lacks its own military forces, and therefore relies on member states to make forces available to the
Secretary-General on request. It is slow to respond to crises, and cannot act in those areas that are regarded as
legitimate spheres of influence by any of the P5, especially the United States, Russia, and China.
Third, the UN is wholly funded by its member states, particularly the P5. This enables them to use their financial
power to promote their own national interests at the UN.
9. Pakistan and UNO
Pakistan became member of UN on 30th Sep 1947 and became Non-permanent member of Security Council 1952,
last 2012-13 Pakistan has become non-permanent member of Security Council for 7 times. Brazil Japan 10 times
each with Argentina 9 times, Germany 5 times. Pakistan is the largest contributor to UN peace keeping missions
followed by Bangladesh and India.
The Cold War Europe

Introduction
1. Origin Of Cold War
2. Some General Causes
3. Cold War Impacts
4. Expansion Of Cold War Arena
5. Detente
INTRODUCTION OF COLD WAR PHENOMENON
 The Cold war was a “Hot Peace” and “Nuclear Peace”

 It was Political, geographical, ideological, economic and diplomatic struggles between USSR and USA.
 The Cold war was cold only for Russia and USA, but hot for Koreas, Vietnam, Angola and Afghanistan.
 The Cold War refers to the unusual phenomenon that overshadowed world politics from the end of WWII
until the fall of the former Soviet Union.
 The Cold War did result in an arms race, diplomatic confrontation, proxy warfare, ideological competition
and Propaganda war which engulfed the entire world order. The Cold War resulted in formation of eastern
and western power blocks and corresponding alliances and institutions under the Communist and Capitalist
power blocks.
 Cold War tensions increased the likelihood of a third world war, which could have led to devastating
consequences due to the possibility of nuclear conflict. The Korean War, the Vietnam War and the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan were some of the violent conflicts indirectly fueled by the Cold War.
 Cold war was indeed the first Nerve challenge for USA. Earlier two WW proved to be more or less
blessing in disguise for US think Tanks, which decisively weaken Europe. But clash with the communist
Russia served as a greatest threat to USA.
1. ORIGIN OF COLD WAR

“The cold war did not started in 1945 in the aftermath of WWII and Yalta conference, In broader sense it started
with Bolshevik revolution in 1917” Frederick Schuman
i. Yalta Conference 1945
 Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin met at the Soviet resort town of Yalta to
negotiate the postwar order in Europe.
 USSR Strong Position: The Anglo-Americans were not in a very strong bargaining position because they
had liberated only France, whereas the Soviet army had pushed the Germans out of most of Poland,
Hungary, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Romania and were only about one hundred miles from Berlin
(which they would take three months later)
 Eastern Poland was surrendered to the Soviet Union,
 Germany divided into occupation zones (with the Soviets occupying the eastern part with Munich),
 The agreement that the nations of Eastern Europe were to be democratic and “friendly” to the Soviet
Union; For Stalin friendly means socialist.
 The three leaders also agreed to begin work on a new international organization to be called the United
Nations (UN).
 In later years, Yalta became a symbol of betrayal for many of the peoples of Eastern Europe who felt that
the Allies had given Stalin a free hand in the region. Indeed, in the three years following the Yalta
Conference, the Soviets systematically undermined democratic politics and established Soviet-style
communist regimes throughout the area. From the Soviet point of view, and especially from Stalin’s,
“friendly” meant “socialist”
ii. Theoretical Ideological Foundation of Cold War:
 Communism: Common ownership of means of production and distribution, empowering proletariat,

Internationalization. Bureaucracy became new bourgeoisies under communism in practice.
 Capitalism: Individual liberty in term of Economics, politics, Democratic Govt, republican Constitution.
iii. “Communist International” Activities:
The United States accused the Soviet Union of seeking to expand their version of communism throughout the world.
The Soviets, meanwhile, charged the United States with practicing imperialism and attempting to stop revolutionary
activity in other countries.
11 Countries came under communist rule
So consequently Britain requested USA to assume the management of Europe. USA in order to assist Turkey and
Greece from further communist onslaught issued Monroe Doctrine with a pledge to assist the democracy in the
Europe. This pledge to assist democracy everywhere, known as the Truman Doctrine, marked a sharp departure
2. SOME GENERAL CAUSES
Three main factors are important in determining the responsible of cold war. Who was more active in immediate
post WWII period. ii. What was there primary motivating forces. iii. Who Acted aggressively against leading
member.
 Traditionalists: USSR is primarily responsible for cold War. USA was passive while USSR was actively
installing communist governments by revolutionary mechanism, in violation of Yalta conference
agreements. USA withdrew all its forces Germany, Czech, Philippine. While Russia continued
Expansionist posture
 Revisionist: They Blame USA for starting Cold War. Even during WWII, and before Truman doctrine USA
tried to limit USSR influences in Europe
 Constructivist: Both Russia and USA identified themselves in particular terms. The cold war ended when
they stop defining themselves in those terms. Lol 
 Mutual suspicions: USA and England did not forget Bolshevik Peace with Germany in 1917, and Stalin
Non-aggression pact with Hitler. Delay of ally to open Western front against Germany infuriated Stalin. US
development of Nuclear Bomb secretly—are the main factors which fomented the suspicion in coming
days.
 The defect of Germany created a great Vacuum to create cold war Alcer
 USSR foreign Policy was in contradiction of UN Charter.

3. COLD WAR IMPACTS
i. Division of World into Two Power Blocks

The eastern (communist) power block led by the Soviets and the western (capitalists) power block by the US also
formed alliances. The communist nations were held together by the Warsaw Pact and the capitalist power block
formed NATO.
ii. Truman Doctrine

 Turkey was under pressure from the Soviet Union to return some territory that it had seized from Russia
just after the communist revolution of 1917 and control over Dardanelles strait. . Greece was mired in a
civil war between the royalist government and communist insurgents
 Britain, weakened by the war and a postwar financial crisis, informed the U.S. government that it could no
longer assume these responsibilities.
 In 1947 American president Harry Truman went to Congress with a request for funds to assist the two
countries.
 This pledge to assist democracy everywhere, known as the Truman Doctrine, marked a sharp departure
 The Truman Doctrine offered direct assistance to Greece and to Turkey to check Communist influence and
bypassed even the UN mechanism (a trend which was to reoccur in later years).
iii. Marshal Plane
 The Marshal Plan (named after the US Secretary of Defense) was an extension of the Truman Doctrine to
protect (western) Europe from economic collapse and communist domination.
 In 1947, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which provided $17 billion for the reconstruction of
Europe over five years.
 Marshall Plan, also offered financial aid to Germany for rebuilding the allied countries of Europe and
repelling communism after World War The Marshall Plan offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its
allies, if they would make political reforms and accept certain outside controls.
 As a result, the Soviets denounced these actions as imperialistic, and responded by enacting Comecon, or
the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. This was an economic organization of communist states and
a kind of Eastern Bloc.
iv. Berlin Blockade 1948

 One major hotspot of conflict was Germany, the city of Berlin, West Germany, a capitalist but completely
surrounded by communist states.
 The first major confrontation of the cold war took place over Berlin in 1948 when USSR block all roads
and Transport to the city. USSR didn’t want direct confrontation but wanted to oust West from Berlin by
siege tactics.
 The US send immense supply by air, The siege ended in 1949 one month after NATO Setup.
iv. NATO: 1949: Discuss later on as separate topic
v. Korean War 1950

 In 1945 Korea was divided at 38th Parallel. USSR opposed election in North Korea and It became under
communism.
 In 1950 The communist North Korea attacked South Korea and occupied Seoul.
 UN SC sanctioned Military action. The US backed the South Koreans. U.S. troops under Douglas
MacArthur, Pushed North Korea. UN allowed MacArthur to go to North Korea and to hold free election.
At this point China attacked.
 The American commander, Douglas MacArthur, called for carrying the war into China (including using
nuclear weapons). But UN and USA did not allowed him.
 Truman sacked Macarthur and an armistice was signed in 1953.
vi. Warsaw Pact 1955

 In 1955, in direct response to the threat of NATO, the Eastern Bloc nations of the Soviet Union, Poland,
Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania signed the Warsaw Pact and formed the Treaty
of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance.
 Interestingly, all the eastern European Communist states joined except for Yugoslavia.
 As with NATO, the members of the Warsaw Pact promised to retaliate if one of the member states were
attacked.
 The single event that spawned the Warsaw Pact occurred in 1955 when West Germany joined NATO. East
Germany, naturally, joined the Warsaw Pact in 1956.
vii. Eisenhower Doctrine 1957: It was extension of Truman doctrine to Middle East
vii. Vietnam War 1965

 Within another few years, the United States was committed to protecting another Asian country, South
Vietnam, from the possibility of communist takeover.
 Soviet support to the North Vietnamese led to more serious US engagement in the conflict, due to the fear
that Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Thailand could also become Communist.
 Despite sending up to 600,000 troops to Vietnam by 1965, the North Vietnamese won the battle with
support of China and the Soviets.
viii. Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
 USA supported 30 years old fidel Castro. Soon after gaining power he began the process of Nationalization
and collective Farms. USA realized late that she has supported a Marxist. He admitted to be communist in
1961.
 Communism was at the door Step of America. USA supported a group of Cuban Nationalist to invade
Cuba—The fear of expansion of Communism in America.
 In 1962, U2 spy plan photographed the bases of missile in Cuba, Castro denied their existence.
 Khrushchev had played a dangerous game by installing those missile, He demanded that If USA removed
missile from Turkey he would dismantle the bases in Cuba.
 Kennedy refused and instead gave ultimatum to invade Cuba. Khrushchev gave in and removed the
missiles.
Results:
 Kennedy was a hero by taking robust stand. Other were concerned that he would have taken the world into
nuclear war.
 Kurchive never recover from his humiliateion and misjudged policy. Ultimatelu deposed by his party in
1964.
 The relations improved a bit, and hotline was established between two offices of presidents.
 For a few weeks in 1962, the world was eerily close to nuclear disaster.

vii. Balance of Terror; Nuclear Arms Race
 There was another dimension to the Cold War—the nuclear arms race and the “balance of terror.” The U.S.
monopoly on nuclear weapons was broken with the detonation of an atomic weapon by the Soviet Union in
1949. After that, both sides engaged in a competitive arms buildup.
 Britain and France worried about their status as being sideline spectators, developed their own nuclear
arsenals, China and India followed the suit
 The strategic weapons were placed on Soviet or American territory or on submarines, but many
intermediate and short-range ones were placed on European soil, on either side of the Iron Curtain.
 If the Cold War had become hot—and nuclear—much of the destruction would have occurred in Europe.
vii. Impacts on United Nation
 The UN also became a casualty of the Cold War. The UN, largely an inspiration of Roosevelt, was meant
to replace and improve upon the discredited League of Nations.
 In an effort to include all the major powers this time, each of the Big Five victorious allies—the United
States, the Soviet Union, China, France, and Britain—were given permanent seats on the UN’s governing
Security Council, as well as veto power. In this way, any of the five could prevent action that they
disagreed with.
 With the emergence of the Cold War, however, the United States and the Soviet Union could agree on
hardly a single international issue, so UN action in settling international disputes was constantly frustrated
by U.S. or Soviet vetoes.
EXPANSION OF THE COLD WAR ARENA
i. China: The Cold War soon shifted to Asia and became a global competition. In October 1949, Mao Zedong and
his communists won power in China, fueling fears in the United States of a global “red tide” of communism. It was
with the initial backing of Soviets. The disposed Chiang Kai Sek government was exiled to Formosa, which is now
Taiwan.
ii. Korean War 1950

 In 1945 Korea was divided at 38th Parallel. USSR opposed election in North Korea and It became under
communism.
 In 1950 The communist North Korea attacked South Korea and occupied Seoul.
 UN SC sanctioned Military action. The US backed the South Koreans. U.S. troops under Douglas
MacArthur, Pushed North Korea. UN allowed MacArthur to go to North Korea and to hold free election.
At this point China attacked.
 The American commander, Douglas MacArthur, called for carrying the war into China (including using
nuclear weapons). But UN and USA did not allowed him.
 Truman sacked Macarthur and an armistice was signed in 1953.
iii. SEATO 1954

 Ever since the emergence of Communist china in 1949 countries of South east Asia felt communism fear.
The outbreak of Korean war and China support to N Korea, and Chinses help to Ho Chi Minh in Veitnam
corroborated the apprehension.
 Churchil was opposed to extension of NATO to Asia.
 So in 1954, In order to protect south east Asia from communism SAETO was established. Set up by US
with collaboration with UK, France, Australia, Philippine and Pakistan. Attack on one member was to be
attack on all.
 A collective Defense, Sovereign equality, right of self-determination,
iv. Baghdad Pact/Cento 1955

 It was aimed at to protect Middle east from Communist onslaughts and also from Arab aligned states or
fear of Israel.
 Iraq, Turkey, Britain, Pakistan and Iran joined it. USA joined it in economic sphere in 1956 and in military
sphere in 1958.
 Critic says that the main aim of Western powers were to secure control over oil-rich Arab Countries. Jamal
Abdul Nasir also Criticize the treaty and blamed it for destroying Arab Unity.
v. Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
 USA supported 30 years old fidel Castro. Soon after gaining power he began the process of Nationalization
and collective Farms. USA realized late that she has supported a Marxist. He admitted to be communist in
1961.
 Communism was at the door Step of America. USA supported a group of Cuban Nationalist to invade
Cuba—The fear of expansion of Communism in America.
 In 1962, U2 spy plan photographed the bases of missile in Cuba, Castro denied their existence.
 Khrushchev had played a dangerous game by installing those missile, He demanded that If USA removed
missile from Turkey he would dismantle the bases in Cuba.
 Kennedy refused and instead gave ultimatum to invade Cuba. Khrushchev gave in and removed the
missiles.
Results:
 Kennedy was a hero by taking robust stand. Other were concerned that he would have taken the world into
nuclear war.
 Kurchive never recover from his humiliation and misjudged policy. Ultimately deposed by his party in
1964.
 The relations improved a bit, and hotline was established between two offices of presidents.
 For a few weeks in 1962, the world was eerily close to nuclear disaster.
iii. Vietnam War 1965

 Within another few years, the United States was committed to protecting another Asian country, South
Vietnam, from the possibility of communist takeover.
 Soviet support to the North Vietnamese led to more serious US engagement in the conflict, due to the fear
that Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Thailand could also become Communist.
 Despite sending up to 600,000 troops to Vietnam by 1965, the North Vietnamese won the battle with
support of China and the Soviets.
vi. In the Middle East, the US provided active support to the Israelis but the Soviets were not able to influence the
ME conflict to its advantage. In Latin America, the Soviet influence in Cuban and Nicaragua made the US very
nervous and it supported brutal regimes like that of Pinochet in Chile to prevent its fall to communist influence.
The Congo, Ghana and Gold Coast got military and financial aid from the Soviets, which also led the US to take
counter measures in Africa.
v. In South Asia, besides Indian leaning towards the Soviet and the Pakistani inclination towards the US, the
invasion of Afghanistan became a major Cold War arena for a proxy war between the Superpowers.
Khrushchev: After the death of Stalin, Khrushchev emerged in 1955 as the new leader of the Soviet Union. He
went to work right away denouncing Stalin and the cruel form of communism he practiced. Khrushchev didn’t stop
with domestic policy. He initially wanted to reform the belligerent foreign policy that had left the Soviets isolated
from the west. He shocked many within his party when he mentioned the possibility of a peaceful relationship with
the west and the hated capitalists. In 1961, he gave East Germany his blessings for the construction of the Berlin
Wall, a huge concrete wall that separated East and West Berlin. East Germany claimed the Wall was to protect East
Berlin from western aggression; its name was the Anti-Fascist Protection Wall. By the time the Wall was completed
in 1975.
DÉTENTE 1970’s
Détente is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation. The term is often used in reference to
the general easing of relations between the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1970s. It mark the first time in
the Cold War period that the US and the USSR worked together to lessen international tensions, caused primarily by
Mutual Assured Destruction.
“Détente was the state of cordiality derived frommy personal friendship with leonid Brezhnev and other soviet
Leaders” Nixon
“Détente was to achieve peaceful coexistence between different political and social systems, of the need to prevent
nuclear war and resolve disputes by peaceful means” USSR
1. Background: Reasons
i. USSR: After the Cuban Missile Crisis, Party leaders deposed Khrushchev in 1964 and Leonid Brezhnev (1906–
1982) replaced him. The hard-line Communists saw De-Stalinization as a threat to the authoritarian control
Communists had always enjoyed.
Soviet leadership felt that the economic burden of the nuclear arms race was unsustainable. USSR was spending a
huge amount on weapon at the expanse of basic household and welfare of common people.
Worsening relations with the People's Republic of China, leading to the Sino-Soviet Split, had caused great concern
in the Soviet Union. while USA was trying to improve her with china.
ii. USA: The American economy was also in financial trouble as the Vietnam War drained government finances
At the same time as Lyndon Johnson (and to a lesser extent, Richard Nixon) sought to expand the welfare state.
After The Vietnam Crises USA realized there should be some other ways as well to contain communism.
iii. China: Worsening relation with USSR, Her Isolation, was proving decisive and Balance of alliances
considerations.
In 1971 Henry Kissinger visited China via Pakistan
iv. MAD: Mutually Assured Destruction. Several anti-nuclear movements supported détente. The Cuban Missile
Crisis showed how dangerous the relations between the USSR and the USA were becoming.
2. Negotiations, Summit and Treaties
Earlier in the 1960s, before détente, the Partial Test Ban Treaty 1963 had been signed. Later in the decade, the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 1968 and Outer Space Treaty were the first building blocks of détente. However,
these early treaties did little to curb the superpowers' abilities.
i. SALT I: 1972
 The most important treaties were developed in the Nixon Administration. It was the first step towards
solving one of the most important issues.
 The first Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) treaty, agreed for both countries to halt the production of
nuclear weapons and missiles.
 Ban on using mobile, land, Sea launch sites
 The two superpowers also agreed to install a direct hotline between Washington DC and Moscow, the so
called red telephone, enabling both countries to quickly interact with each other in a time of urgency.
 1972, 1974 Nixon visited Russia, 1974 Brezhnev visited USA
 SALT I was going to be expired in 1977. The SALT II 1978 pact continued the work of the SALT I talks,
ensuring further reduction in arms by the Soviets and by the US. But Congress did not ratified it.
 Anti-Ballistic missile Treaty was also concluded in1972
ii. The Helsinki Accords; 1975

 In 1975, USSR initiated The Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. SCE involving 35 states
throughout Europe met in Helsinki
 After intense and prolong negotiations; produced the Helsinki Accords, recogmized borders, established
military confidence, cultural exchange and a wide ranging series of agreements on economic, political, and
human rights issues.
 The most prevalent and discussed after the conference was that of human rights violations in the Soviet
Union.
 In the Helsinki Accords, the Soviets promised to grant free elections in Europe, has been seen as a major
concession to ensure peace by the Soviets.
iii. Trade relations

 Trade relations between the two blocs increased substantially during the era of détente.
 Most significant were the vast shipments of grain that were sent from the West to the Soviet Union each
year, which helped make up for the failure of kolkhoz, Soviet collectivized agriculture.
 By 1973 Soviet America Trade had come to 1.5 Billion Dollar.
3. The End of Detente

 Ultimately difference of visions of what Détente was; and Intervention in Third world, led to the end of
Détente.
 Détente ended after the Soviet's invasion of Afghanistan, which led to America's boycott of the 1980
Olympics in Moscow.
 Jimmy Carter boosted the U.S. defense budget and began financially aiding the President of Pakistan,
General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who would in turn subsidize the anti-Soviet Mujahideen fighters in the
region.
 Ronald Reagan's election as president in 1980, based on an anti-détente campaign, marked the close of
Détente and a return to Cold War hostilities. The 1980 American presidential election saw Ronald Reagan
elected on a platform opposed to the concessions of détente.
REVIVAL OF COLD WAR
 The invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 fanned the embers of the Cold War again. The USSR‟s interference in
Angola was also another irritant and the new US administration was also less tolerant and it wanted to
begin building bridges with China, which Soviets were now opposed to, these moves simultaneously ended
the period of détente.
 Jimmy Carter used the human rights agenda to criticize Soviet backed regimes, the US discovered a Soviet
brigade in Cuba and withdrew from SALT II, it boycotted the Olympic games in Moscow in 1980 and
imposed a grain embargo on the USSR.
 The Soviets in turn banned the LA Olympics in 1984 and shot down a South Korean air liner and by 1983
they pulled out completely from bilateral arms talks with the US after the Cruise and Pershing 2 missiles
were found deployed by three west European countries.
 The overthrow of the Shah of Iran in 1979 also impelled the US to secure bases in Oman, Kenya and
Somalia to obtain a strategic stronghold and protects its interests around the Persian Gulf and the Indian
Ocean.
On the other hand, the Soviets, Cubans, Nicaraguans and even the Ethiopians were accused by the US of supplying
arms to insurgents El Salvador in Central America.
The London Summit
While the Cold War ended practically with dismantling of the 35 km Berlin Wall in 1989, it wasn’t until the London
Summit a few years later that the Cold War was formally announced to be over London Summit. The London
Summit emphasized the need for the US to reduce the number of nuclear weapons it had deployed in Europe. It
obtained a pledge to withdraw the 1470 nuclear tipped artillery shells from West Germany and for the Soviets to
withdraw troops from Central and Eastern Europe. It redefined NATO‟s new role from strength seeking alliance to a
peace keeping mission.
End of the Cold War
The process that brought the Cold War to an end began in the second half of the 1980s. It led to the Malta Summit
between President Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1989. The Washington Summit in 1990 between the same
leaders resulted in signing of number of nuclear, chemical and conventional arms reduction agreements.
Demise of USSR
In 1989, the first free elections since 1917 were held for the Soviet Congress. Boris Yeltsin was elected and became
the leader of the opposition in the U.S.S.R. In 1990, other parties became officially tolerated, and in June 1991
Yeltsin was elected President of Russia. On August 19 and August 20, 1991, a coup of communist hard-liners
occurred while Gorbachev was in the Crimea. Yeltsin faced down the coup on top of a tank in front of the Russian
Parliament. On August 24, 1991, the Communist Party was banned in Russia and the KGB dissolved. Lenin statutes
were torn down, and the new Russian flag went up. December 31, 1991 marked the end of the Soviet Union.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Agreement

Outline
1. 1957: the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
2. 1963: The Partial Test Ban Treaty:
3. 1967: Outer Space Treaty:
4. 1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
5. 1975: Nuclear Supplier Group
6. 1995: Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty
7. 1996: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) - 1996
Introduction
o Nuclear proliferation means the spread of nuclear weapon, fissile material and Info to nations which are not
recognized as Nuclear Weapon states by NPT 1968.
o The Custodial and operational Control of Nuclear weapon has been major focus of IR in second half of 20 th
Century.
o The issue of nuclear proliferation represented one of the most marked illustrations of not only European but
world politics.
o The responses to nuclear proliferation encompass unilateral, bilateral, regional, and global measures that
collectively have been termed the nuclear non-proliferation regime.
o It should be noted, the knowledge and component of production of NW are available and accessible
worldwide. The main barrier is obtaining highly enriched Uranium even that is not much of barrier today.
The main requirement is the support and facilitation of enormous funds and institutional sanction that is
only possible by govt support.
o Nuclear Proliferation is of Two Types: i. Horizontal Proliferation: The Acquisition of NW by none Nuclear
Weapon states. ii. Vertical Proliferation: Increasing the already existing stockpiles of Nuclear states.
1. 1957: the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

 In 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was established under the mandate of the United
Nations. HQ is in Vienna.
 Its ideological background was Eisenhower Speech “Atom for peace” in UN
 Function: IAEA inspectors visit nuclear fecilities to verify recoeds and present reports annually in UN.
 To encourage and assist the research and development of the peaceful applications of nuclear technology,
 To provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in
its use.
 It promote two contradictory missions: To promote civilian Nuclear energy, and to prevent or at least detect
the conversion or diversion of Civilian Nuclear energy into Nuclear Weapons.
2. 1963: The Partial Test Ban Treaty:
 It restricted all nuclear testing to only underground nuclear testing.

 Not in atmosphere, space, Water; as it caused radioactivity. Only underground test were allowed.
3. 1967: Outer Space Treaty:
 It prohibited Nuclear weapons and their handling space, moon and other celestial bodies.
 It also banned any military research in outer space.
4. 1968: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
 It was the first major step to limit the spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons. The treaty was signed in
1968 and came into force in 1970, and currently there are 189 states party to the treaty.
 Five states are recognized States parties are classified by into (Five) Nuclear Weapon states (NWS) and all
the Rest None Nuclear Weapon States.
 These five NWS nations are also the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
 Though The United States, UK, and the Soviet Union were the only states openly possessing such weapons
among the original ratifies of the treaty, which entered into force in 1970).
 NWS: China (signed 1992), France (1992), the Soviet Union , the United Kingdom , and the United States.
Treaty based on three elements: Which constitute “The Great Bargain” between NWS and NNWS.
i. States without Nuclear Weapon will not acquire weapon; and not to manufacture Nuclear Weapon.
ii. States with Nuclear weapons will pursue disarmament; and Not to Transfer, assist, encourage other NNWS to
Acquire NW.
iii. States Can access Nuclear technology for Peaceful purposes; Under the safeguard of IAEA. But Only those who
signed NPT.
 All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were therefore committed to the goal of total nuclear
disarmament.
 NPT review conference has been held after every 5 years.
 Notable non-signatories to the NPT are Israel, Pakistan, and India (the latter two have since tested nuclear
weapons, while Israel is considered by most to be an unacknowledged nuclear weapons state). North Korea
was once a signatory but withdrew in January 2003. The legality of North Korea's withdrawal is debatable
but as of 9 October 2006, North Korea clearly possesses the capability to make a nuclear explosive device.
 USA and India nuclear deals are one case which violates NPT. India is not NPT recognized Nuclear
Weapon state.
NPT Weaknesses
 NPT should also have institutional mechanism, organizational framework and executive council; To make
it able to send strong signal to the violators.
 The Term of NPT are invalid in the sense; Uranium and Nuclear facilities can come from indigenous
sources.
 The term of NPT cannot be enforced itself. IAEA cannot do the job if states do not allow.
 Iraq and N Korea were parties but they did not declare their facilities.
 Original aim was universal disarmament but USA and USSR have 90% of Total global warhead.
5. 1975: Nuclear Supplier Group
 To facilitate Nuclear trade, 49 states meet in London in 1975; popularly known as “London Club”
 They aim ‘not to hinder International trade in Nuclear field’; To facilitate development of peaceful Nuclear
Trade, Nuclear energy for peaceful industrial purposes.
 Membership Criterion: i. Full Compliances with NPT. ii. Ability to Supply Nuclear items and domestic
legal export control system. iii. Support of International efforts toward non-proliferation of weapon and
their delivery vehicles.
 Both India and Pakistan seeking membership but both are nonmember of NPT and CTBT. Pakistan has
sever energy crises.
6. 1995: Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty

 In 1995, NPT parties reaffirmed their commitment to a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty to prohibit the
production of any further fissile material6 for weapons.
 It was aim to limit global stockpile of highly enriched materials, so halting further production
 This aims was to codify commitments made by the United States, the UK, France and Russia to cease
production of weapons material, as well as putting a similar ban on China. This treaty also put more
pressure on Israel, India and Pakistan to agree to international verification.
 However India and Pakistan being nor member of NPT and FMCT, remained in production race. Pakistan
refused to sign FMCT arguing it does not take into account the current stockpile; India has more.
7. 1996: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) - 1996

 Its background was partial test ban Treaty of 1963 which had restricted the test to underground. In 1996
CTBT was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.
 It bans all nuclear explosions test in all environments for any purpose; military or civilian. It was the
second serious step for Nonproliferation after NPT 1968.
 The logic is, when a country signed CTBT it will be difficult to improve the tech quality of its Nuclear
Program.
 As of 2010, 153 states have ratified the CTBT and another 9 states have not ratified the treaty; China,
Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Israel and the United States, whereas India, North Korea and Pakistan have not yet
signed it. Even USA has not ratified it yet. Every state has right to Withdraw.
 Pakistan, India and North Korea have not signed it; In 1996 Pakistan voted in favor of CTBT but India
rejected and tested Bomb in 1998, Pakistan followed the suit. N Korea tested Bomb in 2007. The Three
violations so Far.
6
Fissile material are highly enriched Uranium or plutonium capable of making Bomb
Gorbachev And Disintegration of USSR
The year 1989 has become a symbol of revolution in much the same way that 1789 has, and if the fall of the Bastille
in Paris epitomizes the French Revolution, the collapse of the Berlin Wall defines the fall of the Iron Curtain and the
end of communism in Europe. If anything, the events of 1989 were even more startling and sweeping than those of
two hundred years before. In the course of just six months, communist governments were swept out of power in all
of Eastern Europe, and within a few years after that, out of the Soviet Union as well. After forty years of division,
Germany was reunified and Eastern Europe began its march to the West. The Cold War was over.
With the Soviet Union on the verge of economic collapse, a young, vigorous, and creative General Secretary,
Mikhail Gorbachev, came to power in 1985. Almost immediately, he began to push for a whole series of
increasingly radical reforms, both economic and political.
Perestroika: The core of the reform program was what Gorbachev called perestroika, or “economic restructuring.”
After years of rapid economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s, the Soviet economy had been growing at only about 2
percent annually for a decade.
 Small-scale private and cooperative firms were allowed to operate independently of government planning.
 The government allowed some limited role for the free market in agriculture as well.
Three main Reasons behind Perestroika (Reforms):
 The rigid system of state control and central planning no longer functioned well in
 a complex and global economy.
 Furthermore, the long and costly Cold War arms race with the United States was an increasing drain on
economic resources.
These economic problems had a deleterious effect on living standards in the USSR.
Even the official press admitted that the Soviet Union ranked between fiftieth and sixtieth of the world’s countries in
per capita consumption of goods and services. Gorbachev opined, “A house can be put in order only by a person
who feels he is the owner.”
Glasnost: In his effort to revitalize the Soviet system, Gorbachev linked perestroika with glasnost, meaning
“openness” or “publicity,” and meant to open Soviet society.
 Censorship was relaxed, and previously taboo subjects began to receive coverage: joblessness, drug abuse,
prostitution, crime, urban blight, homelessness, and so forth.
 Relaxed the sanctioning of independent groups and associations
 Improved relations with the Russian Orthodox Church,
 A reduction in the dominating role of the Communist Party.
 The campaign for glasnost was accompanied by democratization of the political system, which included the
introduction of multicandidate (although not multiparty) competition in election.
These changes did not create Western style democracy in the Soviet Union, but they were steps in that direction.
Foreign Policy: A final, critical element of Gorbachev’s reforms was “new thinking” in foreign policy. If Moscow
wanted to develop an economy that was more efficient and more oriented toward consumer goods, it needed to
expand trade, attract technology, reduce military spending, and cut back on aid to other countries.
 All of this required a more relaxed international atmosphere and, in particular, an improved relationship
with the United States.
 So, within a few years, Gorbachev floated a number of major arms-control proposals,
 Reduced Soviet defense spending,

 Pulled back some troops stationed in Eastern Europe, and
 Began to disengage from Afghanistan (where the Soviets had been fighting Islamic mujahidin since 1979).
 While his policy toward Eastern Europe, He stressed “The right of every people to choose the paths and
forms of its own development.” All of this strengthened the hands of reformers in the region and led to
increasing demands for change. This time, it seemed, Moscow would not block reform in Eastern Europe.
The Disintegration of the Soviet Union
o Nationalism and liberalism-(under Perestroika and Glasnost) played a big part in bringing democracy and
sovereignty to the Eastern European states in 1989, and they also contributed to the disintegration of the two
multinational states of the region, the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.
o As we know, the USSR was a union of fifteen “republics,” each representing a different nationality, many of which
were brought forcibly into the Russian Empire before 1917 or into the Soviet Union afterwards. As centralizing
controls were weakened during the Gorbachev era, nationalism flourished in all of them. In the course of 1990 and
1991, every one of the fifteen republics declared independence, although Moscow did not recognize those
declarations.
 In 1988 Lithuanian liberation movement – in Latvia - Estonia –created and soon they started struggle for
independence of the Baltic states.
 In 1989, when declining conditions in Poland resulted into a landslide victory of liberal party.
 Other nations followed Poland's lead. Hungary held elections, relaxed economic controls, and opened its
door to the West.
 The Czechoslovakian and Bulgarian communist governments collapsed without bloodshed in what has
become known as the "Velvet Revolution."
 In East Germany, Germans flooded to Hungary and then to the West Germany. The Communist leader of
East Germany, Honecker, was forced to step down, and the wall was torn down on November 9, 1989.
 In Romania, Nicolae Ceausescu, a brutal Stalinist dictator, was executed on December 25th 1989.
Ceausescu was the only leader to be executed during the Eastern Bloc uprising and Romania itself the only
country to violently overthrow its Communist regime.
1989: First Free Election in Russia: Boris Yeltsin: In 1989, the first free elections since 1917 were held for the
Soviet Congress. Boris Yeltsin was elected and became the leader of the opposition in the U.S.S.R. In 1990, other
parties became officially tolerated, and
1990: 3 Oct: Reunification Of Germany; (Remember: In 1989 The German wall had already been fallen)
1991: June: Yeltsin was elected President of Russia: On August 19 and August 20, 1991, a coup of communist
hard-liners (a hard-line group of Communist Party, the army, and the security agencies attempted to oust Gorbachev
from power) occurred while Gorbachev was in the Crimea. Yeltsin faced down the coup on top of a tank in front of
the Russian Parliament.
1991, August 24: the Communist Party was banned in Russia: and the KGB dissolved. Lenin statutes were torn
down, and the new Russian flag went up. December 31, 1991 marked the end of the Soviet Union.
December, 1991, the Soviet Union no longer existed: in its place stood fourteen independent states. Eleven of the
states formed a confederation known as the Commonwealth of Independent States. Its members at the end of 1991
were Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine,
and Uzbekistan. In 1993, Georgia joined the CIS after Russian troops intervened in Georgian affairs.
Gorbachev resigned and retired. After seventy-two years, the Soviet Union was no more. The end of communism in
Europe also ended the Cold War.
Fortunately, Gorbachev would not countenance the use of force to suppress these revolutions. For this, he won the
1990 Nobel Peace Prize.
Meanwhile: The Story of Reunification of Germany (3 Oct 1990)
As we have already discussed in previous lectures; Faced with a crisis, the East German government held an election
and a new reform-minded government took over. The new prime minister, Lothar de Maizière (b. 1940), negotiated
with West Germany’s Helmut Kohl and with France, the United States, and the Soviet Union about the possibility of
merging with West Germany.
The biggest challenge facing Kohl was convincing the Soviets, before the USSR collapsed, that a unified Germany
would not threaten peace in Europe. Cautiously, Gorbachev signed off on the plan when Kohl promised West
German loans to the Soviets to help their struggling economy.
Finally, on October 3, 1990, the state of East Germany joined West Germany and the West German constitution.
The reunification of Germany resulted partly from the anti-Communist movements of 1989.
The reunification came at a price for West Germany. By picking up the dead weight of the formerly Soviet-
subsidized East German economy, the West German economy slowed what had begun in Berlin ended there.
Even today, Germany is working hard to preserve and merge the old German culture and to create a single new
German culture.
Again The Balkan Crises 1990’s

1. Yugoslavia:
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia7 had been ruled by Socialist Josip Tito since 1953. The Republic
included the Socialist Republics of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, and Macedonia.
Yugoslavia, like the USSR, was a multinational federal state held together by a single political party, the League of
Yugoslav Communists. With a total population of only twenty-four million, it was an extraordinarily heterogeneous
country with no majority population. The Serbs were the largest group, but they constituted only about a third of the
total. As communism disintegrated in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia also began to fall apart.
1990: Elections in Yugoslavia’s republics in 1990 brought no socialist and independence-minded governments to
power in Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia. But the government of Serbia committed to
maintaining the integrity of the state under predominantly Serbian influence.
1991: So in 1991, Croatia, Macedonia, and Slovenia declared independence. Also in 1991, Bosnia-Herzegovina held
the same referendum and decided to declare independence, but only because Bosnian Serbs there boycotted the vote.
Thus the Yugoslav wars began, first in Slovenia and Croatia and then in Bosnia.
Bosnia: 1992 Balkan War: The biggest problem came in Bosnia, where about 43 percent of the population was
Muslim (from the days of Ottoman influence in the region) and a third was Serbian. With the declaration of
independence, Serbian guerrillas, backed by Serbia and the Yugoslav army, began seizing Bosnian Muslim territory
for the creation of a Serbian state. This led to a brutal and horrifying civil war that caused almost a quarter of a
million deaths, the worst violence in Europe since World War II.
Finally, in 1995, after a two-week bombing campaign by North American Treaty Organization (NATO) forces
against Serb positions, the parties were brought to the negotiating table in Dayton, Ohio, by Bill Clinton . The
Dayton Accords of 1995 provided for a single Bosnia-Herzegovina state divided into two roughly equal entities: a
7
(Remember; as we have discussed in Previous topics, Yugoslavia had been Created in Treaty of Versailles in 1919)
)It had been united under Serbia Leadership after Balkan Wars in 1912-13)
Muslim-Croat federation and a Serb republic. A NATO peacekeeping force of nearly sixty thousand troops,
including about twenty thousand Americans, monitored the cease-fire and supervised implementation of the accord.
Chechnya: Russia, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, was itself a federation of many nationalities and faced a
grueling separatist insurgency from the Muslim region of Chechnya.
Kosovo: 1996: And in Yugoslavia, another round of conflict erupted between Serbs and Albanian Muslims in the
region of Kosovo, requiring yet another military intervention by NATO (primarily U.S.) forces. To this day, the
peace there is tenuous. Milosevic Serb leader was arrested and handed over to the United Nations in 2001 and court
charged with war crimes and genocide, and the trial has intermittently dragged on ever since.
So, Yugoslavia finally disappeared altogether, fragmented into six small sovereign countries, including Croatia,
Slovenia, Bosnia, and Serbia, emerged from Yugoslavia. that had been its constituent republics, in much the same
way that the Soviet Union had earlier collapsed. Nationalism, which had played a positive role in delivering Eastern
Europe from the Soviet bloc, also had its negative side, expressed in ethnic rivalry, hostility, and conflict.
2. Czechoslovakia:
Three years after the “Velvet Revolution” against Czechoslovakian and Bulgarian communist governments, was
peacefully dissolved and replaced by two separate states: the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
European Economic Community 1958
 EEC was formed in 1958 by six Countries; France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherland, and
Luxemburg. Later England, Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Spain and Portugal also joined. Member number
became 12. In 1995 the community further expanded with addition of Sweden, Finland and Austria.
 These 15 states were regarded as world biggest and richest bloc.
 The chief Objective were, i. Consolidation of Tariff, ii Free movement, iii. Harmonious economic policies.
 A new border free single market was created. Free movement of servant investors were also agreed.

European Union 1993
The European Union (EU) is an economic and political union of 27 member states. The process of integration
started in 1952 & ultimately Economic union was established by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1993. With over
500 million citizens, the EU combined generated an estimated 28% share (US$ 16.5 trillion in 2009)
The EU has developed a single market through a standardized system of laws which apply in all member states, and
ensures the capital including the abolition of passport controls by the Schengen Agreement between 22 EU states. It
enacts legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintains common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and
regional development. Sixteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro, constituting the Euro zone.
Having a legal personality, the EU is able to conclude treaties with countries. It has devised the Common Foreign
and Security Policy, thus developing a limited role in European defense and foreign policy. Permanent diplomatic
missions of the EU are established around the world and representation at the United Nations, WTO, G8 and G-20 is
maintained.
1. ACHIEVEMENTS
i. Foreign relations
 Steps for a more wide ranging coordination in foreign relations began in 1970. Common Foreign and
Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty, aims to promote both the EU's own interests and those of
the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for
human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on
the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue.
 Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is
also felt through enlargement this influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to
as "soft power", as opposed to military "hard power".
 In the UN, as an observer and working together, the EU has gained influence in areas such as aid due to its
large contributions in that field.
 In the G8, the EU has rights of membership besides chairing/hosting summit meetings and is represented at
meetings by the presidents of the Commission and the Council.
 The European Union does not have one unified military. The predecessors of the European Union were not
devised as a strong military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for
defense purposes. Twenty-one EU members are members of NATO while the remaining member states
follow policies of neutrality.
 EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from Africa to the former Yugoslavia and the
Middle East. In an EU consisting of 27 members, substantial security and defense cooperation is
increasingly relying on great power cooperation.
ii. Humanitarian aid

 Collectively, the EU is the largest contributor of foreign aid in the world.
 Over the years the EU has established a strong relationship with the UN. Co-operation takes place on a
broad range of areas: development, addressing climate change, peace building in conflict ridden countries,
humanitarian assistance in crises, fighting corruption and crime, global health concerns such as AIDS/HIV,
labor issues and culture.
iii. Economy
 The EU and the next seven largest economies in the world by nominal GDP. (IMF, 2009)
 Since its origin, the EU has established a single economic market across the territory of all its members.
 Currently, a single currency is in use between the 16 members of the Eurozone.
 In 2009, amounting to over 21% of the world's total economic output which makes it the largest economy
in the world and the second largest trade bloc .
 It is also the largest exporter, and largest importer of goods and services, and the biggest trading partner to
several large countries such as China and India.
 161 of the top 500 largest corporations measured by revenue (Fortune Global 500 in 2010) have their
headquarters in the EU.
 There is a great deal of variance for annual per capita income within individual EU states, this range from
US$7,000 to US$69,000.
iv. Single market (Free/ common market)

 The signing of the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 established the EU single market. It ensures the free
movement of goods, capital, people and services.
 The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people and services within the EU, and the
customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market.
 The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.
 The free movement of person’s means citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study
or retire in another country.
 The free movement of services and of establishment allows self-employed persons to move between
member states in order to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis
v. Monetary union (Common currency)

The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the EU. 16 EU countries have introduced
the euro as their sole currency in 1999. Euro has become the second reserve currency in the world.
vi. Environment
The EU is the most ambitious player and self-proclaimed leader in international climate policy. At the 2007 United
Nations Climate Change Conference, dealing with the successor to the Kyoto Protocol, the EU has proposed at 50%
cut in greenhouse gases by 2050.
vii. Nobel Peace Prize,2012

It was awarded to EU for maintaining peace and harmony amongst all countries in such unfavorable conditions.
2. Challenges: Analyses
 Today EU Crumbling as bureaucratic intergovernmental organization with several centers of Power

serving their own interests. Euro Bureaucracy became third power shaping EU. Inflential Bureaucracy
promote interests of Transnational, multi-national organizations.
 The Fourth Reich: Supreme German Economic Dominances, The Crises of Greece showed that Germany
has all powers to impose its own rules upon Govts.
 Anglo-Saxon Atlantic Project: A goal of USA and UK to divide Europe by Utilizing the zone of Eastern
Europe as buffer state between Eurpoe and Russia. They want to balance Russian power and Strong
European Union. It looks like USA and UK want to protect themselves from both of the power
 Turkey’s membership: It can prove beneficial member, with huge population, Important Geographical
sphere, Strengthen security from Middle East.
 Identity crisis
 27 countries- Mega Europe, consensus becomes difficult.
 Economic recession & debt crises in various countries.
 Economic imbalance between Western & Eastern Europe. Problem of immigration & cheap labor
threatening remaining Europeans.
 Conflict over international issues & US interference.
 Rivalry between France & UK.
 Economic crisis of Greece
Brexit




Conclusion
EU has changed the destiny of post-war Europe from a devastated place to the richest & most prosperous region in
the world. Today it has become a genuine global entity that reaches out to its southern and eastern neighbors, meets
its responsibilities in the world and leads the way on the environment and human rights. Because of its chain of
successes EU has become a role model for all the other regional organizations of the world.

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History of Modern Europe

Compiled by Shakoor Kakar

Part –I (Marks 50) Part –II (Marks 50)

Historical Background of Modern Europe

a. Scientific Revolution 1600’s

b. The Age of Enlightenment 1700’s

v. The Seven Years War (1756-63)

1600-1789: Is also known The Age of Monarchs, It was characterized by….

The French Revolution 1789

The Causes of French Revolution

Expected Dimensions of the Questions

The rise of Bourgeoisie: (The town people)

Jean Jacques Rousseau: d. 1778

ii. Absence of National representative Institution

 Rotten French administration, ill-defined and overlapping jurisdiction of various dept,

iii. Centralized and despotic GOvt

iv. Influence of American Revolution

v. The worn out Feudal system in France

5. Economic Causes: The short-term and immediate factors

Why Revolution started in France

The Course of French Revolution

1. The State General

10 June 1789: The third Estate declared itself as National Assembly.

2. The National Assembly 1789-91

1. Declaration of Rights of Man and citizen: 27 August 1789:

3. Legislative Assembly (1791-92)

1. Two Groups in Assembly

Thus Danton saved revolutionary France from Utter Collapse.

4. The Convention (1792-95)

The rise of Political Clubs and Radical Leaders:

1. The Girondins: Moderate republicans. Mostly well to do bourgeoisie

When Danton preached moderation he was also sent to guillotine.

5. The Directory (1795-99)

The consequences of French Revolution

8. Stimulus to Humanitarianism: France became spokesman of the human race

9. Revival of Romanticism: “Establishment of human life on the basis of pure feelings”

10. Ironically, the influence of Roman church strengthened in reaction.

13. Influenced Warfare, alliances system, Diplomacy, IR

14. Ushered new era of reform politics

Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1815)

Creation of Empire (Work and Reforms)

1. Political Reforms (Work)

i. The consulate 1799-1804

He centralized the whole system,

The legislative body: It voted on the laws without discussing them.

 A large number of highways, bridges, canal were constructed.

The Continental system (1806-7)

Causes of Failure of Continental System:

Features of His Wars

The fall of Napoleon (Causes of His Downfall)

The Congress of Vienna 1815

The big Four: Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria

1. Problem Before the Congress/ The aim of Congress

2. Three main principles of Congress of Vienna

iii. To Suppress Republicanism:

3. The territorial readjustments/ Balance of power/ Criticism

Great Britain: Retained most of her colonial conquest.

The Concert of Europe 1815

1. Objectives of Concert of Europe

2. Differences between Great Britain and Holy alliance group:

4. Liberalism raised head in different Countries

5. Causes of Failure of Concert of Europe

Metternich Era 1815-48