INTRODUCTION OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

The Sanskrit term used to mean philosophical thought in India is Darsna. Darsna means vision of
truth. The term “vision of truth” means the direct realization of the true nature of that which is
absolutely true. Such realization is called ‘tattva-darsna’. Indian thinkers tried to visualize the
ultimate truth by different means and the philosophical systems developed as a consequence of
such endeavors.

Indian philosophy is the name given to different philosophical thoughts that grew and developed
on Indian soil. It includes philosophical speculations of all thinkers of India, whether ancient or
modern. There is a tendency to describe Indian philosophy as Hindu philosophy. It may be
accepted if the term “Hindu “ is used in the sense of an Indian. But if it is used in the sense of the
philosophy of the followers of Hindu religion, then it will be a wrong conception and obviously
misleading. Buddha and Jaina philosophers were not propounded by Hindu thinkers. Carvaka
materialists are against the Vedic authority, which is taken as infallible by the Hindus. This
establishes the point that Indian philosophy is not the philosophy of the followers of a particular
religion.

Philosophy in India has a very ancient origin. In fact, philosophical speculations started in India
in the Vedic age it. Freethinking sages of ancient India speculated independently about various
fundamental questions relating to human life and its destiny. The questions that disturbed them
were like, what is the real nature of man? What is the real nature of the world man lives in? What
is the ultimate destiny of man’s life? etc. The Indian thinkers speculated on such questions in
order to find answers to these and many such questions. As a consequence of such speculation
different lines of thought developed and subsequently different schools of philosophy took
shape. Nine principal schools of thought flourished in ancient India of which six believed in the
authority of the Vedas and are called the orthodox (astika) systems. The other three do not
believe in the authority of the Vedas and are called heterodox (nastika) systems. The six
orthodox systems are – Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. The three
heterodox systems are – Carvaka, Jaina and Buddha. The six orthodox systems are also known as
Vedic systems and the three heterodox systems as non – Vedic systems of Indian philosophy.
MEANING OF ASTIKA AND NASTIKA AS PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS

Generally, the terms astika and nastika are used to mean believing and not believing in God
respectively. One who believes in God is called an âstika and one who does not believe in God is
known as a nastika. But with reference to Indian philosophical systems these two terms have
different meanings. As used in the context of Indian philosophy astika means the system that
accepts the authority of the Vedas as infallible. On the other hand, anstika means the system
that does not believe in the authority of the Vedas. We can explain this point by referring to the
systems like Sankhya and Mimamsa. These two systems do not believe in God as the creator.
But still they are called orthodox (astika) systems only because they accept the authority of the
Vedas. Though the orthodox systems of Indian philosophy in general are said to have developed
on the basis of the ancient scriptures like the Vedas, not all the systems developed on uniform
lines. Among the orthodox systems Vedanta and Mimamsa systems are called Vedanugata
(loyal to the Vedas), because these two systems give philosophical exposition of the Vedic
doctrines and ideas. Mimamsa system deals primarily with the ritualistic aspect of the Vedas
and is also known as Purva Mimamsa. The Vedanta system, on the other hand, deals with the
problem of attainment of knowledge of Reality. It is known as Uttara Mimamsa also. Nyaya,
Vaisesika. Samkhya and Yoga systems are called Vedaswatantra (independent of the Vedas), as
they present their philosophical position with independent arguments that are compatible with
the Vedic ideas and doctrines. Among the heterodox systems Carvaka is the lone advocate of
materialism. Jaina and Buddha systems do not accept the Vedic authority, but they advocate
speculative philosophy of the higher order. These two systems developed along their own
moral philosophy and preached religious truths of non- violence.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

1. Philosophy is a practical necessity

2. Initial pessimism
3. Belief in an eternal moral order
4. Ignorance as the root cause of suffering
5. Liberation as the ultimate goal of life
6. Spiritualistic
7. Discussion on epistemological issues

Though independently developed along diverse lines of thought the schools of Indian
philosophy exhibit certain general features or characteristics. As mentioned earlier the
Carvaka system advocates materialism and it is an exception to the overall philosophical
thinking of ancient India. The different general features we are going to discuss in the
following pages are not equally applicable to this heterodox system of Indian philosophy. As
a materialistic system Carvaka disagrees to most of the views of the other eight systems. Of
course, a few important features are found in all the systems of Indian philosophy including
the Carvaka. Let us now discuss the chief characteristics that are found to be commonly
present in the systems of Indian philosophy.

Philosophy is a Practical Necessity

Philosophy in India developed as a practical necessity. Wisdom of the great seers of ancient
India was not merely some theoretical speculation about non - worldly things. It is a general
misconception that philosophy deals with issues that do not have any relevance in practical life.
Philosophy in general is concerned about the ultimate questions of human life. It is true that
the ancient thinkers were not much concerned about the day-to-day problems of practical life.
They loved to speculate on the genuine and ultimate issues of human life and tried to find a
path that might help people to solve the various problems of life in a better way. The Indian
philosophers very well understood that philosophy and life had a close relation. They also
believed that life could be best led by following a good philosophy. This can be noticed in the
different problems discussed in the systems of Indian philosophy. Philosophical thought in India
grew out of practical motivation.

Initial Pessimism
Indian philosophy, in general, is found to start with a note of pessimism. A sense of
dissatisfaction at the existing state of affairs can be noted in almost all the systems of Indian
philosophy. Indian thinkers were immensely disturbed at the sight of human pain and suffering
and the presence of evil that made man’s life miserable on earth. They speculate over these
issues and tried to find out the cause of these and, as a result, different philosophies
developed. Buddha philosophy exemplifies this feature in the most conspicuous manner. It is to
be noted, however, that the pessimistic note is only the initial note in Indian philosophy which
generally concludes with the optimistic note. All the systems, in their own ways, have shown
that we can get over the sufferings of life. There are ways that lead to freedom from the
miserable state of existence on earth.

Belief in an Eternal Moral Order

Belief in an eternal moral order is another feature that is commonly found to be present in the
systems of Indian philosophy, of course, with the exception of the Cârvâka, the only materialistic
system flourishing in India. Indian philosophy believes that the whole universe is being governed
and sustained by a universal moral order. This moral order is eternal and it cannot be violated by
anybody. In the g Veda there is the concept of ta which stands for such an eternal and inviolable
moral order. Later on, in the different systems of Indian philosophy this principle takes on
various forms, like apûrva in the Mimamsa adsta in the Nyaya – Vaisesika and above all, the law
of karma which is accepted in one or the other form by almost all the systems of Indian
philosophy, including the two heterodox systems, Jaina and Buddha.

Ignorance As The Root Cause Of Suffering

Indian philosophy, in general, believes that ignorance is the root cause of human suffering.
Ignorance about the true nature of things gives rise to attachment to the worldly objects as
they can gratify the senses. Such attachment to objects of sense makes men slave to their
desires, passions etc. This creates hindrance in the path of acquiring the true knowledge of
ultimate reality. It is a state of bondage, according to Indian philosophical systems. Freedom
from this state can be obtained only through right knowledge of things.

Liberation as The Ultimate Goal Of Life

Systems of Indian philosophy, barring the Cârvâka, take liberation or freedom from bondage to
be the ultimate goal of human life. Liberation means complete cessation of suffering. Different
systems of Indian philosophy have given different views about the nature of liberation, but all
agree in the point that liberation signifies an end to miseries of life. Indian philosophers
recognize four ends (purusartha) of human life; they are—dharma (merit), artha (money), kâma
(desire) and moksa (liberation). Of these four, liberation is regarded as the highest and ultimate
goal of man’s life. Different systems prescribe different paths for attainment of liberation, such
as paths of knowledge (jñâna), devotion (bhakti) and action (karma).

Spiritualistic

Dr. S. Radhakrishnan characterizes Indian philosophy as “essentially spiritual”. Indian

philosophy is said to be spiritual because it regards spirit or soul as superior to body or matter.
With the solitary exception of the Cârvâka system, Indian philosophy puts emphasis upon the
spiritual values and enjoins that life should be led with a view to realizing these values. The
Cârvâka system advocates materialistic philosophy and so it is an exception to Indian
philosophy regarding this feature. Buddha philosophy too, does not recognize the existence of
self, but unlike the Cârvâka, it highlights the importance of spirituality for leading the
disciplined moral life. All other systems believe in the superiority of spirit over matter.

Discussion on Epistemological Issues

All the systems of Indian philosophy make elaborate discussion on epistemological issues, like
sources of valid knowledge (pramâna), types of valid knowledge (pramâ), types of invalid
knowledge (apramâ) and other related problems. Starting with the Cârvâka system, all the nine
systems of Indian philosophy deal with the problem of sources of valid knowledge in great
detail; in fact the Cârvâka criticism of inference and other pramânas exhibits the use of high
order of rational argument for refuting opponent’s views. The Nyâya system is primarily
concerned with the discussion of logical and epistemological issues. In fact all the systems of
Indian philosophy put forward their epistemological standpoint in order to supplement their
metaphysical doctrines. This feature shows that the Indian systems put equal emphasis upon
both metaphysical and epistemological issues