13 Schorner
13 Schorner
13 Schorner
Hadwiga Schörner
Hadwiga Schörner
Institute of Classical Archaeology
University of Vienna, Franz-Klein-Gasse 1
A – 1190 Vienna AUSTRIA
[email protected]
Abstract
The phenomenon ‘intra-urban burial’ in Greek influenced Asia Minor can
at first be grasped with the extraordinary Maussolleion at Halikarnassos.
With this exception Maussollos formed his image in choosing by himself
the site of his grave, a big part of the cult rites and the architecture,
in which he joined Greek and oriental elements. The development of
grave sites, cult rites and architecture forms for instance of the late-
classical graves of Termessos or Ephesos will be analysed in succession of
Maussollos. During Hellenistic times euergetism played a big role inside
micro-Asiatic cities, and the intra-urban grave was part of the honours
from the polis to the benefactor. The special meaning of this cult place
honoured a couple of centuries in the middle of a city can be recognized
by detailed and copiousness inscriptions, for example of the burials of the
euergetai at Kyme. During the time after establishing the Roman province
Asia and during the Roman Empire in the East the intra-urban burial
was anew a special honouring given by the polis, but the importance in
relation to the creation of identity for the city changed. On the basis of
a selection of intra-urban graves from the 1st and 2nd century AD the way
how to deal with these burials within the poleis, their creation of identity
of the city and the way of self-imaging of the deceased will be examined.
* I wish to thank Mr. Olivier Henry for inviting me to and for the splendid organization of the conference at
the IFEA resp. Cezayir House. Also thanks to Anne Marie Carstens, Alexander Herda, Oliver Hülden, Martin
Seyer and Martin Steskal for discussion. A special gratitude goes to Tina McGeorge, who read my article in
a former version to prevent me from linguistic mistakes. This paper is going back to aspects of my doctoral
thesis submitted 2000 in the Friedrich-Schiller-University of Jena, Germany, with the title “ΕΝΤΑΦΗ
ΚΑΤΑ ΠΟΛΙΝ. Untersuchungen zum Phänomen der intraurbanen Bestattungen bei den Griechen”.
In this research I wanted to examine all archaeological, epigraphical and literary sources of intraurban
graves and burials within ancient Greek cities – exept for Lycia and Caria – from the end of the 8th century BC
to the beginning of the 3rd century AD, which had come to my knowledge. Only graves and burials, which are
archaeological excavated or written down in a literally or epigraphically source with a clear-cut testimony
were collected, but not monuments of mythically heroes. – This article follows the regulations of l’Année
philologique.
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following millennium. From that point in time, it is In Pisidia, within the city of Termessos, a quite
possible to recognize the beginning of the Greek unusual monument is located on the South side of
polis, or city-state, as a uniform political, social and the agora and in the West of the upper Gymnasium
religious system. (fig. 1)5. It was mainly cut out of the same local
After that date, necropoleis at Greek cities are limestone as the buildings of the whole city
located close to but isolated from the settlement, (figs. 2-3)6. The traces of the moil chisel can be seen
first as a naturally evolving, unarranged group of all over the monument and also inside the three
graves, later in rows along the streets leading out niches on the West side (fig. 5). A flight of steps
of the city. The usual form of a burial there was the leads from the North to a platform, which is covered
family grave, which could be visited by the family with flat limestone slabs and limited on the South
members of the deceased; it was the place for the with a semi-circled bench (fig. 4). Behind it the cut
cult of the beloved dead, securing the veneration rock towers up, and in the middle of it lies the area
and the remembrance of the deceased for a long for the funeral, East-West oriented, a cassa perfectly
time. But in early Archaic times, it is also noticeable hollowed in the rock (figs. 2-3). The round shaped
that single interments or small groups of burials lid – the outer side convex, the inner concave –
are placed intentionally within the city, first of all has fallen down to the South of the monument,
on the mainland Greece and afterwards all over the broken into two pieces. If there had ever existed an
Greek influenced Mediterranean basin, for example architectural ornamentation it is not preserved7.
very near of the West gate at Eretria on the island No grave or votive offerings are preserved,
of Euboia, on the agora of Cyrene in North Africa or although it is clear, that the three niches in the
at the agora and close to the theatre of Mantineia West wall were made for the deposition of objects
on the Peloponnese2. ‘Intra-urban’ implies the area of veneration (fig. 5). Also platform and bench had
within a settlement built on with public, religious certainly served for congregations, cultic activities
or private structures. In the period after Alexander and remembrance of the deceased person (fig. 4).
the Great, the Greek influenced region was greatly On the left side of the niches, a small canal can
extended, so – amongst others – two tombs near be seen. It begins within a little basin, is deflected
the city centre of Aï Khanoum in the ancient region downwards towards the ground, but the end is
of Bactria3, today located close to the border hard to see because of the vegetation (figs. 5-6).
between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, can also be
included.
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Fig. 1 :
Termessos, city map
with localisation of
the heroon (A 6)
(by Lanckoronski
1892, plan after
p. 20).
Fig. 2 : Termessos, grave, view from West Fig. 3 : Termessos, grave, view from South-West
(photo author, 23.08.2002). (photo author, 23.08.2002).
Fig. 4 : Termessos, grave, view of platform with bench and cassa Fig. 5 : Termessos, grave, West side, view to niches, basin and
(photo author, 23.08.2002). canal left of the niches (photo author, 23.08.2002).
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Hadwiga Schörner
Fig. 6 :
Termessos,
grave, basin
and canal
for libation,
view from
above
(photo
author,
23.08.2002).
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Hadwiga Schörner
but was unable to do so. The levelling of the agora examples: A rock-cut sarcophagus in the North
plateau must belong to the early works of the necropolis at Melli in Pisidia20, but secluded from
building project after founding of the settlement the main cemetery was founded on the highest
because it is not conceivable that such a great point of a rock, surrounded by a bench, perhaps
block of rock was standing crude for decades or for for congregations. From the position of the tomb
centuries at one side of the agora. Taking all this there is an excellent view over the city of Melli. At
into consideration, the unfortunately inadequate Beşkardeş in Cappadocia a rock-cut tomb possesses
published grave at Termessos must belong to the shape and ornament of a garland sarcophagus21.
late Classical or early Hellenistic era. On a free standing block of stone one can see
that it is executed on one broadside as a garland
sarcophagus, with two pilasters on the edges, one
Comparisons in site, bucranium in the middle and two bows of garlands;
architecture and veneration beneath there are three niches like at Termessos,
although the niches at Beşkardeş are smaller as in
The location of that tomb within the agora follows
Termessos. On the other side, steps are leading up
most likely Greek, and not Anatolian prototypes for
to the top. On that place the cassa for the burial
an honoured grave of a very important person of a
was hollowed out; the lid is not preserved, but
city14. The oldest example for that site is the grave of
the traces of folds on the edge can be seen. Both
Heropythos at the agora of Ephesos about 340 BC15.
rock-cut sarcophagi are younger than the example
Rock-cut tombs possess a very long, several
on the agora of Termessos and date into Roman
millennia long lasting tradition in Anatolia. On first
Imperial Times, the 2nd or 3rd cent. AD.
sight the tomb on the agora of Termessos in Pisidia
At Termessos the rock-cut canal or drain
looks very unusual, because it doesn’t belong to the
(figs. 5-6), which begins within a little basin under
most common group of the rock-cut façade graves.
the niches is surely a construction for liquid
The architecture, the elements mostly cut out of the
offerings, for libations. Robert Fleischer discovered
rock but some also build up with slabs, seemed to
a comparable cavity at a rock sanctuary, North-
be an Anatolian tradition. Most narrow comparisons
West of the city; he named it ‘sanctuary of the
one can find in the necropoleis of South-Western
peak’22. It consists of one niche with the picture
Anatolia, with steps leading to a platform, like at the
of an unidentified god and of a basin in front of it.
Kaineus grave at Limyra16. A platform which forms
A canal does not exist. The reason may be that the
the place for the veneration before the cassa or
offering for an Olympic god ought to flow down
sarcophagus is very seldom, one example occurs at
into a basin, where it remains. The liquid offering
Demetrias in Thessalia17.
for the hero at the agora, however, should be
The place of the sepulture at Termessos,
conducted into the ground to ‘feed’ the hero23.
the cassa, looks like a ‘chamosorion’ on the top
This group of sanctuaries also belong to the Roman
of the edifice. Chamosoria are not uncommon in
Imperial Times because of the inscriptions there, but
South-West Asia Minor, for instance they occur in
the origin might be older. An analogy for libation
several necropoleis in Caria18 or Pisidia19. For a cassa
at a Hellenistic intra-urban grave presents the
deepened in the highest point there are far fewer
sarcophagus no. 3 within the Heroon of Kineas at Aï
Khanoum, where a hole in the lid and a canal from
14 Compare the late-Classical grave for Podares on the agora at the floor of the chamber to that lid confirms that
Mantineia, Arcadia (Peloponnesos): Schörner 2007a, 216-218 Cat. A 4
figs. 14-27. For the phenomenon: Schörner 2007a, 20-37 esp. 24.
kind of cultic veneration24.
15 Arr. an. I 17, 11. Compare for that only literally received burial Greek influence is visible chiefly on the
Schörner 2007a, 266-267 Cat. B 11. inscription in Greek letters. The person Thoas,
16 Kuban 2012, 271-272 necropolis III, grave no. 6 (partly cut out
of the rock, partly built up); it dates also in late Classical or early
son of Kendeas and grandson of Obrimotes, had
Hellenistic times.
17 Marzolff 1986, 83-84 drawing 3; fig. 5; 3rd-2nd cent. BC, now
destroyed. 20 Yılmaz 2007, 155-204 esp. 176-177 fig. 15.
18 Henry 2009, 35 figs. 3-4 pl. II A: ‘sarcophage rupestre’ at 21 Prayon 2008, 1035-1044 figs. 1-16.
Labraunda, and many more within the same volume. 22 Fleischer 2008, 197-242 (“Gipfelheiligtum”).
19 To chamosoria in Pisidia in Hellenistic times: Köse 2005, 101, 23 Common to the topic of libation: Schörner 2007a, 163-164.
for chamosoria in Pisidia in Roman times: Yılmaz 2007, 176-177. To 24 For the Heroon of Kineas compare Schörner 2007a, 131. 227-228
chamosoria in general compare Schörner 2007a, 89-90 note 737. Cat. A 10 figs. 52. 55. 58 (sarcophagus no. 3).
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achieved during his lifetime something brilliant we respectively along an important street32 and also
do not know. Maybe he was a κτίστης, the founder, at vulnerable points of the polis, such as gates33.
or a νέος κτίστης, a liberator or re-founder25 of his The architectural form both in Asia Minor and in
home town Termessos, possibly at the siege of the Mainland Greece is more extensive in comparison to
army of Alexander in 333 BC. Whatever the case extra-urban graves: tumulus (with an architectural
his achievement provided him this great tomb on frame) with the grave chamber within34 or under it35,
the agora of Termessos with the permission of or a common grave house36. In late Classical times
the inhabitants. Unfortunately many questions in the grave building can possess an architectural
reference to the date of that monumental grave connection with a building of another function,
remain open, because of the lack of ornamentation, mostly a Gymnasium37, in Roman Imperial times
the unclear evidence of the shapes of the letters, also a library38. Rarely, and only in Asia Minor,
or the fact that inhumation into a sarcophagus was two storeyed grave buildings appear, after the
practised through the centuries in Hellenistic and Maussolleion the two octagons at Ephesos39
Roman Times26. Both a Pisidian (Obrimotes)27 and a and Aphrodisias40 from Augustan times. One can
Greek (Thoas) personal name are mentioned in the observe a strong dependence of the conspicuous
inscription. At first time the name ΟΒΡΙΜΟΤΕΣ is graves on local style.
mentioned in an inscription found in the area of the The reason for allowing the tomb within
town, which can be dated in the year 278 BC, when the polis is very broad and changed during the
the city was under the rule of the Ptolemaioi28. centuries: First of all the burial place on the agora
Unfortunately this inscription is totally different was reserved for the κτἱστης, the founder of the
from the one hewn into the Heroon and the letters polis, as maybe the case of the unknown deceased
are very small, so it cannot give us a chronological in the agora in Termessos. A Greek colony normally
comparison. performed periodically their rituals both in the
sanctuary of the urban Olympic god and at the
tomb of the founder as a deep expression of
The Phenomenon of intra-urban their common identity. The best example of that
graves within the Greek World: is Kyrene in North Africa, where the grave of the
founder and king Battos41 lies not far away from the
a short review temple of Apollon. Besides that other personalities
With regard to the burial place within the city, could be honoured for their lifetime achievement,
there does not exist a great difference between the such as winners of Olympic Games42, authors43,
examples from mainland Greece and those from
the late classical Asia Minor and later29. In both
cases the agora30 or another great square31 were 32 Like the Hellenistic burial(s) under the Mosaic house at Eretria,
the appreciate places for the intra-urban tomb, Euboia: Schörner 2007a, 238-240 Cat. A 17 figs. 95-101.
33 Like the Archaic burials under the triangulum near of the West
gate at Eretria, Euboia: Schörner 2007a, 209-212 Cat. A 1 figs. 1-8.
34 Like the Hellenistic Heroon I at Miletus: Schörner 2007a, 237-238
Cat. A 16 figs. 86-94.
25 According to Cicero, the liberation is equivalent to the founding 35 Like the late-Classical tomb in Kassope, Epirus: Schörner 2007a,
of a city: Cic. rep. I 7. 222-223 Cat. A 7 figs. 37-41.
26 And for a long time inhumation and cremation at the same time: 36 Like the late-Classical grave for Podares on the agora at
Köse 2005, 81-83. 107-109. Mantineia, Arcadia: Schörner 2007a, 216-218 Cat. A 4 figs. 14-27.
27 The name “Obrimotes” was common in Hellenistic times: 37 Like the late-Hellenistic burials at the Gymnasium at Messene:
compare Çelgin 1997, 116 (inscription from the Gymnasium at the Schörner 2007a, 245-247 Cat. A 21 figs. 121-125.
Agora of Termessos), or Mitchell 1994, 95-96 (inscription from the 38 Like the Celsus library at Ephesos with the burial of C. Iulius
Pisidian chora, 1st cent. BC). Celsus within a chamber in the basement: Schörner 2007a, 250-252
28 İplikçioğlu 1999, 309 note 2 with the older evidences; Waelkens Cat. A 24 figs. 140-143, or the burials of wife and son of Dion of Prusa
2004, 441. in a court belonging to a library at Prusa, Bithynia: Schörner 2007a,
29 For the following compare the interpretation for the aspects 286-287 Cat. B 27; Plin. ep. X 81, 1-8.
of the chosen localisation, architecture and equipment of the 39 Schörner 2007a, 240-242 Cat. A 18 figs. 102-110.
intraurban grave, and also for the deceased and honoured person in 40 Schörner 2007a, 242-243 Cat. A 19 figs. 111-115.
Schörner 2007a, passim. 41 Schörner 2007a, 213-216 Cat. A 3 figs. 15-23.
30 Like the Archaic burial of Glaukos at the agora of Thasos: 42 Antenor, son of Xenares, won the pancratium at Olympia in 308
Schörner 2007a, 212-213 Cat. A 2 figs. 9-14. BC (118. Olympiad): Schörner 2007a, 271-272 Cat. B 15.
31 Like the late-Classical burial of Dion upon an eminent place of 43 Aristias, son of Pratinas, author of satyr’s plays, won the 2nd price
Syrakus, Sicily: Schörner 2007a, 266 Cat. B 10. at a dramatic contest in 467 BC: Schörner 2007a, 263 Cat. B 5.
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230