HISTORY OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING IN

THE ANCIENT TIME.
It is not certain when guidance and counselling actually started as a field of human
endeavor. However. Gibson and Mitchell (1981) report that perhaps the earliest
search by man for a counsellor was when Eve reaped the consequences of eating the
forbidden fruit in the garden of Eden. Since then man has gone in search of assistance
from beings adjusted to be ‘superior’ whenever confronted with the unknown. From
the earliest civilizations, fortune tellers (palmistry, astrology, crystal gazing,
graphology, etc) philosophers, priests, diviners and other representatives of the gods
and religions have flourished in their role of advising and counselling their adherents

The historical origins of guidance have also been identified in the thoughts and works
of the great Greek philosophy who advocate the development of the individual
through education so that each could fulfil role reflecting their greatest potential for
themselves and their society. One of such early counselor’ was plato who is credited
as one of the first to organize psychological insight into systemic theory. In his book,
plato not only espoused such question as what make a man virtouos –his inheritance,
upbringing or his formal education’ (Memo); how can children be most effectively
taught’(Republic); and which techniques have been successfully used in persuading
and influencing people in their decision and beliefs (Gorgias) but most importantly
employed the dramatic methodology in dealing with these question. his dramatic
method set the way for and is infact akin to modern day counselling relationship in
which the dynamic of human interaction (the characters are as importance as what
they say) come into play. Aristotle, one of plato most distinguished student also
contribute significant to what has come to be known as psychology through his study
of people interesting with their environment and movement was Luis Vives who not
only recognized the need to guide each person according to his attitude and aptitude
for useful carrers.

Another major impetus in the development of guidance between the 16th and 19th
Centuries was the publication of many books which attempted to provide
comprehensive information on the professions and how to gain entry into them.
Among these were ‘The complete Book of trades’ (Edward Hazen, 1836), ‘A general
description of all Trades’ (Campbell, 1747), ‘The Universal plaza of all the
professions of the world’ published by the Italian Tomaso Garzoni and Tom of all
trades’ by Powell
The sweiss educator Johann Pestalozzi (1746- 1827) also contributed to the growth of
guidance by persistently advocating that society could be reformed only to the extent
that the individual in that society was helped to help himself develop.

Guidance Movement in the Western World

The guidance movement was started with an emphasis on vocational information,
planning and guidance. Vocational education was believed to be that part of both
organized and unorganized methods of securing occupational confidence and
experiences by individuals for achieving occupational proficiency. Vocational
planning was regarded as a process for helping students, or others, to develop and
accept an integrated and adequate picture of themselves, and of their roles in the
world of work, to test this concept against reality, and to accept its benefits with
satisfaction. The concept emanated from the fact that:
1. both human personalities and the economic order are in the process of continuous
change and development;
2. people differ in their potential and capacity for work, but can qualify for a number
of occupations;
3. each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities, interests and other
personal qualities;
4. there are variations among individuals with respect to the nature and tempo of
development through various stages;
5. the career pattern of an individual is influenced by parental and socio-economic
factors as well as unique patterns of abilities, interests and other personality
characteristics;
6. vocational guidance is a long process extending through the school and working
life

The Historical Development of Guidance and Counseling in the United State

of America
The position of guidance and counseling in American schools may be traced to the
diversified nature of factors influencing guidance. Many authors like Shertzer &
Stone (1980), Denga, (2009), Ogbodo, (2014) et.al identified the following factors
that gave rise to the spread of Guidance and Counseling Services in the USA
include:
i. Expansion of Professionalization and Specialization America emphasized
professionalization and specialization instead of depending on amateurs. So
rather than relying on Teachers to provide guidance, trained counselors were
 introduced into the school system to proved professional service to the
pupils and students.
ii. The Philanthropic and Humanitarianism Movement The philanthropists in
America, looking for life about them, saw the need to help mankind. The
misfits have to be vocationally guided to eliminate or reduce the
maladjustment in society. They emphasized job placement as a way of
rehabilitation. People needed help and guidance for the restoration of peace
and happiness in their” lives. They, therefore, came together to help meet the
need of the masses. The focus was on moral and vocational guidance. They
believed that if people were well tutored and counseled, they would select
the right vocation.
iii. Religion Religious persons insisted that religious and moral instruction can
be incorporated into the school system as a strong factor influencing the
success of counseling in the United States. The American logo says in ‘God
we trust’. This has helped to emphasize early counseling having the biblical
belief which says ‘train up a child in a way he should go…” Proverbs,
Chapter 22 Verse 6. Early counseling for a good life was therefore
introduced to help train the child while he is still young. In schools, teachers
help to mould the child into a youth, stressing good manners and character.
Almost all schools in American have felt the relentless pressure of religious
group guidance and this fostered the growth and success of guidance
movement.
iv. The need for Mental Hygiene in 1909, a group of mental hygienists formed
the national committee for mental health. They were charged with the
responsibility of improving the condition of those having mental disorders
and helping to identify early symptoms of maladjustment among youths.
They suggested a more humane and psychological attitude and treatment of
these mental cases. The influence of this group helped in boosting guidance
especially for the maladjusted and mentally problematic youth.
v. Increased student number in American schools After the Second World War,
people resented juvenile forced labor and preferred going to school. This
increased the number of students in schools. The teaming population
increased the need for counseling in schools.
vi. Social Change People who had no desire for the school were forced to be
there. Change in ethical standards, technology concerning child labor,
compulsory school attendance law forced people with non-academic
character to the school. This was a big challenge for the administrators.
Students needed individual attention to help them find their way through the
complex broad curriculum. Counseling resources were utilized giving rise to
many guidance programs that were introduced into schools.
vii. To have self-knowledge of pupils as individual It was the duty of the school
then to know each pupil individually and to enable them to have a good
understanding of themselves. Every individual has self-worth and dignity.
They are entitled to some fundamental right and freedom which must be
appreciated. The willingness to study each help him understand his goals,
ability and aptitude which gave rise to a systematic collection of information
about each individual as a cumulative record, rating scales, anecdotal
records, marks and similar records of school progress and other procedures
that formed part of this record.
According to Makinde (1983), Olalede (2004) et al, as this was going on, rapid
change in the development of the guidance program continued. Frank Parson
started an early work in counseling in 1908. He was concerned with job placement
and occupational choice. He organized a vocational bureau in Boston to provide
vocational assistance to young people and train teachers to serve as vocational
assistance to young people and train teachers to serve as vocational counselors, he
is today known as the father of Vocational Guidance. He coined Vocational
Guidance which he reflected in his book “Choosing a Vocation” which was
published after his death. It was his works that influenced Meyer Bloomfield who
succeed Parson as the head of the vocational bureau. He taught his first vocational
course at the University of Harvard in 1911. Another early leader, Eli Weaver,
succeeded in establishing a teacher guidance committee in every high school in
New York City. These committees worked actively to help youth discover their
capabilities and learn how to use those talents to secure the most appropriate
employment (Denga et al, 2009). Organized guidance programs began to emerge
with increasing frequency in a secondary school in the early 1920s. College
campuses also began to reflect the influences affecting the guidance movement as
students’ personnel workers began utilizing standardized tests for admission and
placement purposes. In the 1960s one of the most important developments for the
school counseling and guidance movement was the statement of policy for
secondary school counselors (American School Counselors Association 1964)
which was developed and approved as an official policy statement by the
American School Counselor Association (ASCA). By the 1970s the school
guidance counselor had inherited a series of stereotypes, the value, and validity of
which had to be determined. What historians recorded guidance in the 1970s
attested to their concerns for the generalization and their behavior in dealing with
them? During the early 1980s number of development influenced counselors in
school and other settings. The American Personnel and Guidance Association
officially changed its name to the American Association for Counseling and
Development (AACP) in 1983. In 1992 the AACD changed its name to the
American Counseling Association (ACA). By the year 2000 there were 31342
nationally certified counselors says the National Certified in Anagbogu, et al
(2004). This brief review of some historic highlights of the development of
counseling and guidance in the United States shows that a movement must have a
cause and leadership to survive.
However, the 1900s is an important period in the history of guidance in America.
This was a period of acute farm problems, the rise of cities, immigration, political
corruption, growth of new wealth, etc. the need for reforms and social
consciousness wave very glaring and so, many charitable humane and
philanthropic organizations took up the challenge. They talked all the time on the
dangers of child abuse, child labor, and corruption among the youths. They also
enlightened society on the need of saving the next generation by providing an
education of children and youth and protecting their health and morals. Historical
Development of Guidance and Counseling in Nigeria (i.e Indigenous Guidance and
Counseling) Indigenous (Traditional) Guidance and Counseling has been in
operation within the extended family system long before the advent of professional
guidance and counseling as earlier stated. Nigerians are known to be their brother’s
keepers and the need to help one another out of problem situations cannot be
overemphasized. The Obas, Obi, Imam, Oche, parents, titleholders, friends and
Heads of families

Africa
Prior to western influence, most African societies had various forms of social
services that were provided for young people and children, so that they could
develop and grow into responsible and productive members of their communities
or ethnic groups.
To function effectively in one’s community, one needed to be aware of the values,
beliefs and roles one had to play as a member of a particular regiment or sex.
Many young boys and girls were socialized, or taught the ways of their
communities, as well as the various skills their forebears used to earn a living, or to
provide for their families. Initiation schools, for example, taught young people
things they would need later on in their adult lives. For instance, they would learn
about the history of their ethnic group, how to relate to each other as boys or girls,
and how to behave as adults, as well as know their responsibilities as parents or
members of the community.
The extended family provided other services that young people and children
needed. Uncles, aunts and other relations were sources of information that young
people needed as they grew up. For example, a boy talked to his uncle if he had
questions.
Skills in carving, hunting and other occupations needed later on in life were passed
on to young people by parents at different stages in the development of each child.
 Some of the behaviour and skills were learnt either by observing adults, or
acquired through other means of training.
Every community had its culturally-based social services for young people and
children. Among these culturally-based social services was the extended family
system, in which relatives played a significant part in providing guidance and
counselling for the young.
The initiation schools/ceremonies introduced young people to the history of the
ethnic group, its customs and any other cultural activities that every member of the
community needed to know about, in order to live a successful life.
Guidance and Counselling for individuals have always formed part of the African
strategy for combating personality problems and practised by indigenous
counsellors.
In the traditional African context, guidance involved educating the youth about the
traditions and culture of the community. Every event and occurrence was taken to
provide a lesson for all to learn e.g. initiation, marriage, death, rain making,
planting and harvesting, divination and sacrifices and times of natural catastrophes.
In traditional African societies, counsel was given in various forms, the most
common of which were giving advice and sharing wisdom. Giving advice has been
a common way of providing help for other people. The advice offered was
frequently instrumental in helping people to consider their future. In many
instances, the extended family was the main source of advice for family/clan
members. There was usually no shortage of people willing to share their wisdom
with others. Therefore giving advice often promoted the dependence of the young
persons on the advice given which was largely subjective and did not promote the
personal development of young people. Wisdom generally refers to experience and
knowledge about life and using them judiciously. In African societies, it was
considered the responsibility of elders to provide wisdom or counsel to young boys
and girls. The wisdom provided by elderly men and women was part of the
counseling function of the family or society for boys and girls. Another aspect of
wisdom is sharing proverbs or folk stories. A well-known African proverb is,
‘When elephants fight, the grass suffers.’ Folk stories about the ‘hare’ are also told
in many parts of Africa.
While some people argue that guidance has always been part of an African heritage,
the formalization and integration of guidance services into the education system only
began in the late fifties.
The beginnings of guidance in some African countries can be dated back to the
fifties in countries such as Nigeria, which made great strides in the field. In other
countries, such as Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Swaziland, guidance services did
not exist until the late sixties.
Nigeria
 Several events led to the institutionalization of guidance and counselling in
Nigerian school system. Most prominent was the efforts of a group of Catholic
nuns at the St. Theresa's College, Oke-Ado, Ibadan. The Catholic nuns developed
a career workshop for all the school's graduating students during the 1959
academic session, especially in the area of subject selection and job search. A
major outcome of the workshop was the distribution of the much needed career
information that enabled 54 out of the 60 graduating students to gain full
employment upon their graduation.
 The workshop on guidance and counselling held at the comprehensive high school,
Aiyetoro in 1963 where Mr. R.O. Rees delivered a paper titled "The role of the
guidance counselor in a comprehensive high school" was also instrumental to the
emergence of guidance and counseling in Nigeria. So, was the book written by
Mr. C.I. Berepiki entitled, An approach to guidance in schools. This book inspired
the Federal Government of Nigeria to develop a workshop on guidance and
counseling in schools. Through these efforts, the Federal government was able to
appreciate the role guidance and counseling needed to play in the nation's overall
development that later motivated the Federal Ministry of Education to appoint Mr.
C.I. Berepiki to take full charge of the coordination of school guidance and
counseling services in Nigeria's school system.
 Another force that led to the emergence of professional counseling in Nigeria has
to do with the events that cropped up after the Nigerian civil war. At the end of the
civil war, there arose the dire need to rehabilitate the war victims. The post-war
social, political, economic, religious and educational problems, which students,
workers and the general public had to face, became enormous such that the less
trained career masters/mistresses could not cope. This necessitated a very high
demand for guidance counselors who were expected to provide veritable
counseling interventions in the rehabilitation of the war victims. One approach
then was for the Federal Government of Nigeria to grant scholarship to most
candidates who desired to pursue masters' degree in guidance and counseSling in
any Nigerian universities.
 The introduction of the new National Policy of Education in Nigeria (commonly
referred to as the 6-3-3-4 system of Education) for the whole country in 1977,
with major revision in 1981, which had among its features, the introduction of a
new educational focus for the primary and secondary levels of education also
influenced the emergence of guidance and counselling in Nigeria.

Guidance and Counseling Movement in Kenya

Guidance and counseling in Kenya is a relatively new profession. The following
conditions in present day Kenya have created a need for guidance and counseling:
social problems, economic problems, educational problems, work problems,
leisure problems and the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Many societies have experienced a
lot of social and economic changes. The most outstanding changes are:
i. A gradual shift from the extended to the nuclear family, or single parent
family-homosexual family.
ii. Heavy reliance on a cash economy against a background of widespread
poverty.
iii. Political demands and expectations.
iv. A rapid rate of urbanization against a very high unemployment rate.
v. Rate of illiteracy.
vi. High population growth rate.
vii. Infiltration of elements from foreign cultures through mass media which
have led to general moral decay.
Wars, political instability and epidemics leading to increased numbers of orphans
and refugees.

Formal guidance and counseling in Kenyan schools was officially recognized in

1970. The Ministry of Education (MOE) established a Guidance and Counseling
Unit under its inspectorate division. The unit was charged with the responsibility of
dealing with educational and vocational guidance, and psychological counseling in
schools (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, [MOEST], 2005). This
initiative was, however, not well supported; hence, implementation did not occur
as intended (Okech & Kimemia, 2012). Recommendations for guidance and
counseling services in schools were later made in a government policy document,
The Report of the National Committee on Educational Objectives and Policies of
1976 (Republic of Kenya, 1976), which stated that guidance and counseling be
taught in subjects such as religious education and social education and ethics to
promote the growth of self-discipline among students in schools. Despite these
recommendations, guidance and counseling services failed to meet the needs of
students. Furthermore, the government did not show commitment in ensuring the
policy was followed (Okech & Kimemia, 2012).

The call for the establishment of guidance and counseling in Kenyan schools was
renewed with more vigor in the 1980s and 1990s after the country witnessed the
worst arson cases ever to be committed in the schools (Government of Kenya,
n.d.). Most notably, in 1999, 17 girls were killed and 70 others raped in a co-ed
boarding school. In March 2000, 26 girls were killed in an arson attack at the
Bombolulu girls’ secondary school (Daily Nation, 2000). In 2001, 67 boys were
burnt to death in a boarding school by their colleagues as they were sleeping (East
African Standard Team, 2001). These and many other incidents grabbed the
attention of the government and all stakeholders in education. A commission was
set up to investigate the causes of the rising spate of unrest. Following the findings
of the commission, Report of the Task Force on Student Discipline and Unrest in
Secondary Schools, the government recommended that guidance and counseling
programs be implemented in all schools (Republic of Kenya, 2001). Additionally,
several other authors and organizations continued to make similar calls (e.g.,
Human Rights Watch, 1999; Kithyo & Petrina, 2002; Sindabi, 1992).

Following recommendations by human rights organizations (e.g., African

Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect,
Kenya, n.d. ), the government banned corporal punishment in all schools through
Legal Notice, No. 95 of the Kenya Gazette (Government of Kenya, 2001). In its
place, the government recommended that guidance and counseling departments be
established in all schools. Since then, the Ministry of Education has continued to
establish guidance and counseling programs. Unfortunately, most of these
programs are run by teachers designated as counselors but with very little or no
training in counseling (Tumuti, 1985; Wambu & Wickman, 2011). Furthermore,
these teachers still continue to perform duties as regular classroom teachers in
addition to counseling with little or no time off of their regular teaching duties, a
scenario similar to one witnessed in the United States in the 1920s (Gysbers, 2005;
Gysbers & Henderson, 2012).

Further support of guidance and counseling in schools has been evidenced in a

policy document (Kenya Education Sector Support Program [KESSP], 2005)
detailing the government’s plan for education, and guidance and counseling as one
of the areas requiring support (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology,
2005). Among the issues identified that need to be addressed through counseling
are increasing numbers of HIV/AIDS orphans in schools, inadequate career
opportunities, drug and substance abuse among students, and the many family
problems that impact students’ academic performance (MOEST, 2005). In
response to these needs, the government has suggested measures to strengthen the
guidance and counseling section at the MOEST headquarters, to in-service primary
school teachers, and to ensure schools work with the National Agency for the
Campaign Against Drug Abuse (NACADA) and other partners to sensitize
teachers and parents about substance abuse. Despite the government’s support for
provision of guidance and counseling in schools, policy response in this area
remains very weak. There are no comprehensive guidance programs in place yet
(MOEST, 2005).
Most recently, the Ministry of Education has responded to student’s needs by
introducing a new subject, called “Social Skills,” into the curriculum (C. Muthoni,
personal communication, July 20, 2010). This subject is supposed to be taught
once a week in every class. The aim of this subject is to equip students with skills
for daily living with the hope that students will learn to self-regulate their emotions
and behavior and eventually reduce the rate of discipline cases. Although the
intentions of teaching this subject are well meaning, the ministry did not train
teachers in the curriculum; hence most teachers are unwilling to teach the subject.

From the aforementioned discussion, it is clear that guidance and counseling in

Kenya has grown out of the need to address discipline problems in schools (Ajowi
& Simatwa, 2010). While addressing discipline issues is important, designating
school counseling for this one purpose is a great disservice to the profession and a
waste of human resources. Furthermore, the attribution of counseling with
discipline has contributed to underutilization of counseling services by students,
with many viewing counseling as a service only necessary for those students with
“problems.” The recognition that guidance and counseling programs are meant to
address the holistic developmental needs of all students (United Nations
Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2002), is yet to be
realized in Kenyan schools.

3. Current Status of School Guidance and Counseling in Kenya

As earlier indicated, school guidance and counseling in Kenya is a relatively new
profession in search of an identity. The current practice of guidance and counseling
is what Gysbers and Henderson (2001) referred to as a “position” model where a
majority of school counselors are teachers appointed to the position of guidance
and counseling teacher , with no relief from their teaching duties and with no
additional pay. Similar to the United States in the 1920s, these guidance teachers
are given a list of duties to perform in addition to their regular teaching duties. In
addition, counseling services are conducted without any formal organizational
structure (Gysbers & Henderson, 2001).

School counselors are identified first as teachers, and second as counselors

(Wambu &Wickman, 2011). The term school counselor has not been adopted in
Kenya; instead school counselors are referred to as “teacher-counselors”,
“guidance counselors,” or“guidance and counseling teachers.” School counseling
is yet to be recognized as a profession in its own right, rather than a service
ancillary to other educational programs (Wambu & Wickman, 2011). Lack of
professional identity has further complicated the role of the school counselor.
Kenyan school counselors are struggling with role definition, just as Paisley and
McMahon (2001) lamented of school counselors in the United States many years
ago.

3.1 The role of the School Guidance Counselor

Despite the presence of school counselors in most schools, their role is unclear to
the consumers of counseling services. A majority of school counselors still have
teaching responsibilities over and above counseling duties. This dual responsibility
leaves the school counselor with very limited time to provide counseling services
to students (Kamara, n.d.; Mumiakha, 2011; Wambu & Wickman, 2011).
Furthermore, ethical violations of dual relationships with students are common
(Nyutu, 2007). It is difficult to build a relationship with a student in a counseling
session, while the same teacher is in charge of evaluating the student’s academic
achievement.

School counseling services in Kenya are mostly provided in high schools, and to a
small extent in the primary schools (K-8). In the primary schools, teachers are
appointed by the school principal to provide counseling services. These
appointments are based on personal qualities as opposed to professional training
(Njoka, 2007; Tumuti, 1985). Currently, most high schools have at least one
professionally trained school counselor, however, some schools still have a teacher
appointed locally either by the school principal or the Teacher Service Commission
(TSC) to fill the position of school counselor with no appropriate training. Many of
these teachers have only attended workshops and/or short courses (Nyutu, 2007;
Tumuti). Lack of training has been identified as a major challenge in the delivery
of counseling services (Lavusa, 2010; Njoka 2007; Mumiakha, 2011; Nyutu).

Guidance and counseling in Kenya mainly focuses on responsive services where

school counselors attend to the immediate needs and concerns of the student. In
most cases, students are referred either by the principal or teachers, and on a few
occasions, students may self refer. Upon such referral, counseling may take the
form of individual crisis intervention, for example, in the event that a student has
lost a parent or sibling. Because school counselors have dual responsibility as
teacher and counselor, their availability for counseling is also limited. Counseling
is mainly offered during breaks, lunch breaks, and after school. Furthermore,
school counselors spend most of their time responding to the needs of only a small
percentage of students, mostly those referred to them by either teachers or the
school principals due to discipline problems. Consequently, many students have
come to associate counseling with discipline, and hence developed a negative
attitude towards service seeking (Wambu & Wickman, 2011).

3.2 Current Challenges

The challenges facing guidance and counseling in Kenya today are similar to those
experienced by the United States in the 1920s, which include: role ambiguity, a
lack of a practical plan to develop and implement school counseling programs, a
lack of adequate preparation of teachers to carry out guidance and counseling
work, and a lack of resources and equipment (Gysbers & Henderson, 2012). The
position model in the United States caused guidance and counseling to be
considered an ancillary activity that could be conducted by anybody (Gysbers &
Henderson), a belief held by some school principals in Kenya today. The need to
view guidance and counseling as an integral part of education that requires
professionally trained personnel is very rife in Kenya today, as it was in the 1920s
in the United States. The position model makes it very easy for assignment of non-
counseling duties by the school principals, a problem that continues to plague the
Kenyan school counselor today. The challenge to change from guidance
counseling to professional school counseling (Lambie & Williamson, 2004) is now
a reality in Kenya. Such a change will provide a clear identity and role of the
school counselor
Counselor Identity and Role Ambiguity
The identity of the school counselor in Kenya is still a subject of debate among all
the stakeholders. The confusion persists as to whether the school counselor is a
teacher first or a counselor first. The lack of a clear identity has left the school
counselor’s role under the interpretation of all, including the school principals,
teachers, parents and even the school counselors themselves. In Kenya, the role of
the school counselor remains unclear and undefined. School counselors continue to
perform classroom duties in addition to their counseling responsibilities (Wambu
& Wickman, 2011).

Lack of clear definition of roles has greatly hampered the delivery of services by
Kenyan school counselors. The roles of the school counselors in Kenya are
diverse, depending on individual schools. In most cases, the school principals
assign duties to the school counselor. Different stake holders have different
expectations of the role of the school counselor. Some narrowly define the role of
the school counselor as working with students with behavioral and adjustment
problems, mainly through individual counseling (Wambu & Wickman, 2011). This
narrow definition of roles has left out the roles of advocacy, leadership, and
consultation with parents and teachers, as stipulated by the American School
Counselor Association (ASCA, 2012) National Model. Further, it negates the
importance of group counseling and classroom guidance in addressing students’
academic, career, and personal/social issues. School counselors often have an ideal
view of their role but are confronted by the demand for administrative work or lack
of clinical practice beyond their training (Okech & Kimemia, 2012).
Absence of career information and counseling is evident in many schools.
Although schools have a career master, delivery of services is limited by lack of
training (Nyutu, 2007). The career master’s main role is to help students fill out
university application forms. Very little information is provided with regard to
available career options for the students upon graduation. As a result, students
select college courses with little knowledge of the work environments to which
these courses will lead them (Nyutu, 2007). The role of a career master could
easily be replaced by a well trained school counselor in career development.

To establish a unique professional identity and maintain effective school

counseling programs, Kenyan school counselors need to have a clear definition of
their roles and interventions and be prepared with sufficient skills and knowledge
pertinent to effective counseling services (S. Lee, 1997). Furthermore, school
counseling programs can only be effective in enhancing students’ academic,
career, and personal/social development if school counselors become proactive in
defining their roles and communicating those ideas to the school environment and
in demonstrating their competency with tangible evidence (S. Lee). School
counselors need to determine their professional roles based on their training.
Without adequate training, a clear definition of role interventions, or a well-
structured guidance programs, Kenyan school counselors will continue to perform
noncounseling duties at the whim of school administrators instead of addressing
the many challenges students are