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Ginger On Microorganism
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a
Biochemistry Unit, Department of Chemical Sciences, College of Basic Sciences, Lagos State
University of Science and Technology (LASUSTECH), Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.
b
Microbiology Unit, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Basic Sciences, Lagos State
University of Science and Technology (LASUSTECH), Ikorodu, Lagos State, Nigeria.
Authors’ contributions
This work was carried out in collaboration between both authors. Both authors read and approved the
final manuscript.
Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/MRJI/2022/v32i730397
ABSTRACT
Objective: Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizome is a well-known food spice and flavoring
ingredient with wide range of medicinal properties. The rhizome of ginger consists of unique
secondary metabolites compounds. The study evaluates the secondary metabolites profiling of
ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizome using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-
MS) and its antibacterial potential on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.
Methodology: The GC-MS and phytochemical screening of the aqueous ginger (Zingiber officinale
Roscoe) rhizome extract were determined using standard procedures. Antibacterial activities were
determined by agar well diffusion methods. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were
determined using standard procedure.
Results: The result of the GC-MS analysis shows that thirty six compounds were identified in the
ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizome using GC-MS analysis with tridecane with molecular
formula of C13H28 being the most abundant with peak area of 16.94% and retention time of 12.849.
The phytochemical screening shows that the plant contains saponins, alkaloids, glycoside, simple
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
phenolics, tannins, flavonoids carbohydrates and reducing sugar. The study shows that at 250
mg/ml, the aqueous ginger extract exhibited little or no response with zone of inhibition of 9.85±0.39
and 8.19±1.33 mg/ml against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli respectively. The extract
exhibited weak response antibacterial activity against E. coli and moderate response against S.
aureus with zone of inhibition of 13.62±2.03 and 16.73±1.83 at 500 mg/dl respectively. Augmentin
showed moderate and strong response with zone of inhibition of 17.23±1.67 and 21.13±1.34 mg/ml
against E. coli and S. aureus at concentration of 7.50 mg/ml respectively. At 15 mg/ml, augmentin
showed strong response with zone of inhibition of 23.00±2.88 mg/ml against E. coli and potent
response with zone of inhibition of 30.50±2.64 mg/ml against S. aureus. The Minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC) values for the aqueous ginger are 125 and 250 mg/ml for S. aureus and E. coli
and 7.81 and 15.63 for augmentin solution for the sane organisms respectively.
Conclusions: The aqueous ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) rhizome contains secondary
metabolites and possesses poor antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and
Escherichia coli and may prevent pathogenic diseases caused by these organisms.
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
animal and human gut, and may also be found in spectrum of the unidentified compound was
vegetation, soil and water. It is the leading compared with the spectrum of the identified
pathogen causing urinary tract infections” [26-29] compounds stored in the National Institute
and “is among the most common pathogens Standard and Technique library. The names,
causing blood stream infections” [30], otitis molecular weight, structure of the compounds in
media, diarrhea, meningitis, wounds and other the test material were determined.
complications in humans [26,31,32]. “Escherichia
coli is also the most common cause of food and 2.3 Preparation of Aqueous Garlic Extract
water-borne human diarrhea worldwide and in
developing countries, causing many deaths in Aqueous Zingiber officinale extract was prepared
children under the age of five years” [33]. according to the method described by Momoh et
al. [36]. The ginger was cleaned with water to
remove any adhering soil on their surfaces. 100g
“Staphylococcus aureus is a gram positive
of garlic was taken after the removal of the outer
bacterium and they cause wide range of
skin surfaces and cut into small pieces by sterile
infections in human and animals” [34]. “They are
scalpel. The small pieces were blended with 200
found on human skin and mucous membranes.
ml sterile distilled water using sterile blender for 5
However, it can also be found in other areas of
minutes. The homogenized mixture was filtered
human contact including water, soil and food
using white cloth, centrifuged at 2000 × g for 10
products” [34]. They causes serious infections
minutes and the clear supernatant was used for
like bacteremia, septic arthritis, pneumonia,
the experiment. The filtered extract was used for
wound sepsis, septicemia, osteomyelitis,
the study within 4 hours of preparation.
endocarditis, food poisoning, bone and joint
infections and toxic shock syndrome [34]. The
2.4 Preliminary Phytochemical Analysis
study evaluates the secondary metabolites
profiling of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) The presence of glycosides, tannins, saponin,
rhizome using GC-MS and its antibacterial reducing sugars, alkaloids, flavonoids were
potential on Staphylococcus aureus and determined by qualitative procedures [37,38].
Escherichia coli.
2.5 Test Organisms
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
To study the antibacterial activity of aqueous
2.1 Collection of Ginger Plant Zingiber officinale extract against two bacterial
strains (Staphylococcus aureus a gram-positive
bacterium with ATCC #6538 and Escherichia coli
The ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), rhizome a gram negative bacterium with ATCC # 25922)
was purchased from Ikorodu market and stored were used for the study. The two microorganisms
in a refrigerator in the Department of Chemical were maintained at 4°C on Nutrient Agar slant in
Sciences (Biochemistry unit), Lagos State the Department of Chemical Sciences and fresh
University of Science and Technology. subcultures were made before use.
2.2 Gas Chromatography - Mass 2.5.1 Inoculum preparation
Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis of
Ginger A loopful of isolated colonies of the two
organisms (Staphylococcus aureus and
GC-MS analysis of the Zingiber officinale Escherichia coli) were inoculated separately into
rhizome was carried out on an Agilent technology 4 ml of peptone water, incubated at 37°C for 4
7890 GC system equipped with a mass hours. These actively growing bacterial
spectrometric detector (MSD) as described by suspensions were then adjusted with peptone
Momoh et al. [35]. water to obtain turbidity visually comparable to
that of 0.5 McFarland standards using standard
2.2.1 Detection of components procedure [34]. “The 0.5 McFarland standard
was prepared by mixing 0.5ml of 1.75% (w/v)
Analysis of mass spectrum GC-MS was barium chloride dehydrate (BaCl2. 2H2O) with
conducted by the database of the National 99.5 ml of 1% (v/v) H2SO4. This turbidity was
8
Institute Standard and Technique (NIST) which equivalent to approximately 1 x 10 colony
contained more than 62,000 patterns. The forming units per ml (CFU/ml)” [34].
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
Table 1. Compounds found in the ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome analyzed using Gas-Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
PK# RT Peak Name of the compound Molecular Molecular Ref# CAS# Qual.
Area Formulae Weight
(%) (g/mol)
1 4.295 1.00 Hexanal C6H12O 100.1589 3833 000066-25-1 90
2 8.203 0.76 Octanal C8H16O 128.2120 12694 000124-13-0 90
3 11.384 6.58 Dodecane C12H26 170.3348 39972 000112-40-3 97
4 11.504 2.19 Decanal C10H20O 156.2652 29133 000112-31-2 98
5 12.849 16.94 Tridecane C13H28 184.3614 51394 000629-50-5 96
6 15.315 3.58 Benzene, 1-(1,5-dimethyl-4- C15H22 202.3352 66866 000644-30-4 99
hexenyl)-4-methyl-
7 15.464 5.85 1,3-Cyclohexadiene, 5-(1,5- C15H24 204.3511 68761 000495-60-3 94
dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-2-methyl-,
[S-(R*,S*)]-
8 15.579 2.31 alpha.-Farnesene C15H24 204.3511 68573 000502-61-4 81
9 15.624 1.51 beta.-Bisabolene C15H24 204.3511 68571 000495-61-4 98
10 15.830 3.89 Cyclohexene, 3-(1,5-dimethyl- C15H24 204.3511 68741 020307-83-9 93
4-hexenyl)-6-methylene-, [S-
(R*,S*)]-
11 16.208 0.91 Cyclohexanemethanol, 4- C15H26O 222.3663 85863 000639-99-6 83
ethenyl-.alpha.,.alpha.,4-
trimethyl-3-(1-methylethenyl)-,
[1R-(1.alpha.,3.alpha.,
4.beta.)]-
12 16.294 0.82 1,6,10-Dodecatrien-3-ol, C15H26O 222.3663 85747 007212-44-4 91
3,7,11-trimethyl-
13 16.540 1.00 4-(1-Hydroxyallyl)-2- C10H12O 180.2005 47432 112465-50-6 96
methoxyphenol
14 16.660 0.87 trans-Sesquisabinene hydrate C15H26O 222.3663 85739 145512-84-1 95
15 16.935 1.33 (1S,2R,5R)-2-Methyl-5-((R)-6- C15H26O 222.3663 85811 058319-05-4 87
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
PK# RT Peak Name of the compound Molecular Molecular Ref# CAS# Qual.
Area Formulae Weight
(%) (g/mol)
methylhept-5-en-2-yl)
bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-2-ol
16 17.410 15.95 Butan-2-one, 4-(3-hydroxy-2- C11H14O3 194.23 59345 303187-89-5 98
methoxyphenyl)-
17 17.787 1.65 3-Cyclohexene-1-methanol, C15H26O 222.3663 85832 023178-88-3 56
.alpha., 4-dimethyl-.alpha.-(4-
methyl-3-pentenyl)-, [R-
(R*,R*)]-
18 17.890 1.04 2,6,10-Dodecatrien-1-ol, C15H26O 222.3663 85748 004602-84-0 55
3,7,11-trimethyl-
19 18.422 0.63 1,2-Cyclohexanediol, cyclic C6H10O3S 162.21 33637 019456-19-0 41
sulfite, trans-
20 19.138 1.72 2-Butanone, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl- C13H22O 194.3132 59811 039721-65-8 38
2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-, (R)-
21 19.773 0.53 Cyclopropane carboxamide, 2- C13H21NO 207.31 71615 331416-19-4 51
cyclopropyl-2-methyl-N-(1-
cyclopropylethyl)-
22 21.272 0.62 1,6,10,14-Hexadecatetraen-3- C20H34O 290.4834 150239 001113-21-9 59
ol, 3, 7,11,15-tetramethyl-,
(E,E)-
23 22.388 0.74 1,6,10,14,18,22- C30H50O 426.7174 249597 097232-74-1 80
Tetracosahexaen-3-ol,
2,6,10,15,19,23-hexamethyl-,
(all-E)-(.+/-.)-
24 23.080 2.23 (E)-1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C17H24O3 276.3707 136509 863913-65-9 95
methoxyphenyl) dec-3-en-5-
one
25 23.166 7.39 3-Decanone, 1-(4-hydroxy-3- C17H26O3 278.3865 138319 027113-22-0 98
methoxyphenyl)-
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
PK# RT Peak Name of the compound Molecular Molecular Ref# CAS# Qual.
Area Formulae Weight
(%) (g/mol)
26 23.692 6.36 1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C17H24O3 276.3707 136506 000555-66-8 98
methoxyphenyl) dec-4-en-3-
one
27 24.019 2.00 1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C17H24O4 292.4 151730 061871-71-4 96
methoxyphenyl) decane-3,5-
dione
28 24.356 0.61 Vanillin C8H8O3 152.15 26591 000121-33-5 45
29 24.522 0.75 5-Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3- C17H26O4 294.391 153613 039886-76-5 97
methoxyphenyl) decan-3-one
30 24.911 0.59 1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C19H30O3 306.4397 165516 027113-23-1 93
methoxyphenyl) dodecan-3-
one
31 25.392 1.25 1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C15H20O3 248.32 109653 211176-76-0 74
methoxyphenyl) oct-4-en-3-one
32 25.512 0.79 (3R,5S)-1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C21H32O6 380.4752 227162 143615-75-2 99
methoxyphenyl) decane-3,5-
diyl diacetate
33 25.684 1.19 1-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl) C22H34O6 394.5018 235343 053254-52-7 42
decane-3,5-diyl diacetate
34 26.433 0.93 (E)-1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C21H32O3 332.4770 190321 1278586-98- 95
methoxyphenyl) tetradec-3-en- 3
5-one
35 27.114 2.27 1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C21H32O3 332.5 190316 036752-54-2 97
methoxyphenyl) tetradec-4-en-
3-one
36 27.526 1.21 1-(4-Hydroxy-3- C21H32O4 348.5 204403 079067-90-6 97
methoxyphenyl) tetradecane-
3,5-dione
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
100 44
56
41
O
43
50
57
27 29
39 45
55 72
42 82
28 58 67 71
15 18 26 31 38 40 46 51 53
60
62 65 69 73 77 79 81 83 85 87 99
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
(mainlib) Hexanal
41
O
43
57
71
50
29
50 70
41
85
27 68 82
55
29 112
27 98
39 95
112 170
53 127
0 15 63 67 77 91 141
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
(mainlib) Dodecane 15 31 60 128 138
37 79 91 123 155
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Structure of Dodecane (mainlib) Decanal
Structure of Decanal
57 100 119
100
43
132
41
50 105
71
50 55
91 145 202
39 69 83
41 27 77
65 95
53 79
29 85 31 58 63 110 128 152 159 187
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
(mainlib) Benzene, 1-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-4-methyl-
27
39 99 113 127
53 141 155 184
0
20 30
(mainlib) Tridecane
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Structure of Benzene, 1-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-4-methyl-
Structure of Tridecane
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
100 93 100 41
93
119
55 69
50 50 107
41 79
69
91
43 81 119
77 91 77
29 39 53
56 123 135
105 27
39 67
27 53 204
79 161 51 57
43 51 65 109 133 147 161 204
63 189
0 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
(mainlib) 1,3-Cyclohexadiene, 5-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-2-methyl-, [S-(R*,S*)]- (mainlib) α-Farnesene
41 93 41
50 50 93
55 91
67 79 109 204 57 161
77
91 119 161 109 120 133
55 39 71 79
39 77 81 135 27 67 105 204
27 43 43 53 112
65 147 189 51 147
51 97 175 29 45 89 175 189
0 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
(mainlib) β-Bisabolene (mainlib) Cyclohexene, 3-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-6-methylene-, [S-(R*,S*)]-
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
100 137
OH
50
124
HO
180
77 91 109
51 55 65 79 94 119
39 152
29 43 74 81 89 163
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190
(mainlib) 4-(1-Hydroxyallyl)-2-methoxyphenol
82
H O
119
43 194
50 93 HO 50 O
55 H
67 OH
109
71 79 95
137 119
53 43 91 151
39 77 207
57 97 161 77 122
29 151 94 107
45 179 189 39 45 51 55 65 179
165 222 69 74 89 115 161
0 0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
(mainlib) (1S,2R,5R)-2-Methyl-5-((R)-6-methylhept-5-en-2-yl)bicyclo[3.1.0]hexan-2-ol (mainlib) Butan-2-one, 4-(3-hydroxy-2-methoxyphenyl)-
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
100 69 69
100
OH
50 OH
43 50 41
41
109 119
81 93
67 95 81
71 79 91 135
55 77 161 204
93
53 67
189 222 55 95 107 121 136
0 29 39 57 79 84 91
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
(mainlib) 3-Cyclohexene-1-methanol, α,4-dimethyl-α-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-, [R-(R*,R*)]- 15 31 51 59 97 127 147 153 161 179 191 204 222
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
(mainlib) 2,6,10-Dodecatrien-1-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-
Structure of 3-Cyclohexene-1-methanol, .alpha., 4-dimethyl-.alpha.-
(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-, [R-(R*,R*)]- Structure of 2,6,10-Dodecatrien-1-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-
100 43
41
50 95 109
55
69
81
29 136
39 67 123 151
53 71 93
79 84 194
57 97 161 176
45 51 73 147
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
(mainlib) 2-Butanone, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-2-cyclohexen-1-yl)-, (R)-
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
100 137
50
HO
276
41 55 65 77 91 122 151 160
0
27 97 107 179 217 243
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290
(mainlib) (E)-1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dec-3-en-5-one
Structure of 1,6,10,14,18,22-Tetracosahexaen-3-ol, 2,6,10,15,19,23-
hexamethyl-, (all-E)-(.+/-.)- Structure of (E)-1-(4-Hydroxy-3 methoxyphenyl) dec-3-en-5-one
100 137 100 137
O O
HO HO
50 205
50 O
276
278
55
151 179 151
119
119 91
57 77 125
91 41 94
65 107 145
43 65 77 107 163 173 187 219 227 245 261
161 194 247 0
0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 (mainlib) 1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dec-4-en-3-one
(mainlib) 3-Decanone, 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
100 137
O O
50
HO
292
150
Structure of Vanillin
Structure of 1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) decane-3,5-dione
100 137
HO
205
50
304
55
119 151
41 69 91 124
29 65 77 94 107 163 173 187 215 261 273 287
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320
(mainlib) 1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dodec-4-en-3-one
Structure of 5-Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) decan-3-one
Structure of 1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) dodecan-3-one
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
100 43
151
O
O O O
O
50
O
203
164
177 189
394
107 138
55 243
29 67 77 91 121
217 231 259
274
334
280 292 303
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
(mainlib) 1-(3,4-Dimethoxyphenyl)decane-3,5-diyl diacetate
HO O
205
50
50 HO
332
348
150
55 151 43 55 179
119 77 91 107 122 161
197
221 236 290 320
43 91 0
69 81 94 107 145 163 177 187 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360
0 219 289 301 315 (mainlib) 1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)tetradecane-3,5-dione
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340
(mainlib) 1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)tetradec-4-en-3-one
Fig. 2. Mass spectrum and structure of 36 different compounds obtained during GC-MS analysis of ginger rhizome
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
Fig. 3a. Zone of inhibition at 250 mg/ml of the Fig. 3b. Zone of inhibition at 250 mg/ml of
aqueous extract of ginger against the aqueous extract of ginger against
Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
Fig. 3e. Zone of inhibition at 250 mg/ml of the Fig. 3f. Zone of inhibition at 500 mg/ml of the
aqueous extract of ginger against Escherichia aqueous extract of ginger against
coli Escherichia coli
Fig. 3. Zone of inhibition of, aqueous extracts of ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli at 250
and 500 mg/ml
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
Table 3. Zone of inhibition of aqueous extract of ginger (Zingiber officinale) against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus
Table 4. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of aqueous extract of Zingiber officinale rhizome and Augmentin antibiotic against
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
essential oils, tannins, phenolic compounds and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14” [52].
flavonoids” [46]. It is interesting to note that even “Methanolic fraction and crude extract of ginger
crude extracts of these plants showed good inhibited biofilm formation, glucan synthesis, and
activity against multidrug resistant strains where the adherence of Streptococcus mutans by
modern antibiotic drug has limited effect. downregulating virulence genes. Consistent with
the in-vitro study, a reduction in caries
Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus development caused by Streptococcus mutans
were selected for the study and tested against was found in a treated group of rats” [53].
aqueous ginger and augmentin. In our study, the Furthermore, “an in vitro study revealed that
aqueous ginger extract exhibited moderate gingerenone-A and 6-shogaol found in ginger
response antimicrobial activity against exhibited an inhibitory effect on Staphylococcus
Staphylococcus aureus and weak response aureus by inhibiting the activity of 6-
against Escherichia coli with zone of inhibition of hydroxymethyl-7, 8-dihydropterin
16.73±1.83 and 13.62±2.03 at 500 mg/dl pyrophosphokinase (HPPK) in pathogen” [54].
respectively. The study shows that at 250 mg/ml, “6-Hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin
the aqueous ginger extracts exhibited little or no pyrophosphokinase (HPPK) is an enzyme of the
response with zone of inhibition of 9.85±0.39 and folic acid biosynthetic pathway that catalyzes the
8.19±1.33 against S. aureus and E. coli magnesium-dependent pyrophosphorylation of 6-
respectively. The poor activity of the aqueous hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin, utilising ATP to
ginger used in this study may be due to the low form 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin
concentration of the active ingredients (5- pyrophosphate. The product formed can be used
Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) decan- for design of inhibitors with a potential
3-one also called 6-gingerol has 0.75%, 1-(4- therapeutic value. Zingiber officinale essential oil
Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) dec-4-en-3-one (6- exhibited inhibitory activity against Fusarium
Shogaol) has 6.36%, (E)-1-(4-Hydroxy-3- verticillioides with an MIC of 2500 µg/mL” [50].
methoxyphenyl) tetradec-3-en-5-one (10- Ginger has been shown to be effective against
Isoshogaol ) has 0.93%, 1-(4-Hydroxy-3- the growth of both gram-negative and gram-
methoxyphenyl) decane-3,5-dione (Gingerdione) positive bacteria like: Escherichia coli,
has 2.00%, 1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) Salmonella typhi and Staphylococcus aureus
tetradecane-3,5-dione (10-Gingerdione) has [55].
1.21%, 1,3-Cyclohexadiene, 5-(1,5-dimethyl-4-
hexenyl)-2-methyl-, [S-(R*,S*)]- ( Zingiberene) In a study carried out by Samuel-Penu and
has 5.85% etc ) found in the ginger as obtained Baridakara [56], it was observed that the
during GC-MS analysis (Table 1). aqueous extract of ginger (Zingiber officinale) did
not inhibit any growth of bacteria both at 100 and
Several natural spices and herbs have been 50% concentrations while the ethanolic extract of
developed into natural effective antimicrobial ginger inhibited and a zone diameter of 11 mm
agents against many pathogenic microorganisms was recorded both for Staphylococcus
[47]. Zingiber officinale has been reported to epidermidis and Bacillus sp. at the 100%
have antifungal, antibacterial and antiviral concentration. In another study, it was observed
activities [48,49]. Different research works have that the zone diameter for ethanolic extract of
shown the antimicrobial activities of ginger. A ginger rhizomes against E.coli varies from
study has shown the antifungal activity of 8.50±0.12 to 15.50±0.30 at concentration
Zingiber officinale essential oil on Fusarium between 25 to 200 µg/ml and 9.30±0.32 to
verticillioides and it reduces the biosynthesis of 13.55±0.20 for S. aureus at the same
ergosterol; affecting membrane integrity; concentration [57]. In a research work carried out
decreasing the production of fumonisin B1 and by Njobdi1 et al. [58], it was observed that “at a
fumonisin B2. [50]. “The formation of biofilm is a concentrations of 10, 20, 30 , and 40 mg/ml, the
factor that can cause infection and antimicrobial zones of inhibition of dried Z. officinale extracts
resistance. A study found that Zingiber officinale on S. aureus were 11.00 ±1.41 mm, 13.5 ± 0.71
inhibited the growth of a multidrug-resistant strain mm, 14.00±2.66 mm and 17.5 ± 0.87 mm
of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by affecting respectively and on E. coli were 6.00 ± 2.83 mm,
membrane integrity and inhibiting biofilm 7.5 ± 2.12 mm, 8.00 ± 2.83 mm and 14.5± 6.08
formation” [51]. Furthermore, “treatment with mm respectively. Fresh ginger showed
ginger extract blocked biofilm formation via a 15.00±1.40 mm and 12.00±2.83 mm at 100%
reduction in the level of bis-(3´-3´)-cyclic dimeric and 50% concentrations respectively on S.
guanosine monophosphate (c-di-GMP) in aureus and 15.00±3.54 mm and 13.00±2.66 mm
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
on E. coli respectively but has no effect at 25% bacteria have an additional outer membrane on
and 12.5% concentration on both organisms”. their cell wall, the entry of secondary metabolites
Gull et al. [59] study shows that the aqueous from ginger and the augmentin solution may be
extract of ginger inhibits the growth of different interrupted and its effects are lesser on the cell.
pathogenic bacteria like: E.coli, S. aureus, However, gram positive bacteria lack the outer
S.typhi, S. epidermidis, K. pneumonia, Shigella, membrane and therefore they are more
B. subtilis, and P. aeruginos with zone of susceptible to, easily entering of these
inhibition ranging from 11 ± 0 to 13 ± 0.47 mm compounds. The study shows that the minimum
with concentration ranging from 25 to 200. inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for the
aqueous ginger for Staphylococcus aureus and
Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, also known as co- Escherichia coli are 125 and 250 mg/ml and 7.81
amoxiclav or amox-clav, sold under the brand and 15.63 mg/ml for augmentin solution for the
name augmentin, is an antibiotic medication sane organisms respectively.
used for the treatment of a number of bacterial
infections. It is a combination consisting of MIC’s of ginger for E. coli (175 mg/ml),
amoxicillin, a β-lactam antibiotic, and potassium Staphylococcus aureus (125 mg/ml) and
clavulanate, a β-lactamase inhibitor. It is Salmonella (150 mg/ml) was observed in a study
specifically used for otitis media, urinary tract carried out by Virenda et al. [55]. Ponmurugan
infections, streptococcal pharyngitis, pneumonia, and Shyamkumar, [57] study shows that
cellulitis, and animal bites. Augmentin showed ethanolic extract of ginger rhizomes has MICs of
moderate response with zone of inhibition of 75.60 and 68.45 against E. coli and S. aureus
17.23±1.67 against Escherichia coli and strong respectively. Gull et al. [59], study indicate that
response with zone of inhibition of 21.13±1.34 aqueous extract of ginger has an MICs of 0.1
against Staphylococcus aureus at concentration and 0.6 mg/ml for E.coli and S. aureus
of 7.50 mg/ml respectively. At 15 mg/ml, the drug respectively. MIC of dried and fresh Z. officinale
(augmentin) showed strong response with zone extracts on E. coli and S. aureus isolates are
of inhibition of 23.00±2.88 against E. coli and both 2.5 mg/ml respectively [58].
potent response with zone of inhibition of 5. CONCLUSION
30.50±2.64 against S. aureus. In a study
consisting of 973 bacteria isolates, 823 were E. This study shows that thirty six compounds were
coli and 150 were Klebsiella spp. More of the identified in the ginger (Zingiber officinale
organisms were found to be susceptible to Roscoe) rhizome using GC-MS analysis with
amoxicillin-clavulanic acid than Ampicillin- tridecane with molecular formula of C13H28 being
sulbactam, regardless of the susceptibility testing the most abundant with peak area of 16.94% and
methodology used in their study [60]. Njobdi1 et retention time of 12.849. The preliminary
al. [58] study shows that Augmentin has a zone phytochemical analysis of the extract of Zingiber
of inhibition of 21.00±1.41 mm against E. coli. officinale shows the presence of secondary
Gram negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ) was metabolites like saponins, alkaloids, glycoside,
more resistant than gram positive bacteria Simple phenolics, tannins, flavonoids,
(Staphylococcus aureus), since they have lower carbohydrates and reducing sugar. The aqueous
zone of inhibition for both the aqueous ginger ginger extract has poor antibacterial activity
and augmentin solution as shown in Table 3. against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus
These variations in inhibition may be because of aureus due to the low concentration of the active
differences in the composition and structure compounds obtained during GC-MS analysis.
surface between gram positive and gram This is an indication that the ginger extract has
negative bacteria. In addition to the cell wall and antibacterial potential.
cell membrane, gram negative bacteria have an
outer membrane composed of a phospholipid COMPETING INTERESTS
bilayer, which may be protective barrier against
Authors have declared that no competing
the ginger extract and augmentin solution used.
interests exist.
Furthermore, the cell walls of gram positive
bacteria have a large amount of peptidoglycan REFERENCES
and a small amount of lipid, while in the case of
gram negative bacteria, due to the presence of 1. Han YA, Song CW, Koh WS, Yon GH, Kim
an outer membrane, a large amount of lipid and YS, Ryu SY et al. Anti-inflammatory effects
a small amount of peptidoglycan is found in the of the Zingiber officinale Roscoe
cell wall. In addition to that, gram negative constituent 12-dehydrogingerdione in
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Momoh and Olaleye; MRJI, 32(7): 7-31, 2022; Article no.MRJI.92461
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