Promising Practices

Examining Critical Literacy

Preparing Preservice Teachers to Use Critical Literacy

in the Early Childhood Classroom

Katherine Norris, Lisa Lucas, & Catherine Prudhoe

Every semester one of the authors the ability to read and teach critically. In that this requires understanding literacy
of this article, Catherine Prudhoe, chal- this article, we share the way we have ap- as a tool for social action. Examining how
lenges many of her preservice students’ proached introducing our early childhood language is organized to reproduce race,
perceptions of a familiar and often favorite preservice teachers to critical literacy. class, and gender roles is a function of
children’s book, The Giving Tree, by Shel Very few of our preservice teachers have socially responsible literacy.
Silverstein (1964). She begins the class experienced critical literacy as learners Lewison, Flint, and Van Sluys (2002)
by reading the text aloud to the students. in school, so we must engage them both reviewed 30 years of professional literature
Most smile, fondly remembering hearing as simultaneous learners and prospective that focused on critical literacy and found
the book as a child. A few become teary- teachers. several common dimensions. They suggest
eyed as the tree selflessly gives to the boy that critical literacy can:
throughout his life. After reading the text, What is Critical Literacy? u Disrupt a common situation or un-
it is then discussed. The students usually derstanding—where students can gain
comment on how the book teaches children All forms of communication are so-
perspective by understanding the text or
to share and to love their friends. They talk cial and political acts that can be used
situation in a different way.
about their remembrances of hearing the to influence people and can lead to social
change (Comber & Simpson, 2001). Ac- u Examine multiple viewpoints—where
story read to them by a parent or teacher.
cording to Freire (1970), readers are ac- students are encouraged to think about
Everyone is feeling happy. texts from the perspectives of different
Then, the instructor asks the students tive participants in the reading process.
characters or from those not represented
to listen to the story again, this time paying Critical literacy encourages readers to
in the text.
attention to gender issues. Which gender is question, explore, or challenge the power
relationships that exist between authors u Focus on sociopolitical issues—where
implied for the tree? Who is always giving
and readers. It examines issues of power students examine power relationships
and who is always taking? What messages between and among individuals.
does the story suggest for girls/women and and promotes reflection, transformative
for boys/men? As the class reads the book change, and action. u Take action and promote social justice—

a second time, there is a definite change invite students to determine a course of

Reading from a critical perspective
action to bring about change in an inap-
in the atmosphere of the discussion. The involves thinking beyond the text to un-
propriate, unequal power relationship
students begin to perceive the story in a derstand issues such as why the author
between people.
different way. After debriefing, one brave wrote about a particular topic, wrote
student may say, “Well, thanks for ruining from a particular perspective, or chose to It is not necessary that all of these dimen-
include some ideas about the topic and sions be included to engage in critical
one of my favorite childhood books!” The
exclude others. (McLaughlin & DeVoogd,
other students will laugh and agree, how- 2004, p. 13)
literacy activities. By examining texts
ever all are now more attuned to looking utilizing any one of these dimensions, we
at texts from different perspectives. In addition, Jones (2006) stated that are engaging in critical literacy.
While it’s not our intention to ruin critical literacy is like a pair of eyeglasses
anyone’s favorite childhood story book, that allows one to see beyond the familiar Why Critical Literacy Is Important
it is our hope to develop in our students and comfortable: it is an understanding
that language practices and texts are The United States is continuing to
always informed by ideological beliefs become more diverse. In 2003, enrollment
Katherine Norris is an associate professor, and perspectives whether conscious or in public elementary and secondary schools
Lisa Lucas is an assistant professor, otherwise. (p. 65) was 58.7% White, 17.2% Black, 18.5 %
and Catherine Prudhoe is a professor, Hispanic, 4.4% Asian/Pacific Islander,
Critical literacy views text meaning-
all with the Department of Early and 1.2% American Indian/Alaska Native
making as a process of social construction
and Middle Grades Preparation (National Center for Education Statistics,
with a particularly critical eye toward
of the School of Education 2007). Despite this diversity among the
elements of the various historical, social,
at West Chester University of Pennsylvania, student body, the teaching profession
and political contexts involved. Dozier,
West Chester, Pennsylvania. remains largely homogeneous. In 2004,
Johnston, and Rogers (2006) maintain

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83.1% of public school teachers were White preservice teacher construct as they think language, and gender, and sees children’s
(National Center for Education Statistics, about their identities as teachers. In this questions as important will be both socially
2004). Thus, teachers must be prepared to push-pull arena, preservice teacher may just and culturally responsive.
teach children from cultural backgrounds find it difficult to adopt a critical literacy Culturally responsive teaching ac-
that are very different from their own. stance in their own work, let alone within knowledges differences among diverse
Additionally, it is generally agreed the often prescriptive curriculum required students and the need for those students to
that children need to see aspects of them- and offered in today’s schools. find connections between themselves and
selves in the curriculum. They need to read Dozier, Johnston, and Rogers (2006) the school and/or curriculum (Montgomery,
or listen to stories about people like them- emphasize that to teach critical literacy, 2001). In culturally responsive classrooms,
selves in situations similar to their own. teachers must first become critically liter- teachers recognize the need to develop
Literacy is one way to bring children’s lives ate themselves, then must value social instructional strategies which meet the
into classrooms. It also can help children justice, and finally must have an under- needs of all students.
understand situations that are different standing of the cultural contexts in which Critical literacy is culturally respon-
from their own. they work. Dozier et al. further advocate sive pedagogy. It engages teachers and
Through application of critical literacy, that part of critical literacy requires teach- students in thought-provoking discussions
children and teachers can explore and ers to step outside one’s self and the social that connect their lives to the texts. It
come to understand and appreciate the and linguistic structures in which one is challenges readers to question, to disagree,
similarities and differences that they have immersed so that they can view their cur- and to examine power relations that exist
and share these with each other (Clarke rent language-saturated reality as one that in stories and in real life (Freire, 1970).
& Whitney, 2009). Everyone involved can is constantly changing and evolving. Critical literacy also encourages critical
better examine and debate multiple view- Fennimore (2000) maintains that thinking and social action.
points. Through critical literacy, children successful teacher preparation programs
Learning through activism also helps chil-
can discuss social issues and plan ways need to be constructed upon a commit- dren to develop a sense of social justice, a
that they can have an impact on their ment to activism as well as to excellence sense of fairness and equity that begins
communities. in pedagogical practice. Teachers must with personal and community experience
understand the significance of the repre- and extends globally and historically.
Critical Literacy sentational properties of language. Funda- (Cowhey, 2006, p. 103)

and Children’s Literature mentally, the sense we make of things is

To move children from simply comprehend-
constructed through language. Since such
ing texts to critically analyzing those texts
Quintero (2009) has advocated teach- language is expressed almost automati-
so they are moved to take relevant social
ing with critical literacy by using problem- cally, thus typically outside of our conscious
action is truly culturally responsive teach-
posing and children’s literature. The goal of awareness. Thus, it is important to make
ing at its best.
this approach is to nourish an integrated teachers aware of their language practices
curriculum that supports young children’s in ways that do not make them defensive
meaningful learning. This method encour- (Dozier, Johnston, & Rogers, 2006).
Critical Literacy
ages integrated learning that is both de- vs. Reading Comprehension
velopmentally and culturally meaningful Critical Literacy Written text tends to fall into one of
based on interacting with story, reading and Culturally Responsive Teaching two broad categories: expository text, which
literature, and participating in related communicates information, persuades, or
learning activities. In order to prepare teacher candidates
explains; or narrative text, which tells a
The history of this problem-posing to teach all children effectively, teacher
story. Understanding how text is organized
method dates to the Frankfurt School of education programs must develop teachers
helps readers construct meaning (Dickson,
Critical Theory during the 1920s, and was who understand and can implement cul-
Simmons, & Kameenui, 1988).
initially used with adult literacy students. turally responsive pedagogy (Irvine, 2001).
While narrative text tells a story,
The method leads students of any age, ex- Bowers and Flinders (1990) suggest that
expository text provides an explanation
perience, or ability level to use new learn- culturally responsive teachers will create
of facts and concepts. Its main purpose is
ing of personal experience in a way that effective learning opportunities that reflect
to inform, persuade, or explain. Readers
encourages critical reflection and focuses the cultural diversity of their classrooms.
of expository text face the challenge of
on active participation. In her book, The Dreamkeepers: Successful
uncovering its organizational pattern and
Teachers of African American Children,
understanding the presentation, relation-
Preservice Teachers’ Role Ladson-Billings (1994) explains that
ship, and hierarchy of ideas. Reading and
in Critical Literacy culturally relevant teaching “…empow-
understanding expository text involves
ers students intellectually, socially, emo-
more abstract thinking than does reading
Bean and Harper (2004) argue that tionally, and politically by using cultural
and understanding the typical narrative
preservice teachers are in a kind of limbo, referents to impart knowledge, skills, and
text. In expository text students need to
caught between the worlds of student and attitudes” (p. 18).
compare and contrast ideas, recognize com-
teacher. In essence, preservice teachers Culturally responsive teaching arises
plex causality, synthesize information, and
must negotiate the murky terrain of mul- from a critical perspective. Teachers must
evaluate solutions for proposed problems.
tiple, and sometimes conflicting, expecta- address issues of inequity that occur in
As students learn about the struc-
tions. University supervisors, cooperating their classrooms, communities, and soci-
ture of expository text they become more
teachers, students, and parents are all ety at large. A curriculum that focuses on
strategic in their reading, using prior
players in developing the perceptions that issues of diversity, such as race, culture,

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knowledge to set a purpose for reading, intention was to introduce these preservice book and create a critical literacy lesson
to identify what is important, to question teachers to critical literacy and gain an that they could use in the primary class-
and clarify, to make inferences, and to insight into their experience and percep- room. The lessons were to follow McLaug-
summarize. The student who is aware of tions of critical literacy and its use in the lin & DeVoogd’s (2004) critical literacy
the structural patterns in expository text primary classroom. lesson framework which consists of four
can then begin to adopt a critical literacy parts—engaging student’s thinking, guid-
lens and to question things that are taken Getting Started ing student’s thinking, extending student’s
for granted or assumed to be normal or thinking, and reflection.
At the start of a two and a half hour
natural in the world. Within the development of the lesson,
class on critical literacy, we created a
By moving beyond basic comprehen- the preservice teachers were required to
PowerPoint presentation to introduce the
sion, critically literate students have use activities that support critical literacy.
students to the concept of critical literacy.
mastered the ability to read and critique McLaughlin and DeVoogd (2004) provide
Using McLauglin and DeVoogd’s (2004)
the messages in texts in order to better several examples of possible activities. A
Critical Literacy text as the foundation for
understand whose knowledge is being setting switch allows students to see how
this project, the preservice teachers were
privileged. the story would be different if it took place
introduced to the idea of critical literacy
and were given examples demonstrating in a different place or time, while a gender
Impact of Critical Literacy the importance of getting children to move switch allows a class to examine the story
beyond comprehension. if the main character was the opposite
Critical literacy lends itself to promot-
The preservice teachers were next gender. Question posing allows the teacher
ing action for social justice (McLaughlin
asked to name their most memorable or to guide the students’ thinking through
& DeVoogd, 2004). If we are going to have
favorite storybook as a child and to look questioning. The pre-service teachers were
children read books and begin discussions
for hidden messages and missing point encouraged to use such activities in order
on difficult issues of power, race, gender,
of views in those stories. Upon examining to allow children to examine the issues
and class, we want those young children to
some of their favorite children’s stories, from various perspectives and to choose
be empowered to help make a change. After
the preservice teachers began to see how the best fit for the selected text.
reading the assigned text, the follow-up
children’s books contain messages of The preservice teachers, still operating
activity should be one that allows children
power, race, gender, and class. This activ- in pairs, then presented their critical liter-
to begin an action that gets them directly acy lessons. After each lesson presentation,
involved in important current issues. For ity was undertaken as a way to encourage
preservice teachers to recognize the need there was an opportunity for the larger
example, our youngest readers can help
to make the curriculum more transparent group to provide feedback and reflection
collect items to donate, participate in clean
and teach young children to take a critical on the lesson. This overall activity gave the
ups and food drives, and partner with
stance towards literature. pre-service teachers exposure to a variety
diverse groups, while third graders can of children’s picture books, examples of
begin letter writing campaigns to support Monica Gunning’s (2004) A Shelter in
Our Car, for example, was one such text critical literacy lessons, and opportunities
a cause. This is also a great opportunity to
used as the critical literacy lesson was to examine and reflect on the use of critical
involve families. The options are endless. literacy in lessons for young children.
As we begin to prepare our young carried out with the class. In this picture
children to become thinkers and learners, book, it is easy to enable students to see
the messages within the text. This story Students’ Perceptions of Critical Literacy
we should not wait to have them start
thinking critically when they get to high tackles the difficult issues of homeless- After learning about and engaging
school. Young children are already capable ness and poverty, and briefly touches on in activities using critical literacy strate-
of moving beyond what is in front of them immigration and death. The mood created gies, we were curious about our students’
on the page. Teachers of young children by the illustrator is easily understood perceptions of critical literacy as a part
can guide their students through early and it is clear whose point of view is not of their classroom practice. A small study
literacy using critical literacy with the heard—that of the impoverished. was conducted using a convenience sample.
purpose of creating global thinkers who The preservice teachers were thus All of the participants were enrolled in
are comfortable dealing with issues and guided through a critical literacy lesson “Diversity Perspectives in Early Childhood
who are actively working toward change. using strategies which encourage them Education,” a required course for all early
to examine the author’s and illustrator’s childhood majors. In total there were 27
The Critical Literacy Project perceived purpose and point of view while preservice teachers who participated in the
at the same time discussing how the story study. Of those participants, one was male.
In the project described here, preser- could differ if told from someone else’s All of the participants were White.
vice teachers were introduced to critical perspective. After the discussion and The study participants were asked to
literacy as a reading strategy designed to examination of the text, the preservice respond to the following open-ended ques-
help children move beyond mere compre- teachers were asked to brainstorm ideas tions:
hension. They were given the opportunity that could connect this lesson to a social
1. Do you see critical literacy as benefit-
to create critical literacy lessons and then action project. ting students? If so, how?
demonstrate their lessons in front of their
peers. After receiving feedback from their The Critical Literacy Lesson 2. What challenges do you see with imple-
peers, the preservice teachers had the menting a critical literacy program?
Following the in-class demonstration
opportunity to respond to open-ended 3. What other thoughts do you have on
lesson, the preservice teachers worked in
questions that explored their perceptions critical literacy?
pairs and were asked to select a picture
regarding the use of critical literacy. Our

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Once the questionnaires were collected, Conclusion Cowhey, M. (2006). Black ants and Buddhists:
a qualitative content analysis of the stu- Thinking critically and teaching differently
dents’ responses was conducted with the Our experiences in teaching preser- in the primary grades. Portland, ME:
intent of uncovering similar themes. The vice teachers about critical literacy have Stenhouse.
deepened our conviction that it should be Dickson, S. V., Simmons, D., Kameenui, E. J.
themes that emerged were divided into two (1988). What reading research tells us about
categories that illuminated the benefits an essential part of teacher education pro-
grams. The preservice teachers we worked children with diverse learning needs: Bases
and challenges of using critical literacy in and basics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
teaching young children. with overwhelmingly recognized the need
Associates.
to move children beyond comprehension Dozier, C., Johnston, P., & Rogers, R. (2006).
Benefits into thinking more critically about texts. Critical literacy critical teaching: Tools for
They clearly felt that critical literacy is preparing responsive teachers. New York:
In response to the first question, all a valuable tool for use in the primary Teachers College Press.
preservice teachers found critical literacy classroom, and that it is never too early Fennimore, B. S. (2000). Talk matters: Refocusing
to be beneficial. When the preservice to encourage young children to begin to the language of public school. New York:
teacher’s responses were examined for think critically about the literature they Teacher College Press.
common themes, there were three themes Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New
are reading. As America’s classrooms are
that emerged. First, the students believed York: Continuum.
becoming increasingly diverse, it is crucial Gunning, M. (2004). A shelter in our car. San
that critical literacy enhances children’s that we begin to equip preservice teach- Francisco: Children’s Book Press.
critical thinking and understanding of dif- ers to tackle the tough issues of diversity Irvine, J. J. (2001). The critical elements of
ferent perspectives. Second, they suggested by examining other perspectives in the culturally responsive pedagogy: A synthesis
that it allows children to be exposed to or curriculum and encouraging students to of the research. In Culturally responsive
aware of problems in their community. promote social change. teaching: Lesson planning for elementary
And third, the preservice teachers felt that Although our preservice teaching stu- and middle grades. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
critical literacy engages children in learn- Jones, S. (2006). Girls, social class, and literacy:
dents recognized the importance of critical
ing about different cultures and difficult What teachers can do to make a difference.
literacy, they also admitted feeling that Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
issues such as homelessness or hunger. there are barriers that stand in the way Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers:
of utilizing critical literacy in the typical Successful teachers of African American
Challenges classroom. Recognizing and understanding children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
In responding to the second question, these potential barriers will allow teacher Lewison, M., Flint, A. S., & Van Sluys, K. (2002).
while the students were able to see the education programs to seek solutions that Taking on critical literacy: The journey of
will help preservice teachers develop effec- newcomers and novices. Language Arts,
benefits of critical literacy, they were also
79(5), 382-392.
aware of some challenges. Three themes tive strategies for overcoming any chal-
McLaughlin, M., & DeVoogd, G.L. (2004). Critical
also emerged regarding this question. lenges that arise while including critical literacy: Enhancing students’ comprehension
The first theme focused on their personal literacy as a part of the early childhood of text. New York: Scholastic.
anxiety or discomfort in addressing “touchy curriculum. Montgomery, W. (2001). Creating culturally
subjects.” A second related theme was a The first step in making critical litera- responsive, inclusive classrooms. The Council
concern about potential parental opposi- cy accessible to all students, however, must for Exceptional Children. 33(4), 4-9.
tion to the issues being addressed. The be teaching preservice teachers about the National Center for Education Statistics. (2004).
practice and showing them how to utilize http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/tables/
students did not want to offend anyone
sass_2004_18.
by overstepping their boundaries. The it in developing effective critical literacy
National Center for Education Statistics. (2007).
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