Einführung

Definition of Vocational and Technical Education

Vocational and Technical Education: Vocational education or technical and vocational

education is a term used comprehensively to refer to the educational process to which involves,
in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, skills and
knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life.

Technical Education: This is the form of education which is offered at the upper secondary
level, lower tertiary institutions (e.g. polytechnic) to prepare middle level (technical and middle
manager, etc), and as the university and the HND levels to prepare, engineers, businessmen,
managers and technologists for higher management positions. Technical education includes
general education, technical studies and related skills training.

The concept of Vocational Education aims at equipping individuals to use their heads and hands
in order to survive in a world that is essentially work-oriented. Words and terms such as
vocation, job, work, occupation, profession, career, education, vocational training, pre-
vocational training, Vocational Education, e.t.c need to be thoroughly understood in order to
appreciate the various forms of Vocational Education as we have it today.

Philosophy and Objectives of Vocational and Technical Education

Vocational Education has a philosophical and historical framework or foundation. The

philosophical framework has to do with a general understanding of the values, concepts,
fundamental beliefs and purpose of vocational education. While the historical framework is a
summary record of significant events and developments in vocational education in Nigeria. This
unit will present both frameworks to you. A good understanding of this will enhance your
appreciation of the concept of vocational education.

Generally, philosophy has to do with an understanding of values, concepts, fundamental beliefs

and purposes.
The national policy on education (2004) states that the philosophy and values of education in
Nigeria include the following:
i. Integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizen

ii. Respect for the work of the individual

iii. Faith in man’s ability to make rational decisions
iv. Moral and spiritual values in interpersonal and human relations v. Shared responsibility for
the common good of the society and;
vi. Social, cultural, economic, scientific and technological progress. (Federal Republic of Nigeria
2004).
The philosophy of technical and vocational education in Nigeria hangs mainly on the above-
stated philosophy of education. This implies that any programme that will qualify as “education”
in Nigeria should not just offer “certificates” but must be work-oriented. This will go a long way
in solving under-employment/un-employment and the attendant problems. It will also empower
the graduates to become relevant producers of goods and services as well as become sensible
consumers of same.

Objectives of Vocational and Technical Education

The aims and objectives of technical and vocational education are to:
a) provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and business particularly
at craft, advanced craft and technical levels;
b) provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural,
commercial and economic development;
c) give training and impart the necessary skills to individuals who shall be self-reliant
economically;
d) provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and solution
of environmental problems for the use and convenience of man;
e) enable our young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the
increasing complexity of technology;
f) give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technologies.
It is important to mention here that aspects of vocational education should be part of
basic primary, junior secondary and senior secondary school education. At the post
secondary level, institutions that offer technical and vocational education include tertiary
technical institutions such as science and technical colleges, polytechnics, monotechnics,
colleges of education (technical) and universities.
It is also important to note that vocational education should be part of the on-going
mass literacy campaigns, adult education, non-formal education as well as special
education for the physically challenged e.g. the blind, deaf, dumb. This is to ensure that
such programmes are relevant and meaningful to the individuals (recipients) and to the
society generally.

Funding of Vocational and Technical Education Programmes

The funding of education generally is supposed to be the responsibility of the various

tires of government. However, because of the enormous cost implications, the blue print on
education (2004:60) states that:
The financing of education is a joint responsibility of the Federal, State and Local Governments
and the private sector. In this connection, government welcomes and encourages the participation
of local communities, individuals and other organizations.
This is particularly true for vocational education. We as a nation generally need to actually invest
more on vocational education; not just on paper but in practice.
The document further states that sectoral bodies such as the Education Tax Fund (ETF) have
been established to respond to the funding needs of education. In addition, other funds from
which the burden of financing education can be eased are:
i. Industrial Training Fund (ITF)
ii. National Science and Technology Fund (NSTF)
iii. Petroleum Trust Fund (PTF).
Apart from the above stipulations, sources of funding for vocational education can be classified
into two:
1. External Sources: This refers to sources outside the various institutions. These include the
various tiers of government. Such funds can be in the form of budgetary allocations, donations,
subsidies, various funds and grants, e.g. Education Trust Fund (ETF), NSTF, PTF etc. It could
also be in the form of aids from foreign countries and organizations e.g. UNICEF.
2. Internal Sources: This refers to sources within the various institutions. These include: levies,
launching programmes, donations, fees from sandwich, remedial and consultancy services,
contributions from Alumni Associations, business outlets such as school canteens, bookshops,
cybercafe, business centres, mechanical workshops, farms etc.
It is however pertinent to note that government remains the major financier of education.
However there is need for philanthropic organizations, private company‟s non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and individuals to get more actively involved in vocational education if
the nation is to make headway in this direction.

Exercise

What are the internal and external sources which vocational education may be funded on in
Nigeria?

Development of Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria

The historical development of vocational education in Nigeria will be presented under the
following sub-headings to make it easier for you to understand.
i. Vocational Education in the Pre-colonial Era ii. Vocational Education in the Colonial Era
iii. Vocational Education in the Post-Colonial Era
i. Vocational Education in the Pre-Colonial Era

According to Ali (2000), before the introduction of formal, western education in Nigeria,
at about 1892, different ethnic groups were already “training” young men and women in various
occupations, trades as well as production of different materials and services such as: brewing,
building, carving, spinning, fishing, hair-dressing, pottery, mining, herbalism, agriculture, gold-
smithing, iron-smithing, etc. This was done at family and sometimes community levels.
Appropriate character training and disposition were also taught. This was the era traditional
vocational education.
 At this time, certain skills, trades or vocations were traceable to or said to “run” in
particular families, ethnic groups, villages, etc. Each tried to be perfect in and jealously guard the
skills or occupations for which they were known.
During the era of traditional vocational education, people generally engaged in vocations
such as various types of farming (poultry, snail, livestock, etc), fishing, hunting, carving,
carpentry, sculpturing, painting, building, decoration, catering, boat-making, mat-making,
dyeing, hair plaiting, barbing, traditional medicine, trading, etc. During this period, skills,
knowledge, competencies and attitudes were inculcated in the youths in two major ways:
i) Informal and
ii) Non-Formal Methods
i) Informal Traditional Vocational Education: Here the teaching team comprised of
parents, senior siblings and relatives. It appeared that some children unconsciously
acquired special vocational skills by just being part of specific families or villages while
other children also unconsciously acquired relevant vocational skills in their families
such as house-keeping, hair- plaiting, baby-care, cooking, vegetable farming, trading and
so on, for the girls; or hunting, fishing, livestock-keeping, barbing, traditional medicine,
gold smiting, etc. for the boys. At the time it was almost mandatory that all children born
into a family should learn their fathers’ crafts (for the male children), or mothers’
vocation (for the female children). Young men and women were thus identified and
traced to specific lineages as a result of the type of craft or vocation they practiced.

ii) Non-Formal Methods: According to Evans (1981) quoted in Ekpenyong (2005), in non-
formal (out of school) education, there is a conscious effort on the part of both the source of
information (e.g. parents, relatives or master craftsmen) and the learners to promote learning.
This was mainly achieved through the apprenticeship system.
Apprenticeship: This refers to a system whereby youths usually from the age of 12 were sent or
bonded or apprenticed to relatives, family friends or master craftsmen or women to learn a
special vocation or trade for a given period of time. The duration of training varied from trade to
trade. During the training period, the apprentice usually lived with and served the master’ or
mistress’s household while the latter provided him with shelter, food, clothing, religious, civic as
well as moral training along with the specified vocational training.
The apprenticeship system could be informal, less formal or formal. During the pre-colonial era,
the informal method was mostly practiced. At that time, the apprenticeship system was more like
an institution guarded by customs, traditions and sometimes rituals. After the specified period of
time, the apprentice would be set free with a kind of ceremony as well as basic requirements or
materials for starting off on his own.
Generally, the teaching method during the era of traditional vocational training included direct
instructions, demonstrations, and question asking among others. While the learners had to listen,
observe, respond to and ask questions, as well as engage in practicals at appropriate time. The
formal method of apprenticeship is still practised today though it is not as domincent or popular
as it used to be.
It is important to mention that during this time, the Birom people of Plateau State and their
counterparts at Awka in Anambra State were famous in blacksmithing, the “Benis” were famous
in bronze and Ivory carving, Abia State and environs were famous in “Akwete” weaving, Bida
people were famous barbers, etc. Some of these crafts are still traceable to these respective
communities till date.
It is equally pertinent to state that during that era, the society really appreciated and
valued the dignity of labour. Vocational training then was highly relevant to societal needs, goals
and values. Oranu (1995) quoted in Ile, Asoegwu and Chukwugbo (2005) asserted that before the
advent of the white man in Nigeria, labour and hard work were glorious and highly esteemed.
However, the white-collar jobs of the white men gradually but systematically paved the way for
the erosion of the dignity of labour. It appears that gradually, the functional and valuable
traditional vocational training that our fore-fathers worked so hard to establish was relegated to
the background, as it was referred to as “blue collar” job and considered inferior to “white
collar” jobs that merely involved the use of “pen and paper”.
ii Vocational Education in the Colonial Era
Formal education came into Nigeria in 1842 when the Christian missionaries arrived
Badagry in Lagos with the primary aim of evangelizing the natives through the instrument of
literary education. This type of education was less expensive and less demanding in terms of
human and material resources though less relevant to the needs of the people. They considered
literary education as essential element to the spread of Christianity.
This was a kind of dislocation to the already thriving traditional vocational education in
Africa. This is because going to school then did not seem to specifically emphasize the various
skills in agriculture, hunting, trading, weaving, etc. Rather students merely acquired reading and
writing skills. Our former British colonialist equally came with a system of education that did not
meet the needs of the colonized people of Africa.
What we have said earlier does not imply that vocational education was totally ignored during
the colonial era. The British government and the missionaries actually made some efforts at
developing vocational education. A summary of such efforts include:
For instance, as early as 1842, the mission school at Behule, (Abeokuta) had workshops for
blacksmithing, wheel wrights, carpentry and shoe-making.
In 1876, the first technical school in Nigeria (the Roman Catholic Agricultural School) was
established at Topo near Badagry.
By 1905, the Hope Waddle Training Institute in Calabar had included vocational subjects such as
tailoring, carpentry, printing, agriculture, etc, to other crafts and literary subjects taught in the
school.
In 1909, an institution at Nassarawa (Northern Nigeria) was established which operated
vocational and technical programmes. Book-binding, carpentry, weaving, etc were taught.
The 1920 – 21 witnessed the Phelps-Stokes Commission Reports on Education in Africa.
This document was a positive landmark as it made positive recommendations on vocational and
technical education.
In 1925, the memorandum on the education policy in British Tropical Africa and a subsequent
government white paper on it was published. Among other things, the white paper provided that:
a. Education should be adopted to the mentality, aptitudes, occupations and traditions of the
various peoples,
b. Technical and industrial training should be provided in government workshops provided a
proper instructor was available.
It is pertinent to note that little or nothing was done to implement this policy as general education
continued to be emphasized.
In 1944, there was a Ten Year Development Plan which proved defective. It dismissed further
development in vocational and technical education claiming that a big trade school or a technical
college was not necessary at that stage. It‟s Its reasons were that such a school would be
extremely expensive to build and equip; would require large European and African staff and that
there would be no great demand for the products when trained. Of course, this was far from the
truth. Subsequently another Ten – year development and welfare plan was put in place in 1946.
The 1946 Ten-Year Development and Welfare Plan for Nigeria was a “miracle” for vocational
technical education because it contained an official statement by the colonial administration that:
- Technical Education is of much importance that a separate plan has been made for it outside the
general education plan. The shortage of properly trained artisans and technicians is at present one
of the limiting factors of any real and rapid development. Unless quick action is taken to provide
facilities for proper training for such men, there must be a serious log in the work of
development. The importance of quick action is therefore obvious. (Nigerian Official Report,
1946 as quoted in Ekpenyong
2005).
- The 1946 Ten-Year Development Plan proposed that three trade centres be established at Yaba,
Enugu and Zaria/Kaduna. It was also proposed that craft centres be established in all provinces
of the Federation.
1949 witnessed another major breakthrough in the development of vocational technical
education when a two-man committee on Technical Education presented a report that led to the
establishment of the Nigerian College of Arts and Technology with branches at Enugu (East),
Zaria (North) and Ibadan (West).
- In 1959, the Ashby Commission was set up in preparation for the nation’s independence. Their
report was submitted in September
1960 just before the independence and gave a positive push to the development of Vocational
Education.
Meanwhile from 1900, various colonial government departments and private firms were
operating in-house/on-the jobs vocational training programmes for their workers or prospective
workers. Participants were sponsored by the employers or admitted with a view to being
employed on successful completion of the training. Such government departments or
corporations include:
1. Nigerian Railway Training School (1901)
2. Government Survey School, Lagos, (1908)
3. Marine Department Training School, (1928)
4. Public Works Department (PWD) Training School (1931)
5. Post and Telecommunications Training School (1931)
Some private establishments and companies also organized special training courses that were
deigned designed to meet specific existing and predictable man-power needs within their
respective organizations. Such establishments include John Holt, United African Company
(UAC), United Trading Company (UTC), Paterson and Zochonis (PZ), Shell BP, etc.
iii. Vocational Technical Education in the Post-Colonial Era
By October 1960, when Nigeria gained her independence, it was obvious that the so-called
education we inherited from the British government was not adequate to the societal and
economic needs of Nigeria. It was clear that the old the inherited British literary curriculum
would not meet the educational and economic challenges of the emerging Nigerian nation.
Consequently, vocational education began to receive the much needed attention in the proposed
proposes national curriculum through the 1969 National curriculum conference.
The Ashby Commission was a major landmark in the development of vocational education in
Nigeria. To closely study how the Ashby report affected them, the three regions resolved to do so
by setting up regional commissions or committees as follows:

a) The Dike Committee for the Eastern region

b) The Banjo Commission for the Western region
c) The Oldman Commission for the Northern region
The reports of the various committees led to the advancement of Vocational Education in their
respective regions. This is because the reports attracted financial aids from the United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) that was used for the establishment of vocational
technical institutions in the three regions respectively. The reports also re-echoed the need to
replace the “grammar” and “high” schools with “comprehensive” schools because the latter
would offer a broader curriculum comprising both general and vocational subjects - such as
science, agriculture, technical studies, business studies, etc. This was implemented with the
assistance of USAID.
A panel on comparative Technical Education which published its reports in 1966, recommended
the need for a national plan for vocational and technical education in Nigeria. Its
recommendation made the National Educational Research Council (NERC) to organize and
sponsor a critical curriculum conference in 1969, as earlier indicated. This was followed by a
seminar in 1973 which culminated in the formulation of the National Policy on Education in
1977 (revised in 1981, 1998 and
2004 respectively). This blue print on Education in Nigeria gave due attention to the issue of
vocational education. The seminar, in addition to other achievements, led to the establishment of
the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) in 1976.
It is pertinent to point out that in the 1960s, vocational education was primarily in the hands of
voluntary and private individuals and agencies. However, by the 1970s, government’s
participation in the establishment of vocational technical institutions was on the increase.
Government’s achievements towards the development of vocational education in Nigeria after
the independence include the following:
Establishment of a specialized ministry - The Federal Ministry of Science and Technology
Introduction of departments of vocational technical education in some universities (though
relatively few).
Establishment of some universities of technology, agriculture, etc. Establishment of technical
colleges, polytechnics and colleges of education (Technical).
Establishment of monotechnics such as Petroleum Training Institute
(PTI), Mettallurgical Training Institute (MTI), etc.
The Technical Teacher Training Programme (TTTP) The Industrial Training Fund (ITF) - 1973
The National Directorate of Employment (NDE) – 1987

The National Open Apprentice Scheme (NOAS) The School on Wheel Scheme (SWS)
The Waste-to-Wealth Scheme (WWS)
The Disabled Work Scheme (DWS)
The National Business and Technical Education Board (NABTEB).
Till date, efforts are still being made (though more in principle than in practice) to give
vocational education its pride of place in the country‟s educational system. Most of these efforts
do not meet with full implementation, funding and adequate monitoring. Others appear to be
sabotaged and crippled so that they hardly achieve the purpose(s) for which they were initiated.
However, there is a ray of hope for vocational education as a result of its functionality and
relevance to any nation, particularly Nigeria.

Exercise

Discuss the main features of TVE in the colonial era in Nigeria.

References

Ali, A. (2000). “Educating Nigerians for the Next Century: Vocational and Technical
Imperatives”. In Esomonu, N.P.M and Obumneke, O. I. (eds). The Imperatives of
Vocational and Technical Education for a Developing Nation. Umunze: Research and
Publication Unit, F.C.E. (T).

Ekpenyong, L. E. (2005). Foundations of Technical and Vocational Education: New Directions

and Approaches. Benin City: Supreme Ideal Publishers Int. Ltd.

Ekpenyong, L. E. (1992). “Business Teacher Education in Nigeria Prospects and Challenges for
the 21st Century”. Perspectives on Teacher Education in Nigeria, APQEN, Vol. 3.

Ekpenyong, L. E. & Nwabuisi, J. N. (2001). “Curriculum and Human Resource Development

issues in Business Education”. Current Issues in Educational Management in Nigeria,
NAEAP Vol. 1. pp. 167-168

The Role of Vocational and Technical Education in National Development

When vocational technical education has been adequately invested upon, intelligently articulated,
and properly executed it should be able to meet the following economic needs and expectations
of the nation and its citizens.
1. Development of individuals who are equipped with the requisite knowledge and skills for
productive work life;
2. Development of individuals who are capable of meeting modern technological challenges.
3. Development of a pool of competent and reliable technical manpower capable of being
mobilized in times of national and economic emergency and crisis.
4. Development of the youths, with right attitudes, skills and aptitudes towards work;
5. Equipping of the youth with requisite knowledge and skills for paid employment or self-
employment.
6. Preparing the youths for meeting community, state and national human resource needs.
7. Enabling the individuals to choose and perfect knowledge and skills in those vocational areas
for which they have interests and aptitudes.
8. Enabling individuals to develop sound economic reasoning and make good economic
decisions, in the production and/or consumption of goods and services;
9. Enabling youths to relate their knowledge, skills and expertise to the needs of their local
communities.
10. Preparing industrial managers/Chief Executive Officers who are capable of meeting the
technological and managerial complexities of a modern industrial society.
11. Establishing and maintaining a functional link between school and industry in matters
affecting vocational education and the world of work. (adapted from Ekpenyong and Nwabuisi
2001)
Generally this will inject vibrancy into the economy by increasing productivity while
checking unemployment and inflation. In the long run the Gross Domestic Product (GPD) of the
nation will also step up the living standards of the people.

Youth Leadership Development:

Leadership development is crucial in empowering youth towards increasing their participation in
democratic processes, particularly in the reform agenda. Among other skills, leadership development
equips youth with good communication, decision making, critical thinking and problem solving skills. They
learn to appreciate and accommodate diverse views and perspectives, to prevent conflict from occurring,
to manage and resolve conflict constructively when it occurs.
Public Speaking
From asking and answering questions in class to delivering a formal speech, public speaking is an
important part of your academic career. The following guidelines are useful to consider when
crafting a public presentation and planning your delivery.
It can be tempting to treat a public speaking assignment as an occasion to simply read a paper. But
there are major differences between written communication and speeches. As readers, we control the
pace and speed that we take in information. We can also go back and reread any information that we
miss. As listeners, we can not control the pace and speed of an oral presentation, and we can not ask
a speaker to go back and repeat any information that we miss. As listeners, we also have limited
attention spans. Our minds tend to wander after ten minutes or so.
When preparing and delivering your presentations, be aware of your audience’s needs. Effective
speeches are tightly organized and have a clear focus.

In structuring your presentation, keep in mind the following principles that will result in better
reception, understanding, and retention of information for your audience members.
1. Be sure that your presentation is focused and well-organized. Limit your discussion to three to four
main points.
2. Begin with a clear introduction that asserts your thesis or topic.
3. Provide a brief outline of your presentation so that your audience knows what to expect and can
follow along more easily.
4. As you develop your discussion, clearly introduce each point that will support your topic.
5. Use skillful repetition and effective transitions to emphasize your points and to keep your
audience’s attention.
6. End with a solid conclusion that effectively wraps up your presentation.
Time Management:
⊕ Gives us a chance to decide how to spend a valuable resource
⊕ Allows us to get the most out of the least
⊕ Helps us organize and learn how to spend our time

Good time managers:

⊕ plan for the unplanned.
⊕ follow a schedule that can adapt to changes.
⊕ get the important things done.
⊕ are productive.
⊕ can juggle several activities.
⊕ have their short and long term goals in mind.
⊕ may keep a daily, weekly and monthly schedule.

First Things First

(from Virginia Tech division of student affairs)
1. Each night write on a 3x5 card the 6 most important tasks you have to do
tomorrow.
2. Number them in the order of importance.
3. First thing in the morning look at the task listed as most important and start
working on it until it is finished. Then tackle item 2 the same way, item 3 and so
forth until your work or school day are completed.
4. Don’t be worried if you only complete 2 or 3 items. You’ve completed the most
important tasks and any other method wouldn’t have given you more time to work
on the rest of the list.
5. Each night write a new 3x5 card for the next day.

Leadership styles

Autocratic Leadership Style

• The classical approach
• Manager retains as much power and decision making authority as possible
• Does not consult staff, nor allowed to give any input
• Staff expected to obey orders without receiving any explanations
• Structured set of rewards and punishments
Autocratic leaders:
• Rely on threats and punishment to influence staff
• Do not trust staff
• Do not allow for employee input
Sometimes the most effective style to use
• When:
New, untrained staff do not know which tasks to perform or which procedures to follow
Effective supervision provided only through detailed orders and instructions
Staff do not respond to any other leadership style
Limited time in which to make a decision
A manager’s power challenged by staff
Work needs to be coordinated with another department or organization
Should not be used when:
Staff become tense, fearful, or resentful
Staff expect their opinions heard
Staff depend on their manager to make all their decisions
Low staff morale, high turnover and absenteeism and work stoppage
Democratic Style
Also known as participative style. Encourages staff to be a part of the decision making
Keeps staff informed about everything that affects their work and shares decision
making and problem solving responsibilities. Develops plans to help staff evaluate their
own performance
• Allows staff to establish goals
• Encourages staff to grow on the job and be promoted
• Recognizes and encourages achievement
Democratic Leadership is Most effective • When:
Wants to keep staff informed about matters that affect them.
Wants staff to share in decision-making and problem-solving duties.
Wants to provide opportunities for staff to develop a high sense of personal growth
and job satisfaction.
A large or complex problem that requires lots of input to solve
Changes must be made or problems solved that affect staff
Want to encourage team building and participation
Democratic leadership should not be used when …
• Not enough time to get everyone’s input
• Easier and more cost-effective for the manager to make the decision
• Can’t afford mistakes
• Manager feels threatened by this type of leadership
• Staff safety is a critical concern.
Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
Also known as the “hands-off¨ style
• The manager provides little or no direction and gives staff as much freedom as
possible
• All authority or power given to the staff and they determine goals, make decisions, and
resolve problems on their own.
It is an effective style to use under the following circumstances
• Staff highly skilled, experienced, and educated
• Staff have pride in their work and the drive to do it successfully on their own
• Outside experts, such as staff specialists or consultants used
• Staff trustworthy and experienced.
Should not be used if:
• Staff feel insecure at the unavailability of a manager
• The manager cannot provide regular feedback to staff on how well they are doing
• Managers unable to thank staff for their good work
• The manager doesn’t understand his or her responsibilities and hoping the staff cover
for him or her.

Transformational Leadership
• Creates and sustains a context that maximizes human and organizational capabilities;
• Facilitate multiple levels of transformation; and
• Align them with core values and a unified purpose
The Transformational Leadership make change happen in:
• Self,
• Others,
• Groups, and
• Organizations
• Charisma a special leadership style commonly associated with transformational
leadership; extremely powerful, extremely hard to teach.

Transactional Leadership
• Emphasizes getting things done within the umbrella of the status quo
• In opposition to transformational leadership
• “By the book" approach - the person works within the rules
• Commonly seen in large, bureaucratic organizations

Creative Leadership
Ability to uniquely inspire people, To generate shared innovative responses and
solutions.

Characteristics of Vocational and Technical Education

The features or characteristics of anything are marks of identity for that thing.
They refer to those distinguishing and special traits that make something whatever it is
and different from all other things no matter how similar.
Vocational education has some clearly noticeable features that should make it what it is
expected to be. In other words in TVE the following features should prevail:
1) The training environment for Vocational Education should replicate the working
environment itself; or the actual working environment (same tools, machines, tasks,
procedures, operations, etc)
2) The training should be directly and specifically job-oriented; i.e. each task should be
done in the same way it is expected to be done at the place of work.
3) The trainees (students) should be specifically trained on the manipulative and thinking
habits required in the real working situation.
4) This type of education should help the students to maximize their interests, abilities,
aptitudes and potentials. Consequently training should be given to those who need it,
want it and are able to benefit from it.
5) Adequate repetitive training in tasks and experiences from the place of work should be
used to establish the right habits of doing and thinking to the degree necessary or
acceptable for employment.
6) The teacher should be a master of the knowledge and skills that he teaches.
7) The training should be continued to the point where the students acquire a productive
ability with which they can gain and retain an employment.
8) A vocational education programme must strive to meet the requisite market demands
for labour (acceptable standard) in a given occupation. There should also be enough room
for improving set standards.
9) Education and training should be given on actual jobs not just on simulated and
pseudo jobs.
10) Vocational education curriculum contents should be generated by masters and
successful practitioners of the occupation; not from ordinary theorists.
11) Vocational education and training should emphasize functional and specific body of
content materials relevant to each occupation.
12) Vocational education should meet the peculiar training needs of any group whenever
and however they require it; and hope to benefit maximally from it.
13) The training in vocational education should consider the peculiar characteristics of
those it serves – in terms of choice of instructional methods and personal relationship
with them.
14) The administration of vocational education should be elastic, fluid and flexible.
Unnecessary rigidity should be avoided.
15) Vocational Education is capital intensive. Therefore, the funds invested in training
must at least be adequate for good training to be done.

References

Ekpenyong, L. E. (1992). “Business Teacher Education in Nigeria Prospects and

Challenges for the 21st Century”. Perspectives on Teacher Education in Nigeria,
APQEN, Vol. 3.

Ekpenyong, L. E. & Nwabuisi, J. N. (2001). “Curriculum and Human Resource

Development Issues in Business Education”. Current Issues in Educational
Management in Nigeria, NAEAP Vol. 1. pp. 167-168.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1998). “National Policy on Education” (3rd Ed) Yaba.
NERDC Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). “National Policy on Education” (4th Ed) Yaba.
NERDC Press.

Ile, C. M., Asoegwu, M. N. N. & Chukwugbo, G. C. (2005). “Essentials of Vocational

Education and Technical Education for Beginners”. Awka: Marpat Educational
Research and Publishers.

Prosser, C. A. and Quigley, T. A. (1949). “Vocational Education in a Democracy”.

Chicago: American Technical Society.
Problems of Vocational Education in Nigeria
Generally, problems refer to constraints, difficulties, challenges, hindrances or obstacles.
The problems of vocational education therefore refer to those factors or issues that affect
the rapid development of technical and vocational education in Nigeria.
The problems include the following:
1) Wrong Perception of Vocational Education
The general Nigerian public tends to give wrongly perception to vocational
education.Some seem to think of it as education for under- achievers, unintelligent
people, school drop outs, and the less-privileged. It has also been wrongly perceived as a
“dirty” kind of education due to its practical nature. These wrong perceptions are
traceable to our colonial days and lead to the next problem.
2) Societal Stigma
As can be seen from the points above, vocational education has for some time now
seemed to have received negative stigma. For instance, parents would rather have their
wards and children study more “prestigious” and
“glamorous” courses such as medicine, law and engineering.
3) Lack of Vocational Guidance and Counselling
Lack of adequate vocational guidance has made it difficult to correct wrong perceptions
pupils have about vocational education to be removed at the right time, remove the
consequent societal stigma. There is therefore, strong need to mount vocational guidance
and counselling programmes for the public and in various academic institutions for
appropriate enlightenment on the subject.
4) Financial Constraints
Technical and vocational education is a capital intensive discipline. Hence it is if its
benefits to the learners and the nation are to be easily evident, then adequate amount of
funds must be made available for its execution. These should adequately meet the cost of
personnel, building, equipment, laboratories, studios, demonstration farms, etc.
5) Lack of Physical Resources
These include basic infrastructure, such as buildings, laboratories workshops and studios.
Most schools that offer vocational education courses are not provided with enough
appropriate equipment and materials for training. Most of the so called studios and
laboratories, instructional materials are just a caricature of what they should be.
Sometimes, appropriate materials are available but no teachers or instructors to use for
instruction.
6) Government Policies
Initially, government policies on education reflected the already discussed societal
misconceptions and stigma – regarding vocational education as it was considered inferior.
to secondary. Although the current National Policy on Education (2004), places emphasis
on vocational education implementation, education its it does not reflect the enthusiasm
expressed in the policy document.
7) Dearth of Qualified Vocational Personnel
A walk round most of the Nigeria’s vocational training centres, technical colleges and
even tertiary institutions would show that these institutions are not adequate in the quality
and quantity of personnel. This situation is partly responsible for the low quality of
graduates coming out of them.
Some of the teachers that were sent abroad in the early 1980s for vocational training
under the TTTP programme never returned. Some that returned took up more lucrative
jobs in other establishments; others established enterprises of their own; thus the incident
of lack of qualified vocational teachers continues to affect the nation.
As a result of the versatile nature of vocational education, graduates from this area find it
easy to secure employment in various establishments or become self-employed, instead
of remaining in the classroom to train others. This tendency is often worsened by poor
remuneration and unattractive working conditions of teachers. This has continued to
affect vocational education negatively.
Presently, only a few federal universities offer full-blown technical and vocational
education programmes and even some of the few, are yet to mount PhD programmes in
this specialized field of study thereby compounding the problem further.
In some institutions, some machinery and equipment supplied several years ago are still
lying waste-in their various crates or containers – unopened and unused due to lack of
qualified personnel to operate, service or repair them.
8) Lack of Power Supply
In some parts of the country, effective vocational education is hindered by lack of or
inadequate power supply to run the necessary equipment and machines.
Moreover, sometimes the necessary spare parts for servicing and repairing the equipment
are not readily available. Lack of water supply can equally pose a problem in some
technical institutions.
9) Poor Student Motivation
It is common to find that in some TVE institutions, the laboratories, studios and
workshops are often not used. Those that are in use at all, are used rather infrequently and
rigidly as enough time usually is not allocated for practicals while students are often not
allowed to use the laboratories at their spare time. All these lead to poor motivation, lack
of confidence and uncertainty about the students’ ability to succeed or perform well
enough on the programme of the students.
10) The Gap between Institutions and Industry
There is need for a functional link, understanding and co-ordination between institutions
and schools. This is because the institutions produce for the industries. A good TVE
curriculum or programme benefits from the linkage between school and industry.
It is the gap between institutions and industry that pretty accounts for the high rate of
unemployment among TVC graduates. This is because students are trained based on
procedures and equipment that are no longer needed in various industries. The students
therefore graduate to discover that they do not actually possess any
employable/entrepreneurial skills and competencies expected of them.
11) Lack of Indigenous Textbooks
From observation the quality and quantity of indigenous textbooks in vocational
education courses are rather poor. Some of the said textbooks do not have accompanying
workbooks to facilitate practical work. Some of the books are sub-standard and poorly
written.
Foreign textbooks are very scarce and even when they are available; they are not only
expensive but not very relevant to the Nigerian situation.
12) Lack of Effective Entrepreneurship Education
Entrepreneurship education aims at equipping students with occupational skills, sharp
business acumen and ingenuity to enable them create employment for themselves and
others. It should therefore be an integral part of effective vocational education.
It is not enough to just include “Entrepreneurship” as a course for vocational education
students. The course content and method of delivery should have a practical orientation to
make the programme really beneficial to the students.
13) Insufficient Industrial Work Experience for Student
In 1973, the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) launched the “Students
Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES)”, which was aimed at B