Basic Writing Skills (Hand Out) - 1-1

Basic Writing Skills (EnLa1012)
Bule Hora University
Unit One:
Writing Effective Sentences
In this unit, you will be able to:

 Construct different sentences in terms of both structure and function.
 Make error-free sentences.
 Minimize the use of vague words.
 Vary sentences use both in structure and length.
 Punctuate sentences correctly, and
 Capitalize words appropriately.
What is Sentence?
Definition: We tend to think of a sentence as a group of words with a period, a question
mark, or an exclamation point at the end and a capital letter at the beginning, but there is
more to it than that. In order to be a sentence, a word group must be complete enough to
stand independently. In other words, sentence is a group of words that expresses a
complete thought.
-A sentence is usually defined as a grammatically independent unit made up of a word or

group of words so related as to convey a complete thought.
-A sentence is the basic unit of thought someone uses to express her/himself.
The better we understand how to form and use sentences, therefore, the more effectively
we can communicate our thoughts to others.
1.1 Sentence Types in Terms of Structure (Construction)
Try using a variety of basic sentence structures (constructions). Any written materials with
varied sentence structures are more attention-grabbing than those which have monotonous
sentence construction. Hence, effective writers use different sentence structures when they
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write paragraphs or essays. Depending on the number and type of clauses they contain,
sentences can be categorized into four main types:
1. Simple (one independent clause):

We drove from Axum to Addis Ababa in one day.
2. Compound (more than one independent clause):
We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for my father's birthday party.
3. Complex (one independent clause and at least one dependent clause):
Although he is now 79 years old, he still claims to be 65.
4. Compound-complex (more than one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause):
After it was all over, my dad claimed that he knew we were planning something,
but we think he was really surprised.
The following is a detailed discussion of the above sentence types.

A) Simple Sentence is a sentence consisting of one subject and one predicate, either or
both of which may be compound. It, in other words, is one main clause. Example
- The players arrived.
- The players and the judges arrived.
- The players arrived and reported.
- The players and the judges arrived and reported.
- I have never played tennis.
- The big oak tree in front of our house is a permanent house for thousands of birds.
N.B. Do not be confused by the length of a sentence. You should simply count the number
of clauses in the sentence.
B) Compound Sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more independent clauses

connected by a coordinating conjunction, conjunctive adverbs or separated by a semi-
colon.
Example: - I have never played tennis, but I hope to start taking lessons next year.
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- I steamed the carrots, and then I baked the potatoes.

- I ate every thing on the tray; I was really hungry.
- I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once, for I was very thirsty.
C) Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of one main clause and one
subordinate clause. The subordinate clause modifies a word (a noun/ a verb/ the whole
main clause) in the sentence, and it can be either adjectival or adverbial.
Examples:
- Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking lessons next year.
- He met a student who left school last year. (Adjective clause)
- After I took a nap, I felt better. (Adverb clause)
- If you come late, you will miss the bus. (Adverb clause)
- The girl whom I told you about yesterday when we were at the café is a lawyer.
D) Compound -Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of two independent

clauses with one or more subordinate clauses.
Example: - Although I have never played tennis, I planned to start taking lessons next
year; I really need the aerobic exercise that tennis provides.
- I bought coca cola, and I drank it at once because I was very thirsty.
Exercise 1: Read the following sentences and identify whether each of them is
simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. Then write the answer on the
space provided.
________1. Bekele dislikes sitting on the beach; he always gets nasty sunburn.
________2. Although they are 250 miles apart, they keep in constant contact on the
internet.
________3. Those students who live in the area often find the local college boring, but
students from out of the area seem to like it.
________4. After a lengthy and noisy debate, they decided to take separate vacations.
________5. Ronaldiniho dribbled past two defenders and made a good shot, but the
goalkeeper easily saved.
________6. A gentle man of wealth and position has been found guilty of theft.
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________7. The life which seems so fair is like a bubble blown in the air.
________8. There is nothing either good or bad, but thinking makes it bad.
________9. Those who seek faultless friends remain friendless.
________10. Reading a novel after work is a pleasant way of spending leisure.
________11. If you really want me to help you wash your floors, please give me a week‘s
notice for I am busy this month.
________12. The people of Bahir Dar are throwing garbage anywhere in the city;
consequently, the air is polluted.
________13. My brother who used to give me money whenever I want has been fired out of
his work, and I am in a financial problem now.
Exercise 2:
After each sentence, select the option that best describes that sentence.
1. Petros and Biruk have a big argument every summer over where they should spend
their summer vacation.
A. Simple Sentence
B. Compound Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
D. Compound-Complex Sentence
2. Sarah loves to go to the beach and spend her days sunbathing.

A. Simple Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
3. Bruk, on the other hand, likes the view that he gets from the log cabin up in the
mountains, and he enjoys hiking in the forest.
A. Simple Sentence
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C. Complex Sentence
4. Petros says there is nothing relaxing about chopping wood, swatting mosquitoes, and
cooking over a woodstove.
A. Simple Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
5. Bereket tends to get bored sitting on the beach, watching the waves, getting sand in his
swimsuit, and reading detective novels for a week.
A. Simple Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
6. This year, after a lengthy, noisy debate, they decided to take separate vacations.
A. Simple Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
7. The man went to the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and the woman went to Cape
Cod.
A. Simple Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
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8. Biruk took the desktop computer that he uses at work, and Petros sits on the beach with
her laptop computer, which he connects to the internet with a cellular phone.
A. Simple Sentence
C. Complex Sentence
1.2 Classification of Sentences by Purpose (Function)

i) Declarative Sentences- Sentences that makes statements and end with a period.
Example: The human back-bone has thirty-three bones.
ii) Interrogative Sentences- Sentences that ask questions and end with quotation
marks (?). Example: Could you tell me your name, please?
iii) Imperative Sentences- Sentences that make commands or request and end with
either a period or if the command shows strong feeling with exclamation mark
(!).
Example: Stand up!
Please, use your potential.
iv) Exclamatory Sentences- Sentences that make (express) strong feeling and end
with exclamation mark.
Example: What an excellent boy! Or how terrific you look!
1.3 Faulty Sentences
1.3.1 Fragments
A SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by

itself. It does not contain even one independent clause. There are several reasons why a
group of words may seem to act like a sentence but not have the wherewithal to make it as
a complete thought. Fragment can create misunderstanding and distract readers. A
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fragment is usually either a phrase or a dependent clause. For Example, Examine the
following sentences, especially the italicized parts, and then discuss the problems.
1. Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
2. Traveling through six cities in one week. They lost their luggage.
3. As a result of this event. He had learned this lesson.
4. This was the painting. That was portrayed by Leonardo Da Vinci.
5. Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter. The most famous man at the Dogali.
The most common fragments are caused when a writer uses incomplete sentence (that
cannot stand alone) that cannot convey a complete meaning. These constructions are:
adverb clause, adjective clause, verbal phrase, and adverb phrase. For instance, the above
sentences have the following problems:
 Sentence one shows an adverb clause as a fragment
 Sentence two shows an adjective clause as a fragment
 Sentence three shows a noun phrase appositive as a fragment
 Sentence four shows a verbal phrase as a fragment
 Sentence five shows an adverb clause as a fragment
Sentence fragment may locate something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a
series of such phrases, but it's still lacking a proper subject-verb relationship within an
independent clause:
In Japan, during the last war and just before the armistice.
This sentence accomplishes a great deal in terms of placing the reader in time and place,
but there is no subject, no verb.
Sentence fragment describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship:
Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat.
This is a verbal phrase that wants to modify something, the real subject of the sentence
(about to come up), probably the she who was working so hard.
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Sentence fragment may have most of the makings of a sentence but still be missing an
important part of a verb string:
Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester.

Remember that an -ing verb form without an auxiliary form to accompany it can never be a
verb.
Sentence fragment may even have a subject-verb relationship, but it has been subordinated
to another idea by a dependent word and so cannot stand by itself:
Even though he had the better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.
This sentence fragment has a subject, he, and two verbs, had and was, but it cannot stand
by itself because of the dependent word (subordinating conjunction) even though. We need
an independent clause to follow up this dependent clause: . . . the more powerful speaker,
he lost the case because he didn't understand the jury.
To correct fragments, (in all cases except two and three) simply change the incorrect
punctuation to a comma, and the capital letters in the middle of the sentence also need to
change to lower case letters. See how the fragments are corrected.
1. Even though the pizza was hot. He ate it quickly.
Even though the pizza was hot, he ate it quickly.
2. Traveling through six cities in one week. They lost their luggage.
Traveling through six cities in one week, they lost their luggage.
3. As a result of this event. He had learned this lesson.
As a result of this event, he had learned this lesson.
4. This was the painting. That was portrayed by Leonardo Da Vinci.
This was the painting that was portrayed by Leonardo Da Vinci. (Here, the comma
is not necessary)
5. Alula was a former Ethiopian fighter. The most famous man at the Dogali.
(Here, the fragment is placed in a wrong place.)
Alula, the most famous man at the Dogali, was a former Ethiopian fighter.
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Exercise 1: Of the three sentences in each group, select the one that is NOT a sentence
fragment. And correct the sentence fragments.
1.
a. Mrs. Blanco gone to visit her mother at the hospital.
b. Finding a parking space there is usually easy during the week
c. Driving in the city during the evening rush hour.
2.
a. To apply for a job at the new store in the mall.
b. Asking the interviewer how often he would have to work on weekends.
c. Shaking his new boss's hand, Tony knew he would like working there.
3.
a. By the time Frances found out how expensive the wallpapering job would
be.
b. After getting estimates from five contractors, she decided to do the work
herself.
c. Before picking out an interesting wallpaper pattern that went well with her
furniture.
4.
a. Who borrowed Stefanie's car Saturday night.
b. The nineteen-year-old car looked out of place next to the new models.
c. Which the salesman was surprised to find in such good shape.
5.
a. While waiting for her neighbor to move the car that blocked the driveway.
b. To avoid hitting the other car, Michael had to back across the corner of the
lawn.
c. By making sure that no one will park across the driveway again.
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6.
a. Because Manuel was sure he had heard the same strange story many
months ago.
b. Although I will never forget how cold we were when we lost our heat last
winter.
c. Since Anna wasn't at the meeting, I took notes so that she wouldn't miss
anything.
7.
a. When my cousin moved to Troy, New York, after he finished school.
b. After he went to all the trouble of fixing up his apartment.
c. While living there, he made very few friends.
8.
a. My brother has been running a charter fishing boat for five years.
b. Many of his customers coming back three or four times over the summer.
c. His business been so busy that he has very little time for anything else.
9.
a. In the hiding place that Carl had been using for years to get away from the
noisy house.
b. By the time that everyone had quieted down, my favorite television show
wash over.
c. Before planning another family get-together at the already crowded park.
10.
a. Although I knew she might wear something outrageous, I was still shocked
by her dress.
b. When we finally heard that she had made the dress herself.
c. Because she didn't want to tell where she had bought the strange outfit.
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1.3.2 Run-ons
The term run-on sentence labels an error with several different names, the most common
being fused sentence and comma splice.
A) Fused sentence: refers to the error of two independent clauses put together without
any separating punctuation or linking device between them. A run-on sentence
(sometimes called a "fused sentence") has at least two parts, either one of which
can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have
been combined together instead of being properly connected. It is important to
realize that the length of a sentence really has nothing to do with whether a
sentence is a run-on or not; being a run-on is a structural flaw that can plague even
a very short sentence.
Example: -The witness was unwilling to testify, he was afraid of the accused man.
-I avoided deserts I was trying to loose weight.
B) Comma Splice: refers to the error of two independent clauses connected by only
a comma as one sentence. Placing a comma in between two main (independent)
clauses without a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet) results in
the comma fault or comma splice.
Example: - The witness was unwilling to testify, he was afraid of the accused man.
- I avoided deserts, I was trying to loose weight.
- The sun is high, put on some sunblock.
Fused sentence and comma splice can be corrected in one of the following ways:
- Connect the main clauses with a coordinating conjunction and a comma.
- Replace the comma with a semicolon.
- Make a separate sentence of each main clause.
- Change one of the main clauses to a separate clause.
Example 1
Run-on: The witness was unwilling to testify he was afraid of the accused man.
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Revised 1: The witness was unwilling to testify; he was afraid of the accused
man.
Revised 2: The witness was unwilling to testify. He was afraid of the accused
man.
Revised 3: Because the witness was afraid of the accused man, he was unwilling
to testify.
Example 2
Run-on: I avoided deserts I was trying to lose weight.
Revised 1: I avoided deserts; I was trying to lose weight.
Revised 2: I avoided deserts. I was trying to lose weight.
Revised 3: Because I was trying to lose weight, I avoided deserts
Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances:
a. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was

said in the prior independent clause:
This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start studying
right away.
(We could put a period where that comma is and start a new sentence. A semicolon
might also work there.)
b. When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression

(conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless.
Mr. Nguyen has sent his four children to ivy-league colleges, however, he has
sacrificed his health working day and night in that dusty bakery.
(Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a period — and
started a new sentence — or a semicolon.)
c. When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects
it to the first independent clause.
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This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.
(Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related, this is
a run-on sentence. We need a period where that comma now stands.)
Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken already, this
proves my point about American computer manufacturers.
Again, two nicely related clauses, incorrectly connected — a run-on. Use a period to
cure this sentence.
Exercise 1:
Each of the following is a run-on sentence. From the group of three sentences that follow,
select the group of words that correct the run-on.
1. Our solar system has nine major planets only one is known to have intelligent life.
a. Our solar system has nine major planets, only one is known to have intelligent
life.
b. Our solar system has nine major planets only one, is known to have intelligent
life.
c. Our solar system has nine major planets; only one is known to have intelligent
life.
2. Most asteroids are small and far away therefore they are dim and hard to see.
a. Most asteroids are small and far away, therefore they are dim and hard to see.
b. Most asteroids are small and far away therefore, they are dim and hard to see.
c. Most asteroids are small and far away; therefore, they are dim and hard to see.
3. Look through Angelo's telescope you can see Saturn's rings.
a. If you look through Angelo's telescope, you can see Saturn's rings.
b. Look through Angelo's telescope, you can see Saturn's rings.
c. You can see Saturn's rings, look through Angelo's telescope.
4. Please check the position of that star cluster I can't find it.
a. Please check the position of that star cluster; I can't find it.
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b. Please check the position of that star cluster, I can't find it.
c. Please check the position, of that star cluster, I can't find it.
5. Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter however on warm summer
nights she often goes to the college observatory.
a. Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter, however, on warm
summer nights she often goes to the college observatory.
b. Marie is never interested in stargazing during the winter. However, on warm
c. Marie is never interested in stargazing, during the winter however, on warm
6. The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the night sky it is actually a
huge galaxy containing millions of stars.
a. The Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the night sky, it is actually
a huge galaxy containing millions of stars.
b. The cloud-like Milky Way stretching across the night sky is actually a huge galaxy
containing millions of stars.
c. Although the Milky Way looks like a dim cloud stretching across the night sky. It is
actually a huge galaxy containing millions of stars.
7. Watch the sky closely for several minutes you are likely to see an artificial satellite pass
over.
a. Watch the sky closely for several minutes; you are likely to see an artificial satellite
pass over.
b. Watch the sky closely for several minutes, you are likely to see an artificial satellite
pass over.
c. If you watch the sky closely for several minutes. You are likely to see an artificial
satellite pass over.
8. Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby she secretly wished she had
stayed at home.
a. Louisa pretended to be interested in her brother's hobby, she secretly wished she
had stayed at home.
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b. Pretending to be interested in her brother's hobby, Louisa secretly wished she had
stayed at home.
c. Louisa pretended to be interested, in her brother's hobby, she secretly wished she
had stayed at home.
9. Some club members were late for the meeting for example, Tanya and Scott came in at
9:30.
a. Some club members were late for the meeting, for example Tanya and Scott came
in at 9:30.
b. Some club members were late for the meeting, for example, Tanya and Scott came
in at 9:30.
c. Some club members were late for the meeting; for example, Tanya and Scott came
in at 9:30.
10. We've seen enough for one night pack up the equipment.
a. We've seen enough for one night; pack up the equipment.
b. Pack up the equipment, we've seen enough for one night.
1.3.3 Dangling Modifiers

Verbal phrase
Verbal phrases start with verbs. Verb phrase comes in three forms: Participles, Gerunds,
and Infinitives. However, we will focus on the verbal phrase (participles) that is needed for
this topic. Participles function as noun modifiers. They have three forms: present, past, and
perfect.
- The present participle ends in –ing (dancing, waiting).
- The past participle usually ends in –ed (danced, waited).
- The perfect participle is formed by the past participle preceded by having (having
danced, having waited).
A participial phrase contains a participle and any complements and modifiers it may
have. The entire phrase functions as an adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun:
- Coming in for a landing, the plane skidded off the way.
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- Built in the 1700s, the church was a historic place.

- Having finished the cake, James started on the cookies.
When we come to a dangling modifier, it occurs when the implied subject of a verbal
phrase is not the same as the subject of the independent clause. Who or what is doing the
action in the verbal phrase must be named as the subject in the independent clause. When
these two subjects are not the same, you have created a dangling modifier. It is obvious
that a modifier must have something to modify, but a dangling modifier has nothing to
modify because the word it logically should modify is not present in its sentence. A
modifier that opens a sentence must be followed immediately by the word it is meant to
describe. Otherwise, the modifier is said to be dangling, and the sentence takes on an
unintended meaning.
For example: Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Driving through the mountains is a participial phrase that can modify anything capable of
driving. The sentence says that the bears are driving, but common sense tells us bears can‘t
drive. Although the writer surely meant that the bears were seen by some person who was
driving, the sentence contains no words directly identifying such a person. There are two
ways to correct / revise a dangling modifier:
1. Change the subject of the main clause or state an appropriate subject for the main
clause so that the stated subject goes with the implied subject of the modifying
phrase.
Error: Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Revised: Driving through the mountains, he/she saw three bears.
2. Change the dangling phrase into a subordinate clause by adding a subordinating
conjunction (while, as, after…) and a subject.
Error: Driving through the mountains, three bears were seen.
Revised: While Edward was driving through the mountains, he saw three bears.
Exercise 1: Correct the following sentences containing dangling modifiers, and write the
sentences on the space provided.
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Example: Brushing the street, I saw the street sweeper go by.

Brushing the street, the street sweeper went by me
1. Blowing at 100 miles per hour, the roof was ripped off.
__________________________________________________________
2. Shaving in front of the steamy mirror, the razor nicked Edward's chin.
___________________________________________________________
3. Reading the newspaper, my dog sat with me on the front steps.
___________________________________________________________
4. Pitching his tent, a snake bit Tony on the ankle.
______________________________________________________________
5. Munching leaves from a tall tree, the children were fascinated by the giraffe.
______________________________________________________________
6. Chopping the onions, the knife cut her finger.
______________________________________________________________
7. Turning over the bacon, hot grease splashed my arm.
_______________________________________________________________
8. Knowing the answer, my hand was raised.
______________________________________________________________
9. Walking in the rain, my shoes got wet.
_____________________________________________________________
10. Tired after work, a nap was what I wanted.
______________________________________________________________
1.3.4 Misplaced Modifiers

Modern English relies heavily upon word order to show relationships among words for
word order is crucial to meaning in English. Just as word order is the principal way to keep
subject–verb–object relations clear, so it is the principal way to keep many modifiers
attached to the words they modify. Phrases and clauses that modify nouns require special
care, since they normally attach to the nearest noun preceding them. Misplaced modifiers
are words that, because of awkward placement, do not describe what the writer intended
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them to describe. Misplaced modifiers often confuse the meaning of a sentence. To avoid
them, place words as close as possible to what they describe. Example:
Error: Frozen shrimp lay in the steel pans that were melting rapidly.
(The italicized clause is a misplaced modifier.)
Revised: Frozen shrimp that were melting rapidly lay in the steel pans.
Error: Katherine performed the role with a dark attitude.
(The italicized phrase is a misplaced modifier.)
Revised: Katherine with a dark attitude performed the role.
Exercise 1: From the following pairs of sentences with dangling and misplaced
modifiers problems, select the correctly written sentence.
a. To become a respected politician, one must administer campaign funds

carefully.
b. To become a respected politician, campaign funds must be carefully
administered.
a. I like to listen to rock music doing my homework.

b. I like to listen to rock music while I am doing my homework.
a. The soccer team only won four games in the last three years.
b. The soccer team won only four games in the last three years.
a. Without a plan for the weekend, we decided to take in a Saturday matinee.

b. Without a plan for the weekend, a Saturday matinee seemed a good idea at the
time.
a. The children were delighted by the monkeys swinging wildly through the trees.
b. Swinging wildly through the trees, the children were delighted by the monkeys.
1.3.5 Agreement Errors

Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs.
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My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.

1. The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody are always
singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.
 Everyone has done his or her homework.
 Somebody has left her purse.
2. Some indefinite pronouns — such as all, some — are singular or plural depending on
what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?) Be careful
choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.
 Some of the beads are missing.
 Some of the water is gone.
Many a + singular noun
Many + Plural noun
When a noun is modified by quantities like: All of/Some of/most of/more of + plural noun
+ plural verb
3. On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be either singular or
plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a plural verb — unless
something else in the sentence determines its number. (Writers generally think of none
as meaning not any and will choose a plural verb, as in "None of the engines are
working," but when something else makes us regard none as meaning not one, we
want a singular verb, as in "None of the food is fresh.")
 None of you claims responsibility for this incident?
 None of you claim responsibility for this incident?
 None of the students have done their homework. (In this last example, the
word their precludes the use of the singular verb.
None (not one) + plural noun + plural verb
+ uncountable noun + singular verb
I looked for some bottles of beer in the grocery but there were none.
They searched for water in the desert area but there was none.
4. Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and everybody
(listed above, also) certainly feel like more than one person and, therefore, students are
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sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are always singular, though.
Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase ending in a plural word (Each of the
cars), thus confusing the verb choice. Each, too, is always singular and requires a
singular verb.
Everyone has finished his or her homework.
You would always say, "Everybody is here." This means that the word is singular and
nothing will change that.
Each of the students is responsible for doing his or her work in the library.
Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is each and each is always singular
— Each is responsible.
5. Phrases such as together with, as well as, and along with are not the same as and. The
phrase introduced by as well as or along with will modify the earlier word (mayor in
this case), but it does not compound the subjects (as the word and would do).
 The mayor as well as his brothers is going to prison.
 The mayor and his brothers are going to jail.
Compound subject
 The manager and the chair person of the committee are interesting people.
Associated compound subject
 The manager and chair person of the committee is an interesting woman.
6. The pronouns neither and either are singular and require singular verbs even though
they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.
 Neither of the two traffic lights is working.
 Which shirt do you want for Christmas? Either is fine with me.
In informal writing, neither and either sometimes take a plural verb when these pronouns
are followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with of. This is particularly true of
interrogative constructions: "Have either of you two clowns read the assignment?" "Are
either of you taking this seriously?" Burchfield calls this "a clash between notional and
actual agreement."
7. The conjunction or does not conjoin (as and does): when nor or or is used the subject
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closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes
before or after the verb doesn't matter; the proximity determines the number.
 Either my father or my brothers are going to sell the house.
 Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house.
 Are either my brothers or my father responsible?
 Is either my father or my brothers responsible?
Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the house"
sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer to the verb
whenever that is possible.
8. The words there and here are never subjects.
 There are two reasons [plural subject] for this.
 There is no reason for this.
 Here are two apples.
With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the verb but
still determines the number of the verb.
9. Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it and anything
those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs do not add s-endings.
He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . . .
10. Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these modifiers must
not confuse the agreement between the subject and its verb.
The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four counts of
various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several political lives, is
finally going to jail.
11. Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural when
they're really singular and vice-versa. Consult the section on the Plural Forms of Nouns
and the section on Collective Nouns for additional help. Words such as glasses, pants,
pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs) unless they're preceded
21
the phrase pair of (in which case the word pair becomes the subject).
 My glasses were on the bed.
 My pants were torn.
 A pair of plaid trousers is in the closet.
12. Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and require
singular verbs.
 The news from the front is bad.
 Measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women.
On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are nonetheless
plural and require a plural verb.
 My assets were wiped out in the depression.
 The average worker's earnings have gone up dramatically.
 Our thanks go to the workers who supported the union.
The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb: the Miami Heat
have been looking …, The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent ….
13. Fractional expressions such as half of, a part of, a percentage of, a majority of are
sometimes singular and sometimes plural, depending on the meaning. (The same is
true, of course, when all, any, more, most and some act as subjects.) Sums and
products of mathematical processes are expressed as singular and require singular
verbs. The expression "more than one" (oddly enough) takes a singular verb: "More
than one student has tried this."
 Some of the voters are still angry.
 A large percentage of the older population is voting against her.
 Forty percent of the students are in favor of changing the policy.
 Forty percent of the student body is in favor of changing the policy.
 Two and two is four.
 Four times four divided by two is eight.
In fractions & percentages – the verb agrees with the noun concerned.
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 Three quarters of the students come from abroad.

 Two-fifths of the troops were lost in the battle.
 Two-fifths of the vineyard was destroyed by fire.
A lot of/ half of/ quarter of + uncountable noun + singular verb
Words expressing weight, height, distance, time or amount are singular, therefore, takes
singular verb.
 One hundred kilogram is a heavy load.
The number of + plural noun + singular verb
A number of + plural noun + plural verb
 The number of HIV/ AIDS carriers is increasing.
 A number of people are suffering from the disease HIV/AIDS.
The amount of
An amount of + mass noun + singular verb
 The amount of money in my wallet is only ten birr.
14. If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one is plural, the
other singular, the verb should agree with the positive subject.
 The department members but not the chair have decided not to teach on
Valentine's Day.
 It is not the faculty members but the president who decides this issue.
 It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provoked the students to riot.
Activity 1: Select the correct verb form

1. The price of these jeans is/ are reasonable.
2. The books borrowed from the library is/ are on my desk.
3. The boy who won the two medals is /are a friend of mine.
4. Bread and butter is/ are our daily food.
5. The famous singer and composer has/ have arrived.
6. Collecting match-boxes is/ are one of his favourite pastimes.
7. The quality of the candies is /are poor.
8. Neither his father nor his mother plays/ play mahjong.
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9. Neither parent is /are fond of playing mahjong.

10. None of my friends was /were there.
11. Many a student has/have made the same mistake.
12. Gold, as well as platinum, has/have recently raised in price.
13. The boss, as well as his colleagues, has/have been robbed by the robber.
14. Ten tons is/ are a heavy load.
15. Fifty miles is/are a long distance.
16. Thirty years is /are a long time.
17. One of the books has/ have been missing.
18. The poor is/ are suffering.
19. You should decide which one of the three choices A, B, or C best answer/ answers the
question.
20. One of the most intelligent students who scores/ score full marks is/ are John.
21. The only one of these most intelligent students who is /are under 18 is/ are Peter.
22. One of these most intelligent students whose example is/ are being followed is/ are
John.
1.4 Vague Diction

Diction – choice of words
Vague - something which is not clear or ambiguous
One of the errors which affect the clarity of a sentence is vague diction. Vagueness is one
of the major weaknesses in diction. Words are vague when, in context, they do not convey
to a reader one specific meaning. We may have a word with several meanings. And any
word that has more than one meaning is bound to cause trouble. Consider this sentence:
Example: I could tell by the funny look on her face that she was mad. If you take the word
mad:
Very angry: affected by great displeasure or anger
 She‘ll go mad when she finds out.
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Mentally ill: affected with a psychiatric disorder

Exciting: very exciting or boisterous
Passionate about something: very fond of, enthusiastic about, or interested in
something, often to the exclusion of everything else
 I‘m not mad about the color.
 football mad
Markedly aggressive: unusually aggressive or ferocious (refers to animals;
offensive in some contexts)
Words like ―funny‖ and ―mad‖ can have quite specific meanings, but not in this context.
What does ―mad‖ mean here? Certainly not ―insane‖, which it might mean in another
sentence. ―angry‖, then, or ―annoyed‖, ―irritated‖ , ―offended‖? A reader cannot be sure.
But the writer can remove any doubt by using more specific diction:
I could tell by the way her face stiffened that she was offended.
In order to make our messages clear, when we choose words, we should deserve special
caution, i.e., the words we choose should be which give one clear interpretation; they
should be free from vagueness. The other major weakness in diction is jargon. Jargon is a
language that is used by a particular group, profession, or culture, especially when the
words and phrases are not understood or used by other people. The chief characteristic of
jargon is: highly abstract diction, often technical, with a fondness for ―learned‖ rather than
popular words. A word in one profession may give a different meaning in the other
profession.
Medical jargon Common Use
Patient patient
Stool stool
Examination room examination room
Patient (common) (ordinary use) - capable of waiting, able to tolerate difficult
circumstances
Patient (medicine) (jargon) - somebody who is being given medical treatment
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Stool (common) (ordinary use) - a simple seat with three or four legs and no back or arm
rests
Stool (medicine) (jargon) - a piece of excrement
Stool (botany) (jargon) - the base of a plant, a clump of shoots or suckers
Examination room (common) (ordinary use) – a place where students are evaluated with
paper and pencil
Examination room (medicine) (jargon) - a place where a patient is investigated for a
disease
Note: During diction- Know your audience.
- Don‘t use jargons in ordinary writing.
- Use common words which give one clear interpretation for all people.
1.5 Sentence Variety

Effective writers have the ability to use a variety of sentence structures to express their
thoughts. Less experienced writers tend to use a few basic structures over and over, which
weakens their expressive powers and leads to a monotonous writing style. The confidence
and skill to use a variety of sentence structures helps you convey your ideas to readers.
Consider the following paragraph and detect what the problem of the paragraph is:
I enjoy Christmas very much. I like shopping. I like decorating the tree. I like
giving presents. I enjoy eating on Christmas Day. I enjoy eating turkey. I like a
lot of dressing. I like pumpkin pie. I also like being with the family. I like seeing
my grandmother. I like seeing my nieces.
The sentences in the paragraph are all of similar length (5, 3, 5, 4, 6, 4, 6, 4, 7, 5 and 5
words respectively). Moreover, they are all simple sentences of the same basic structure
(subject + predicate). This lack of variety becomes monotonous. Let us consider another
example:
The horror movie at the drive-in was terrible. The acting was bad. The plot was
bad. Every scene was filled with blood. There was blood on the bodies. There was
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blood on the walls. There was blood in the bathtub. The ending of the movie was
the worst part. It was stupid. It was unbelievable. A six-year-old girl poisoned her
mother, father, brother and dog with rat poison. She did it for fun. She did it to
shock her friends. It was the worst movie I have seen in a long time. I went home. I
didn't go to another movie for a month.
In general, a short or a long series of sentences identical or very similar in length and
structure is monotonous. But a series of well- written, varied sentences provides the
reader with more than mere absence of monotony. It reflects the writer's careful choice of
length and structure to supply emphasis that creates meaning. Consider the following
paragraph. Notice the variety in length and structure of the seven sentences that make up
the paragraph.
One of the great paradoxes in history is that the truest expression of Christianity in
history is to be found not in the west but in the east (complex). In India countless
millions of people are living out the ideas of Christ, though they do not call
themselves Christians and are unfamiliar with Christian theology (complex). They
are the poor, the meek, the merciful, and the pure in heart (simple). They regard life
as scared and they will not harm it in any of its forms (compound). They practice
renunciation (simple). They believe in nonviolence and they worship the memory of
a human being who perhaps has come closer to enacting Christianity than anyone in
modern history (compound-complex). Interestingly enough, Gandhi‘s struggle was
directed against a Western Christian nation (Simple).
Notice how pleasing this paragraph is to the ear. By using a variety of sentence structures,
the writer changes the tempo of the writing, avoiding monotony. Notice, too, how the
changes in tempo lead to sentences of different length, ranging form three (they practice
renunciation) to twenty-six words (They believe in nonviolence and they worship the
memory of a human being who perhaps has come closer to enacting Christianity
than anyone in modern history). Thus, the two strategies - varying sentence length and
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varying sentence structure -work together. Consider the following paragraph. Notice the
variety in length and structure of the eight sentences that make up the paragraph.
The trouble with the families many of us were born into is not that they consist of
meddlesome ogres but they are too far away. In emergencies we rush across
continents and if need be oceans to their sides, as they do to ours. Maybe we even
make a habit of seeing them, once or twice a year, for the sheer pleasure of it. But
blood ties seldom dictate our addresses. Our blood kin are often too remote to ease
us from our Tuesdays to our Wednesdays. For this we must rely on our families of
friends. If our relatives are not, do not wish to be, or for whatever reasons cannot
be our friends, then by some complex alchemy we must try to transform our friends
into our relatives. If blood and roots don‘t do the job, then we must look to water
and branches. (Jane Howard, Families)
The length of these eight sentences ranges from the seven- word But blood ties seldom
dictate our addresses to the long thirty- three word sentence beginning If our relatives are
not. Structure varies from the simple subject - verb - object pattern of the crisp fourth,
fifth, and sixth sentences of the much greater complexity of the opening twenty-six word
sentence and the two closing sentences of thirty - three and sixteen words respectively.
NOTE: Short, simple sentences and longer, more complex sentences can work together to
achieve variety that enhances meaning. If you are effectively using coordination ,
subordination, parallelism, and other sentence structures, your writing will already contain
a good deal of variety. you will have discovered, for instance, that short sentences are
good for introducing a topic or summing up a point and that longer sentences lend
themselves to elaboration , detailed explanation, or qualification of a main idea.
1.6 Punctuation and Capitalization
Punctuation Marks
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 Full stop (period (.)): The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably
the simplest of the punctuation marks to use. You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to
the required length. Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end
of a logical and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you.
(a) Terminates a complete declarative or imperative sentence.
- You can see me at your convenience.
- Return the book to the central book store.
(b) Follows an abbreviation.
- Dec. - PP. – Contd. –A. M - B.C - M. A
(c) Terminates indirect questions.
- She wanted to know whether I was single or married.
 Comma: The Comma ( , ) is used:
(a) To separate the final item from or in a series of three or more.
- She speaks Arabic, English, and French.
(b) To set off non- restrictive clauses or phrases.
- The rabid dog, which was killed yesterday, has bitten three people.
(c) Sets of words or phrases in apposition to a noun or a noun phrase.
- Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher, had written three great books.
(d) After ' yes' and ' no' in short responses.
- Yes, he does smoke like a chimney.
- No, he does not smoke at all.
(e) To separate the items of a date.
- Sunday, 25 August, 2005. or
- Sunday, 25 August 2005.
(f) After words addressed to someone.
- Mr. Prime Minister, will you adjourn the meeting?
(g) To mark off adverbial clauses that come at the beginning of the sentence.
- If you meet him, give him my message.
- Since I know her, I won't ask for a security.
- Though he had fallen ill near the examinations, he still passed with credit.
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(h) To mark off participial phrases.

- On seeing his long lost son, he burst into tears.
- Finding no one in the house, he came back.
- Having lost a lot of money on business, he doesn't want to risk his money
again.
(i) To separate direct utterances from the reporting verb.
- He said, '' The holy Bible is the most universal book.''
(J) To set off a state, region or city in geographical names.
- The seat of OAU and ECA is, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
(k) To separate four or more figures in to thousands and millions.
- $ 5,000 $ 1,236,567
(l) To separate a statement from a question tag.
- You are my brother-in-law, aren't you?
- His idea is rejected, isn't it?
(m) For clarification of meaning.
- Sometime in the future, I may for Heaven's sake, reconsider your application.
(n) After the salutation in a personal letter, and the complimentary closes of a
business and personal letters.
- Dear Mr. John,
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Yours Sincerely,
(o) To set off titles and degrees from proper (sur) names and the rest of a sentence.
- Yohannes, M.D., wrote a book about HIV&AIDS.
- Assefa Taye, PhD read Literature at Oxford.
(p) To set off short pauses in reading / speaking.
- Unfortunately, our history has been one of civil war and vengeance.
- After all, it is not a question of life and death.
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 Semi-Colon (;):- a semi-colon is a longer pause than comma but shorter than a full
stop. It is used to separate independent clauses of a compound sentence that are not
joined by a conjunction.
(a) To separate the clauses of a compound sentence having no co-ordinate
conjunction.
- Let us not drum up on the past; let us rather dream of the bright future.
(b) To separate elements of a series already separated by commas.
-The four dialects of the Agaw language are spoken in Keren; Eritrea, Wag-
Sequotta; Wollo, Agaw Medir; Gojjam and northern Gondar.
(c) To separate a compound sentence joined by a conjunctive adverb.
- The thief has stolen the money; consequently, the police have arrested him.
- We insisted upon a hearing; however, the grievance committee rejected our
petition.
 Colon ( : ) is used :
(a) To introduce a longer quotation.
- Shakespeare says: '' Revenge is sweet.''
(b) To introduce a list of items.
- We need the following stationery: pens, erasers, sharpeners and pencils.
(c) To separate the chapter from the verse in biblical references.
- '' Can the Ethiopian change his skin or the leopard its spot?'' Jeremiah 13: 23
(d) To separate hour and minute in time designation.
- 6:30 p.m -12:00 a.m
(e) After the salutation.
- Gentlemen: - Dear Sirs:
 Apostrophe ( ' )
(a) Indicates the possessive case of singular / plural nouns.
- My brother's wife is a beautiful woman.
- Ethiopia's export items are like coffee, 'chat' etc.
(b) To show contractions
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- We're ready.
- They've been informed.
 Quotation marks or inverted commas ( " … ''): are used to enclose words
actually spoken, that is, direct speech, and also quotations.
(a) Double quotation marks used to enclose a direct quotation.
- She said, '' Please take your seat.''
- He shouted, '' Where has everybody gone?''
- Keats says, '' A thing of beauty is a joy for ever.''
(b) Single quotation marks ('… ') are used:
(1) To indicate that the words used by one are not one's own.
- Politicians should never forget that ' a week is a long time in politics.'
- We should ask ' what we can do for our country; not what our country
can do for us.'
(2) To refer to words borrowed from other languages or to translations.
- Some Europeans are accustomed to eating ' Injera'.
- The Sudanese wear ' jellebias'.
(3) To indicate a quotation within a quotation.
- Levine said that '' war is a continuation of politics not only in Africa '
but also in eastern Europe'.''
Note that double quotation marks can also be used to enclose the title of books, plays,
poems, magazines and newspaper articles, and radio / TV programs. The titles may be
italicized or underlined.
- '' Hamlet'' is one of the greatest tragedies ever written.
- '' War and peace'' is a bulky novel.
- I have read a poem entitled '' Fire and Ice'' by Robert Frost.
Capitalization
We can capitalize words in order to meet the basic conventions of the American and
British capitalizations.
1. The first word of a sentence
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- Scorpions are more poisonous than snakes.

- People are living their death.
- Do you really mean it?
2. The first word of a direct quotation except when the quotation is run into the text.
- She said, '' I am fed up of this democracy business.''
- He responded, '' It was quite boring.''
3. Proper names of people, organizations, historical periods and events etc.
- Barak Obama
- Young Men's Christian Association
- The Middle Ages
- The Battle of Adwa
4. Names of places, districts, regions.
- Ethiopia - Addis Ababa
5. Names of geographic features.
- Blue Nile - Lake Tana - Tekeze River
6. Names of ships, air craft and space vehicles.
- Voyager III - Mig-5 -EAL
7. Names of nationalities, races, tribes, language.
- Bushmanoids - Irish - Black Jews - The Billen - Old English
8. Titles preceding a proper name.
- Major General Hayelom Araya
- Queen Elizabeth
- His Holiness Abune Paulos
- Pope John Paul II
- King Duncan of Scotland
9. Key words in the title of artistic words (plays, novels, musical compositions etc.)
- Gone with the wind was published in 1936.
- Haddis Alemayehu's Fikir –Eske-Mekabir is ever memorable.
- Rock and Roll is sweeping the whole of America.
10. The first word in salutations and complimentary close of a letter.
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- My Dear Friend,
-------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------
Sincerely yours,
11. Names of Deity and Sacred words.
- God - the Bible - Apollo
- Allah - the Koran - Old Testament.
12. Days of the week, months of the year, holidays and holydays.
- Sunday - September - February
- Eid al-Adha - Easter - Christmas
13. Name of treaties, laws and acts.
- Warsaw pact
- Lagos Plan of Action
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Criminal Law
- Civil Code
14. Trade marks
-Xerox -Kodak - BIC - IBM
15. Geographical names, periods, eras.
- Stone Age - Barbarism
- Paleozoic Era - Mesozoic Era
16. Name of planets, stars, constellations.
- Jupiter - Polaris
- Milk- way - the Pole Star
17. Abbreviations of proper nouns and adjectives.
- BBC - EEC - French
- ETHOF - NATO - African
Summary
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This unit deals with the different types of sentences: Simple, compound, complex and
compound-complex in terms of construction, and declarative, interrogative, imperative and
exclamatory in function. It also attends to the various sorts of faulty sentences that students
always face when writing sentences or longer texts. These sentences errors include
fragments, run-ons, dangling modifiers, misplaced modifiers and agreement. The use of
clear and unambiguous words, and of various sentences of structure and length (i.e. to
avoid monotonous) are also part of this unit. Finally, appropriate use of the various types
of punctuation marks and mechanics have been dealt in this unit. The use of varied,
complete, clear, well-punctuated sentences facilitates understanding and hence maintains
good relationship among communicators.
Unit Two: Paragraph Writing

 Develop a topic sentence workable in a single paragraph.
 Analyze structure of a paragraph.
 State characteristics of a good paragraph.
 Develop well-unified, -cohered and -organized paragraph of different types.
 Link ideas using appropriate transitional markers to allow ideas flow from one
sentence/paragraph to the other smoothly.
35
What is a Paragraph?
Definition: Different writers give their own definitions to the tem paragraph. The
followings are some of these.
Paragraph is defined as a group of related sentences expressing and developing a basic

idea, or a series of related sentences so arranged as to explicate a single topic, dominant
idea or particular phase of thought. In essence ,a paragraph is an expanded sentence , a
unite of thought ; and a good test of the thought unit is that except for a descriptive or a
narrative paragraph , it may be cast more or less in to a single sentence summing up the
content of the entire paragraph . Morris H. Needleman (1968)
A paragraph is a group of sentences related to one main idea, which is expressed in the
topic sentence, usually the first sentence of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a summary
sentence, informing the reader of a paragraph‘s topic, of main idea. All other sentences in
the paragraph most help, show, prove, or explain that topic sentence. Katherine Ploeger
(2000)
A paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one major idea. It
usually begins with an indentation, and its length varies according to the complexity of the
main idea to be developed. A typical paragraph quite often has about one hundred –
hundred fifty words and seven to ten sentences in which every point in the paragraph
having a useful role to play in fulfilling the purpose of the paragraph. Solomon G/ Giorgis
(1991).
We can understand from these definitions that the difference between them is simply that
of wording. What are central in the definitions are:
 A paragraph is a group of sentences
 All these sentences together talk about (develop) one idea.
 One of these sentences is broad and carries the main idea of the paragraph.
 A sentence that carries the main idea of the paragraph is called topic sentences.
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Generally, a paragraph is a group of sentences that form a distinct unit developing one
main idea or point.
2.1 Structure of a Paragraph
A paragraph, despite its length, should include the following parts: Introduction, Body and
Conclusion. These are organic Elements of a Paragraph (parts of a paragraph).
Note: The topic sentences introduce the main idea of a paragraph; the supporting sentences
develop the paragraph; and the concluding (terminating) sentences end the paragraph.
Introduction
The introductory sentence is an opening sentence in a paragraph. This sentence identifies
the topic for the reader and makes a statement of some kind about the topic. This sentence
leaves the reader with the feeling that more information will follow. The reader expects
that there will be some description or explanation within the paragraph that tells how
many, which one, what kind of, when, where, how, why, etc. Example: Suppose you want
to write a paragraph about Police Work. The introductory part (topic sentence) of your
paragraph might look like:
Police officers perform many important services. ____________________________

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________.
Notice that this sentence is rather general as it stands. When we say general, the sentence
by itself does not tell enough about: What are these services? Why are they important?
Who performs them? When and where are they performed? And so on. But you should
know that though this sentence doesn't answer such questions, it introduces an overall idea
that you want to discuss later in the paragraph.
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Topic Sentence
Each paragraph has a clear topic sentence. The topic sentence alerts readers to the essence
of the paragraph by stating the central idea and by expressing the writer‘s attitude toward
it. A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main idea of a paragraph. It tells the
reader what to expect about the information that will follow. Without the use of a topic
sentence, developing a paragraph can be difficult.
Positions of Topic Sentences

As it has been said earlier, a topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea claims or
controls the rest of the paragraph; the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports
with evidence the topic sentence‘s main idea or claim. Topic sentence is usually the first
sentence of a paragraph, but not necessarily. It may come, for example, after a transition
sentence; it may even come at the end of a paragraph. In other words, topic sentences can
appear at several points in a paragraph. Position(s) of topic sentence(s) in a paragraph can
be:
 the beginning of the paragraph
 the middle of the paragraph
 the end of the paragraph
 the beginning and the end of the paragraph
Here are some examples of a topic sentence in different positions of a paragraph (in bold
print):
1. There were a variety of reasons why people said they went to football games. Some
of the fans said they went to games because they felt it would help their team to win
the series. Others considered going to foot ball games more exciting than watching
them on TV. A few felt that purchasing tickets to football games would ensure the
financial success of the game and, thus, its continuance. And a very small number
explained that going to football games was strictly a social occasion.
38
2. Homework is one of those necessary evils of being a student. The one sure way that a
teacher knows how to measure your progress in his/her course is to assign homework
that tests your knowledge of the information that is taught. Some instructors,
however, seem to use homework as a way of reassuring themselves that they have
―taught‖ the information to the students. Many students, aware of these ideas about
homework, tend to treat homework as a chore, putting little or no thought into the
work that is turned in. However, like any designated task, homework is a reflection
not only on you as a student, but also on you as an individual. When an employer
has to decide whether or not to hire you, he or she has to consider your ability to
complete the demands of the working world. For many employers, the way that you
handle your ―homework‖ in college often indicates the way that you will handle your
homework on the job. For example, often your grade in a class is determined by the
quality of the homework that you do. That homework grade can be a significant part
of your final grade for the course. In fact, many students can attest to an experience
where the homework grade made the difference in their final course grade. Once you
leave college and attempt to find a job, those homework grades translate into final
GPAs for your major. Those final GPAs show up on resumes and job applications
and employers look to see if you have done your ―homework‖ in school as a key
factor in determining if you will do your ―homework‖ on the job.
3. In Arab countries, where women do not have equal rights, men commonly cut in front
of women at ticket window. In Britain and the United States, where ―first come, first
served‖ is almost an obsession, many businesses have customers take numbers to
ensure that ―first come‘ is really ―first served.‖ By contrast, in southern Europe,
where people don‘t like businesses regulating their behavior, lines are disorderly, with
lots of pushing and shoving for the best position; the strongest or most aggressive win.
Anthropologists who study line-forming behavior have concluded that the way
people wait in line reflects cultural values about fairness.
4. The wonder of omelets is that so many things can be put into them. Take cheese, for
example. All sorts of cheese, like Swiss or provolone, feta or mozzarella, slide
39
deliciously into the omelet's fold, enhancing the texture of the eggs. And vegetables,
from the predictable onions and green peppers to the less common spinach and
kohlrabi, add vital flavor. Still more lavish, for those who are not vegetarians, is the
addition of a meat, possibly pepperoni or bacon or ham. But the omelet's most exotic
components might be the fruits that give it tang: raisins and avocados. Maybe
someday an enterprising chef will figure out how to mix liquor and candy with eggs
to produce vodka – and – fudge omelets.
NOTE: Topic sentences are not the only way to organize a paragraph, and not all
paragraphs need a topic sentence. For example, paragraphs that describe, narrate, or detail
the steps in an experiment do not usually need topic sentences. Topic sentences are useful,
however, in paragraphs that analyze and argue. Topic sentences are particularly useful for
writers who have difficulty developing focused, unified paragraphs (i.e., writers who tend
to sprawl). Topic sentences help these writers develop a main idea or claim for their
paragraphs, and, perhaps most importantly, they help these writers stay focused and keep
paragraphs manageable.
Summary
1) Topic sentence expresses the main idea of a paragraph
2) A topic sentence usually states a definite opinion or attitude.
3) A topic sentence provides the reader with a clear understanding of what a
paragraph is about.
4) A topic sentence gives direction to a paragraph that both the writer and reader can
follow.
5) A topic sentence often begins a paragraph or is found near the beginning of a
paragraph.
6) Other sentences within a paragraph relate to the topic sentence
7) The final " wrap - up " sentence in a paragraph often reinforces the topic sentence
Exercise: Underline the topic sentence in each paragraph: the sentence that expresses
the paragraph's main idea.
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1. The weather in March was unpredictable. One day there was heavy ground fog, and
the next day was clear. It rained for a few days and cleared up and then it rained
again. One day the temperature ranged from 45 degrees to 75 degrees, and the
next day the temperature stayed around 55 degrees all day long. It was difficult to
plan activities or know what to wear with such unpredictable weather.
2. There are three reasons why I want to learn English. One reason is that English has
become an international language. It is now used by most international companies,
including the company where I work, for business communication. Another reason
why I want to learn English is so that I can travel to English-speaking countries.
The United States, England, Australia and many other countries all use English as
their primary language. Finally, I want to learn English because I plan to move to
the U.S. in the future. I will become a manager for my company soon. For all these
reasons, I am very excited about learning English.
Body
The body section of a paragraph is the part of the paragraph which provides details that
refer back to the introductory sentence. The job of providing the specific information that
answers questions about the introductory (topic) sentence is carried out by the other
sentences in the paragraph. These other sentences are usually called "supporting
sentences". The information they give is commonly called "details" or "supporting
details".
Supporting sentences can supply information about the topic in a number of ways. They
may answer the question what kind of? by defining or explaining something in the topic
sentence, or by offering examples or a description of it. They may answer the question
why? by giving reasons that will help the reader to understand or agree with the idea
suggested by the topic sentence. In answering some other questions, they may describe the
causes or origins of the topic sentence, draw a conclusion from it, predict new events or
ideas, or compare certain ideas with other ideas. They may also accomplish several of
these purposes at the same time. Let's refer to our example about police work to review
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more thoroughly how supporting sentences can add information. Notice how the writer
has added some details after the opening (topic) sentence:
Police officers perform many important services. They may be involved in solving
crimes. They may find themselves helping lost children. Often police officers are
also called upon to calm frightened people or to assist someone who has been
wronged. They may give aid to motorists whose cars have broken down or who have
been in accidents.
The details the writer has added explain How? or In what ways? Police officers can
perform important services. A writer needs to be sure that most of the details that are
included in the material refer directly back to the topic sentence. Other details may be
indirectly related; that is, they may describe one of the directly related details. If we go
back to our sample paragraph on police work, for example, "helping children" is a
directly related detail because it answers the question How? about police work The word
"lost" describes children, however, rather than police work, and is therefore an indirectly
related detail. The details in this paragraph all refer back to the topic either directly or
indirectly. So it is clear, as you read the entire paragraph, exactly what the topic is.
In this part of technical writing, you are required to focus on developing each paragraph
effectively (providing enough details to support fully the points in the body paragraph),
arranging paragraph in logical sequence (the paragraph should progress logically from
one idea to another by using time order, emphatic order, and spatial order)., and
connecting paragraphs with transitions-(you should be thinking about ways to organize
and connect those details).
Exercise: Each of the following paragraph topics is followed by two sentences that relate
to the topic. Add two more sentences of your own that are also related to the topic, and
hence, would make a unified paragraph.
Example
1. Topic: Mildred's front yard is full of flowers.
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a. There are rose bushes below the kitchen window.

b. Blooming sweet pea vines cover a trellis to the north of the living room
window
c. Petunias cower the bed in front of the low
d. Pansies glow in pots on the front parch
2. Topic: Abe rash enjoys living away from home.
a. She is glad to be closer to the University.
b. She likes being away from the younger brothers
c. __________________________________________
d. __________________________________________
e.
3. Topic: The library is a good place to study:
a. It's quiet most of the time.
b. The lighting is very good.
c. ___________________________________________
d. ___________________________________________
4. Topic: It's difficult going to school and working at the same time.
a. There is no time for any social life.
b. It is easy to get tired and run - down
c. ___________________________________________
d. ___________________________________________
5. Topic: I hate the desks in room 36.
a. The seats are hard and cold.
b. The desks squeak constantly.
c. ___________________________________________
d. ___________________________________________
The Conclusion
The concluding sentence draws the paragraph to a close, and reflects the ideas, expressed
in the topic sentence. In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of
the paragraph which summarizes the information that has been presented. Here is a sample
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paragraph in which the concluding sentence summarizes the information presented by the
supporting sentences.
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First,
Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical
services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education.
Students are taught by well–trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at
university. Finally, Canada‘s cites are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities
have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a
desirable place to live.
Note:
 The concluding (clincher) sentence restates the main idea, rather than
merely repeating it, in terms of the nature of the development of the
paragraph.
 Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the
paragraph is very short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a
good idea to use a concluding sentence.
 A concluding sentence may not be the last sentence of a paragraph, as the
writer may want to end within a sentence that leads to the point of the next
paragraph.
2.2 Characteristics of a good paragraph

A) Unity
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develops one main point or idea. One important
feature of an effective paragraph is unity: all sentences, supporting sentences, the detail
sentences, and the concluding sentences with in the paragraph are related to the main point
and simply means oneness of ideas in the paragraph.
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Note: if your paragraph contains a sentences that are not related to the main topic, then we
say that the paragraph; ‗lacks unity‘(off-topic). Here is an example of a unified paragraph.
The first sentence expresses the main point of the paragraph and the rest of the sentences
relate to the main point.
1. Your sister is an attractive woman. Her large, dark eyes are beautiful. Her complexion
is flawless, and she has a lovely big smile. Her long, black hair is full and shiny. She is
tall and slender, and her every movement is graceful. She also dresses stylishly, and
her assortment of passant skirts and loose- fitting blouses look great on her.
The main point of the paragraph (how attractive the woman is) is supported by a number of
specific details: beautiful eyes, flawless skin, a lovely smile, beautiful hair graceful
movements, and stylish dress. Notice that there is even more specific detail to describe
some of these features; large, dark eyes, full, shiny black hair, and passant skirts and loose-
fitting blouses.
2. We had a terrible storm last night. The winds blew up to fifty miles an hour and it
rained very hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over, and one tree hit a power line
and blacked out the area for five hours. Downtown the main street was flooded; the
cars were left stranded in the bumper- deep water. Before morning the river flooded its
banks and people living nearby were forced to flee their homes with whatever
belongings they could gather. It was the worst storm in the country since 1958.
The main point of the paragraph is that the storm was terrible. The rest of the sentence
relate to the main point by showing how bad the storm was. It knocked down trees, flooded
Main Street, caused a blackout, and forced people from their homes. The paragraph is
unified because all the sentences relate to the main point of the paragraph.
3. The housing industry in Omaha is not doing well. House sales are down 65 percent
from two years ago. The average length a house is on the market before being sold is
two years. The average house price has actually dropped $5,000 this year. There has
also been no new housing construction within the city limits in the last six months. Two
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building contractors have gone out of business, and the carpenter's union has sixty-five
unemployed members. Lumber sales have dropped over 35 percent, and the local mill
has sold three logging trucks and laid off twenty- five workers. It has been the worst
period for the housing industry in over thirty years.
The main point of the paragraph (the housing industry is doing badly) is supported by a
number of specific facts: sales are down, house prices are down, construction has stopped,
carpenters are unemployed, and lumber sales are down. The last sentence concludes the
paragraph by reinforcing just how bad the housing situation is. But the following
paragraph has sentences that are not related to the main idea.
4. When I was growing up, one of the places I enjoyed most was the cherry tree in the
back yard. Behind the yard were an alley and then more houses. Every summer when
the cherries began to ripen, I used to spend hours high in the tree, picking and eating
the sweet, sun-warmed cherries. My mother always worried about my falling out of the
tree, but I never did. But I had some competition for the cherries- flocks of birds that
enjoyed them as much as I did and would perch all over the tree, devouring the fruit
whenever I wasn‘t there. I used to wonder why the grown-ups never ate any of the
cherries; but actually when the birds and I had finished, there weren‘t many left.
No sentence is completely irrelevant to the general topic of this paragraph (the cherry
tree), but the sentences Behind the yard was an alley and then more houses and My mother
always worried about my falling out of the tree, but I never did do not develop the specific
idea in the first sentence: enjoyment of the cherry tree.
Exercise: Circle the letter of one sentence in each group that is not clearly related to the
topic for that group of sentences.
1. Topic: I am sick of eating 'Ambasha'
a. I've been eating 'Ambasha' twice a day all semesters.
b. It is starting to taste like dog food
c. I love Injera very much.
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d. I'm getting fat from eating 'Ambasha'.

e. I get a stomachache just thinking about eating another 'Ambasha'
2. Topic: There are many ways to study for a test.
a. You can review a few hours the night before the test.
b. You can study an hour a night the week of the test
c. You can study with friends and help each other
d. You can get up early the morning of the test and study
e. You can improve your grades by attending class regularly
3. Topic: Bahir Dar is a pleasant place to live
a. There are three movie theaters in town.
b. The people are friendly.
c. There is very little crime.
d. There is a bad smell coming from the town dump.
e. There are many places to shop for clothes.
4. Topic: The baby isn't hungry this morning.
a. She keeps spitting out her food.
b. She keeps playing with her food.
c. She turns her head when I try to feed her
d. Her stomach looks stuffed.
e. She loves rice pudding for lunch.
5. Topic: Registration this semester was confusing.
a. Many of the classes I wanted were closed.
b. I had to go to six different buildings to register.
c. I couldn't find the teachers whose signatures I needed.
d. I had to fill out three different applications
e. The computer for registration worked very well.
B. Coherence
Literally, the word to cohere means to hold together. A paragraph is said to have
coherence when its sentences are woven together or flow into each other smoothly from
one sentence to the next sentences. If a paragraph is coherent, the reader moves easily from
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one sentence to the next with out feeling that there are gaps in the thought, puzzling jumps,
or points not made. If a paragraph lacks coherence the reader will feel that he is reading a
collection of separate statements rather than an integrated discussion. Therefore, the notion
behind coherence is related to having natural flow of ideas in the paragraph. You can
achieve coherence in your paragraph by using several cohesive devices. The followings are
some of these devices.
Pronouns: Since each pronoun must refer to an antecedent, a pronoun and its antecedent
form a link. You can often make a paragraph coherent merely by using pronouns properly.
On the other hand, incorrectly used pronouns can weaken coherence. In the following
examples, notice how pronouns in the second sentence of each pair provide coherence by
referring to the important subjects in the first.
Example: - Self-help books continue to proliferate. They appeal to anxieties of our
middle-aged society.
- Patients must fast for twelve hours before the test. They should also avoid
red meats for seventy-two hours before coming in.
Repetition: Substituting a pronoun for a noun is actually a kind of repetition. Direct

repetition of a word or expression will also produce a similar effect. In other words, you
can achieve coherence by repeating some key words.
Example: Exposure to too much sun can damage the skin. This damage is irreversible
and can result in skin cancer.
Use direct repetition with care. Overdoing it will give an awkward, immature ring to your
writing.
Example: Daily receipts are taken to the central office. Daily receipts are then tallied….
You can get much the same transition al affect by using synonyms or slightly altered forms
of the repeated expressions.
Example: - Bill Clinton has been somewhat distant since leaving the White House. The
former president has settled in to a life of privacy.
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C. SEQUENCING
Suppose you have many notes about your ideas for a writing assignment. How do you put
all these ideas together in a logical way that will make sense to the reader? The sentences
should follow each other in the most sensible order for developing the main idea of the
paragraph. This process of putting things in their proper order is called Paragraph
sequencing. There are several possible orders for sequencing:
i. Chronological sequencing
ii. Spatial sequencing
iii. Generality sequencing, and
iv. Sequence in importance
i. Time (Chronological) Order

In telling about an event the clearest way to present the moment is to give the details in
chronological order. You should use this sequence for related details or examples when
you want to state them in the time order in which they occur. In other words, you will list
the earliest details first in your paragraph and the latest or most recent details toward the
end of your paragraph. This is a very common sequence for a series of events. The details
in a paragraph of this kind tend to answer such questions as what happens first. And then
what happens last? Paragraphs that relate either a
series of incidents or steps in a process often follow such chronological order; in this way
is mostly used in narrative paragraphs or essays. The following paragraph, for example, is
narrative. (The details are arranged in chronological order)
Example:
Sunday was a long day. I had to get up at 5:00 am to attend an Easter sunrise
service .Then I had duties at the church the rest of the morning. In the afternoon, I
visited the Manor Rest Home and talked to shut–ins who seldom has visitors. Then
I went to my aunt‘s for dinner and played cards with Uncle Herman until about
9:00 pm. Then I drove up in to the hills with my family for a special Easter
midnight chapel service in the pines. We stayed in a mountain cabin with ten other
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people that night and did not get to sleep until after 2:00 a m. I was exhausted after
twenty-one hours of activity.
Connecting words – connecting through time: Bridging thoughts through transitions,

idea connectors, which move the reader from place to place.
Later on, afterward, years ago, earlier, before, next, first, second, third, suddenly,
now, sometime, later, once, often, yesterday, today, tomorrow, then, in the past,
thereafter, former, in the first place, in the next place, further, previously, when, at,
last, meanwhile
ii. Spatial Order

If you want your readers to be able to picture a scene or object you are describing, you
could use a spatial sequencing of details. This sequence describes a scene or object by
going from one part of it to another in an organized. For instance if you intended your
details to describe a building of some kind you might want to sequence the details so that
you went from the bottom to the top of the building by answering such questions as what is
on the first floor? the second floor? the third floor? and soon, until you had covered all the
floors. Or you might wish to go in the opposite direction, beginning at the top and
proceeding down , floor by floor, to the lowest floor. Or you might describe the same
building by going from side to side; answering questions like what is on one side of the
building? the section in the middle? the other side of the building? And, of course ,you
could move in any direction in side the building; left to right , north to south, up to down,
side to side, near to far, or whatever.
Example:
As you enter the library, you are greeted by paintings on each side of the door. The
painting on the right is of the town‘s high school, and on the left is a watercolor of the
town‘s city hall. There are several other works of art in the main body of the building. As
you face the archway on the left, you discover pieces of pottery enclosed in a glass case. A
ceiling mural appears over the archway, and on the right a wall hanging has been hung.
The entire library is filled with works of art.
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Basic Writing Skills (EnLa 1012)
Expressions which help to answer the details question ―where?‖ such as:
Over On top (of)
Under On bottom (of)
In front of Along side (of)
Behind Outside (of)
Near Inside (of)
Far from
iii. General Sequencing

1. Specific-to-General: Specific terms give more information than general ones. For
example, surgeon implies doctor, but doctor does not identify a person as a surgeon. If you
find yourself writing people when you mean college students or taxi drivers, you are not
asking yourself this important question: am I identifying what I am referring to as
specifically as I should? The following list shows how little effort it takes to become more
specific.
Example 1: General Specific More Specific
Vehicle car Toyota Cressida
Religion Christianity Roman Catholicism
Building hotel Sheraton Hotel
Example 2: General: The vegetables were prepared.
Specific: We chopped the tomato, diced the carrots, and sliced the onions.
Specific: We steamed the carrots and baked the Idaho potatoes.
Example 3: (At paragraph level). If a paragraph begins with specific details involving
many layers of details and examples and if it is closed with a general statement
at the end, it is reasonable to say that the paragraph is organized from specific-
to-general.
They should be good listeners. They should also be good talkers, since they have to sum up
and restate what both sides say. They have to promise to keep private what is said at a
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mediation session. They also need to be able to encourage others to open up and say what
is on their minds. These are the qualities of good mediators.
2. General-to-Specific: When writing about a topic that involves many layers of details,
you can start the paragraph with a general statement, followed by supporting details and
examples that become more and more specific. When a paragraph begins with a general
statement and followed by specific details, it is logical to say the paragraph is organized
from general-to-specific.
Dreams are common events during sleep. Dreams occur during rapid eye
movement sleep. During these rapid eye movement sessions, the body is paralyzed
to prevent harm coming to the sleeping person from unconscious muscle
movements that occur in response to the images in the dream. Rapid eye movement
sessions sleep takes place about every 90 minutes.
iv. Sequence in Importance (Emphatic) Order

You generally sequence the points by their importance; you should use this sequence
when you want to give several details or examples and wish to start your paragraph with
the most important or more interesting ones. You may do this in order to attract the
attention of your readers at the very start, especially readers who may be impressed for
time or who may be uninterested in your subject. To start with the least important and to
lead to the most important , for example, a comparison of two cars might start with the
engine and its importance , then work outward to the passenger compartment, its
dimension and comfort, ending with the sporty exterior and sunroof. You must decide
which sequencing method is best for your purpose and audience.
Example:
Our department needs lots of fixing-up. Though it may be difficult to fix-up all of them
at the same time, we have got to fix the leaky roof first before the September rains
come. Next, we need to patch the big holes in the bed room walls and then strip the
peeling paint off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the walls are
painted, we can work on replacing the linoleum squares in the kitchen that are loose or
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cracked. Later, the living room carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace that
old swaybacked sofa. Then we won‘t be embarrassed to have company over once in a
while.
Of course, only the writer himself could determine which was most or least significant.
The writer can follow the opposite approach, for example, the least important ones come
first in the paragraph, the important next and the most important details come last. This
arrangement allows you to build up your reader‘s interest gradually (to create suspense if it
is in fiction writing), with your final details providing a climax.
Transitional markers
Transitional terms make a paragraph coherent by relating ideas. They are referred to as the
‗glue‘ to hold ideas together. Like pronouns, many of these terms come to mind
automatically, but you should carefully choose among them. The commonest markers are
the simple connectives and, or but, for, which serve as a bridges over which the reader
may easily pass from one sentence or clause to the next. Others - sometimes called
transitional connectives - indicate the direction, which the new sentence is about to take
and to prepare the reader for what is to follow. Here is a partial list of common transitional
terms:
1. Time: next, then, after, before, during, while, following, shortly, thereafter, later on,
the next day, secondly, finally
2. Place: over, above, inside, to the left, just behind, beyond
3. Contrast: however, but, on the other hand, nevertheless, nonetheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, conversely, yet.
4. Cause - effect: so, therefore, thus, accordingly, consequently, as a result, hence,
because of this.
5. Addition: and, furthermore, moreover, likewise, similarly, in a like manner, too, also
6. Emphasis: indeed, in fact, especially, most important
7. Summary: in other words, in short, to sum up , in conclusion, to conclude, all in all, in
a nut shell, generally, in general, finally, at last, etc.
8. Example: for instance, for example, that is, in particular etc.
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The following examples illustrate the use of transitional terms:

Indulgences developed from the medieval church's concept of penance as a substitute for
punishment due to sin. At first (1), the penitent was required to make a pilgrimage or
perform an act of charity. But (2) such activities were only substitutes for the real
punishment, and it was a simple step to make further substitutes for the original ones. For
example (3), the sinner could make his penance by paying the cost of going on a
pilgrimage rather than actually making a trip. In an age when travel was both expensive
and dangerous, such (4) a monetary substitution was sensible. As a result (5), the sinner
suffered financially, and the church could use his money for acts of charity. Thus (6)
indulgences were born. The opportunities for abusing this (7) practice of giving money in
place of penance, however (8), were numerous. Indulgences (9) were frequently criticized,
and Luther‘s famous attack on them (10) was one among many. Yet (11) the principle is
sound and difficult to attack without undermining the entire theology of penance.
1. Time 2. Contrast 3. Example 4. Repetition 5. Effect 6. Effect 7. Repetition
8. Contrast 9. Repetition 10. Pronoun 11. Contrast
NOTE: A good paragraph is fully developed. Here are the main qualities of a well-
developed paragraph.
 It provides enough supporting points for the main idea expressed in the topic
sentence to be clearly understood.
 It provides enough specific details and examples to be interesting and informative.
 It does not leave the readers with unanswered questions that could be cleared up
with a little more detail or an additional example or two.
 It concludes with a sentence that clearly" wraps up" the paragraph and relates to the
topic sentence in some manner.
Stages in Paragraph Writing (Planning Paragraph)

Before we are going to write a paragraph, we must follow the following steps.
1. Think & choose the topic or become sure you understand the given topic.
2. Write a general statement or prepare topic sentences for the topic.
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3. Jot down possible details that answer questions about the topic sentences or list points
that develop your paragraph in note form.
4. Check your final list and cross out any point not directly relevant.
5. Arrange the points (details) according to relevancy, logical order, chronological etc.
6. Develop these details in to complete sentences or draft your first paragraph. I.e. put the
ideas in sentences form.
7. Read through and check to make what ever changes example; you may check for
grammar, diction, punctuation, and concentrate on correcting any language mistakes.
Example 1: A: Topic: Honey in Ethiopia - Honey production in Ethiopia

- Honey production in Tigray
- Honey production in and around Mekelle
- Honey production in Kalamino
B: Topic sentences: Honey production in Kalamino.
- Back ground
- No of beehives
- Facilities
- Market potential etc.
Example 2: A: Topic: Rural areas of Ethiopia

B: Topic sentences: Rural areas in Ethiopia have three problems.
C: What these three problems?
The answer to this question is used for writing the details.
Point 1- poverty
Point2- lack of education
Point3- poor medical care
Activity: In the above example, a topic sentence with possible details is given. Write a
complete paragraph by writing complete sentences of the details. You may start with the
topic sentence followed by details like this:
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Rural areas in Ethiopia have three problems. One of these is poverty. It

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.3 Basic Types of Paragraphs

2.3.1 Expository
Expository (Exposition) paragraph is patterns of development that expresses or
explains an idea, object or phenomenon. In expositions, the material which is
communicated is primarily information, i.e., the writer provides information about and
explains a particular subject. So when you write exposition, your purpose is to make clear
to the reader that how something works, how something is made, or how something
happened. patterns of development within exposition include giving examples, detailing a
process of doing or making something, analyzing causes and effects, comparing and/or
contrasting, defining a term or concept, and dividing something into parts or classifying it
into categories. There are five basic ways in which authors may choose to organize
information in expository text:
1. Description-- in which a topic is introduced and followed by its attributes;
2. Sequence-- in which a topic is introduced and followed by details that need to be
presented in an order;
3. Cause/effect-- in which an event or act and its effects are described;
4. Comparison/contrast-- in which the similarities and differences in two or more
things are presented;
5. Problem/solution-- in which a problem is presented followed by one or more
solutions.
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For example, consider the following introductory paragraph from Microsoft‘s Encarta, a
multimedia encyclopedia; provides information about and explains how the body works:
The Circulatory System
Blood from the entire body is transported to the right auricle through two large
veins: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. When the right auricle
contracts, it forces the blood through an opening into the right ventricle.
Contraction of this ventricle drives the blood to the lungs. Blood is prevented from
returning into the auricle by the tricuspid valve, which completely closes during
contraction of the ventricle. In its passage through the lungs, the blood is
oxygenated, that is, saturated with oxygen; it is then brought back to the heart by
the four pulmonary veins, which enter the left auricle. When this chamber
contracts, blood is forced into the left ventricle and thence by ventricular
contraction into the aorta. The bicuspid, or mitral, valve prevents the blood from
flowing back into the auricle, and the semi-lunar valves at the beginning of the
aorta stop it from flowing back into the ventricle. Similar valves are present in the
pulmonary artery.
2.3.2. Narrative
Narrative (Narration) paragraph is a discourse in which a writer tells the story of
something that happened. It is concerned with describing a series of events, happenings or
incidents which may be either real or imaginary that lead to a conclusion. It is the kind of
writing most people habitually turn to recreation, it is found in short stories and novels as
well as in news stories and essays. Rarely does narrative writing occur in pure form; most
often it includes description and exposition for additional interest. It usually involves some
kind of conflict, its resolution and conclusion.
As one of the modes of writing, the narrative offers writers a chance to think and write
about themselves, to explain how their experiences lead to some important realization or
conclusion about their lives or about the world in general. Each of us has memories of
times that have been meaningful, of times that have taught us lessons about ourselves or
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others. Through the narrative essay, we have the chance to record those experiences as the
supporting evidence to substantiate our new understanding.
Two crucial first steps in planning a narrative essay are selecting an incident worthy of
writing about and finding the central, relevant, salient point in that incident. To do this,
writers might ask themselves what about the incident provided new insights or awareness
primarily for themselves (but possibly for others too). Finally, writers incorporate details
which will make the incident real for readers.
NOTE:
Since a narrative relies on personal experiences, it often is in the form of a story. When the
writer uses this technique, he or she must be sure to include all the conventions of
storytelling: plot, character, setting, climax, and ending. It is usually filled with details that
are carefully selected to explain, support, or embellish the story. All of the details relate to
the main point the writer is attempting to make. To summarize, the narrative paragraph:
 is told from a particular point of view
 makes and supports a point
 is filled with precise detail
 put the series of happenings in sequence as does any story
 uses vivid verbs and modifiers
Sample narrative paragraph

Example 1:
Senait is a very determined woman who gets what she wants. When she was forty-eight
years old, she went to college for the first time. She received a bachelor‘s degree in
science in four years. At age fifty-two, she entered medical school, and she was the oldest
student in her class. She spent six years in medical school and finished in the top twenty-
five percent of her class. At fifty-eight, she began interning in the Black Lion Hospital
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working ten-hour shifts in the emergency ward. When she completed her internship, she
stayed on in the emergency ward as a fully licensed physician. This was the most thrilling
achievement of her life. She worked at Menelik Hospital for three years and then opened a
higher clinic in her hometown of Awassa. She practiced medicine until she was seventy-
five years old. And she is a truly remarkable person.
Example 2:
When I was about five years old, I remember doing a lot of exciting things. We had a large
mango trees growing behind our house, and my sister and I climbed them in the summer.
One time I fell out of one of the trees and landed on my head, but I was not badly hurt. We
also played baseball in the backyard with the neighbor kids, and I remember we used my
mother‘s dishes for home plate and the bases. We rode our bikes all over the north end of
the town, and we raced through the alleys after a train, splattering water and mud to each
other. The high school was only a block away, so we walked there in the summer, jumped
the fence, and skated around the cement corridors until a custodian chased us out. Finally,
there was a big vacant lot beside our house where we played cowboys and country men
almost every Saturday. It seems like I did nothing but play when I was young.
Written Exercise I: Try to write a number of similar paragraphs about what you did last
weekend, on your last holiday, etc.
Written Exercise II: Assignment: Write a narrative paragraph using the following
prompt. Think about your high school life, and the things you used to do. Write a story
about the days, months and years you spent with your teachers, classmates, and friends.
2.3.3. Descriptive
Descriptive (Description) paragraph is a verbal picture of a person, place, or thing.
It is the kind of writing which attempts to appeal to the reader's sense, recreating for him
the author's original impression of the subject being described, or shows a reader what a
person, place, thing, or situation is like. It is very much concerned with sensory
impressions (sight, sound, smell, taste, touch). Description can be objective or
impressionistic. Description rarely appears alone in modern writing. It is most often used
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with narration. When you write description, you try to show, not tell, about something.
You want to make the reader see that person, place, or situation, and then, perhaps, to
make the reader think about or act on what you have shown. We have special sensory
words which are very much concerned with description. Some words refer to sensory
experiences: to what we see, hear, touch, taste and smell. Because these words call up
sensory images, they are particularly effective in description. In the following list, some
words could fit into more than one sensory category.
Touch: chill, clammy, cold, corrugated, grainy, gritty, harsh, jarring, knobby, moist,
nubby, numb, plushy, rough satiny, slimy, slithering, smooth, sting, tingle, tickly,
velvety.
Taste: bland, biting, bitter, nutty, peppery, salty, sour, spicy, sweet, tainted, vinegary,
yeasty, brackish, briny, metallic, minty
Smell: acrid, fetid, greasy, moldy, musky, musty, pungent, putrid, rancid, rank, reek,
stench, sulphurous, woodsy.
Sound: bellow, blare, buzz, chatter, chime, clang, clatter, clink, crackle, crash, creak,
gurgle, purr, rattle, rustle, screech, snap, splash, squeak, swish, tinkle, whine,
whisper, hiss, hum, murmur, pop.
Sight: blaze bleary, bloody, burnished, chalky, dappled, ebony, flame, flash, flicker, florid,
foggy, gaudy, glare, glitter, glossy, glow, golden, grimy, haze, inky, leaden, lurid,
muddy, roiled, sallow, shadow, smudged, spark, streak, tawny, turbid.
Note that well-chosen sensory words help a reader to experience what a writer is recording.
I. Describing People
In order to write an interesting description of somebody we must use suitable nouns and
adjectives. When we describe persons, we are concerned with their physical appearance
and with their personality. Certain noun and adjectives help us to describe the persons
accurately. Here are some examples:
A. Useful nouns for describing a person's appearance
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Age: baby, toddler, youngster, youth, boy, girl, teenager, man, woman, lady, young man,
young woman, old man, old woman, elder
Parts of the Face: forehead eyes, eyebrows, nose, nostrils, ears, cheeks, mouth, lips, jaw
chin
Parts of the Body: head, neck, shoulders arms lands, legs, feet
Hair: hairstyle, plaits, braids, beard, moustache
Clothes: cloth, fabric; shirt, tee-shirt, tie, coat, jacket, trousers, jeans, socks, pullover,
sweater; overcoat, raincoat, dress, blouse, skirt, shawl, scarf; shoes, sandals,
boots, hat, glasses, spectacles
Jewellery: Necklace bracelet, ring, earrings, anklet
B. Useful adjectives for describing a person's appearance

Age: young, middle-aged, old, elderly; in his/her early thirties / mid forties / late
fifties etc,
Face: long, round, oval, attractive, beautiful, un-shaven
Hair: long, medium-length, short; straight, curly, wavy; dark, black, blonde, gray, fair,
white, plaited, bald
Forehead: high, low
Eyes: blue, brown, gray
Ears: big, small
Nose: long, pointed, turned-up
Body Build: tall, short, fat, plump, over -weight, thin, slim, slender, skinny, under-
weight, broad-shouldered, muscular
Clothes: cotton, woolen, hand-woven, leather, traditional, western, colorful
General appearance: handsome, good-looking; beautiful, lovely, pretty, attractive, well-
dressed, smartly-dressed, dressed
C. Useful adjectives for describing a person's personality

happy, cheerful unhappy, sad, miserable
friendly, pleasant, amusing unfriendly, unpleasant
kind unkind, cruel
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hard-working lazy
reliable, trustworthy unreliable
polite, well-mannered impolite, rude, ill-mannered
honest, truthful dishonest, crafty
unselfish, generous selfish, mean
clever, intelligent, wise stupid, silly, dull
quiet talkative
shy confident
modest, humble proud, boastful, arrogant
The following example shows how the writer describes his mother. Notice the sensory
words used in the description.
1. This picture of my mother, which was taken fifty years ago, has fascinated me from the
moment I began to study it closely. The young woman in the picture has a face that
resembles my own in many ways. Her face is a bit more oval than mine, but the softly
waving brown hair around it is identical. The small, straight nose is the same model I
was born with. My mother's mouth is closed, yet there is just the slightest hint of a
smile on her full lips. I know that if she had smiled, she would have shown the same
wide grin and down curving "smile lines" that appear in my own snapshots. The most
haunting features in the photo, however, are my mother's eyes. They are exact
duplicates of my own large, dark brown ones. Her brows are plucked into thin lines,
which are like two pencil strokes added to highlight those fine luminous eyes. I've also
carefully studied the clothing and jewelry in the photograph. My mother is wearing a
blouse and skirt that, although the photo was taken many years ago, could easily be
worn today. The blouse is made of heavy eggshell-colored satin and reflects the light in
its folds and hollows. It has a turned-down cowl collar and smocking on the shoulders
and below the collar. The smocking (tiny rows of gathered material) looks hand-done.
The skirt, which covers my mother's calves, is straight and made of light wool or
flannel. My mother is wearing silver drop earrings. They are about two inches long
and roughly shield-shaped. On her left wrist is a matching bracelet. My mother can‘t
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find this bracelet now, despite the fact that we spent ours searching through the attic
for it. On the third finger of her left hand is a ring with a large, square-cut stone.
Activities
- List some describing words.
- Discuss how these descriptive words make your writing more effective.
To be an effective writer, you must be able to effectively describe the objects you are
writing about. Good descriptive passages are ones that cause us to see what the writer sees.
Activity 1: Describing people: As shown earlier, descriptive paragraphs are often used to
describe what a person looks and acts like. Read this example descriptive paragraph.
(Notice how the descriptive words are used.) Here is an example of a descriptive
paragraph:
Sample of descriptive paragraph for persons

I am forty years old, rather tall and I have blue eyes and short black hair. I wear casual
clothes as I teach students in a relaxed atmosphere. I enjoy my job because I get to meet
and help so many different people from all over the world. During my spare time, I like
playing tennis which I play at least three times a week. I also love listening to classical
music and I must admit that I spend a lot of money on buying new CDs! I live in a pretty
seaside town on the Italian coast. I enjoy eating great Italian food and laughing with the
likable people who live here.
Written Exercise I: Answer these questions about yourself on a piece of paper.
 How old are you?
 What do you look like?
 What kind of clothes do you wear? Why?
 What kind of job do you do? Do you like it?
 What are your favorite hobbies? Why do you like them?
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 Where do you live?
 Do you like living there? Why or why not?
II. Describing Places

As a writer, you have to observe a scene around you with great care; and you have to
present it faithfully so readers know exactly what you see. Selecting some places filled
with colors, noises and people in the midst of actions, you will present a scene that is clear
and vivid for any reader to appreciate.
Example 1:
My bedroom is very cozy. It is a small room with thick carpeting and light blue walls.
Below the north window is my double bed covered with an imitation of leopard skin
bedspread. To the left of the bed against the wall is a nightstand with a reading lamp, an
alarm clock, and a portable radio. At the foot of the bed is a wooden stand holding my
black-and-white TV. Behind the wooden stand and in front of the closet are three
comfortable armchairs. On the east and west walls posters of famous historical and
geographical sites are plastered. The holy cross bearing the crucifixion of Christ is hung
to the wall along side the portrait of Virgin Mary embracing infant Christ...
Activity 2: Describing Places (location)-Write a paragraph describing a beautiful location

you have been to at some time, entitled "My Favorite Place" (don‘t forget using descriptive
words, adjectives, mood, feeling,)
The following words can help you to write a good description paragraph:
Helper Words:
Properties Measurement Analogy Location

size height is like in
colour length resembles above
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shape width below

purpose mass/weight beside
speed near
outside
north/east/south/west
Hint 1: Describe where Ethiopia‘s industry is located.
Location
In: E.g. - Most of Ethiopia‘s manufacturing companies are located in Addis Ababa and
Akaki.
Above: E.g. -Addis Ababa is eight thousand feet above sea-level
Outside: E.g. - Many new manufacturing are being built outside the city.
Beside: E.g. - Akaki is located beside Addis Ababa
Near: E.g. - Most of the trade centers of the companies are located near Mercato.
North / east / south / west: E.g. - Akaki is south of Addis Ababa.
Properties
Size: E.g. - Giraffes are big in size. Giraffes are very large, ruminant herbivorous
mammals.
Colour: E.g. - Giraffes have a tan coat with brown blotches.
Shape: E.g. - Giraffes have a special shape, having a very long neck and legs and short
horns.
Purpose: E.g. - The purpose of the giraffe‘s long legs is to run fast ; a walking giraffe
takes steps that are 4.5 m long.
Measurement
Height: E.g. - The height of an adult male giraffe is usually about 5.3 m tall.
Length: E.g. - The length of the heart of an adult giraffe is over 60 cm.
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- The length of the neck of a giraffe is 2 m.
Width: E.g. - The width of a giraffe‘s head is very narrow.
Mass / weight: E.g. - Giraffes weigh up to 1,350 kg.
Speed: E.g. - Giraffes run at a speed of 55 km per hour.
Analogy
Is like: E.g. - A giraffe is like camels in shape.
Resembles: E.g. –A giraffe resembles camels in shape.
Notice how the above sentences about giraffe are organized to form a descriptive discourse.
Giraffes are the tallest of all land animals. A walking giraffe takes steps that are 4.5
meters long. The long legs of giraffes make them good runners, too. They can easily run at
a speed of 55 km an hour. Giraffes live in Africa. But they are only found in certain parts
of the continent. You will almost never see them in deserts or thick forests. Giraffes are
plant-eaters, or herbivores. Their favorite food is the leaves of trees. For this reason, they
like to live where there are a lot of trees. But they almost like to be sure that they can run
away when a lion comes. So they stay out of thick forests. Everything about a giraffe is big.
Adult male giraffes are usually about 5.3 meters tall and they can weigh as much as 1,350
kilograms. The heart of an adult giraffe can be over 60 centimeters long. It can pump 75
liters of blood every minute. Giraffes have four stomachs and they eat about 35 kilograms
of food a day. When a giraffe drinks, it can drink up to 40 liters of water at one time. The
neck of a giraffe can be 2 meters long. But a giraffe has the same number of neck bones as
you do—only seven!
Assignment: Choose a picture from a magazine/ book/newspaper/ poster etc. Then write a
paragraph describing what is in the picture. (The picture might be of a person, an animal,
or a place.)
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2.3.4. Argumentative
Argumentative (Argumentation) paragraph is a pattern of development in which
the writer attempts to support a controversial point or defend a position on which there is a
difference of opinion. When one writes argumentation, his main purpose is to convince his
reader about some issue, to persuade his reader to take some action. The writer presumes
that he and his readers hold different position on a subject. The writer attempts to convince
readers through logical reasoning. This argumentation is a process of reasoning in which a
series of facts and judgments are arranged to establish a conclusion. Look at the following
model argumentative paragraph, and notice how it is organized.
Computer games have been popular for decades now and many households have
them. However, it can be seen that playing these games causes social, educational,
and personal problems of several kinds both to youngsters and society. Firstly,
youngsters who spend a great deal of time in front of a computer screen are not
studying, playing sport, socializing or learning about life. The skills which they need
in order to interact with others and succeed in the real world are not being
nurtured. Moreover, studies have shown that this generation of young males is
actually growing less than previous generations due to lack of exercise. Following
from this, they are more likely to be overweight and less healthy, so more prone to
diseases such as diabetes. In addition, the games themselves are often quite violent
and dangerously sexist. For example, there are games which show graphic fighting
scenes where the most brutal is most applauded. Women are shown as either sexy,
but weak, or as improbable amazons. Violence against women is often part of these
games which encourage misogynistic behavior. The language tends to be violent
and sexist which further adds to the problems of the lack of interaction and social
skills. It is easy to imagine the effects of such games on young minds. If we wish
children to grow up to become well adjusted members of society, these games
should be more tightly controlled.
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COMMON ERRORS OF LOGIC IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

(LOGICAL FALLACIES)
1. HASTY GENERALIZATIONS are based on atypical, irrelevant, or inaccurate
evidence. Example: Of course our students are physically fit; just look at the success of
our sports teams this year.
2. FAULTY CAUSE AND EFFECT (POST HOC) is the result of assuming that because
B follows A, A must be the cause of B. Example: Tourism in this city started to decline
right after Mayor Scott was elected. To save our tourist industry, let's replace her now!
3. REDUCTIVE REASONING reduces a complex effect to a single cause. Example:

People who want to be healthy should eat turnips. My Aunt Alice loved turnips, and she
lived to be ninety-four.
4. FALSE ANALOGIES occur when writers overlook the fact that two things being
compared are more different than they are similar. Example: Why am I required to take
certain courses before I can graduate from this school? No one requires me to buy certain
groceries before I can leave the supermarket.
5. BEGGING (AVOIDING) THE QUESTION occurs when a writer assumes as true the
very point he or she is arguing. Example: Improving public transportation in this city won't
solve highway congestion. Even if public transportation is clean, safe, and efficient, people
will still prefer to use their cars.
6. CIRCULAR REASONING occurs when the argument merely restates the conclusion
it was meant to support. Example: The minister is such a good person because she is so
virtuous.
7. EQUIVOCATION involves using a term in a completely different way than one's

opponent uses it. Example: My goodness, your honor! It is absurd that I am being
prosecuted for stealing a copy of the Detroit Free Press. For one thing, we are guaranteed
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by the Constitution our right to a free press. And look at the name of this newspaper—does
it not say Free Press?
8. AD HOMINEM ARGUMENTS attack the opponent rather than his or her argument.
(Ad hominem literally means "against the person.") Example: Senator Jones' bill on gun
control should not be taken seriously; after all, this is the same man who has had at least
five extramarital affairs.
9. FALSE EITHER/OR ARGUMENTS assume that only two alternatives exist in a

given situation. Example: The case is clear: either we support the death penalty or we
allow crime to run rampant.
10. BAND WAGON APPEALS suggest that readers should accept something because it
is popular; that is, everyone else has "hopped on the bandwagon." Example: A recent poll
showed that seventy percent of the American public believes emissions requirements on
automobiles have gone too far; therefore, these laws are unreasonable and should be
repealed.
11. NON SEQUITURS occur when writers fail to show clear connections between their
premise (starting point) and conclusion. (Non sequitur literally means "it does not follow.")
Example: Maria loved college, so I'm sure she will make an excellent teacher.
POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT THESE LOGICAL FALLACIES:
* Most of the conclusions included in the examples above could be argued. The problem is
that the reasoning provided in these examples is insufficient or not credible.
* The best way to "smoke out" unsound reasoning in your own writing is to ask yourself
what your argument takes for granted. Remove those assumptions, and then rebuild your
argument using stronger support--if such support exists.
2.4 Techniques of paragraph Development

Paragraph Development Methods
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We can develop an idea in to a paragraph by using varieties of paragraph development

methods. The common methods of paragraph development are:
 Definition  Cause-effect
 Exemplification ( Illustration)  Comparison
 Classification  Contrast
 Cause  Comparison-contrast
 Effect
The following section attempts to present a detailed discussion of these paragraph
development methods.
2.4.1 DEFINITION
One way to make a term or idea clearer is to answer the question ‗What does the term or
idea mean‘. To answer this question, you can give a sentence defining the term or idea,
followed by examples. Or you can try to answer the question by relating the term or
concept to some term or idea the reader already knows about or understands.
Suppose, for instance, that the topic of a paper you are writing is empathy and that the
statement you plan to make about it is the basis for all good public relations. A reader who
does not know the meaning of the term empathy will find the paper difficult to understand.
To help your reader to follow and to accept the ideas about empathy expressed in your
paper, you will need to supply a paragraph of definition.
Read the paragraph below and notice that the term ―empathy‖ appears in the first sentence
and that a definition immediately follows the term in the same sentence. The writer has
chosen to follow the definition with a list of several examples of how empathy helps in
police work, using a simple topical- listing sequence details. The writer‘s purpose in this
paragraph is to help the reader understand more fully the meaning of the term ―empathy‖.
Example 1
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Empathy is the ability to completely understand another person‘s point of view. It

is a great asset in police work. By practicing empathy, police officers can avoid
being closed- minded. It will help them to see all sides of a traffic accident or a
criminal incident. Empathy eliminates bias and, instead, introduces tolerance,
understanding and sympathetic human relations.
Example 2: The paragraph below defines a term, explains it a bit, and then gives examples
of it. After reading the paragraph, see if you can answer the following questions that
follow.
Emblems are gestures or body motions that mean the same as words or phrases.
Just as we learn the meanings of words, we learn the meanings of emblems in our
society. One common emblem in many places is the thumbs-up signal, which
often expresses success or hope. Other emblems are shrugging of the shoulders,
which can mean "I don't know," and nodding the head to communicate "yes."
What term is being defined? -------------------------------------
Which sentence gives the definition? ----------------------------
Which sentence explains something about the term? -----------
2.4.2 EXEMPLIFICATION
An example paragraph is one that uses specific examples to illustrate a point made in the
writing. An example can be a fact, a historical example, a statistic, an event or a
behavior.
1. Fact: A fact is an idea understood as true or real by the community and not to be
disputed. It is a fact that the earth circles the sun, that chocolate has caffeine, that people
get heart playing some sports.
2. Historical Example: This example involves retelling a historical event or relating a
piece of historical information .these examples can trace a progression of events for causes
and effect paragraph or show how the present is a reflection of the past. You could use
different people from history to illustrate about leaders or criminals or people who helped
others without much reward.
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3. Statistic: A statistic is a number that results from analyzing information: it is often an

average or mean. Statistics are complicated and can be misused, but statistical analysis is a
valuable tool to prove a point, especially with academic writing.
4. Event: An example can be one specific event you might mention the date and time of
the event, or if part of common knowledge, mention the name of the event and gives some
details.
5. Behavior: Specific behavior of an individual person or animal can also be used as an
example to prove a point. If you want to say that dogs can sometimes be annoying, refer to
specific behaviors: they chew every thing in sight , dig up gardens, get hair or fur allover
furniture, make a mess at their eating place, bark at the wrong times (usually at 3:00 am)
each behavior is one example that adds detail to the writing .
Here is a sample example paragraph:
Computer software programs come in a variety of types, each offering different

functions to users. The programs most often used are word processors. These
programs can produce letters, reports, articles, announcements as well as other
documents. Another kind of computer program is the database, which allows the
users to sort all kinds of information in a variety of ways. You might put on a
database a library catalog, all the business products in inventory, or all the names
and addresses of students attending a school. Another kind of program is the
communications program, which allows the user to connect to the Internet and to
send electronic mail to others. If you can access the Internet, you can search
thousands of databases, files, and Web sites for information. You can access
university libraries, company Web sites, government information agencies. The
computer offers many kinds of programs for users, each with a distinct function or
benefit to the users.
In this sample paragraph three main examples of computer software programs are given:
word processors, data bases, and communications programs. With in each main example
are more specific examples that further explain and illustrate the writer‘s ideas. Examples
are often introduced by transitions like the following:
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for example to illustrate

for instance such as
as an illustration including
Characteristics of a Good Example

1. Relevance
- Does the example relate specifically to the point being made?
- Will the reader understand your reasons for including the example?
- Does the reader understand the connection between your generalization and the
example used?
2. Accuracy
- Is your example accurate?
- Are you being honest about your facts and statistics?
3. Sufficient Details
- Have you used enough examples to prove your point?
- Have you included enough detail for the reader to understand your point ?
- Have you included details that answer the questions: who, what, where, when, why
and how, to create a clear and complete picture in the readers mind?
2.4.3 CLASSIFICATION
Classification is the process of putting a large number of items or behaviors into smaller,
well-defined groups. Each group‘s members or items share similar traits or characteristics
that are unique; no other group has the same traits. The writer should put similar looking or
acting items or behaviors into the same group and describe one group‘s unique traits,
behaviors, attitudes, or other characteristics.
Many classification systems are already in place; for example, movies are classified by
genre: Western, Romance, Science Fiction, and Thriller; subjects in school are classified
by discipline: Science, Mathematics, English, and Home Economics. Since this categories,
already exist, they do not present much challenge to the reader. In English classes, it is
more fun and creative to come up with your own topic and classification system. For
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example, if a hotel prepares various foods, you might group them by type of food:
vegetables, fruits, meat, cookies, cheese and so forth. you might group drinks in to
beverages, alcohol, soft drink. Or you might put the original groups such as those prepared
in home, and in factories. Or each can be classified, for example, soft drinks, can be further
classified as: Coca Cola, Sprite, Pepsi, Fanta, Mirinda, Seven-Up, Mineral Water and so
on.
Example-1
Homework assignments can be categorized according to the various emotional
traits they produce. For example, ―The I- Will-Do-It-Later-Tonight‖ assignment is
a relatively easy assignment which takes no more than five or ten minutes and
causes the student little inconvenience or worry. Related to this type is ―The- I-
Thought-I-Could-Do-It-Later-Tonight‖ assignment, which seems simple but is in
reality much more than the student bargained for. This type often causes a
sleepless night for the panicking student. ―The-Impossible-Dream‖ assignment
also causes the student a certain amount of panic. These assignments also is known
as semester projects , are designed to take the majority of the semester to complete
, and they seem to hang over the students head like a dark cloud of doom .mach
like this assignment , but perhaps ever more traumatic ,is ― The -I‗m- Going To-
Fail –This- Course‖ assignment. The purpose of this one is to read the instructor of
It is the process of putting a large number of items or behaviors into smaller, well-
defined groups. Each group‘s members or items share similar traits or
characteristics that are unique.
Example-2
Television programs can be classified into three main categories: Entertainers,
cultural Enhancers, and Eye Openers. The Entertainers are created simply for
Entertainment-nothing more. They make us laugh or cry, for a moment. Sitcoms are
prime examples as we laugh at or with the characters as they struggle through life,
and might even identify with the characters. For momentary pleasures, watch the
Entertainers. Cultural Enhancers involve some kind of ―culture ―or highbrow
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activity, such as opera, theater, dance, or song. Also included here are the movies
made from the classics or literary fiction, such as Moby Dick or any of
Shakespeare‘s plays. These programs are often concerned with universal themes or
issues: love, evil, power. They can be found on ―arts‖ cable stations such as A&E
and Bravo, as well as the public Broadcasting system. For a taste of culture, watch
Cultural Enhancers. A third category, Eye Opener programs, includes topics about
science and nature, history, true crime, and other information. They are often
found on cable channels: the Discovery Channel, the Learning Channel, and the
History Channel. The Public Broadcasting System, on the network side, also
provides these programs. A viewer might learn about tornadoes, or the legend of
Robin Hood, or the African crested crane. Often this information, such as
programs about strong storm systems, is interesting because it is relevant to
viewers‘ lives. Television has much to offer viewers, and it is our choice what we
watch.
Note: Like the other paragraphs, first you will develop a topic sentence which is
convenient for classification. After finding a topic to classify, establish the central, unique
characteristic of each category .This is a criterion used for selection, the one main idea that
helps you put every thing into its proper category. For example if you were to classify a
box of mixed tools you picked up at a garage sale, how might you sort them? You could
sort by:
Type: hammers, saws, screw drivers, nails, screws, wedges, miters, drill bits and so on;
thus ―type‖ could be the central unique characteristic.
Size: bigger pieces of equipment (hammer, saw, miter), smaller tools (screw drivers,
wedges), and tiny pieces used to build other things (nails, screws); thus ―size‖ could be the
central unique characteristic.
You could also sort them by type of metal or weight or age (if you collect antique tools).
If, while you are sorting, you find that something can fit into two categories, then you
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haven‘t refined your categories well enough, or you have listed traits in one category that
actually do not belong there. You will need to reexamine your traits list.
1. The classifier approaches a body of unorganized material with the intention of

organizing it for some purpose. Different purposes will result in different classifications.
For example, people can be classified according sex, age, income, IQ, marital status, blood
types, and so on. The classifier‘s purpose determines how he is going to classify the
material.
2. The purpose determines the principle of selection to be used in deciding which items
are to be placed in which class. The principle of selection must be maintained for all main
classes, though a different principle may be used in going from main classes to subclasses.
For example, after people have been classified by sex, the sex groups may be subdivided
into age groups. Age then becomes the principle of selection in the subgroups.
3. Items are grouped within a class as they are seen to be alike in some characteristic
which is essential to the principle of selection. Thus all words showing change toward
narrower meaning go in one group; all showing change toward wider meaning go in
another. The essential characteristic is what distinguishes one group from another, and is
called class characteristic.
4. Each class is given an identifying label.
5. In an ideal classification all items should fit into some class, and no items should be left
over. Unclassified items suggest a flaw in the classification. If items cannot be classified,
they are put in a class of exceptions, like the exceptions to the rules of English spelling.
Obviously, the more exceptions there are, the less useful the classification is. A pollster
seeking to find out whether people are generally satisfied with the present administration
would be unhappy if half of those polled had no opinion.
6. If a class is divided into subclasses, it must have at least two. Whether a class should be
divided into subclasses depends on the material being classified. Some classes of
classification may not require subdivisions, but some other classes do. But it would be
illogical to have only one subgroup of a class. If there are not at least two subclasses, no
subdivision is necessary.
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2.4.4. CAUSE AND EFFECT

At times making an important idea or event fully understood in writing may require the
writer to offer information which readers may need or want to know what led up to the
event or idea--that is, what caused it to become what it is now. Or they may need or want
to know the effects of the idea or event-- that is, the results or consequences. In other
words, the readers will want the writer to give the answers to one or both of these
questions: What caused the event or idea? What effects or consequences does event or the
idea have? The writer should then include in his/her paper a paragraph that has a cause
pattern or effect pattern or a combined cause/effect pattern. The supporting sentences will
then answer one or both of these questions about the event or idea.
Cause Paragraph
Here is an example of a writing topic asking for causes of a particular phenomenon. These
days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in alarming rate. You will
get the details in the following paragraph. Notice that the first sentence identifies the topic-
desertification is expanding so large- and that all the supporting sentences describe the
causes of this phenomenon described in the first sentence. In other words, if the topic
sentence introduces an effect, the supporting sentences all describe causes for the
described event in the topic. The paragraph below illustrates the cause pattern.
These days, the spread of deserts across the world is increasing in alarming rate.
There are many reasons for this occurrence. First, the clearing of vegetation cover to
get new land for farming resulted in rapid loss of forests. This depletion of forests
degraded wild life and soil. Second, the rapid growth of population made peoples to
push cultivation into areas that were entirely unsuitable for agriculture. These
activities of man on highly sensitive and delicately balanced ecosystem led to a
progressive decline in the vegetation cover. Third, the pastoral nomads are the other
protagonists in the tragedy for the fact that far more animals are building up than the
system can maintain, i.e., the number of animals is increasing beyond the potential of
land. Finally, the progressive destruction of the third world‘s stock of trees for the
existing demand for firewood and timber as building material is accelerating soil
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erosion and reducing its capacity to feed and employ people. If forests continue to be
depleted in such ways, it is inevitable that the problem aggravates and our globe will
be affected by desertification much more higher than the present.
The diagram, below, show the model cause paragraph is organized. In this diagram you
should see that the topic – desertification is expanding so large - is given in the opening
sentence. Notice, too, that the supporting sentences give the causes for why desertification
is expanding.
Effect Causes
(Topic Sentence) (Supporting Sentences)
These days, the spread of deserts
across the world is increasing in There is clearing of vegetation cover to get new
alarming rate. land for farming
[There are several reasons for this]
These days, the spread of deserts The rapid growth of population made peoples to
across the world is increasing in push cultivation into areas that were entirely
alarming rate. unsuitable for agriculture.
These days, the spread of deserts The number of animals is increasing beyond the
across the world is increasing in potential of land.
alarming rate.
These days, the spread of deserts There is destruction of trees for source of energy
across the world is increasing in and constructions.
alarming rate.
Effect Paragraph
Here is an example of a writing topic asking for effects of a particular event. The last
night storm caused a great damage. You will get the details in the following paragraph.
Notice that the first sentence identifies the topic - a storm caused a great damage - and that
all the supporting sentences describe the effects of this phenomenon described in the first
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sentence. In other words, if the topic sentence introduces a cause, the supporting sentences
all describe effects for the described event in the topic. The paragraph below illustrates the
effect pattern.
The last night storm caused a great damage. The winds blew up to ninety four miles
an hour and it rained very hard. Eucalyptus trees by the river blew over, and the trees
hit the power lines and blacked out the areas for five hours. Before morning, as the
river overflowed its banks, homes were flooded, roofs caved in, and thousands of
families living nearby were forced to flee their homes with whatever belongings they
could gather. Downtown, the main street was flooded; the cars were left stranded in
the bumper-deep water, and even some automobiles floated over the streets.
The diagram below shows how the model effect paragraph is organized. In this diagram
you should see that the topic – a storm caused a great damage - is given in the opening
sentence. Notice, too, that the supporting sentences give the effects of the terrible storm.
Cause Effects
(Topic Sentence) (Supporting Sentences)
The last night storm caused a great damage. It knocked down trees.
[There are several effects of this]
(The last night storm caused a great It caused a blackout.
damage.)
(The last night storm caused a great It ruined homes and caved in the roofs.
damage.)
(The last night storm caused a great It forced people evacuate their homes.
damage.)
(The last night storm caused a great It blocked Main Streets.

damage.)
Cause/Effect Pattern
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The writer may wish to develop a combined cause/effect pattern with in the same
paragraph. With this type of paragraph, there is no rule or regularity about which should
come first (after the topic sentence). Sometimes the writer may wish to indicate cause
before effect, and other timers he/ she may want to begin with the result or effect.
Sometimes, in this pattern, one cause is followed by several results. And sometimes
several causes are followed by a single result.
Explanations of cause and effects very often use transitions such as the following:
thus reasons leads to
because result brings about
leading to effects therefore
since causes as a result
Here are some other common conjunctions that can be used to express cause and effect:
for this reason since because of +noun phrase
as a result because due to + noun phrase
therefore consequently so
Exercise: If the following topic sentences are developed, they can form cause/ effect
paragraphs develop one of them into a paragraph indicating both the causes and effects of
the topic.
 The place where children grow may determine their future.
 How you behave in a society will determine your acceptance in that society.
 The way a teacher treats his/her students can have a great effect on students‘ life.
2.4.5 COMPARISON AND/OR CONTRAST

A writer uses this pattern when he/she wants to make something clearer to his/ her reader
by showing how it is like or unlike something else. When using this pattern, the writer
would need to answer these questions for his or her readers:
- How is (something) similar to (something else)?
- How is it different from (something else)?
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In a paragraph a wrier may be discussing two or more topics. These could be two objects,
events, places, persons, or ideas, or some aspects of these. Usually the writer will want to
discuss their similarities only, or their differences only, with in a single paragraph. The
paragraph is called a comparison paragraph when it describes similarities and it is called a
contrast paragraph when it describes differences.
Some writing topics will ask you to consider the relationship between two things, for
example, your hometown (that is, the town where you were born or grew up) and your
university town. Such topics may allow you to organize your paragraph either around the
similarities between these two subtopics (for example, between your hometown and your
university town) or around the differences between them. If you write about the
similarities, the paragraph will be a comparison paragraph. On the other hand, if you want
to write about the differences, your paragraph will be a contrast paragraph.
This lesson will show you some ways in which you can structure sentences to write a
comparison or contrast paragraph. We will first look at comparison paragraph and then
briefly look at contrast paragraph.
Sample Comparison Paragraph 1: Consider the following paragraph.
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are
small rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of
only about 10,000 people. Similarly, my college town, subnormal, consists of about
11,000 local residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the college
students are attending classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is
that they are both located in rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of
farmland which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way,
Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and cattle…
The passage above is from a comparison paragraph. That is, a paragraph which discusses
the similarities between two subtopics. How the ideas in this paragraph are organized. As
usual, the topic sentence is at the beginning of the paragraph. After that, the paragraph
continues by discussing one point of similarity between the towns of Gridlock and
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Subnormal, namely, their small population. Specific details are given to support the
statement that ―both are small rural communities.‖ Following this, the paragraph briefly
discusses a second point of similarity between the two towns, that is, their geographic
surroundings. Here, the paragraph also gives supporting details to illustrate their
similarity, namely, they are ―both located in rural areas.‖
As you can see, therefore, this comparison paragraph is structured (organized) according to
the points of similarity between the two towns. This particular paragraph discus only two
points of similarity, but of course we can imagine a paragraph that gives three, four, or
even more points of similarity. This paragraph, for example, might continue in this way.
….Thirdly, both of these towns are similar in that both contain college campuses.
Gridlock, for example, is home to Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural
Economics program as well as for its annual Corn-Watching Festival. Likewise, the
town of Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College, which is well known
for its Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog-Calling
Contest.
We can place the points of similarity and their supporting details in a table in order to see
more clearly how this short paragraph is organized:
Sample Comparison Paragraph 2
My house and my car are similar in many ways. First of all, both places are untidy. In
my house, you can see clothes strewn on chairs, papers littering all surfaces, and dishes
in the sink. Similarly, in my car, the back seat and floor are covered with sports
clothes and shoes, books, empty soft-drink cans, and gum wrappers. Second of all, I
like to spend a lot of time in my house and in my car. After work, I usually go home,
eat dinner, and flop down onto the sofa to watch videos or read a book. Likewise, on
weekends, I usually take long out-of-town trips in my car; sometimes I even sleep in it
to save money on hotels. Finally, I do some identical activities in my house and in my
car. In my house, I get dressed, listen to loud music, and eat. In the same way, I
change into my sports clothes in the car, listen to loud music on my car stereo, and eat
snacks on my way home after work or the gym. Although I treat my home and my car
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alike, I should probably clean both of them up, so that people won't be afraid to visit or
drive with me!
Comparison Paragraph: Organized by Similar Points (Point-To-Point

Organization)
TOPIC My (a) hometown and (b) college town are similar

SENTFNCE
POINT - 1 Both are small rural communities.
DETAIL (a)  Gridlock has about 10,000 people.

DETAILS (b)  Subnormal has about 11,000 local residents
 It has about 4000 college students.
POINT - 2 Both are located in rural areas.
DETAILS (a)  Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland.

 This farmland is devoted to growing corn.
 The land is also used to grow soybeans
DETAILS (b)  Subnormal is un the center of land used for raising hogs.
 This land is also used to raise cattle.
POINT - 3 Both towns contain college campuses
DETAILS (a)  Gridlock is home to Neutron College.
 This college is famous for its Agricultural Economics Program.
It is also famous for its annual Corn–Watching Festival.
 Subnormal contains Quark College
 This campus is famous for its Agricultural Engineering department
DETAILS (b) It is also famous for its yearly Hog-Calling Contest
Point-To-Point: The above table shows a diagram of the organizational style called point-
to-point, and shows an example of a comparison paragraph using the point-to-point
organizational structure. Here, each section of the paragraph covers one major point that
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proves the topic sentence. The two major items being compared (Gridlock & Subnormal)
are addressed in their own section, within each point‘s part of the paragraph.
Look the following diagram of point-to-point organizational style:

Topic sentence
Generalization: Point A
Details about Item 1
Generalization: Point B
Generalization: Point C
Comparison Paragraphs Organized by Subtopic (Whole-To-Whole Organization)

Another way of organizing a comparison is called whole-to-whole organizational structure,
which each ―whole‖ being one of the two items being compared. In this structure, the first
item is discussed in its entirety before moving on to the other item. The points are
analyzed, one at a time, for the first time; then the other item‘s points are analyzed , one at
a time. Look the following diagram of whole-to-whole organizational style.
Topic sentence
Generalization: Item 1
Details about Point A
Details about Point B
Details about Point C
Generalization: Item 2
Details about Point A
Details about Point B
Details about Point C
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Example: Based on the above diagram of whole-to-whole organizational style, look how
the following paragraph is organized.
My home town and my college town have several things in common. My hometown and
my college town have several things in common. First, my hometown, Gridlock, is a
small town. It has a population of only about 10,000 people. Located in a rural area,
Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which are devoted mainly to
growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains a college campus, Neutron
College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economics program as well as for its
annual Corn-Watching Festival. As for my college town, Subnormal, it too is small,
having a population of about 11,000 local residents, which swells to 15,000….
As you see, after the topic sentence, this paragraph first discusses the relevant details about
Gridlock and then presents the details about Subnormal, as with the paragraph above, we
can illustrate this paragraph‘s structure in the following way:
Whole-To-Whole Organization
TOPIC My hometown and college town are similar
SENTENCE
SUBTOPIC-1 GRIDLOCK
 Gridlock is a small town
DETAILS ABOUT  It has about 10,000 people grow soybeans.
GRIDLOCK:  Gridlock is home to Neutron College.
 This college is famous for its Agricultural Economics Program.
It is also famous for its annual Corn–Watching Festival.
SUBTOPIC-2 SUBNORMAL
 Subnormal is a small town.
DETAILS ABOUT  Subnormal has about 4000
SUBNORMAL College students.
 It has about 11,000 local
Residents.
 Subnormal is in a rural area
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 Subnormal is in the center of land used for raising hogs.

 This land is also used to raise cattle.
 Subnormal contains Quark College
 This campus is famous for its agricultural engineering
department.
 It is also famous for its yearly Hog-Calling contest.
Comparison conjunctions
In the above paragraph you will see various conjunctions that contribute to paragraph
coherence. We can look at the above paragraph again to see what conjunctions are:
My hometown and my college town have several things in common. First, both are
small rural communities. For example, my hometown, Gridlock, has a population of
only about 10,000 people. Similarly, my college town, Subnormal, consists of about
11, 000 local residents. This population swells to 15,000 people when the college
students are attending classes. A second way in which these two towns are similar is
that they are both located in rural areas. Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of
farmland, which is devoted mainly to growing corn and soybeans. In the same way,
Subnormal lies in the center of farmland, which is used to raise hogs and cattle.
Thirdly, these towns are similar in that both contain college campuses. Gridlock, for
example, is home to Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural Economical
program as well as for its annual Corn - Watching Festival. Likewise, the town of
Subnormal boasts the beautiful campus of Quark College, which is well known for its
Agricultural Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog -Calling contest.
This paragraph, of course is organized according to similarities. Notice how the order of
the similarities is the same through out the paragraph. That is, at each similar point, the
paragraph first discusses Gridlock and then it discusses subnormal keeping the same order
through out the paragraph prevents the reader from getting confused. Also notice how the
conjunctions (similarly, X is similar in that….) are placed near each similar point. Now
examine the following paragraph, which is organized by subtopic:
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My home town and my college town are similar in several ways. First, my home town
Gridlock is a small town. It has a population of only about 10, 000 people. Located in
rural area, Gridlock is surrounded by many acres of farmland which are devoted
mainly to growing corn and soybeans. Gridlock also contains a college campus,
Neutron College, which is famous for its Agricultural economics program as well as
for its for its annual Corn -Watching Festival. Yearly Hog -Calling contest. Subnormal,
it too is small, having a population of about 11, 000 local residents, which swells to
15,000 people when students from the near by college are attending classes.
LikeGridlock, Subnormal lies in the center of farmland which is used to raise hogs and
cattle. Finally Subnormal is similar to Gridlock in that it also boasts a beautiful
college campus, called Quark College. This college is well known for its Agricultural
Engineering department and also for its yearly Hog -Calling contest.
These are not the only ways to give coherence to a comparison paragraph. There are other
conjunctions, too. Here is a list of comparison conjunctions you can use:
Short conjunctions
like alike resembles similarities as…..
just like likewise also same …. , too.
just as equally similarly similar both
Longer Expressions
In the same way X is similar Y in that (they)…..
X and Y are similar in that (they)….. Like X, Y [verb]…. In like manner
One way in which X is similar to Y is (that)….. Another way in which X is similar to Y is
(that)…..
Organizing Contrast Paragraph

As mentioned above, a contrast paragraph discusses the differences between (at least) two
things. You can organize contrast paragraphs in much the same way that you can organize
comparison paragraphs, that is, you can organize them either according to points of
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similarity or according to sub topic. Here is an example of such a paragraph organized by

subtopic. Notice the contrastive expressions in bold letters.
Even though Arizona and Rhode Island are both states of the U.S., they are strikingly
different in many ways. For example, the physical size of each state is different. Arizona is
large, having area of 114,000 square miles, where as Rhode Island is only about a tenth the
size, having an area of only 1, 214 square miles. Another difference is in the size of the
population of each state. Arizona has about four million people living in it, but Rhode
Island has less than one million. The two states also differs in the lands of natural
environments that each has. For example, Arizona is a very dry state, consisting of large
desert areas that do not receive much rainfall every year. However, Rhode Island is located
in a temperate zone and receives an average of 44 inches of rain per year. In addition,
while Arizona is a landlocked state and thus has no seashore, Rhode Island lies on the
Atlantic Ocean and does have a significant coastline.
Contrast Paragraph -- Organized by Similar Points

TOPIC (a) Arizona, and (b) Rhode Island are strikingly different in many
SENTFNCE ways
POINT - 1 The physical size of each state is different.

DETAIL (a)  Arizona is large, having area of 114,000 square miles.
DETAILS (b)  Rhode Island is smaller, having an area of only 1,214 square miles.
POINT -2 The size of the population of each state is different.
DETAILS (a) Arizona has about four million people.
DETAILS (b) Rhode Island has less than one million.
POINT -3 The two states are different in the lands of natural environments
DETAILS (a) Arizona is desert.

DETAILS (b) Rhode Island is located in a temperate zone.
POINT -4 The two states are different in relation to a water body
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DETAILS (a) Arizona is a landlocked state

DETAILS (b) Rhode Island has a significant coastline.
Here are some common transitions showing contrast.

however on the other hand different
in contrast as opposed to differently
instead unlike differs
Here are some more contrast conjunctions that you can use:
Short conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions
in contrast, even though + ( sentence )
by contrast, although + (sentence)
, but where as + (sentence)
, yet unlike + (sentence)
nevertheless while + (sentence)
Comparison/Contrast Paragraph
The writer may wish to develop a combined comparison/contrast pattern with in the same
paragraph, i.e., the writer may wish to discuss both the similarities and the differences
between two objects, persons, places, events ,aspects, etc., within one paragraph. With this
type of paragraph, however, there is no rule or regularity about which should come first.
The first step what the writer should do is identifying the two subjects he/she is comparing
or contrasting. Sometimes the writer may wish to begin with discussing similarities, and
other timers he/ she may want to begin with discussing differences. Whatever the writer
wanted to discuss first, he/she begin by telling his/her reader that he will be discussing
similarities as well as differences.
2.4.6. Process
Process writing explains how to do something or describes how something happens or is
done. When you tell the reader how to do something (a directional process), you speak
directly to the reader, giving clear, specific instructions about performing some activity.
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Your purpose is to explain an activity so that a reader can do it. For example, you may
have to leave instructions telling a new employee how to close the cash register or use the
copy machine.
When you describe how something happens or is done (an informational process), your
purpose is to explain an activity without telling a reader how to do it. For example, you can
explain how a boxer trains for a fight or how the special effects for a movie were created.
Instead of speaking directly to the reader, an informational process speaks about ―I,‖ ―he,‖
―she,‖ ―we,‖ or ―they‖ or speaks about a person by his or her name. a directional process
uses ―you,‖ or, in the way it gives directions, the word ―you‖ is understood.
A Process Involves Steps in Time Order

Whether a process is directional or informational, it describes something that is done in
steps, and these steps are in a specific order: A time order. The process can involves steps
that are followed in minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, or even years. For example, the
steps in changing a tire may take minutes, whereas the steps taken to lose ten pounds may
take months.
You should keep in mind that a process involves steps that must follow a certain order, not
just a range of activities that can be placed in any order. This sentence signals a process:
Learning to use a word processor is easy if you follow a few simple directions. (Using a
word processor involves following steps in order; for example, you cannot set the margins
before you turn the machine on.)
This sentence does not signal a process:

There are several ways to get a person to like you. (Each way is separate; there is no time
sequence here.)
Hints for Writing a Process Paragraph
1. In choosing a topic, find an activity you know well. If you write about something
familiar to you, you will have a clearer paragraph.
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Choose a topic that includes steps that must be done in a specific time sequence.
Not this: I find lots of things to do on a rainy day.
But this: I have a plan for cleaning out my closest.
2. Choose a topic that is fairly small. A complicated process cannot be covered well in
one paragraph. If your topic is too big, the paragraph can become vague, incomplete, or
boring.
Too big: There are many stages in the process of a bill before congress becoming a
new law.
Smaller & manageable: Willpower and support were the most important elements in
my struggle to quit smoking.
3. Write a topic sentence that makes a point. Your topic sentence should do more than
announce. Like the topic sentence for any paragraph, it should have a point. As you plan
the steps of your process and gather details, ask yourself some questions: what point do I
want to make about this process? Is the process hard? Is it easy? Does the process require
certain tools? Does the process require certain skills, like organization, patience,
endurance?
An announcement: This paragraph is about how to change the oil in your car.
A topic sentence: you do not have to be a mechanic to change the oil in your car, but
you do have to take a few simple precautions.
4. Include all the steps: If you are explaining a process, you are writing for someone who
does not know the processes as well as you do. Keep in mind that what seems clear or
simple to you may not be clear or simple to the reader, and be sure to tell what is needed
before the process starts. For instance, what ingredients are needed to cook the dish? Or
what tools are needed to assemble the toy?
5. Put the steps in the right order. Nothing is more irritating to a reader that trying to
follow directions that skip back and forth. Careful planning, drafting, & revision can help
you get the time sequence right.
6. Be specific in the details and steps. To be sure you have sufficient details and clear
steps, keep your reader in mind. Put yourself in the reader‘s place.
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Example:
When you find the park you are looking for, you will need to make camp. One person can
set up the Family Proof Tent, though it is easier with two, yet almost impossible with three
or more. Here's how: First, clear a 9 by 9 foot area of snags, limbs, and anything that
might pierce the bottom of the tent. Unfold the tent so that the corners of the waterproof
bottom form a square. Peg down the corners of the bottom. Next, snap Test, Together all
four external tent-poles (they are held together by shock cords to make sure you get the
pieces matched up). Place a pole near each of the pegs. Thread each pole through the two
loops leading toward the top of the tent. After you have all four poles in place, lift one of
the poles. While holding the pole up, pull its guy rope tight and peg the guy rope down, so
that the pole is held up by the guy rope and the pegs on opposing sides of the tent bottom.
Lift the pole on the opposite side of the tent in the same way, but this time, fit it into the
upper end of the standing pole before securing its guy wire. Assemble the two remaining
tent poles in a similar manner. Finally, unroll the front flap Test, to form an awning. Prop
up the awning with the two remaining poles and secure them with guy ropes. Now you are
ready to move in.
Summary
This unit is chiefly concerned with the parts, characteristics and types of paragraphs. Any
good paragraph consists of three parts: introductory, body and conclusion. It also has
unification, coherence and organization of ideas about a clearly stated topic. All the ideas
in one paragraph work to develop one main point and these ideas are linked together with
the help of cohesive devices so that the information, be it in spatial, importance,
chronological, etc. order, flow smoothly from one part to the next one. Paragraphs vary in
terms of type according to the writer‘s own purpose. Hence, any writer may seek to explain
why something happens or what something is (expository), tell a story of past experience
(narrative), describe what somebody/thing is like (descriptive) and convince readers
through reasoning so that they may share his/her viewpoint (argumentative). Taking into
consideration the purpose for which s/he is writing a paragraph, this writer can develop
her/his paragraph by making use of any of the following methods of development:
definition, exemplification, classification, cause-effect, comparison-contrast and process.
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UNIT THREE: ESSAY WRITING

 Define an essay.
 Write clear thesis statement.
 Analyze structure of an essay.
 Develop different types of essays: expository, descriptive, argumentative and
narrative.
3.1 What is an Essay?

An essay is an extended writing with a focused subject of discussion. It is a relatively
short, but longer than a paragraph, prose composition on a limited topic. It is longer than a
paragraph in a sense that it gives an opportunity to treat the subject of discussion in a more
detailed fashion. It usually consists of introduction (introductory paragraph), body
(developing paragraphs) and conclusion (terminating paragraph).
3.2 Basic Essay Structure

Thesis Statement for Essay
The main task of the thesis statement of any essay is to show the reader the author‘s
position on the discussed topic. It is the argument of the highest priority for the essay due
to the fact that it is the thesis statement that is to be proven throughout the paper. In the
thesis statement the author makes his own point in the context of the essay topic and
delivers it to the reader by means of a logical chain. It is usually presented in one single
sentence
Writing a Thesis Statement for Essay

 Part one deals with stating the topic
 Part two deals with the point of the essay
How to Write a Good Thesis Statement

In order to create a strong thesis statement it is necessary to keep in mind its specific
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features:
 A good thesis statement is always an affirmation.
 It does not make an announcement or ask a question but asserts a definite point of
view.
 It should always reveal a plan of development in its contents; reveal what concrete
arguments will be analyzed in the paper.
 The thesis statement needs to correspond to the length of the paper. If it is very
long and the paper is limited to three pages it is impossible to prove it and to
persuade the reader that the author has a point.
A short thesis statement -> short essay;
A substantial thesis statement ->long essay.
 It can be neither too narrow nor too broad.
 A thesis statement does not present the author‘s point as a subjective position but as
an argument to prove.
The thesis statement itself gives the direction and the jumping-off point for the essay. That
is the reason it is so important to make it right as the professionalism of the future essay
absolutely depends on it.
Sample thesis statement

Being a successful psychologist (Part 1) requires a lot of knowledge and tolerance (Part 2).
Introduction
 Introduction of any essay should be no longer than 1/10 of its length. If the
essay itself must be of a significant size the introduction may have several
paragraphs; in the rest of the cases it consists of one solid paragraph.
 The contents of an always introduction has a deductive nature, as it leads
the reader from the general views or positions on the analyzed topics to the
specific narrow theme of the essay.
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A good introduction requires several elements:

 Opening sentences introducing to the topic of the essay
 Background information on it (gradually leading to the analyzed aspect of
the theme).
 Literature techniques to grab the reader‘s attention.
 A strong Thesis statement defining and stating the point the author is
making in the essay, the paper‘s main argument.
How to Write an Introduction to Essay

The main purpose of the introduction is to give the reader a clear idea of the essay‘s focal
point. It must get the reader‘s attention as it is the part when he decides if the essay is
worth reading till the end or not. The introduction should be written according to the
following scheme:
 General information
 Attention grabber
 Information on the topic leading to the thesis statement
 Thesis statement
Introduction to Essay Writing

General information of the topic must be presented in verifiable data. The best way to
attract the attention of the reader in the introductory part of any essay is to use special
literature passages.
 The goal of these passages is to make the reader pay attention to the
introduction and the whole essay by means of introducing a fact that is
absolutely new to him/her.
 This fact has to reveal the point of the author explicitly and vividly.
 An appropriate anecdote on the topic can make a good job in getting the
attention of the reader. This is a story that will support the author‘s main
argument but to make it effective it has to be highly relevant to the topic of the
essay.
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 A suitable dialogue technique can also be used in the introduction. Two or three
speakers are used to clarify the author‘s point to the reader.
 The transition to the thesis statement is accomplished by dint of several
sentences describing the topic of the essay in the general character and
gradually narrowing to the thesis statement.
 Thesis statement finished the introduction paragraph and proved the reader
with a crystal clear understanding of the author‘s main argument on the topic of
the essay.
This structure of the essay introduction gives the writer the ability to gradually initiate the
reader into the topic analysis and conclude with a strong thesis statement revealing the very
essence of the essay.
Body paragraphs
Body paragraph 1
Body paragraph 2
Body paragraph 3, etc.
 The body of a basic essay may have as many body paragraphs as it is necessary
to prove the author‘s argument of the thesis statement.
 It is vital to keep in mind that each paragraph is supposed to have one main
argument to analyze and has to reveal it in one solid thought in a sentence
called the topic sentence. Therefore the amount of the body paragraphs equals
the amount of topic sentences.
 Each body paragraph must be connected to following one with a logical link.
Conclusion
 It is usually written in one solid paragraph.
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 The conclusion always deals with summing up the essays arguments revealed in
the topic sentences and the therefore present substantial evidence to prove the thesis
statement. It is also important to mention the importance of the general conclusion
of the essay.
How to Write a 5-Paragraph Essay?

A 5-paragraph essay is on of the classic essay forms. It is an essay type, which deals with
the analysis of any given topic. One of the key elements of how to write a 5-paragraph
essay is to make a draft of thought.
Writing a five-paragraph essay

The best way to make such a draft is to make an outline, in which all the ideas of the essay
will be assembled in a proper order and make all together one logical professional essay. If
the topic for the essay is not assigned by the instruction it is first of all necessary to chose
one general topic for the whole paper. A good 5-paragraph essay requires a strong thesis
statement and corresponding topic sentences. Topic sentences are sentences, which add
more to the thesis statement, and each is opened in a separate paragraph of the essay.
Together with the introduction and conclusion paragraphs make 5 paragraphs. A 5-
paragraph essay also must be supported with adequate supportive sources.
Five-Paragraph essay Outline

This rubric is a condensed treatment of the 5-Paragraph essay writing, this Outline is just a
description of the main facts and rules about how to write this type of essay. One should
practice as much as possible to become good in writing a five Paragraph essay.
Five-Paragraph essay structure

Introductory paragraph: (This opening paragraph is required to have a thesis statement
and a short outline of what the paper is about. The main element of an introductory
paragraph besides the thesis statement is a connecting element (―transitional hook‖) that
will catch the reader‘s attention and make him continue by reading the body of the essay).
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Body
 First paragraph (Ordinarily, the first paragraph of the essay body contains the
strongest argument of the whole work, the brightest illustration to prove the
author‘s point or an example that is rather significant. The topic of the paragraph
must be mentioned in the topic sentence in one of the first sentences of the
paragraph. A ―transitional hook‖ for the next paragraph is required).
 Second paragraph (The second paragraph contains correspondingly the second
strongest argument of the essay. The beginning of the second paragraph must be
tied with the end of the first one with a ―reverse hook‖. The topic sentence is
revealed din the begging of the paragraph. A ―transitional hook‖ for the next
paragraph is required).
 Third paragraph opens the weakest argument to the reader. The topic sentence is
to be related or reflect the thesis statement of the essay. The major point of the
essay starts to be revealed and through a ―transitional hook‖ continues in the
concluding paragraph).
Concluding paragraph: This paragraph consists of four main elements:
 A reference to the way the introductory paragraph was constructed
 Thesis restatement without word for word repeating.
 The summary of the three arguments presented in the body of the essay.
 The major final statement, implying all the mentioned above and clarifying the
true essence of the essay.
Example:
Stephen King, creator of such stories as Carrie and Pet Sematary, stated that the Edgar
Allan Poe stories he read as a child gave him the inspiration and instruction he needed to
become the writer that he is. Poe, as Stephen King does, fills the reader's imagination with
the image that he wishes the reader to see, hear, and feel. His use of vivid, concrete visual
imagery to present both static and dynamic settings and to describe people is part of his
technique. Poe's short story "The Tell-Tale Heart" is a story about a young man who kills
an old man who cares for him, dismembers the corpse, then goes mad when he thinks he
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hears the old man's heart beating beneath the floor boards under his feet as he sits and
discusses the old man's absence with the police. In "The Tell-Tale Heart," a careful reader
can observe Poe's skillful manipulation of the senses.
The sense of sight, the primary sense, is particularly susceptible to manipulation. In "The
Tell-Tale Heart," Poe uses the following image to describe a static scene: "His room was
as black as pitch with the thick darkness . . ." Poe used the words "black," "pitch," and
"thick darkness" not only to show the reader the condition of the old man's room, but also
to make the reader feel the darkness." "Thick" is a word that is not usually associated with
color (darkness), yet in using it, Poe stimulates the reader's sense of feeling as well as his
sense of sight.
Further on in the story, Poe uses a couple of words that cross not only the sense of sight
but also the sense of feeling to describe a dynamic scene. The youth in the story has been
standing in the open doorway of the old man's room for a long time, waiting for just the
right moment to reveal himself to the old man in order to frighten him. Poe writes: "So I
opened it [the lantern opening]--you cannot imagine how stealthily, stealthily--until, at
length, a single dim ray, like the thread of the spider, shot from out the crevice and fell full
upon the vulture eye." By using the metaphor of the thread of the spider (which we all
know is a creepy creature) and the word "shot," Poe almost makes the reader gasp, as
surely did the old man whose one blind eye the young man describes as "the vulture eye."
The reader does not know much about what the old man in this story looks like except that
he has one blind eye. In the second paragraph of "The Tell-Tale Heart," Poe establishes
the young man's obsession with that blind eye when he writes: "He had the eye of the
vulture--a pale blue eye, with a film over it." This "vulture eye" is evoked over and over
again in the story until the reader becomes as obsessed with it as does the young man. His
use of the vivid, concrete word "vulture" establishes a specific image in the mind of the
reader that is inescapable.
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"Thick darkness," "thread of the spider" and "vulture eye" are three images that Poe used
in "The Tell-Tale Heart" to stimulate a reader's senses. 2Poe wanted the reader to see and
feel real life. 3He used concrete imagery rather than vague abstract words to describe
settings and people. If Edgar Allan Poe was one of Stephen King's teachers, then readers
of King owe a debt of gratitude to that nineteenth-century creator of horror stories.
The introductory paragraph includes a paraphrase of something said by a famous person

in order to get the reader's attention. The second sentence leads up to the thesis statement
which is the third sentence. The thesis statement (sentence 3) presents topic of the paper to
the reader and provides a mini- outline. The topic is Poe's use of visual imagery. The mini-
outline tells the reader that this paper will present Poe's use of imagery in three places in
his writing: (1) description of static setting; (2) description of dynamic setting; and (3)
description of a person. The last sentence of the paragraph uses the words "manipulation"
and "senses" as transitional hooks.
In the first sentence of the second paragraph (first paragraph of the body) the words
"sense" and "manipulation" are used to hook into the end of the introductory paragraph.
The first part of the second sentence provides the topic for this paragraph--imagery in a
static scene. Then a quotation from "The Tell-Tale Heart" is presented and briefly
discussed. The last sentence of this paragraph uses the expressions "sense of feeling" and
"sense of sight" as hooks for leading into the third paragraph.
The first sentence of the third paragraph (second paragraph of the body) uses the words
"sense of sight" and "sense of feeling" to hook back into the previous paragraph. Note that
in the second paragraph "feeling" came first, and in this paragraph "sight" comes first. The
first sentence also includes the topic for this paragraph--imagery in a dynamic scene.
Again, a quotation is taken from the story, and it is briefly discussed. The last sentence
uses the words "one blind eye" which was in the quotation. This expression provides the
transitional hook for the last paragraph in the body of the paper.
In the first sentence of the fourth paragraph (third paragraph in the body), "one blind
eye" is used that hooks into the previous paragraph. This first sentence also lets the reader
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know that this paragraph will deal with descriptions of people: ". . . what the old man looks
like. ..." Once again Poe is quoted and discussed. The last sentence uses the word "image"
which hooks into the last paragraph. (It is less important that this paragraph has a hook
since the last paragraph is going to include a summary of the body of the paper.)
The first sentence of the concluding paragraph uses the principal words from the
quotations from each paragraph of the body of the paper. This summarizes those three
paragraphs. The second and third sentences provide observations which can also be
considered a summary, not only of the content of the paper, but also offers personal
opinion which was logically drawn as the result of this study. The last sentence returns to
the Edgar Allan Poe-Stephen King relationship that began this paper. This sentence also
provides a "wrap-up" and gives the paper a sense of finality.
3.3 Types of Essay

a) Expository
b) Descriptive
c) Argumentative
d) Narrative
3.3.1 Expository Essay
How to write an expository essay?

This type of essay is aimed to explain some subject by presenting a very clear and
complete picture of other people‘s views on this certain situation or event. It may also be in
a form of a report. The main idea of any expository essay is to present a certain event or
situation in detail to the reader. This essay may also be called a coalition of facts and
opinions, which are free from the author‘s criticism but with a deep analysis of the
provided information.
Writing an expository essay outline

In order to create a profession expository essay it is necessary to follow three golden rules:
 The statements taken from different articles must be clearly stated in the essay
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and the development of this statement in the essay should not be different from
its development in the original article. Therefore no ―meaning deformations‖
will occur, but the main point of the original article will be emphasized.
 The analyzed event of situation should be review from the position of several
sources thus making the expository essay stay focused on the context and very
objective.
 The conclusions in an expository essay should never be a surprise for the reader
as they need to be easily traced throughout the essay. The analysis and the
conclusions have to be always connected to each other. The reader should never
have to guess what the author meant and never have a problem following the
essay‘s reasoning.
Expository essay Structure

A proper structure of an expository essay is a way to make it as effective as possible.
 A narrow topic is presented
 A thesis statement must express the main essence of the essay
 The topic is developed through different opinions
 The conclusion is made according to the summary of the presented above opinions
Expository essay format

The expository essay format implies some vital specifications:
 The paragraphs supporting the thesis statement are supposed to have one main
topic-line. The rest of the sentences are to be directly related to this topic-line.
This makes it easier for the reader to trace the logical movement of the essay.
 Conclusion is a place of logical end of the essay analysis but not for nay type of
new information.
 The conclusion in an expository essay always restates the thesis sentence and
supports the main topic-line of the essay. The ending must be memorable.
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Sample Expository Essay:

The Family Bathroom
There are five of us in my family- my Mom, my Dad, my twin sisters and myself. We
only have one bathroom in the house, which isn‘t a problem most of the time. However,
we all have to be at school or work about the same time, and we all like to shower. From
6:00 A.M. to 7:00 A.M. every morning is by far the busiest room in our house.
First, Mom goes into the bathroom at about 6:00. She showers before anyone else is up,
and she goes to make breakfast while the rest of us start stirring. She is always out of the
bathroom by 6:15, so she is no problem to anyone. In fact, I never even hear her in there.
Next, my nine-year-old twin sisters roll out of bed and into the bathroom. They shower and
brush their teeth together, which saves some time but uses a lot of water. They always take
at least twenty minutes in the bathroom, but sometimes they start messing around in the
shower and Mom has to yell at them to get moving. They always leave their marks on the
bathroom before they leave-shower water on the floor and the toothpaste left out with the
cap nowhere to be found.
After the twins get out, Dad trudges into the bathroom. He takes quite a while because he
showers, shaves and reads some of the paper while he sits. There is no rushing him in the
mornings because he likes to take his time. He sings and whistles and sounds like he‘s
having a good all time in there. The only good thing is that you can always depend on him
taking the same amount of time because he has to catch the bus at 7:30 at the corner every
morning.
Finally, it is my turn in the bathroom. By then, the bathroom mirror is fogged up and there
is a strange mixture of smells. The floor is slippery, and there is seldom a dry towel
anywhere. When I climb into the shower, I know I am going to have to hustle because I get
the tail end of the hot water. I bath and wash my hair fast, and if there is some hot water
left, I‘ll shave in the shower. The last one in the bathroom obviously gets the worst deal,
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but that‘s the price I pay for getting to sleep by half hour beyond the others.
(Guth, 1989)
Expository essays topics and ideas.

Expository essays can be written on many different topics which aimed to explain some
subject by presenting a very clear and complete picture of other people‘s views on this
certain situation or event. Delicate approach to the choice of a topic or keen understanding
of the one topic is the key element of good essay writing. Now write an expository essay
on any of the following topics.
 Terrorism
 Abortion
 Death penalty
 Smoking
 Global warming
 Adoption
 Single parenthood
 Career vs. family
3.3.2 Descriptive essay
How to write a descriptive essay

Writing a descriptive essay requires a strong accent on the observation and the
descriptions provided by the author. The facts in this type of essay can be just the
background of the vivid experiences presented by the writer. It is crucial to focus strictly
on the subject of description. It can be:
 A certain experience
 A special memory
 An interesting place
 One person
 A thing/object
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The identification of the focus of a descriptive essay should be based on the personally
perceived experiences. The author basically describes what he observes and perceives. The
main message is the reason the author wants to share this experience with the reader. A
descriptive essay is to make the reader believe as if he has seen and experienced
something on his own. A standard descriptive essays outline is concentrated on the senses
and based on the delivery of the author‘s experience through the following means:
 Taste
 Smell
 Sight
 Sound
 Touch
Therefore the major restriction for writing a descriptive essay is to provide very specific
and extremely vivid details in the work. The reader has to taste, smell, see, hear and touch
everything the author does. A good descriptive essay has to:
 Give a vivid perception of the subject of description
 Include all the smallest important possible details
 Deliver the emotional background of the described subject
 Indicate the author‘s emotional response caused by the subject
 Eliminate every single irrelevant detail
 Gradually reveal different aspects of the subject in each following paragraph
Such an essay also has to be well organized. The introductions plays a rather important
part here as it is the part the catches the reader‘s attention. The body consists of the amount
of paragraphs required to describe each aspect or side of the described subject. The
conclusion is where the author restates the main idea of a given descriptive essay. This
type of essay is supposed to created excitement in the heart of the reader.
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Sample Descriptive Essay:

Lou’s Place
It is at least twenty years later and I can still remember my first visit to Lou‘s Café.
Stopping in to see if anyone could tell us where to locate the turn we had missed, my
husband and I received a large dose of culture shock. It seemed as if we had opened the
door to the decades: a place where generations came and went, a place where time stood
still and passed by at the same time.
Miss Lou Dixon owns and runs that restaurant in the middle of the town of Sunbright,
Tennessee. Miss Lou has been in business at that location since 1954. Even though the
place looks a little squalid, it is not for lack of care; in fact, Lou is proud of how clean she
keeps her place. She has often been heard to say, with the strongest East Tennessee accent,
―It don‘t matter how pore a body is. They can be clean.‖ She is proud of her ―A‖ rating and
prominently displays it.
It is not a fancy restaurant. The hundreds of booted loggers, railroad workers, and oil field
roughnecks trekking through have worn the carpet thin. Chunks are missing from the
carpet at the favorite tables of the workers. The hardened veneer on some of the tables is
missing a notch here and there. The paint on the walls has cracks and there is a perennial
smell of hamburgers permeating the air. The casual observer could be forgiven for thinking
the place is about to fold financially; instead, what we found that night was a well
camouflaged center of social activity and the finest, most accurate, information available.
When entering the door at Lou‘s, two things are immediately noticeable: the place is rarely
empty and seems to consist of a maze of rooms. The first room, through the door, is the
main part of the restaurant. There is another, rarely used, dining room off to the right. It
was added during the oil well boom of the seventies. Through the main dining room is yet
another room; it guards the door leading into the kitchen. This room contains the most
coveted table in the place. The highest tribute Lou can bestow on anyone is to allow them
access to seats at this table. This table is the family table; it is reserved for Lou‘s, and her
daughter Karen‘s, immediate family and treasured friends.
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When entering the main dining room, whether by design or by custom, there is a definite
pecking order involved in the seating arrangements. The first table on the left, presided
over by an elderly gentleman with Basset Hound eyes, belongs to the old men of the town.
The table sits in front of one of two large windows; the old men can see and are able to
comment on the ―doins of them young ‘uns running the town these days.‖ It is amusing to
discover that the average age of the people under discussion is at least fifty and they took
over their businesses from the same old men looking over them now.
On the right side, the other large window is dominated by the ―women‘s information
league.‖ In other towns they would be known as busybodies or gossips. At Lou‘s, they are
part of the complicated information gathering process. They bring all the information from
the night before and are linked to the rest of the town through the old fashioned rotary
telephone hanging outside Lou‘s kitchen door. The phone rings constantly: someone wants
to call in an order, someone wants to leave a message for a person the caller knows is
going to be there sometime during the day, and someone else wants to know where the
police and the ambulance were going last night. Along with all the calls coming in for the
special of the day are also calls delivering the latest events of the day. The old men on the
other side of the room will be giving a running commentary on the family of the latest
newsmaker, their history in the community, arrest record if any; the who, what, when,
where, and why, of the story, with an accuracy to equal any television or newspaper
reporter.
In the evenings, when Lou‘s daughter Karen gets in from school, she brings a change of
atmosphere. Even though the news branch never stops, it is replaced in importance by the
young people, heralding the evening. The old juke box, reigning in the corner, is brought to
life and starts blasting tunes that cover at least twenty years of change in musical tastes.
The place fills up with the town‘s young people. Whether the kids are flirting, giggling,
strutting around, being manly for the girls, or hiding in the darkest corner to profess
undying love for each other, the restaurant begins its shift as the town‘s social center.
All of the activity at Miss Lou‘s is conducted in a haze of aromas, guaranteed to make the
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mouth water. The smell is never the same; it depends entirely on what is cooking at the
time. Whether it is roast for tomorrow‘s lunch special, a cake someone asked Lou to make,
the spices of an apple pie, or the ever present odor of hamburgers, it is a well known fact, it
will taste as good as it smells. The best part of being at Lou‘s is not her food, however; it is
the feeling of being part of her extended family, being part of a tradition, when traditions
are hard to come by.
The last time I was in Lou‘s, I experienced another trip through time‘s door; it was as if
nothing had changed, nothing, except the amount of gray in her hair. Some of the old men
had passed on; they have since been replaced by two or three of the ―young ‗uns‖ they
used to keep their eyes on. The phone still rings constantly, the women still gather their
news, and a new bunch of kids take over at night. Everything is the same, everything is
different.
Exercise:
Write a descriptive essay on any of the following topics.
 An interesting place
 One person you love because of internal (personality) or external (physical
appearance) quality
 The flat or town you live in
 The kind of person with whom you wish to spend much of your time
3.3.3 Argumentative Essay
How to Write an Argumentative Essay

The leading tone in an argumentative essay is the position of proving that the presented
point of view is the correct one and possesses more truthful arguments than any other
opinions. The author through proper reasoning, inducting and making conclusions, must
prove the assertions or the theories of the argumentative essay. If the author fails to apply
the reasons and conclusions to the topic of the essay such essay is considered to be an
unsubstantiated opinion.
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Argument essay writing requires the ability of the author to show that he makes
conclusions according to definite facts and not on his personal assumptions only. The idea
that a theory created on a base of some sort of argument answers the question ―how to
write an argumentative essay‖. So in reality it is the best argument essay.
Argumentative essay Format

Any argumentative essay needs to be written according to the following form:
 It must begin with a clear statement and reveal the significance of the presented
opinion in terms of the analyzed phenomenon.
 In order to make the argumentative essay professional a wide range of
information concerning the phenomenon should be reviewed.
 As the reader is to ―agree‖ with the data listed in the essay must be as reliable
as possible.
Structure of the argumentative essay

A good argumentative essay has several paragraphs that should be concentrated on
different aspects of the essay.
 Introduction (The reader is introduced to the analyzed phenomenon and the
opinion is revealed through a strong thesis statement).
 Previous attempts to solve the argument (Are provided from literature).
 The consequences of the problem (its negative or positive impact).
 Repercussion of the argument in case it is not finally solved (supported with
sources).
 Connecting the argument with the provided facts.
 Summary (a conclusion including main ideas and the thesis restatement).
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Sample Argumentative Essay:

Thou Shall Not
In spite of strong current in favour of the death penalty, capital punishment violates several
basic principles underlying the American system of justice.
Most basic to our legal system is our belief in even-handed justice. We believe that equal
crimes should receive equal punishment. However, the death penalty has always been
notorious for its ―freakish unfairness.‖ In the words of one study, ―judicial safeguards for
preventing the arbitrary administration of capital punishment are not working.‖ Judges and
juries apply widely differing standards. In one celebrated case, two partners in one crime
were convicted of the same capital crime on identical charges. One was executed; the other
is in prison and will soon be eligible for parole.
We believe that all citizens are equal before the law. Justice should be ―blind‖ to wealth,
race and ethnic origin. However, poor defendants are many times more likely to receive the
death penalty than wealthy ones protected by highly paid teams of lawyers whose
maneuvers stymie the prosecution and baffle the jury. Minority groups convicted of
capital crimes have a much higher statistical chance of being executed than white
defendants.
Fairness demands that the judicial system make provision for correcting its own errors. If
someone has been unjustly convicted, there should be a mechanism for reversing the
verdict and setting the person free. However, in the case of death penalty, such a correction
of an error is aborted. We are left with futile regrets, like the prosecutor who said,
―Horrible as it is to contemplate, we may have executed the wrong man.‖
(Guth, 1989 as cited in Alamrew, 1995)
Exercise: Argumentative essays can be written on many different topics. Delicate

approach to choice of a topic or keen understanding of the given topic is the key element of
good essay writing. Here you can see some examples of argumentative essay topics from
which you choose one and write an essay.
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 gender issues
 feminism
 modern technology
 obesity
 from animal cruelty to serial murder
 drinking and driving
3.3.4 Narrative essay
How to write a narrative essay?

Writing a narrative essay is basically writing a story connected with personal experiences.
The key element of a narrative essay is a defined point of view presented in the paper and
delivered through sharing emotions and sensory details with the reader. As a narrative
essay is always a reflection of a personal experience of the author and that is the reason it
often has the form of a story and also often becomes a personal narrative essay. If the
author decides to write a narrative essay in a form of a story it is crucial to keep in mind
the model of storytelling:
 Plot (introduction, raising of action, climax, falling action and resolution)
 Characters (major and minor)
 Setting (time and place)
 Conflict
 Theme
 Point of view
A narrative essay explains the point of view that the author claims in the opening
statement and confirms in the conclusion of the paper. A type of an essay known as a
descriptive narrative essay very often has the form of a book report which gets the reader
acquainted with the book‘s plot, the characters of the book and their actions. This type of
narrative essay analyzes the message of the book and its purpose.
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Sample Narrative Essay:

Small-Town Terror
Situated between majestic mountains and rolling hills, Benton is much like any other small
eastern Tennessee settlement. It was election day, and looking forward to a visit to the ice
cream shop, I accompanied my grandfather as he drove the ten-mile journey to town.
Country life offered little excitement, but that day an air of uneasiness replaced the usual
contentment one felt while passing aged buildings, their drabness contrasted sharply by a
few colorful, modern improvements. Having spent the first ten years of my life here, it was
easy to detect any change in the town's mood.
I pondered the worried expression on the faces of the few people we saw on the streets. It
seemed everyone was in a hurry. There were not the usual groups gathered to exchange
local gossip. Most noticeable was the absence of children.
As my grandfather's dilapidated Ford approached the town's only traffic light, we were
greeted-not by flashing red, yellow or green--but by uniformed National Guardsmen armed
with guns and appearing much out of place in such placid surroundings. As our vehicle
slowed to a stop, I was aghast as I saw before me a huge machine gun, pointed in our
direction. A young guardsman walked briskly to the car and explained, almost
apologetically, "Sorry Sir, but we'll have to search your car. Just routine procedure."
As the car was being searched, we learned the reason for such drastic precautionary
measures. A man whom we knew and who was a candidate for the sheriff's office, had
been brutally murdered in the presence of his wife and daughter. It was rumored that the
opposing party was responsible for the fatal shotgun blast, and other rumors stated that
explosives would be brought into town to bomb the courthouse.
As this unbelievable information was being given, I sat petrified, trying to convince myself
that this was the same town where, only yesterday, old men in dirty overalls lounged
around the courthouse, spitting tobacco and discussing the forthcoming election. Dogs and
children had romped freely on the sidewalks, while women browsed in the stores for hours
without buying anything. Strangely, all this had changed overnight, and the preconceptions
112
I had about our peaceful country and the glorious right to vote were beginning to sound as
a sour note. Marching through the streets, guards with guns gave the appearance of towns I
had seen in the movies. Towns which did not know freedom, but captivity.
"He'll probably go home," I mused to myself as my grandfather began changing the gears
to move on. Surely no one could be so stupid as to go into that courthouse now! Thinking
how wonderful it would be to get back to the safety of our farmhouse, I was somewhat
taken aback when Grandpa parked near the entrance of the threatened building. The lines
in his face seemed to be carved with determination, and with unfaltering stride he quickly
mounted the steps to the building. A man had died at the hands of those who tried to
control a county's right to vote. That "right" was now even more precious. Grandpa would
vote.
Exercise: Write a narrative essay using one of the following topics of experience.
 Car accident
 Freighting/discouraging experience
 First time you joined Axum University
 First time you left home and feel homesick
 Journey
Summary
This unit deals with the basic structure and major types of essays. An essay has three
different parts: introductory, body and concluding. In an essay, thesis statement, which
holds the main point of the whole essay, always appears in the introductory part. For each
supporting paragraph of the body part, there is topic sentence consisting of ideas which
support the main point. And the number of these paragraphs varies according to the nature
of the topic. Based on their purpose, one person can write different types of essays. This
types of essay includes expository which discuses what something is or why something
occurs; descriptive which describes what somebody/something is like; argumentative
which tries to convince readers to share the same position the writer holds, and narrative
which tells story.
113
References
Alamrew G/Mariam. (2005) College Writing Skills: A Reference and Practice Book for
Sophomore English and Intermediate Writing Skills. Addis Ababa Printing Press.
John, S. (2000). The Oxford Guide to Writing and Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Langan, J (2005) College Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (1991). College Writing Skills. McGraw Hill.
Rudolph, F. and Lass, A.H. (1996). The Classic Guide to Better Writing. New York.
Solomon G/G\Giorgis. (1991). Writng for Academic Purpose. Addis Ababa Printing Press.
Axelord, B. and Cooper, R. (2001). The St. Martin‘s Guide to Writing, 6th ed. Boston:
Bedford/St. Martin‘s.
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Basic Writing Skills (EnLa1012)

Bule Hora University

In this unit, you will be able to:

-A sentence is usually defined as a grammatically independent unit made up of a word or

-A sentence is the basic unit of thought someone uses to express her/himself.

1.1 Sentence Types in Terms of Structure (Construction)

1. Simple (one independent clause):

The following is a detailed discussion of the above sentence types.

B) Compound Sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more independent clauses

- I steamed the carrots, and then I baked the potatoes.

D) Compound -Complex Sentence is a sentence which consists of two independent

2. Sarah loves to go to the beach and spend her days sunbathing.

1.2 Classification of Sentences by Purpose (Function)

1.3 Faulty Sentences

A SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by

Sentence fragment describes something, but there is no subject-verb relationship:

Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory last semester.

Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances:

a. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was

b. When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression

This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual.

1.3.3 Dangling Modifiers

- Built in the 1700s, the church was a historic place.

Example: Brushing the street, I saw the street sweeper go by.

1.3.4 Misplaced Modifiers

a. To become a respected politician, one must administer campaign funds

a. I like to listen to rock music doing my homework.

a. Without a plan for the weekend, we decided to take in a Saturday matinee.

1.3.5 Agreement Errors

My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians.

 Three quarters of the students come from abroad.

Activity 1: Select the correct verb form

9. Neither parent is /are fond of playing mahjong.

1.4 Vague Diction

Mentally ill: affected with a psychiatric disorder

1.5 Sentence Variety

1.6 Punctuation and Capitalization

(h) To mark off participial phrases.

- Scorpions are more poisonous than snakes.

Unit Two: Paragraph Writing

In this unit, you will be able to:

Paragraph is defined as a group of related sentences expressing and developing a basic

2.1 Structure of a Paragraph

Police officers perform many important services. ____________________________

Positions of Topic Sentences

a. There are rose bushes below the kitchen window.

2.2 Characteristics of a good paragraph

d. I'm getting fat from eating 'Ambasha'.

Repetition: Substituting a pronoun for a noun is actually a kind of repetition. Direct

i. Time (Chronological) Order

Connecting words – connecting through time: Bridging thoughts through transitions,

ii. Spatial Order

iii. General Sequencing

iv. Sequence in Importance (Emphatic) Order

The following examples illustrate the use of transitional terms:

Stages in Paragraph Writing (Planning Paragraph)

Example 1: A: Topic: Honey in Ethiopia - Honey production in Ethiopia

Example 2: A: Topic: Rural areas of Ethiopia

Rural areas in Ethiopia have three problems. One of these is poverty. It

2.3 Basic Types of Paragraphs

Sample narrative paragraph

A. Useful nouns for describing a person's appearance