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Meaning Nature and Scope of Modern Political Analysis
Meaning Nature and Scope of Modern Political Analysis
Meaning
Man is a social animal. He cannot live in isolation because he is not self-sufficient, and the
instinct to survive compels him to live a collective life. According to Aristotle, this collective
life necessitates a political mechanism of rules, regulations, and leadership. An organized
society needs some system to make and enforce rules for orderly behaviour in society. This
led to the evolution of a political system with elaborate governmental institutions &
procedures in each society. Therefore, man is also a political animal. Political science is one
of the oldest subjects of study of this political life of man.
Nature
Politics is not only a mere institution of governance but also a mechanism for achieving
societal goals. Nature of Political Science is a social science concerned with the theory and
practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political
behavior. It includes matters concerning the allocation and transfer of power in decision
making, the roles, and governance systems, including governments and international
organizations, political behavior, and public policies. Thus, political science is a study of the
state in the past, present, and future of the political organization, political processes, and
political functions of political institutions and political theories.
Political science has several subfields, including political theory, public policy, national
politics, international relations, human rights, environmental politics, and comparative
politics.
Origin
Western politics’ antecedents can trace their roots back to Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato
(427–347 BC), and Aristotle (384–322 BC). The studies were philosophy oriented. Plato
wrote The Republic and Aristotle wrote the Politics. Aristotle is known as the Father of
Political Science. He is famous for his statement, “Man is a political animal.” The word
‘politics ‘is derived from the Greek word ‘polis,’ which means a city-state.
Nature Of Political Science During the height of the Roman Empire, famous historians,
documented the rise of the Roman Republic, and the organization and histories of other
nations, while statesmen like Julius Caesar, Cicero, and others provided us with examples of
the politics of the republic and Rome’s empire and wars. During this age, the study of politics
was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and
describing the operation of governments. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was
widespread in the churches and courts. Saint Thomas Aquinas was an important political
thinker of this period.
Stages of Evolution
The study of politics is both humanistic and scientific and is centuries old. Aristotle called it
the “queen of the sciences.” Today’s political research involves highly scientific and rigorous
attempts to understand human behavior and world events. Political scientists provide the
frameworks from which journalists, special interest groups, politicians, and
the electorate analyze issues.
a. Study of state and the government deals with the nature and formation of the State and tries
to understand the government’s various forms and functions.
b. Study of associations and institutions in an organized way the fundamental problems of
political science include, first, an investigation of the origin and the nature of the state,
second an inquiry into the nature, history, and forms of political institutions and third,
deduction, therefore, so far as possible of laws of political growth and development.
c. Study of national and international problems modern demands of defense of territory,
representative government, and national unity have made political science the science of
political independence and state sovereignty.
d. Study of the political behavior of man it may be said that its basic per supposition
regarding man determines the character of political science in all its parts.
e. Study of the past, present, and future of development political science attempts to explain
the meaning and the essential nature of the state and deals with the laws of its progress and
development within itself and about international organizations and other states.
f. Study of the concepts of power, authority & influence with the behavioral revolution. The
central topic for the study has become the study of power. Consequently, the scope has
widened to include new aspects like political socialization, political culture, political
development, and informal structures like interest and pressure groups.
Definitions
“the study of the state and government in all their manifestations, aspects and
relationships”.
In this sense, politics can be domestic, national, federal, municipal, or international.
These early definitions of political science generally dealt with state and government.
a. J.W. Garner: “Political Science begins and ends with the state,” and
2. At the beginning of the 20th century, there developed a new way of looking at
political science. This new approach is known as a behavioral approach. The main
thrust of the new view is the treatment of politics as an activity and a process. In this
context, new definitions emerged.
e. Harold Laswell: “Politics is the study of influence and the influential” or “the study of the
shaping and sharing of power.”
f. David Easton: “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.”
g. Catlin: “Political Science is the study of the act of human and social control.”
h. Andrew Heywood: “Politics can be defined as an activity through which people make,
preserve and amend the general rules under which they live.”
Perspectives on politics
Politics as a human (social) activity Simple things like our opinions, perceptions of rights &
wrongs, competing needs, conflicting interests ultimately leads to a system of rules for
conflict resolution and cooperation. The inescapable presence of diversity and scarcity
ensures that politics is an inevitable feature of the human condition. Adrian Leftwich (What
is Politics?) finds politics is the heart of all collective social activity, formal and informal,
public and private, in all human groups, institutions, and societies.
(2) Politics as public affairs: The meaning of politics can be stretched beyond the narrow
realm of government to a broader conception of public life or public affairs because of its
‘public’ character. Aristotle said the man is a political animal. Rousseau and JS mill
supported this outlook.
(3) Politics as compromise & consensus (the study of interaction among interest groups):
According to this, politics has a wider scope. Politics is seen as an act of conflict and
cooperation among individuals and various groups to secure values like liberty, equality,
justice, welfare, etc., and to organize and use public power for this purpose (Bernard Crick).
Thus, politics is an interaction between man & society, resolving conflicts through
conciliation and negotiation instead of violence. Both the liberal and Marxist views of politics
study it as a part of this social process. As a result of this, non-formal institutions like
pressure groups, public opinion, interest groups, political parties, etc., became political
subjects.
Thus, within its fold, there are discussions on theories of state origin, functions, sovereignty,
liberty, rights forms and organs of government, representation, political parties, pressure
groups, public opinion, ideologies, and international relations and institutions.
(4) Politics as the study of power: After rejecting politics as the study of the state as
insufficient, modern thinkers tried to find the axis of politics, and they found it in the concept
of power. The new understanding of politics was that it is a struggle to share or influence
power distribution, whether between states or among the groups within the state. There are
two advantages to study politics from the point of view of power. Firstly, it focuses attention
on process rather than on legal abstractions of the state. Secondly, this approach pays greater
attention to man as the basic unit of analysis. Politics became directly concerned with the
needs, interests, and goals of men that give rise to power relationships and ultimately lead to
a public policy.
In short, there are three forms of power: political, economic, and ideological. Political power
s concerned with the maintenance of law and order and dispensing justice through reward and
punishment.
Though identifiable with terms like influence, coercion, force, domination, authority, control,
and the like, the term power has its own meaning. Power is a relation. While power is
coercive, influence is persuasive, authority is the legitimate aspect or power, and force is
manifested power.
Power is “the ability to determine the behavior of others in accord with one’s own wishes.”
The power theory of politics is as old as the Greeks, though it has assumed much importance.
Power consists fundamentally of relationships, subordination, dominance and submission, the
governors and the governed, and the study of politics involves studying these relationships.
In other words, the study of politics is concerned with the description and analysis of how
power is obtained, exercised, and controlled, and the purpose for which it is used, how
decisions are made, the factors which influence the making of these decisions, and the
context in which these decisions are made.
Political power: it belongs to the state and is manifested through the government’s organs
like the legislature, executive, military, judiciary, police, bureaucracy, etc. Power is shared by
political parties, pressure groups, elites, factions, leaders, etc. Power exists in all political
processes, however democratic they may be.
Liberals say that power is dispersed in society and that it changes hands often. Marxists hold
a different viewpoint. According to the power is concentrated in a class, the only revolution
can change hands.
Economic power: finds its place in the form of ownership and control of national wealth and
means of production and distribution. Economic power and political power are mutually
complementary.
Liberals say that it is diffused and hard work determines the degree of economic power one
can gain. Marxists again believe that economic power is also concentrated in the hands of a
few, and they manipulate it to gain political power.
Ideological power: resides in the prevailing ideas acceptable to the people. Ideology literally
means a set of ideas in which people have unquestionable faith, and they also strive to put
them into action. The dominant class will also try to propagate and implement congenial
ideas to their interests, whether economic or political. They may use all available media,
elites, intellectuals, religious institutions, educational systems, associations, and institutions
to achieve this while oppressing counter ideologies.
In simple terms, an approach may be defined as looking at and then explaining particular
phenomena. Approaches and methods to study politics are many, and most of them seem to
overlap each other in varying measures. From Plato and Aristotle in the remote past to Laski
and Laswell in the present, we have many great thinkers, theorists, and analysts who have
attempted to understand and explain political reality in their own ways their own approaches.
I. The Traditional Approach
The total approaches and methods employed in a political inquiry by thinkers from Plato to
the 20th century constitute the traditional approach. It consists of a collection of approaches
used in the classical and institutional periods. These approaches include the idealistic,
philosophical, ethical, normative, and historical legal, institutional, comparative, and
analytical approaches.
During the classical period, the political community’s ethical basis and moral purpose were
described, discussed, and emphasized in logical, consistent, and convincing ways. The
problems of ends and means, the ideal and desirable loomed largely. Historical, analytical,
and comparative accounts of the various constitutional and governmental systems were made
during the institutional period.
Characteristics:
a. emphasis on the study of formal institutions to the neglect of political processes.
b. focused on the Western European political system.
c. adopts a country by country approach with little attempt to identify similarities between
countries.
d. little attention is given to the analysis and development of systematic generalizations about
the political phenomena.
e. lack of concern for the development of theories through the collection and analysis of data.
f. neglect of the findings of other social sciences and non-political determinants of political
behaviour.
g. holds value judgments on what ought to be the nature of political structures and
institutions.
Philosophical approach: The oldest approach to the study of politics. Here the study of the
state, government, power, and man as a political animal is linked with the pursuit of certain
goals, morals, and truths (standards of rights & wrongs). Hence the thinkers of this age move
closer to ethics and try to advise the rulers. Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, and
others belong to this reference speculative frame & not objective.
Legal approach: Here, the study of politics is linked with the study of legal or juridical
processes (constitutions) and institutions created by the state for maintaining political
organization. In this connection, we may refer to Bodin, Grotius, Hobbes, and Dicey’s works.
They imply that the state as an organism of growth and development cannot be understood
without considering those forces and factors that constitute the domain of law and justice.
Institutional approach: Here, the study lays stress on the formal structures of a political
organization like the legislature, executive, and judiciary (impartial account of political
reality). Since the emphasis is on the superstructure and the political system’s infrastructure,
this approach is also known as a structural approach. This approach neglects individual
behavior, the role of power, violence, political movements, wars & revolution in politics.
Ignores the role of informal groups & processes in shaping politics.
Criticisms:
a. The historical approach ignores the study of contemporary society.
b. The philosophical approach is speculative and abstract and ignores the actual political
phenomena.
c. The institutional approach ignores the political behavior of the individuals and the
sociological environment.
d. Ignores international problems.
e. Legal approach covers only one aspect of people’s life.
To minimize the deficiencies of the traditional approaches, various new approaches have
been advocated by the new political thinkers. These approaches are regarded as the “modern
approaches” to the study of Political Science. Many thinkers regard these approaches as a
reaction against the traditional approaches. These approaches are mainly concerned with
scientific study of politics. • Characteristics of Modern Approaches:
• These approaches go beyond the study of political structures and its historical analysis.
• They emphasize scientific methods of study and attempt to draw scientific conclusions in
Political Science
Emphasized on:
a. Individual behavior instead of the political institution as the basic unit of analysis.
b. Scientific outlook and objectivity (observation, classification, and measurement of data).
c. Methodological revolution: use of scientific methods (survey, case study, interviews, socio
psychoanalysis, etc.).
d. Interdisciplinary approach.
e. Its commitment to the formulation of empirical theory.
The sociological approach this approach emphasizes that social context is necessary for
understanding and explaining the political behavior of the community members. Terms like
political socialization, political culture, and political sociology are the contributions of this
approach. Harold Lasswell, AF Bently.
Psychological approach: a study of politics is made by writers like Graham Wallas, Charles
Merriam, Robert Dahl, etc., to deal with the role of emotions, habits, sentiments, instincts, go,
etc., that constitute essential elements of human personality. Psycho-analysis of political
leaders reveals significant knowledge about politics.
Contributions:
a.Structural, functional analysis,
b.Input-output analysis,
c. Decision-making approach,
d. Communication framework model.
Criticism: As a result of the utilization of the behavioral approach, the scope of political
science has widened, and the nature of the discipline improved in understanding and
explaining the political reality. In limited and specialized fields, the behavioral movement
achieved significant results. But with its overemphasis on quantification of data, the
movement suffered from sterility and irrelevance. It evaded problems of large scale change.
Towards the end of the 1960s, a powerful attack was made on the behaviorist position by
David Easton out of deep dissatisfaction with its findings. Behaviorism was eager to develop
new research methods and techniques about political phenomena. In political science,
theories may be developed like natural sciences, but in the effort, they divorced political
science from philosophy, history, law, etc. In a world of crisis, doubts were raised about the
adequacy or relevance of political science’s modern research methodology, especially when
the political scientist was unable to cope with contemporary social and political problems.
Behaviorism failed to solve any world problem, such as the threat of nuclear war, hunger,
poverty, disease, cold war, arms race, etc.
Post behaviorism should not be taken as traditionalism. Both are highly critical of
behaviorism. The difference between the approaches lies in the fact that traditionalism
discounted the behavioral approach’s validity and sought to revive the classical tradition of
political science. In contrast, the post behaviorists accepted the achievements of the
behavioral era, but at the same time, sought to propel political science towards new areas. An
important feature of the post behavioral trend should be traced to taking political science
toward policy science.
Post behaviorists argued that political scientists should be more concerned with values, with
issues of justice, freedom, equality, and political activity. It is not appropriate to take a value-
free, academic detachment from public policy and political reform.
The two main demands of post behaviorism are relevance and action. At one stage, David
Easton enumerated eight main characteristics of behaviorism, now came out with seven
major traits of post behaviorism as the credo of relevance. They can be summarized as the
following:
a. Substance must have precedence over technique. It may be good to have sophisticated
tools for the investigation, but the most important point was the purpose to which these tools
were applied. Unless scientific research was relevant and meaningful for contemporary
urgent social problems, it was not worth being undertaken.
b. Emphasis should be on social change and not social preservation; the behaviorists had
confined themselves exclusively to the description and analysis of facts, without taking
sufficient care to understand these facts in their broad social context.
c. Political science should not lose touch with brute realities of politics. The behaviorists
concentrated their efforts on abstraction and analysis. Then the vital question arose if political
scientists did not find the solution to society’s ills and humanity’s needs, then what was the
use of the research?
d. Political science should not be value-free. There is no denying that values played a
significant role in political research, and the values were the propelling force behind
knowledge. The post behaviorists firmly believe that if knowledge was to be used for the
right goals, value also had to be restored to their proper place.
e. Political scientists must protect humane values of civilization
f. Post behaviorism emphasizes action in place of contemplative science; according to David
Easton, “to know is to bear the responsibility for acting and to act is to engage in reshaping
society.”
g. Urgent need to politicize the profession once it is admitted that the political scientists and
intellectuals have a positive role to play in the society, then n order to achieve that goal it
becomes inevitable that all the professional associations, as well as the universities, must be
politicized.
h. Mad craze for scientists should be discarded.
i. The study should not only be related to the past and present; it should also be future-
oriented.
The Marxist approach to political analysis is primarily associated with the contributions of
Karl Marx. The Marxist approach’s significance is due to its emphasis on the production and
distribution of goods in assessing social changes and political revolutions. This is quite
different from traditionalism and behaviorism. Marx said, “the mode of production of the
material means of existence condition the whole process of social, political and intellectual
life.”
While Karl Marx and Frederich Engels opened up a new approach to study the State, Marxist
thought was developed into a major concern by later Marxist scholars in Europe and the
USA. The Marxian approach gained prominence after the Second World War when it took up
the study of the politics of underdeveloped and developing areas in the context of
imperialistic exploitation. Noe Marxism led by the Frankfurt School and western thinkers like
Georg Lukacs (History & Class Consciousness), Antonio Gramsci (Prison Diary), Louis
Althusser (Reading Capital), etc., have greatly contributed to the development of this Marxist
social theory.
The significance of the Marxist approach is that it calls for deeper scrutiny of the meaning
and nature of politics. It emphasizes the relevance of class contradictions in the functioning
of the State and provides Socialism Communism as the solution to the problems. Therefore,
this approach not only lays out the problems but also delivers the solution. This deterministic
character is unique to the Marxist approach. Today the Marxist approach has established a
parallel stream of theories and definitions to all basic political concepts like the origin of
State, rights, development, feminism, identity politics, concepts of liberty, equality &
property, etc.