· {

<;

Jatin Mipun,

306.080954162
MIP
001975
ICSSR
THE MISHINGS
(Miris)
OF ASSAM
Development of A New Lifestyle

JATINMIPUN

GIAN PUBLISHING HOUSE

New Delhi -11 0002
 ·"r.·.

,Q

1111I11111111111111
ISBN: 81-212-0437-4 001975

@1993JATINMIPUN

Published in 1993 by
Gyan Pu~lishing House,
S Ansari Road
New Delhi -110002

All right reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced in any manner without written permission

Composed by Ideal Computers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi-l10007 and Printed at

Coyal Offset Works, Delhi
 FOREWORD
Socio-cultural changes because of culture-contact through different
media are inevitable in the modem dynamic world. Dynamism is a sign
of progress. The individuals as well as groups are exposed to these
changed situations and hence adjustments become necessary for survival.
But the processes and factors involved are always not identical in all the
situations. Therefore, it is interesting to know what is happening where
and among whom. The author has looked at the Mishing life from this
point of view. By studying three villages in detail he has attempted to
project the changing situation in the tribe.
The Mishing is a major tribe of Assam, the homeland of a large
number of populations, both tribal and non-tribal, of different ethnic
origins, linguistic affiliations and having varied socio-cultural traditions
since long past There has always been socio-cultural as well as biological
interaction among these populations, and as a result the tribes are at
different levels of modernization. The influence of Hinduism is very
strong among many tribes. Among these some members have accepted
Hinduism, while others are Hinduised. .
The neo- Vaisnavite movement was launched by the great Assamese
saint Srimanta Sankardeva in the later part of the fifteenth century.'
Gradually it-started gaining momentum and was spread to different parts
of this region of the country. It had great impact on the Mishings as well.
They accepted Neo- Vaisnavism, though side by side they followed some
of their traditional rites and rituals. The neo-Vaisnavite faith brought
remarkable changes In the socio-culturallife of the Mishing. The author
has found this to be the strongest force for acculturation.
The Mishing have their own lauguage, but they have accepted the
Assamese language to a great extent. Many of the neo- Visnavite litera-
ture are written in old Assamese, and hence learning of Assamese helped
the Mishings of understand the new ideas, beliefs, practices, etc. Thus
religion helped in the spread not only of Assamese language, but also the
Hindu way of life among them. .
. It is a known fact that different types of communication network
break the isolation and bring different populations closer. In this process
several factors are associated. The author has clearly demonstrated how
these factors are interacting to bring changes in the Mishing society. '
 VI.

The process of acculturation and improved communication system

have accelerated the pace of development of the Mishing people. They
are no longer an isolated community, ~ut has become a part of the greater
whole. The noteworthy changes in their attitude towards economy, educa-
tion, health practices and the like have helped in the overall development
of the Mishings under study. However, the author nhas observed that the
present processes operating in the Mishing society have widened the
distance between the rich and poor sections and have created new elites
among the Mishings, a situation which deserves special consideration.
Or Jatin Mipun deserves congratulations for his presenting such a
vivid picture of the socio-cultural changes in the Mishing tribe and
analysing the forces and factors involved in the process by undertaking
an in-depth study. Such work among the tribes in this part of the country
are rare. The book will be a valuable addition to the existing literature on
the sociology and ethnography of north eastern India.

Department of Anthropology BM DAS

Gauhati University
 PREFACE
The study on socio-cultural change among the tribes of India is
always fascinating. Numerous studies have been conducted on interaction
and social change, highlighting the result of contact between the literate
and preliterate, between the primitive and civilized and between tribes
and non-tribes.
In Assam, the interaction between the non-tribal Assamese popula-
tion and the Mishings have been taking place for the last several centuries.
The Mishings were originally hill dwellers in Arunachal Pradesh. After
their shift to the plains of Assam, they became the part of the regional
Assamese culture. It has happened due to acculturation and the impact of
growing communication. In this study, an attempt has been made to
analyse the interrelationship between acculturation, communication and
development with special reference to the Mishings.
In my research work, I received help from different sources. I am
thankful to the University of Dibrugarh for providing me a research
fellowship (1976-79) which greatly helped me in conducting my research
work. I express my sincere gratefulness and indebtedness to my teacher
and supervisor Dr. S.M. Dubey, M.A. Ph.D.trofessor and Head of the
Department of Sociology, Dibrugarh University, for his guidance and
stimulating suggestions throughout the entire course of the study without
which the work would have not been completed.
I am also grateful to Dr. D. Doley, Dr. C.K. Gogoi, other teachers
and research scholars of the Department of Sociology who offered help,
suggestions and encouragement from time to time. I joined government
service in 1979 and while I was busy in official duty, Sri O.P. Agarwal
I.A.S., Sri S. Thakur, A.C.S. and numerous other friends helped and
encouraged me to complete this study. I am thankful to them.
I extend my thanks also to Sri T. Dihingia and Sri T. Bhuyan who
helped me from time to time in typing out the chapters. I must express my
thanks to Sri K. Gogoi for typing out the final draft of the chapters of this
dissertation.
I shall be failing in my duty if I do not thank the villagers and
respondents of this study who helped me from all sides. I shall continue
to remember their love and affection.

JatinMipun
 ( CONTENTS)

Foreword (v)

Preface (vii)
1. Introduction 1
2. Mishings : A Portrait of the Traditional Social System IS

3. The Field of Study and Methodology 32

4. Social Background of the Respondents 44
s. Acculturation Among the Mishings 54
6. Impact of Modem Communication 77
7. Socio-Economic Development 97
8. Overview and Concluding Remarks 121

Appendices

I Bibliography 129
11 Village Schedule 145
III Glossary 159
Index
 CHAPTER I

( INTRODUCTION J

The Mishings are an Indo-Mongoloid tribe settled in the plains of Assam.

Originally, they were hill dwellers and lived along with the Adis in
Arunachal Pradesh. On the basis of the legends of the tribe and available
historical records, they moved to the plains of Assam, around the 13th
century A.D. Still, they retain their mythological, linguistic and institu-
tional affinity with the Adis and the Nisis of Arunachal Pradesh. After
their migration to the plains, considerable' changes have taken place in
their ecology, pattern of adaptation, cultivation, language, rituals, dress
and house construction. The residence in the plains has offered them a
better system of communication. The present dissertation is an attempt in
understanding the process of acculturation, communication and develop-
ment among the Mishings of Assam.
In the social sciences, the concept of 'acculturation' gained currency
during the late nineteenth century. For the first time, Powell (1880) wrote
of the 'force of acculturation' which was about 'changing indigenous
traditions under the influence of civilized people'. McGee (1898) discus-
ses later on about 'piratical acculturation' by which he meant 'cultural
interchange under advantageous condition.' In the writings of the earlier
twentieth century, the term was often employed interchangeably with
diffusion and assimilation. In the British studies, it was used in terms of
'culture contact' . Though various studies have already been conducted on
culture contact and social change, only in the early part of the twentieth
century, Redfield, Linton and Herskovitz (1936) attempted to draw for
the first time a systematic definition of the concept. According to them-
Acculturation includes those phenomena which result when
groups of individuals having different cultures come into con-
tinuous first hand contact, with subsequent change in the original
cultural patterns of either or both groups (1936: 149).
,2 The Mishings (Miris) of Assam

In spite of much criticism, the definition formulated by them has been able
to pave the way for the future study of acculturation in different societies.
In the middle part of the twentieth century, Herskovitz (1 955:472) stressed
on acculturation as the 'study of culture transmission in process' and tried
to assess the levels of material cultures of different societies. Murdock
(1955:3) has defined the term as the 'assumption of culture through
contact', especially with the people of higher civilization'. Spindler
(1955:34) expands the definition of the term as
the total adaptive process that occurs in cultural paueming and
value system, group alignments, systems of control, social or-
ganization, and economy and in the psychological structures and
functions of individuals, as adoptions are made to the changing
conditions of existence created by the impact of populations and
their cultures upon each other.
Having lots of criticisms and \modifications of the definition of the term,
social scientists have, however, accepted acculturation as an important
aspect of the study of social change which especially denotes the trans-
formation of cultural or social elements from one society to another
(Beals: 1951; Eaton: 1952; Keesing: 1964; Hallowell: 1957; McGee: 1960;
Gould and Kolb: 1964; Moore: 1965;Task and Nelson: 1974; Lewis: 1976;
Friedle: 1976).
In the world perspectives, various works have been conducted on
the process of acculturation in different societies (e.g. Mead: 1932;
Herskovitz: 1938; Linton: 1940; Malinowski:1945; Sharp: '1952; Red-
field: 1953; Newcomb: 1956; Bacon and Herskovitz: 1959; Wilson and
Wilson; 1965; Alba: 1976). In this context, Mead's study of the plains
Indians (1930) and Herskovitz' s study of Carebeans (1938) are of special
significance. As the plains Indians were not in the position to adjust with
the demands of new culture, Mead tried to see the problems of disor-
ganisation as a result of contact. She pointed out how the Indian in-
digenous religious practices suffered due to the settlements of whites with
the Indians. Due to the acceptance of Presbyterianism, the American
Indians were regarded neither as the followers of indigenous religion nor
Presbyterianism. Amidst this situation, Mead discussed the disorganisa-
tion and disintegration of the traditional way oflife which was the product
of the culture contact between the whites and the Indians. Herskovitz's
major concern was with the reinterpretation of the new cultural elements
so that it can be adjusted with the traditional culture of the people. He
pointed out that the blacks have always tried to fmd out relationship
J ntroduction 3

between their African Gods and the Catholic saints. The ulLimateresult is
the acculturation among the blacks in spite of their obligations to old
norms and values.
On the basis of the studies of Mead and Herskovitz on acculturation,
the following conclusions have been derived:
(a) The acculturation results as a contact between two societies or
cultures where the dominant culture often influences the
weaker or primitive culture.
(b) As a result of the influence of the dominant culture, the weaker
'culture is either changed totally or gradually.
(c) The contact between the dominant and the weak cultures leads
to disorganisation of the religious practices and the traditional
way of life of the lauer. It creates marginality among the
members of the weak culture.
(d) In certain situations, the people belonging to the weak culture
try to find out the common elements between their culture and
the dominant culture.
The main focus of this study is to analyse the process and impact of
contact between a tribe with features of primitive organisations (micro
level), regional Assamese culture with distinct language, polity and
productive system: middle range or regional) and the great tradition and high
culture (the macro level, the Indian tradition and culture represented through
Hinduism, mythology, beliefs, rituals and social organisation). For the
analysis of the influence of Hinduism among the Mishings. various aspects
such as religious practices and social institutions have been considered.
Moreover, the influence of the regional Assamese culture on their housing
pattern. food habit, dress, language and in tools and implements are also
considered for the discussion of acculturation among the Mishings in Assam .
.The aim of including all these aspects is to see the total process of culture
change among the Mishings. As they came in contact with the Hinduism
through regional culture, the other dominant group tried to apply the notions
of purity and pollution (the caste system). They picked up the beliefs and
myths and social organisation of the great tradition of Hinduism.

11

The term communication refers to the materials, mechanical systems,

media of mass-communication and interpersonal linkages used for the
transmission of messages. It is difficult to giveadefinition for this concept
 ,4 The Mishings (Miris) of Assam

, Some social psychologists and sociologists have confined their interests

in communication largely to the study of languages and the analysis of
the vehicles and messages in communication, although they have also
been interested in the functional effects of communication (Lundberg,
Schrag and Larsen: 1954,360; Quine: 1960; Newman: 1966,62).
In the field of communication, several works have been conducted
by the social scientists (e.g. Ayer: 1955; Damle: 1955; Broadbent: 1958;
Crowly: 1962; Dexter: 1964; Schramm: 1967; Dube:1967; Mishra: 1973;
Bhattacharyya: 1976; Atal: 1977; Hockings: 1977). In Indian situation,
the works of Damle (1955), Dube (1967) and Bhattacharyya (1976) are
significant. Damle conducted his study in the early fifties in six Indian
villages. One of the major findings in his study is that the villages which
had an idea and interest in communication, were more informative and
alert. They were in a position to inform the author about the situation of
Indian villages of that time. But the main problem, as raised by the author,
is that the situation was not there whereby the villagers could know the
significance of communication in their development.
The study of Dube: (1967b) on communication, innovation and
planned change in India is also remarkable in this field. This study shows
the relationship between innovation, planned change and media of com-
munication. Bhattacharyya discusses how, with the introduction of satel-
lite communication, people of the world have come into closer contact.
According to him, the world organizations like U.N., UNESCO and others
have been playing a cardinal role in the field of global communication.
The role of communication is extremely significant in acculturation
and development.
For the purpose of the present study, the-communication has been
divided into the following two parts:
(a) the traditional communication ~ich includes oral system of
communications, transport (elephants, boats), messengers and
announcement through drum beating etc., and
(b) the modern system of communication includes formal and
written communication, post and telegram, transport (roads
and rails), mass-media (radio, newspapers and cinema).

III

The term development is frequently used by the economists and other

social scientists. But the theoretical framework of the term 'development'
in sociological perspective has emerged only a few years backwhen the
 Introduction 5

emphasis was laid on non-economic and human factors (Eisenstadt: 1961;

Smelser: 1963; Barringer: 1965; Bhurner: 1966; Horowitz : 1966; Aron:
1967). It is to be noted that most of the contemporary social scientists have
concentrated on the societal development (Gresinger: 1971; Havers:
1971; Warner: 1971; Elberts and Young: 1971) and the significant role of
value in development (V on Wiese: 1956: I Horowitz ~ 1966; Myrdal :
1968). Moreover, sociological theory on deielopment has given emphasis
on the 'Statics' to 'dynamics' of society (Moore: 1960a; Parsons: 1961;
Martindale: 1962; Horowitz: 1966; Hobbs: 1971).
A few social scientists have regarded development as a type of social
change (Greiger: 1971; Havens: 1971; Warner: 1971). Others have given
emphasis on normative aspects (Seers: 1970; Warner: 1971; Kim: 1973).
According to Seers (1971: 1-2):
• Development 'is inevitably treated as a normative concept, as
almost synonym for improvement, to pretend otherwise is just
to hide one's value judgments.
Kim (1973) discusses development by giving emphasis on the following
aspects:
(a). development as value concept;
(b) development as societal structural change; and
(c) importance of political leadership in development process.
How the value perspectives have been helping in the change of personal
values and thus help in attitudinal change are analysed by the social
scientists from various angles (Weber: 1958; Lerner: 1958; Hoselitz:
1960; McClelland: 1961; Boulding: 1963; Warshay: 1964; Inkles:
1966; Kahl: 1968; Myrdal: 1968; Kim: 1973). However, it is agreed
upon by the social scientists that the term 'development' is an ideal
goal in itself.
One of the best examples in the field of val ue judgment and societal
development is Max Weber's (1958) monumental work 'The Protestant
Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'. The author discusses the relationship
between Capitalism and Protestantism on the basis of historical evidence,
and thereby he tries to analyse the effects of Protestantism in the growth
of Capitalism. Weber shows that there is a closer relationship between
religion and economic ethics. The basic issue as propagated by him is that
something is there in Protestantism which helps create the system of
economic norms, which lead to rationality and acquisitiveness. The other
religions of the world lack this spirit according to Max Weber.
6 The Mishings (Mlris) of ASJam

Another noteworthy work on development is Myrdal's 'Asian

Drama' (1968). In his study Myrdal attempted lO give an actual picture
and prospects for developments in the South Asian countries .' After the
Second World War, numerous attempts tiave been made by Governments
of South Asian countries for the development of their respective States.
In his three volumes, Myrdal tries to include almost all the aspects
responsible for the backwardness of the countries of South Asia.
For the purpose of the present study, the development includes :
1. The development in socio-cultural activities.
2. The development in occupation and the subsidiary occupation
adopted by the respondents.
3. Agricultural mnovation and alternatives for self-sufficiency
and the learning of investment of income.
4. Acceptance of medical science and family planning.
5. Respondents' education and preference of education for their
children.
6. The attitude of the respondents towards development.

IV

Since the early part of the twentieth century, various studies have been
conducted dealing with social change among the. Indian tribes. TIle
sociologists and the anthropologists who first paved the way for empirical
and systematic study of social change among the tribes in Indian situation
were Chauopadhyaya (1922a), Majumder (1937), Karve (1942), Srinivas
(1942a), Ghurye (l943b, 1952c). These studies did not use the term
'acculturation'. In place of it, they often used the term 'cultural change',
'social change', and so on. By studying the process of change among the
Indian tribes, Ghurye (1963b) says that in spite of the expected changes
among the tribes, they are the sufferer of stresses and strains resulting out
of conversion to Hinduism. Srinivas (l966c) discusses the pattern of
social change in India by using few terms and models, e.g., Sanskritization
and Westernization. As indicated above, without using the term
'acculturation' Indian social scientists studied the problem of 'culture-
contact' through the concepts of social and cultural change.
Several scholars (Ghurye: 1940a; Mehra: 1954; Dutta Majumder:
1956; Srinivas: 1961b; Jay: 1961; Sinha: 1962; Sahay: 1962 and others)
have conducted researches to assess the impact of the contact between
Hinduism and tribal communities in India As commented by Vidyarthi,
Introduction

Three distinct processes have been usually studied and noted: (1)
the renunciation of certain tribal practices and adoption of others
followed by higher castes, (2) the creation of legends and myths
of ancientHindu tradition, and (3) the exercise of economic and
political dominance wherever possible in-seeking recognition to
a higher status (1978 : 440).
Along with the former studies on culture contact, the studies on accultura-
tion among the tribes of India have also been conducted with equal
enthusiasm by several social scientists (Sachchidanand: 1964; Agarwal:
1968; Aurora: 1972; Vidyarthi and Rai: 1977).
Alike the field of acculturation, various studies have been conducted
in Indian situation on the field of communication also. In this context, the
studies of Damle (1955), Dube (1967b), Bhattacharyya (1976), Atal
(1977), Hockings (1977) are worth mentioning. Of course, numerous
studies on inter-tribal and tribal-non-tribal relationship have been con-
ducted by various authors which depended mostly on the study of com-
munication system. From this point of view the studies of Dasgupta:
(1961), Furer Haimendorf (1962), Das (1967), Majumder (1972), Gos-
wami (1972), Dubey (1972a) are noteworthy.
There are several studies on tribal development (Chattopadhyay :
1949; Dube: 1949a; Kulkami : 1964; Aurora: 1972; Goswami: 1972;
Vidyarthi and Rai: 1976; Dubey: 1976b). But so far as the plains tribes of
Assam in general and the Mishings in particular are concerned, no
systematic study has been conducted uptil now. Only a few books,
monographs, papers (Robinson: 1841; Hunter: 1879; MichelI: 1883;
Waddell: 1901; Baines: 1912; Payengkataki: 1935; M'Cosh: 1937; Pegu:
1956; Doley: 1973; Bhandari: 1974; Sharma Thakur: 1976), census
reports are found on the Mishings. In the monographs written by the early
British administrators, there are preliminary reports about the Mishings.
Payengkataki (1935) and Pegu (1956) have tried to depict the social and
cultural picture of the Mishings. Really, a few studies have been con-
ducted dealing with culture and development of the Mishings (Doley:
1973; Bhandari : 1974; Sharma Thakur : 1976; Pegu: 1981).
The major aim of the present study is to highlight the interrelation-
. ship between the .three variables - acculturation, communication and
development - in the contexts of Mishings, a tribe in Assam. It is an
attempt to see how the two independent variables 'acculturation' and
'communication' have influenced the dependent variable 'development'.
 The Mishings (Miris) of Assam

Both the independent variables 'acculturation' and 'communication'

arc correlated with each other. Without communication, acculturation is
impossible and the continuity of the process of acculturation means the
presence of communication in between two societies with different cul-
tures. The development cannot be a reality in a society without the former
variables.
The author through the present study wants to fill up the gap of
inadequacy by probing into the process of acculturation, communication
and development among the Mishings.

References

Alba, Richard D.
1976 Social Assimilation among American Catholic National Origin
Groups. American Sociological Review 6, Vol. 41.
Ayer, A.J. and others
1955 Studies in Communication. London: Seeker & Warburg.
Aron, Raymond
1967 The Industrial Society. New York: Praeger.
Agrawal, B.C.
1968 From Commerce to Conquest: A Historical Study of Acculturation
in India. The Eastern Anthropologist I, Vol. XXI, Jan-April.
Aurora, G.S.
1977 Communication and Nation-building in India. In M.N. Srinivas and
others (eds.), Dimensions of Social Change in India. Allied Publish-
ers Pvl. Ltd., Bombay.
Beals, Ralph L.
195 I Urbanism, Urbanization and Acculturation. American Anthropo-
logist, New Series 53:1-10
Bacon, W.R. and M.J. Herskovitz (eds.)
1959 Continuity and Change in African Cultures.
Broadbent, Donal E.
1958 Perception and Communication. New York: Pergamon.
Bhauacharyya, V.R.
1976 Communication in a Global Village. Chetana Publications, New
Delhi.
Barringer, I-1.R.,G.l Blankston and R.W. Mark
1965 Social Change in Developing Areas. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Schcnkrnan Publishing Company.
Bhumar, J-Ierbert
1966 The Idea of Social Development. Studies in Comparative Internation-
al Development 2:3-11.
Boulding, Kenncth, K.
1963 The Image Aun Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Introduction

Baines, Sir A.
1912 Ethnography (Castes and Tribes). Concept Publishing Co., Delhi.
Bhandari,J.S.
1974 Land and Social Structure : An Economic Study of aMishing Village.
In K.S. Mathur and B.c. Agrawal (eds.), Tribe, Caste and Peasantry.
Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society, V.P., Lucknow.
Crowly, Thomas H.
1962 Modem Communication. New York: Columbia University Press.
Chanopadhyay, K.P.
1922a An Essay on the History of Newal Culture. Journal of Proceeding of
Asiatic Society of Bengal (New series), Vol. XXIII, No. 3.
1949~ The Tribal Problem and its Solution. The Eastern Anthropologist I,
Vo!. m, September.
Damle, Y.B.
1955 Communication of Modem Ideas and Knowledge in Indian Villages.
Deccan College, Poona. -
Dexter, L.A. and David M. White (eds.)
1964 People, Society and Mass Communication. New York, Free Press.
Dube,S.C.
I949a Some Aspects of Tribal Problems. The Eastern Anthropologist I,
Vol. m, September. ,
1967b A Note on Communication, Innovation and Planned Change in
India. In Daniel Lerner and W. Schramm (eds.), Communication
and Change in the Developing Countries. East West Centre,
Honolulu. ;
1977c Tribal Heritage of India (eds.). Vol. I: Ethnicity, Identitv and Inter-
action. Vikas Publishing House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Dubey,S.M.
1972a Education, Social Change and Political Consciousness among the
Tribes of North East India In K.S. Singh (ed.), Tribal Situation in
India Indian Institute of Advanced Study, Simla.
1967b Modernization among the Tribes of North Eastern India (Assam). In
S.K. Srivastava (ed.), Tradition and Modernization. Indian Interna-
tional Publications, Allahabad.
Dutta Majumder, N.
1956' The Santhal. Calcutta, Anthropological Survey of India.
Das,B.M.
1967 , Assamese Culture and the Hill People of North East India In R. Mitra
and B. Das Gupta (eds.), A Common Perspective for North-East
India Calcuna: Pannalal Das Gupta.
Doley, D.
1973 The Socio-econornic Life of the Miri Tribe. Nonn Eastern Research
Bulletin, Vol. IV, Summer.
Eston, Joseph W.
1952 Controlled Acculturation : A Survival Technique of the Hunerites.
American Sociological Review 17:331-340.
10 The Mishings (Miris) of Assam

Eisenstadt, S.N.
1961 Essays on the Sociological Aspects of Political ani! Economic
Development. The Hague, Monton.
Eberts, P.R. and Frank, W. Young
1971 Sociological Variables of Development: Their Range and Charac-
. teristics. In G.M. Beal, R.C. Powers and E.W. Coward Jr. (eds.),
Sociological Perspectives of Domestic' Development. Ames : Iowa
State l!niversity Press.
Friedle, John
1976 Cultural Anthropology. Harper's College Press, A Department of
Harper and Row Publications, New York.
Furer-Haimendorf, Christoph von
1962 The Apatanis and their Neighbourhood. London : Routledge and
KeganPaul.
Gould J and W.L. Kolb
e ,

1964 A Dictionary of Social Sciences. The Free Press.

Greiger, H. Kent
1971 Societal Development: Notes on the Vestment of a Concept. In G.M.
Beal, R.C. Powers and E. W. Coward Jr. (eds.), Sociological Perspec-
tives of Domestic Development. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Ghurye, G.S.
1940a Caste and Class in India. Bombay: Popular Book Depot.
1945b The Aborigines - So Called and Their Future. Institute of Politics and
Economics, Poona.
I952c Social Change in Maharashtra, Pan-I, Sociological Bulletin I, VoL VI.
1963d The Scheduled Tribes. Popular Prakashan, Bombay.
Goswami, B.B.
1972 The Tribes of Assam: Few Comments on their Social and Cultural Ties
with the Non-tribes. In K. Suresh Singh (ed.), Tribal Situation in India
(proceeding of a Seminar). Institute of Advance Study, Sirnla.
Herskovitz, M.J.
1938a Acculturation: The Study of Culture Contact. New York: J.1.
Augustin.
1955b Cultural Anthropology (An Abridged Revision of Man and His
Work). Oxford and LB.H. Publishing Co., Delhi.
Hallowell, A.I.
1957 Socio-psychological Aspects of Acculturation. In R. Linton (ed.),
The Science of Man in the World Crisis. New York: Columbia
University Press.
Hockings, Paul
1977 Communication Networks. In M.N. Srinivas and others (ed.), Dimen-
sions of Social Change in India. Allied Publishers Pvt, Ltd., Bombay.
Horowitz, I.L.
1966 Three Worlds of Development. In G.M. Beal, R.C. Powers and E.W.
Coward Jr. (eds.), Sociological Perspectives of Domestic Develop-
ment. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Introduction 11

Hobbs, DJ.
1971 Sopre Contemporary Sociological Perspectives Regarding Social
change. In ibid.
Hoselitz, B.P.
1960 Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth. New York: The Free
Press of Glencoe.
Hunter, W.W.
1879 A Statistical Account of Assam. Vol. Il, Trubner and Co., London.
Reprinted 1975 by B.B. Publishing Corporation, Delhi.
Inkies, Alex
1966 Modernization of Man. In M. Weiner (ed.), Modernization. New
York: Basic Books.
Jay, Edward
1961 Revitalization Movement in Tribal India. In LP. Vidyarthi (ed.),
Aspects of Religion in Indian Society. Meerut: Kedar Nath Ram Nath.
Keesing, F.M.
1954 Acculturation : An Exploratory Formulation. American Anthropo-
logist, Vol. 54. .
Kim, Kyong Dong
1975 Towards a Sociological Theory of Development A Structural
Perspective. Rural Sociology 4, Vol. 38, Winter.
Kahl, Joseph A.
1968 The Measurement of Modernization. Austin: University of Texas
Press.
Kulkarni, M.G.
1974 Problems of Tribal Development: A Case Study. Parirnal Prakashan,
Aurangabad.
Karve, Irawati
1942 Some Studies in the Making of Culture Patterns. In J.R. Mills and
others (eds.), Essays in Anthropology, presented to Rai Bahadur S.C.
Roy. Lucknow: Maxwell & Co.
Lewis, Russell E.
1976 Controlled Acculturation Revisited: An Examination qf Differential
Acculturation and Assimilation between the Hutterian Brethren and
the Old Order Amish, In International Review of Modem Sociology
I, Vol. 6, Spring.
Lundberg, G.A., C.c. Schrag and O.N. Lersen
1954 Sociology. New York: Ha~r and Brothers.
Limon, Ralph
1940 Acculturation in Seven American India Tribes.
Lemer, Daniel
1958 The Passing of Traditional Society. New York: Free Press.
Moore, W.E.
1960a A Reconsideration of Theory of Social Change. American Sociologi-
cal Review 6, Vol. 25, December.
1965b Social Change. Prentice Hall of India (Pvt.) Ltd., New Delhi.
 12 The M ishings (M iris) of Assam

/ McGee, W.J.
1960 Piratical Acculturation. In American Anthropologist, Selected Papers
from the American Anthropologist, 1888-1920. Evanston ill: Row,
Peterson. (First published in Vol. II of the American Anthropologist,
New Series.
Mead, Margaret
1932 The Changing Culture of an Indian Tribe. New York : Columbia
University Press.
Majumder, D.N.
1937 A Tribe in Transition: A Study in Culture Patterns. London: Logman
Green & Co.
Mishra, V.M.
1973 The Communication Media and Learning for Modernization : A
Conceptual Model, p.128 in Indian Journal of Social Research 2, Vol.
XIV,August.
Myrdal,G. \
1968 Asian Drama. Penguin Books, U.K.
Martindale, Don
1962 Social Change and Cultural Change. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van
Nostrand.
McClelland, David C.
1961 The Achieving Society. Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nastrand.
Mehra,J.D.
1954 The Naiks of Rarngarh and the Effects of Acculturation on them. p.
33 in the Anthropologist 1, VoL I, August.
Majumder, D.N.
1972 A Study ofTribe/Caste Continuum and the Process of Sanskritization
among the Bodo-Speaking Tribes of the Garo Hills. In K.S. Singh
(ed.), Tribal Situation in India. Institute of Advance Study, Simla.
Murdock, G.P.
1955 On the Definition of Acculturation. In H.P. Fairchild (ed.), Dictionary
of Sociology. Ames. Iowa: Littlefield, Adms.
Malinowski, Bronislow
1945 The Dynamics of Culture Change: An Enquiry into the Race Rela-
tions in Africa. Nfw Haven: Yale University Press.
Michell, John F.
1883 The North East Frontier of India (A Topographical, Political and
Military Report). Reprinted 1973 by Vivek Publishing House, Delhi.
M'Cosh, JoIm
1957 Topography of Assam. Reprinted 1975 by Sanskaran Prakashak,
Delhi. .
Newcomb, W.W.
1956 The Culture and Acculturation of the Dalware Indians.
Newmlll, JoIm B.
1966 A Rationale fora Definitim <iCommunicaliOlL In AlfredG. Smith (ed.),
Communication md 0Uture. Holt, Rinehart and WinsIon, New York.
Introduction

Parsons, Talcon
1961 Some Considerations on the Theory of Social Change. Rural Sociol-
ogy 26, September.
Pavegkataki, S.
1955 Miri Jatir Buranji (History of the Miris). Momoi Bebejia, Dhernaji.
Pegu,N.C.
1956 The Miris or the Mishings of the Brahmaputra Valley. Kumarbari,
Majuli, Assam.
1981 The Mish~gs of the Brahmaputra Valley, Dibrugarh, Assam.
Powell,J.W.
1880 Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages. Washington D.e.,
Government Printing Office. .
Quine, Willard Van Orman
1960 Ward and Object. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, New York :
Wiley.
Redfield, R., R. Linton, MJ. Herskovitz
1936 Memorandum on the Study of Acculturation. American
Anthropologist 38, pp. 149-52.
Robinson, W.
1841 A Descriptive Account of Assam. Reprinted 1975 by Sanskaran
Prakashak, Delhi.
Redfield, Robert
1955 The Primitive World and its Transformation. Ithaca, New York:
Comell University Press.
Sharp, Lauriston
1952 Steel Axes for Stone-Age Australians. Human Organization 11:17-22.
Smelser, Nei1 J.
1963 Mechanism of Change and Adjustment to Change. In B.E. Hoselitz
and W.E. Moore (eds.), Industrialisation and Society. Pans-the
Hague; UNESCO, Monton.
Seers, D.
1970 The Meaning of Development. The Agricultural Development Coun-
cil Reprint (September).
Srinivas, M.N.
1942a Mkage and Family in Mysore. Bombay.
1961b Dominant Caste in Rampura. American Anthropologist I, VoJ. 61.
1966c Social Change in Modem India Berkeley and Los Angeles.
Sinha, D.P.
1963a The Role of Paharia in Tribal Acculturation in .a Central Indian
Market. Ethnology, Vol. Il.
1968b Culture Change in an Intertribal Market. Asia Publishing House,
Bombay.
Sarma Thakur, G.C.
1976 Socio-economic Change in Post-Independence Period in a Tribal
Village in Assam. The North Eastern Research Bulletin, Vol. ID
Summer.
 •

14 The Mishings (Miris) of Assam

Sahay, K.N.
1962 Trends of Sanskritization among the Oraon, Bulletin of Bihar Tribal
Research Institute 2, Vol. IV.
Sachchidanand
1964 Culture Change in Tribal Bihar. Calcutta: Bookland Pvt. Ltd.'
Schramm,W.
1964 Mass Media and National Development : The. Role Jnformation in
Developing Countries. Stanford University Press, Stanford.
Spindler, G.D.
1955 Sociocultural and Psychological Process in Minomini Acculturation
Berkeley : University of California Press.
Taske, Raymond H.C. Jr. and Bardin H. NelsOn
1974 Acculturation and Assimilation: A clarification. American Ethnol-
ogy I : 351-367.
Von Wiess, L.
1956 The Sociological Study of Social Change. Transactions of the Third
World Congress of Sociology I.
Vidyarthi, L.P. and B.K. Rai
1976 The Tribal Culture of India. The Concept Publishing Company,
Delhi.
Vidyarthi, L.P.
1978 Rise of Anthropology in India. Vol. I, Concept Publishing.Company,
Delhi.
Wilson, Godfray and Monica H. Wilson
1965 The Analysis of Social Change : Based on Observations in Central
Africa. Cambridge University Press.
Warner, W. Keith
1971 Structural Matrix of Development. In G.M. Beal, R.c. Powers and
E.W. Coward Jr. (eds.), Sociological Perspective of Development.
Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Weber,Max
1958 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. T. Parsons (Trans.),
New York: Scrubners and Sons.
Warshay, Leon H.
1901 The Tribes of the Brahmaputra Valley. Reprinted 1975 by Sanskaran
Prakashak, Delhi.