Natural Perfumery Course

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LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE

COURSE AND A BRIEF HISTORY OF
PERFUME

INTRODUCTION

“Who has not felt revived and cheered by the balmy fragrance of the luxuriant garden or the flowery
meadow? Who has not experienced the delightful sensations caused by inhaling a fresh breeze loaded
with the spoils of the flowery tribe? … an indescribable emotion then invades the whole being; the
soul becomes melted in sweet rapture …” (Rimmel, 1867, p. 2).

© Herbal Academy Natural Perfumery Course theherbalacademy.com | page 2

19th-century French perfumer Eugène Rimmel put a poetic spin on what so many of us have
experienced when we do actually stop to smell the roses. The aroma of flowers and other plant parts
have inspired such feelings for centuries. From ancient Egyptian tombs to the altars of Vedic India,
fragrance played many roles for our ancestors—both practical and otherwise—and the use of perfume
continues to evolve today.
In this course, we will take you on an aromatic journey, from the history of perfume to the science of
scent and then into our own kitchen laboratories to formulate signature fragrance blends. We’ll meet
many of the aromatic plants that have been adopted by perfumers and explore ways that we can
incorporate homemade perfumes into everyday rituals. Get ready for a scents ual experience!
We have named this course Natural Perfumery to set this particular perfume craft apart from that of
synthetic perfumes, but this “natural” qualifier would not have always been necessary. Until relatively
recently, perfumes were purely plant-based, aside from the handful of animal-derived scents used in
perfumery such as musk and ambergris. And as we begin our course with a brief history of perfume, you
just might recognize some of the natural, botanical perfume ingredients that were used thousands of
years ago.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF PERFUME

“Many of the materials that call to us today are the same as those that Cleopatra ran her hands
through, that were used to wash the feet of Jesus, or to ward off the Plague. These materials are a
direct link to the past. Their stories transport us far away in time and place…” (Aftel, 2014, p.
57).




Visit the course to download the Timeline of Selected Events in the History of Perfumery as a PDF.

Incense: The First Perfume

Even before the use of water- and oil-based perfumes, cultures the world over used aromatic plants in
the form of incense—the burning of plant material to produce an agreeable odor. In fact, the word
perfume comes from the Latin per ( “through”) and f umus (“smoke”). We do not know who first invented
incense, but there is archaeological evidence for the use of incense since antiquity in many areas of the
globe, from India to Egypt to the Americas.

The earliest use of aromatic smoke may have been during funeral pyres and animal sacrifices, to mask
the smell of burning flesh (Bedini, 1994). However, incense was also thought to guide the souls of the
dead to the heavens (Habkirk & Chang, 2017), and incense quickly became a mainstay in religious
ceremonies in general. Perfumist Mandy Aftel writes, “Incense acquired its religious significance by
association, in other words: the burning of incense replaced the blood sacrifice it once accompanied”
(2014, p. 129). Incense smoke was thought of as a vehicle for prayers to reach gods and goddesses
and, in many cultures, incense was originally confined to use by spiritual leaders and only later became
available to the common people (Atchley, 1909).


Deities often had associated fragrances, which were reserved for their enjoyment and invocation. The
Egyptian sun god, Ra, was offered specific incenses at specific times of day, including myrrh at noon
and a special incense known as kyphi at sunset. Historians believe that kyphi was a blend of wine,
honey, raisins, myrrh, cardamom, juniper, mint, cinnamon, and cypress (Worwood, 2006). Pliny, the 1st
century CE Roman naturalist, wrote that kyphi was also used therapeutically—it “lulled one to sleep,
allayed anxieties and brightened dreams” (Irvine, 1995, p. 14).

Scented items were not only used as offerings to gods and goddesses—fragrance also signaled their
presence. Ancient poets often described gods and goddesses as encircled in clouds of delightful
fragrance. In Homer’s The Iliad, for example, Zeus is described “with a fragrant cloud encircling his head
as with a diadem” (Homer, 2011, originally written in the 8th century BCE, p. 211).

Once incense became more commonplace, it was used to mask the odor of more than funeral pyres and
sacrifices. In ancient Rome, incense was used to perfume city streets. The city was populated with
statues of emperors, and each statue had its own frankincense-burning incense holder to cover the
stench of excrement and garbage (Aftel, 2014). The ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus, dated to
approximately 1500 BCE, contains a recipe for kapet, an incense that doubled as a breath freshener
(and a cure for snakebite!). It contained honey, frankincense, mastic, pine, cinnamon, and other aromatic
plants (Manniche, 1999).


Reference to incense can also be found in the Bible. The New Testament story of the three wise men
bringing frankincense and myrrh (incense ingredients as valuable as gold) to the baby Jesus is probably
the most well-known story of aromatic ingredients. Incense is also mentioned in the Old Testament:
“Thou hast not brought me the small cattle of thy burnt offerings; neither hast thou honoured me with thy
sacrifices. I have not caused thee to serve with an offering, nor wearied thee with incense” (Isaiah 43:23,
King James Version).

At around 200 BCE, Arabian incense (commonly composed of frankincense, myrrh, jasmine, olibanum,
and rose) made its way to China and Japan (Fewster et al., 2016). In China and other Asian countries,
the use of incense flourished, and, as in other cultures, it was used to ease the soul’s passage to the
afterlife. In China, there was a special incense known as fan hun hsiang that was used for
communicating with the dead (Aftel, 2014). The Japanese even created an incense ceremony, kho-do,
which was used to ward off bad luck, and some Japanese monks still perform this incense ceremony
today (Bedini, 1994).

Ancient Perfumes

What we know about ancient water- and oil-based
perfumery is largely from archaeological excavation
and preserved texts. Some of the earliest records of
plant perfumes are from the Middle East and India.
In a group of 2nd millennium BCE texts written in
cuneiform (an ancient Mesopotamian writing
system), known as “the perfumery tablets,” two
perfume makers are mentioned:
Tapputi-Bēlatēkallim and -nīnu (the first part of her
name was already broken off when the tablet was
found). These ancient perfumers used various
methods to create fragrances, including maceration
in oil, and their ingredients included myrrh, calamus,
and honey (Levey, 1956).

Image: Mesopotamian tablet from around 1200 BCE
mentions Tapputi-Bēlatēkallim, a female chemist and
perfume maker. PD-old-70

At around the same time, perfumes were being
created on a large scale on the island of Cyprus, as
evidenced by a 4,000-year-old, 43,500 square foot
“perfume factory” unearthed by archaeologists.
Within the archaeological site, researchers found
over 60 distilling stills along with tiny alabaster bottles filled with perfumes crafted from lavender,
rosemary, bay, thyme, coriander, and pine, among other ingredients (Moore, 2007).

The Charaka Samhita, one of the ancient ayurvedic texts believed to have been written approximately
2,400 years ago, mentions the production of ittar, a water- or oil-based perfume made in copper stills.
Two of the popular aromatic choices at that time were rose and henna (Agarwal, 2012). The text also
mentions the benefits of adorning oneself with perfume to cultivate longevity, charm, strength, and
pleasing manners; as an aphrodisiac; and to destroy inauspiciousness (Dash & Sharma, 2014).


What About Essential Oils?

The early distillation systems mentioned in the Charaka Samhita and other ancient texts were likely
used to create floral waters, what we now call hydrosols or hydrolats. Production of essential oil may
have been deemed an unwelcome byproduct.

Avicenna, an 11th-century physician and one of the “fathers of modern medicine,” is credited with the
first distillation of essential oils, but more widespread use did not occur until the 16th century. Arnald
de Villanova, a 14th-century Spanish physician and assumed alchemist, wrote about rosemary and
sage essential oils, and it is believed that his writings led to the widespread use of true essential oils,
spurred by the 16th-century text Liber De Arte Distillandi, written by French physician Hieronymous
Brunschwig. In his text on distillation, Brunschwig wrote about four essential oils: oil of turpentine,
juniper, rosemary, and lavender (Guenther, 1948).

Ancient Egyptians infused oils with fragrant spices, fruit pulp, seeds, and resins not only to adorn
themselves with a pleasant fragrance but also to keep their skin supple in the blistering heat. Fragrant
oils were placed near Egyptian mummies as an important possession for the afterlife, and the process of
embalming, for which ancient Egypt is now famous, involved stuffing body cavities with fragrant plants
such as cedarwood and myrrh (Worwood, 2006). Perfumery was also important in ancient Egyptian daily
life—homes were scented with fragrant plants and Egyptians were commanded to perfume themselves
once a week (Aftel, 2014).

Perfume was likewise popular in ancient Greece and Rome. Romans were known to shower doves with
rose water and set them free in banquet halls in order to fill the air with a floral aroma. The Greeks
sprinkled aromatic blends not only on their bodies but also on their bedding and clothing (Aftel, 2014).
Theophrastus and Dioscorides both wrote about fragrance and provided recipes for perfumes and
aromatic ointments in their texts (Voudouri & Tesseromatis, 2015). In Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica he
describes perfume “balls” made from 40 teaspoons of fresh roses free of moisture, 10 teaspoons of
Indian spikenard, and 6 teaspoons of myrrh. These ingredients are then pounded together and formed
into ½-teaspoonful balls, dried, and used either to make necklaces to disguise the smell of sweat or
infused in oil to make an ointment for application after bathing (Osbaldeston, 2000).

In India, perfumed oils became an important aspect of tantric ritual. For example, during certain rituals
women were anointed with jasmine on the hands, keora on the neck and cheeks, champa and henna on
the breasts, spikenard in the hair, musk on the abdomen, sandalwood on the thighs, and khus on the
feet. This part of the ritual was intended to stimulate the muladhara chakra, associated with both the
earth element and the sense of smell (Mookerjee & Khanna, 2003).

In the 9th century CE, the Arab chemist Al-Kindi wrote Kitāb Kīmiyā al-itr Wat-Tas’īdāt (“The Book of the
Chemistry of Perfume and Distillations”). It described many perfume-making methods and recipes for
fragrant oils, salves, and aromatic waters. It even mentions the use of the alembic still (Al-Hassani,
2006), a simple distilling apparatus that is still used today.


Early Western Perfume

In the West, early Christians suppressed the use of perfume and incense in their personal and religious
practices as a reaction to the decadent excesses and religious activities of the Roman Empire. Perfume
made a comeback in Europe in the Middle Ages, when the crusaders began to reintroduce exotic
scents, such as musk and aromatic resins, from the Middle East (Irvine, 1995).

In Medieval Europe, the miasma theory was
well-regarded, and people considered “bad air” from
unpleasant odors or dust particles in the air as the
cause of infection (Kannadan, 2018). Europeans began
to use pomanders—small containers of perfume—to
keep the air around them clean and to avoid contracting
the plague and other diseases. Pomander ingredients
often included rose water, clove, cinnamon,
sandalwood, and labdanum (Schmitz, 1989).
Pomanders even came to be a status symbol and it was
not uncommon for wealthy individuals to display
pomanders made of gold or precious stones.

But pomanders were not just used as
plague-preventers—Japanese and Chinese pomanders
have been found dating back to the 7th century CE.
These were used, in part, to provide sensual
entertainment to dinner guests. Even before this,
Arabian pomander-like containers, known as nadd or
sukk, were worn on necklaces or dissolved in water for
use as a massage ointment or medicine (Schmitz,
1989).

In fact, many cultures saw perfume and medicine as
one and the same. Plant-based incense and perfume
were used in China, India, Japan, and elsewhere as both fragrance and medicine, and apothecaries
dispensed perfumes alongside remedies (Irvine, 1995). Nicholas Culpeper, 17th-century herbalist and
botanist, recorded the use of many aromatic plant distillates, including those made from wormwood,
hyssop, rue, chamomile, and lemon. These could be used as is, or mixed with fats and turned into
ointments for respiratory complaints, circulatory enhancement, and to ward off infection (Masé, 2013).

Eau de Hongrie

Adapted from Poucher’s Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps: Volume II: The Production, Manufacture,
and Application of Perfumes by W.A. Poucher (Poucher, 1993, originally published in 1923).

The now-famous “Queen of Hungary Water” or E au de Hongrie was made for the Queen of Hungary in
the late 14th century. There have been many variations on Hungary waters since the original recipe
formulated for the Queen of Hungary, but they were typically composed of fresh rosemary distilled with
brandy, sometimes with the addition of thyme, lemon, lavender, or marjoram. According to some


historians, the original recipe was also used for aching joints (Irvine, 1995). While this recipe uses
essential oils instead of the traditional distillation with alcohol, it provides a similar scent profile to early
Hungary water recipes. You will need a 2-ounce, dark-colored glass bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients

11 drops lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora) essential oil
4 drops rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis ct. cineole) essential oil
2 drops sweet orange (Citrus x sinensis) essential oil
2 drops lime (Citrus x aurantifolia) essential oil
1 drop peppermint (Mentha x piperita) essential oil
5 mL rose (Rosa s pp.) hydrosol
5 mL neroli (Citrus x aurantium v ar. amara) hydrosol
45 mL (1.5 fl oz) 190-proof alcohol

Directions

● Combine ingredients in a sanitized, 2-ounce, dark-colored glass bottle. Shake gently to
combine.
● Cap, label, and allow to age for a minimum of 1 week. It should deepen in complexity over
time.
● Store in a cool, dark place for up to 1 year.

Queen of Hungary Water

Many modern herbalists have named their own vinegar-based concoctions “Queen of Hungary Water.”
Rosemary Gladstar formulated her own version in her book Rosemary Gladstar’s Family Herbal
(Gladstar, 2001) and suggests it as an astringent toner for medium to oily skin. You can follow her
recipe (adapted below) or make your own version. It can also be used as a hair rinse, mouthwash, foot
bath, or even deodorant. All herbs in this recipe are dried.

Ingredients

6 tbsp lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) aerial parts
4 tbsp chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) flower
4 tbsp rose (Rosa s pp.) petal
3 tbsp comfrey (Symphytum officinale) leaf
3 tbsp calendula (Calendula officinalis) flower
1 tbsp lemon (Citrus x limon) peel
1 tbsp sage (Salvia officinalis) aerial parts
1 tbsp rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) aerial parts
1-2 cups (8-16 fl oz) raw apple cider vinegar
½-1 cup (4-8 fl oz) rose (Rosa spp.) hydrosol

Directions


● Place herbs in a sanitized, 1-quart glass jar. Add enough vinegar so that it rises an inch or two
above the herbs.
● Cover tightly, placing a piece of natural waxed paper between the lid and the jar to protect the
lid from corrosion by the vinegar, and let sit for 2-3 weeks. Shake every few days, and add a
splash of vinegar if needed to keep the vinegar level above the herbs once they absorb liquid
and expand.
● Strain herbs from vinegar and reserve the liquid. Compost the herbs.
● Add rose hydrosol.
● If there is undesired sediment, filter through a non-bleached coffee filter.
● Rebottle in a sanitized glass jar, label, and store in a cool, dark place for up to 3 months.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, as medical advancement made perfumes and pomanders obsolete for
protection from illness, perfumery began to prosper for
fragrance’s sake in the West. It was primarily used by the
wealthy to mask body odors and it was a sign of wealth to
have a personal perfumer. During the reign of Queen
Elizabeth I, all public places were scented with perfume so
the Queen would not be subjected to the stench of the city
streets (Schwarcz, 2017). King Louis XIV, known as the
“perfume king” had over 20 fountains scented in his
Versailles palace. His personal perfumer, Simon Barbe,
published two 17th century texts on the art of perfumery, Le
Parfumeur Français and Le Parfumeur Royale ( Reinarz,
2014).

Eau de Cologne

Image: PD-old-70

Apart from Eau de Hongrie, Eau de Cologne is one of the
oldest mass-produced perfumes (with countless variations).
It was invented in the early 18th century by Paul Feminis, an
Italian barber in the German city of Köln (Cologne i n French).
At the time, he called it L’ eau admirable (the admirable
water). It was a blend of fragrances, including citrus oils,
neroli, bergamot, and lavender. It became very popular as an
alternative to Hungary waters, which at first were largely
based on a single aroma, rosemary. One hundred years
later, his nephew, Jean Marie Farina, modified the L’ eau
admirable formula and called it Eau de Cologne ( Sagarin et
al., 2011). This more modern version is still used today. Originally, drops of the cologne were even taken
on sugar or in wine for digestive distress and it was also used as a mouthwash and wound wash
(Christiani, 1877).


Eau de Cologne

Adapted from Jean Marie Farina’s recipe in Perfumery and Kindred Arts: A Comprehensive Treaty on
Perfumery b
y Richard S. Christiani (Christiani, 1877).
Easy to put together, this Eau de Cologne is an excellent gift for the men in your life—
or anyone who
likes a slightly spicy fragrance! Be sure to use furanocoumarin-free (FCF) or bergapten-free bergamot;
if using expressed bergamot, keep exposed skin out of the sun or ultraviolet (UV) radiation for at least
18 hours after applying to prevent possible serious burns. You will need a 2-ounce, dark-colored glass
bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients
12 drops FCF bergamot (Citrus x bergamia) essential oil
9 drops neroli (Citrus x
aurantium var. amara) essential oil
9 drops rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis c t. cineole) essential oil
4 drops lemon (Citrus x limon) essential oil
1 drop clove (Syzygium aromaticum) essential oil
1 drop lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil
3 tbsp (0.5 fl oz) 190-proof alcohol

Directions

● Combine ingredients in a 2-ounce, dark-colored glass bottle. Shake gently to combine.
● Cap, label, and allow to age for a minimum of 1 week. It should deepen in complexity over
time.


Synthetic Scents

As the air became cleaner in European cities,
powerful perfumes fell out of practice in favor of
more mild toilette waters that showcased lavender,
rosemary, strawberry, and other floral and fruity
scents. These were often used to scent
handkerchiefs, mittens, and parasols, as the
Victorian obsession with cleanliness spurred the
belief that perfumes might clog the pores and keep
the body from detoxifying. It was at this time that
perfumes left the shelves of apothecaries and were
relegated to cosmetic use only (Irvine, 1995).

At around this same time, the advancement of
chemistry laid the way for modern perfumery, and
synthetic chemicals began to appear in
mass-marketed fragrances. One of the first synthetic
fragrances was nitrobenzene, which had a smell
akin to almonds and was added to scented soaps.
Some of the other early synthetics mimicked rose,
vanilla, and violet. The use of synthetic fragrance
allowed perfumers to cut back on the amount of raw
plant material that was needed to craft perfume and
it expanded perfumers’ palettes, allowing for the
creation of novel scents, which continues to this day
(Reinarz, 2014).

CONCLUSION

“The first musician who tried to echo with a pierced reed the songs of the birds of the forest, the
first painter who attempted to delineate on a polished surface the gorgeous scenes which he beheld
around him, were both artists endeavoring to copy nature; and so the perfumer, with a limited
number of materials at his command, combines them like colours on a palette, and strives to imitate
the fragrance of all flowers which are rebellious to his skill, and refuse to yield up their essence. Is he
not, then, entitled to claim also the name of an artist, if he approaches even faintly the perfections of
his charming models?” (Rimmel, 1867, p. 3)

From ancient pomanders to modern boutique shelves, blends of fragrant material have certainly been
considered works of art, and we will explore this aromatic artform together in this course. Although we
may not have all the ingredients and knowledge about perfumery that our ancestors had, botanical
perfumery is a relatively accessible art, one that we can dabble in with just a few supplies and
ingredients, along with the instructions you will glean from this course. Before we get into the nitty-gritty
details of how to create your own perfume, though, we will take a look at the science of scent in the next
lesson.


RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

Essence and Alchemy: A Natural History of Perfume b y Mandy Aftel
Fragrant: The Secret Life of Scent b
y Mandy Aftel
Perfume: The Creation and Allure of Classic Fragrance by Susan Irivne
The Book of Perfumes by Eugene Rimmel: https://archive.org/details/bookofperfumes00rimm/page/214


LESSON 2: THE SCIENCE OF SCENT

INTRODUCTION

From amoebas to jaguars to humans, all living things can detect chemicals in the air currents or waters
in which they are immersed. Indeed, the advancing field of plant gnosophysiology recognizes that plants
also regularly respond appropriately to chemicals in their environments (Michmizos & Hilioti, 2019).
Vertebrates, such as humans, use olfaction (the sense of smell) to accomplish a rather complex version
of chemical detection. One of the primary five senses—along with hearing, sight, taste, and touch—our
ability to smell helps us detect and identify substances in our environments. Our sense of taste relies
strongly on our ability to smell, and scents and aromas are directly linked to the limbic system of the
brain, where they can trigger memory and influence both mood and behavior.

The human sense of smell is 10,000 times stronger than any of the other senses, and smell recognition is
immediate (Herz, 2016). Scents have a direct line to the brain, connecting the central nervous system to
the environment with no preamble. Although human beings tend to be a very visual species, the sense of
smell offers profound ways of relating to our world and each other.


Consider the variety of olfactory words in the English language: scent, fragrance, perfume, aroma, stink,
stench, reek, whiff, musk, redolence. In both conscious and subconscious ways, the sense of smell
shapes and informs every moment of our lives. Ironically, people find it extremely difficult to describe
odors, and olfaction is the only sense that does not have a vocabulary of its own. Instead, people take
words from other senses (e.g., green, sharp) to describe odors. And although people can quickly identify
the names of objects they see, they find it significantly more difficult to name familiar smells (Oloffson &
Gottfried, 2015).

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF SMELL

Image: Head olfactory nerve by Patrick J. Lynch

(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Head_Olfactory_Nerve_Labeled.png)
[CC BY 2.5 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/legalcode)]


The structures of the human olfactory systems are complex and brilliant in their specialized skill sets.
The nose is the entryway for air and gaseous molecules and is where inhaled matter is humidified,
filtered, and warmed or cooled by the body’s homeostatic system. The nasal cavity is lined with mucosa,
a layer of tissue that provides moisture and protection, and the cavity itself is divided into left and right
passageways by the nasal septum.

At the top of the nasal cavity is a patch of specialized epithelial tissue called the olfactory epithelium,
which contains 50 million olfactory nerve cells, also called receptor cells (Hadley et al., 2004). Olfactory
cells in the nose send impulses to the olfactory bulb via nerve fibers. Olfactory nerve fibers pass through
tiny holes in the cribriform plate, a porous extension of the ethmoid bone that separates the nasal cavity
from the brain. The nerve fibers converge in the first cranial nerve (the olfactory nerve), which in turn
connects to the olfactory bulbs, one bulb in the front of each side of the brain, that serve as the interface
between the end of the olfactory nerves and the beginning of the olfactory tract. Each olfactory bulb is
made up of glomeruli, and each glomerulus corresponds to one specific smell from one type of olfactory
receptor. Recent research confirms that olfactory receptors aren’t limited to the nasal cavity, however.
They have been found on many other organs—and even on sperm cells (Ferrer et al., 2016)! Clearly, our
bodies are designed to sense and identify individual chemicals in our environments in more ways than
we currently understand.

The olfactory tract contains bands of nerve fibers that reach from each of the olfactory bulbs to the
olfactory cortex, the part of the cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain that receives information
about odors via the nerve signals sent through the olfactory bulbs (Hadley et al., 2004). In addition to
organizing the sensory information it receives, the olfactory cortex is involved in the limbic system,
where emotions, memories, and survival instincts are formed, processed, and stored. The olfactory
cortex cooperates with other structures in the limbic system, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and
hypothalamus, and it is this cooperative set of structures and processes that allow us to connect our
sense of smell with memory and emotion.


CHEMISTRY OF SMELL

Pick any given scent—cilantro or gorgonzola or diesel fuel—and you can find some people who like it,
some who are repulsed by it, and others who can’t even smell it. These differences arise from variation
in the olfactory receptor genes, and since such variations are wildly common among humans—even a
single change in a single gene can affect the olfactory response—one person may smell a bouquet
where another smells nothing. There are about 1,000 different genes involved in olfaction, directing the
actions of the particular sensory
receptors in the nose (Elsaesser &
Paysan, 2007). A particular odor molecule
may stimulate more than one olfactory
receptor, and the receptor(s), in turn, may
be activated by more than one kind of
odor molecule. Scientists still don’t
entirely understand how the activation of
a variety of receptors allows us to
interpret these patterns as birch trees or
jasmine blossoms or hickory smoke,
much less the intensity and pleasantness
of the scent.

Anything that has an odor contains one
or more volatile compounds that we can
detect through olfaction. If a compound
produces an odor, it is called an odorant,
or an aroma compound. The term
“aromatic,” though, has a couple of
different meanings. In chemistry,
aromatic refers to molecules that have a
six-carbon ring with double bonds
connecting every other carbon, but not all
of these produce aromas (e.g., aspirin is
an aromatic compound that is scentless).
However, the first compounds with this
six-carbon ring structure that were
discovered all had a strong smell and
were so dubbed “aromatic” (Helmenstine,
2019), hence the source of the term as
we use it when referring to olfaction.
These aromatic compounds, meaning
those we can detect as aromas, are small, light, and easily dispersed in air (Helmenstine, 2019).

The reverse is also true, in that not all aromatic (smell) compounds are aromatic (chemistry). Some odors
are produced by inorganic compounds (compounds that do not contain carbon), such as hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), which smells like rotten eggs, or ammonia (NH3), redolent of urine. Other odors we often
recognize are produced by organic compounds (compounds that contain carbon) such as limonene
(oranges and lemon), geraniol (geranium), linalool (lavender and basil), indole (jasmine and feces),
eugenol (clove), vanillin (vanilla), thymol (thyme and bergamot), and allyl thiol (garlic).


How Chemoreception Works

Odorant molecules bind to receptors on the sensory nerve cells (receptor cells) located in the top of the
nasal cavity. When these cells are stimulated, they send impulses to the brain. We can only smell
something when the molecules have become gaseous; we can receive these molecules ambiently,
through the air we are immersed in, from a particular substance containing volatile compounds, or from
the mouth as we are chewing food. Each of the 50 million receptor cells inside the olfactory epithelium
has a special relationship with a particular odor molecule. When a molecule and a receptor recognize a
good “fit,” the neuron sends an electrochemical signal to the brain.

While the human olfactory system does not need a high saturation of odorants in order to detect a smell,
scientists do think that a threshold limit exists, in which at least a certain number of molecules are
required to bind in order to activate the signal to the brain (Helmenstine, 2019). But how do receptors
recognize molecular matches from the odors as they waft past? Two theories are currently most popular
with researchers concerning the mechanics of scent recognition: vibrational theory and shape theory,
also known as the lock and key model.
The functions and processes behind both
of these theories aren’t fully
understood—there is a lot more to know
about how scent recognition works.

The millions of receptor cells in the nose
are widely varied in order to distinguish
myriad odors in our environments.
According to vibrational theory, the atoms
in an odor molecule are joined together by
bonds that vibrate at particular
frequencies. The receptors, by some
method, turn the frequencies of a
particular odor molecule into electrical
signals that the brain receives as
information. Different scents have
molecular bonds that vibrate at different
frequencies.

According to the lock and key model, the
structure of a particular molecule fits the
physical shape of a particular receptor.
Therefore, molecules boasting similar
structures will smell similar or the same.
Recent studies with honeybees indicate
that the lock and key theory of odor
recognition is not sufficient to explain
scent differentiation, and that vibrational
theory offers a possible explanation that is
more layered, although not complete.

So what happens when you put your nose
among the fragrant leaves of a living rosemary plant? Volatile molecules (aromatic compounds)
produced within the rosemary leaves evaporate into the air between the leaves and your nose. When you


inhale that air, the molecules collide with the olfactory epithelium, dissolve into the mucus, and find
receptors that they can fit into. When the receptors are stimulated, a message of rosemary is sent to
your brain, and you are perhaps soon thinking of chicken and dumpling soup.

Just as we can perceive the same tastes using multiple parts of the tongue and mouth, there are two
separate pathways by which we detect odors. When we inhale scent molecules through the nose, we
are using the orthonasal pathway—odor molecules bind to chemical receptors in the nose. In the
retronasal pathway, odor molecules arrive with food or mouth inhalation at the top of the throat,
connecting to the nasal cavity in this way. When we have a cold or sinus infection, the retronasal
pathway can become blocked, and it is more difficult to detect the aromas of the food we chew.

Some things appear to have no smell—think of a glass bottle—because they have no volatile molecules
that evaporate, and nothing reaches the receptors in your nose. We may experience the same odor
molecules very differently when they're smelled versus tasted. When we taste something, we're
experiencing the scent of evaporated molecules combined with the information we receive from taste
receptors. The human tongue can only detect five tastes—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and meaty
(umami)—so all the other experiences of a flavor are actually due to the fragrance of a food. Root beer,
for instance, is actually largely an olfactory experience of the extract, while the tongue only perceives the
water, sugar, salt, and carbonation.

You can conduct a small experiment to determine this for yourself. Have someone help you, so you can
do this as a blind taste-test. Have your helper feed you a piece of apple and then a piece of raw onion
while you hold your nose. Can you tell the difference? It’s amazing how big a role our sense of smell
plays in our appreciation of the flavors in our food.

As in the perception of other senses, a person exposed
to a scent continuously will become less aware of the
odor over time. A review of the literature examining the
use of essential oils for pain and anxiety relief during
childbirth suggests that the peak effect in aromatherapy
occurs about half an hour after inhalation, and at
around an hour of continuous exposure, the
pain-reducing and anxiolytic effects appear to
diminish—in some cases olfactory receptors can be
saturated as soon as 20 minutes after inhalation (Vitale,
2018). Other odorants can deaden the sense of smell,
such as the rotten egg odor produced by hydrogen
sulfide, whose molecular binding prevents the receptor
from receiving other signals. In this case, since
hydrogen sulfide is toxic, the loss of the ability to smell
can be deadly (Helmenstine, 2019).

Canines and other animals have keener noses than
humans for several reasons. A dog’s olfactory
epithelium can contain 300 million receptor cells, which
means it can detect a greater variety of substances and
at much lower quantities or saturations (Lo et al., 2019).
The dog’s nasal structures also allow the air to swirl
inside the nose cavities for longer, allowing the
molecules to pass over binding sites more frequently
and for a longer period of time. Canines also have a


larger olfactory portion of the brain, allowing for greater processing of a wider variety of smells at smaller
concentrations (Craven et al., 2007).

Olfactory cancer detection is something that perhaps only the canine brain may be capable of and is a
current topic of research. A recent study demonstrated the abilities of four beagles to sniff out the
difference between the blood of healthy humans and the blood of humans with lung cancer, at a rate of
nearly 97% accuracy. Researchers surmise that dogs are able to detect the unique odors given off by
cancerous cells when they’re present in the blood, urine, or breath (Seo et al., 2018).
SMELL AND MEMORY IN THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

The olfactory bulb is a very ancient brain structure within the limbic system. The limbic system, as
previously noted, is a series of structures that coordinate emotions, memory, instinct, motivation, and
automatic behaviors having little to do with conscious action or will. Because of the pathways of
olfaction in the brain, scent is most often processed by the brain structures before we have an
awareness that we are smelling something.

What evolutionary assistance have the adaptations of olfaction offered to human beings? Researchers
have produced abundant evidence that scent has been historically important in mate selection,
identifying toxic versus nutritious foods, and forming memory critical for survival (Helmenstine, 2019).

Research also suggests that it is likely that humans are evolutionarily more attuned to certain smells then
their canine partners, such as amyl acetate, a chemical produced by ripening bananas and other fruit.
Since dogs and their ancestors were not dependent on fruit for any substantial portion of sustenance,
detecting such a smell would have been irrelevant to the evolution of their smellers (Lo et al., 2019).

Unlike other sensory information, olfactory communications travel directly from the sensory neurons via
the olfactory bulb to the amygdala, hypothalamus, and frontal
cortex, where spatial, autobiographical, declarative, and
episodic memories are processed and stored (Herz, 2016). The
sense of smell is thus directly linked to the limbic system, which
is intimately involved in translating the information of the senses
from the thinking brain for the purposes of generating or
motivating behavior. Mediated by the chemical tides of the
endocrine system, a person’s limbic system automatically
involves itself when, for example, we witness a car accident and
take in the associated smells of burnt rubber and gasoline. The
body and brain recognize the situation as a stressful event
associated with those smells, experiencing physiological
reactions such as elevated heart rate and blood pressure, and in
turn make choices, often impulsive, about how to respond.

Image: PD-USGOV

Most human language lacks the vocabulary for the trillion smells
we are able to detect (Bushdid et al., 2014). This is at least in
part due to the fact that odors do not travel directly to the
thalamus, a gateway for consciousness, but instead directly
stimulate memory and emotion prior to our ability to be aware of it (Herz, 2016). We are vulnerable to
influence by scent, and we largely walk around not even knowing it. Thus it may come as no surprise
that context and experience can alter how we experience a smell. For a kid who grew up on a dairy farm


in the rolling hills of Vermont, the smell of manure may generate waves of nostalgia, while a city kid may
greet the same smell with a wrinkled nose.

This is also one of the reasons why aromatherapists prefer to use essential oil blends when preparing
products for children, childbirth, or those experiencing trauma. Any single essential oil aroma might
either elicit or develop a memory or create an association between the aroma and a specific event. A
blend can have a unique fragrance that will not be recognized in the same way. After a time, a blend may
become recognizable, the same as a solitary oil’s aroma, but initially, it will be novel and unique. This is
also a powerful quality one can use in developing one’s own botanical perfumes.

Not all scents are processed in the same way by the brain. The odors of the human body, for example,
appear to be particularly unique in how the central nervous system receives and understands them. The
brains of research participants, unable to consciously distinguish between T-shirts infused with artificial
“body odors” versus T-shirts slept in by volunteers, were activated in different regions by the different
T-shirt smells, suggesting that genuine human body odors are processed by a subregion of the brain
that recognizes familiar and fearful stimuli (Zhou & Chen, 2009). Human odors, researchers think, are as
unique to individuals as fingerprints. In a similar way, study participants who were able to distinguish the
scent of a T-shirt from a roommate versus a T-shirt from strangers also scored higher on social tests
ranking emotional sensitivity (Zhou & Chen, 2009). Researchers have also found that visual stimuli affect
our experience of a concurrent smell and vice-versa (Zaraska, 2017).

All this suggests that, through our sense of smell, we are constantly gleaning information about the
world around us, including the moods, health status, and genetic compatibility of fellow humans; this
occurs on an almost entirely subconscious level, although it can certainly have great impact (de Groot et
al., 2012).

Awareness of our innate smelling abilities, however, is complicated—much of smelling happens beneath
the radar of our consciousness. As mentioned, the olfactory nerves do not proceed directly to the brain’s
thalamus, the gateway to the conscious mind. Instead, olfactory information feeds from the nose to
cortical areas to arouse emotions and memories long before awareness. When it comes to smells,
people can be influenced and not realize it.


The fragrance and perfume industries are founded upon a simple phenomenon: the link between smell
and emotion. Perfume producers seek to link their wares with emotions that human beings seem to want
to cultivate: power, desire, masculinity or femininity, vitality, and calm, to name a few. Researchers have
found that asking study participants to smell floral or grapefruit scents while looking at images of
women, for instance, correlated with the participants finding the women more attractive (Zaraska, 2017).
Kissing, surmise other researchers, may be an evolutionary result of sniffing, an ancient behavior to
decide through smell and taste whether a potential partner is a good match (Zaraska, 2017).

CONTEXT AND VARIATION IN SCENT PERCEPTION

Smell-blindness is a genetic condition that results in physiological quirks that affect the ability to
perceive certain odors. Some lucky folks, for instance, are unable to smell “asparagus pee,” the
particular smell of the urine after eating asparagus.

Our perceptions of smell are also vulnerable to suggestion and expectation. If someone offers you a
strong cheese in a paper bag and tells you it is feline vomit, you are much more likely to find it repellent
than if the friend invited you to take a whiff of the fancy pecorino they just picked up. Likely for similar
reasons, researchers found that mild fragrances could cause asthmatic inflammation in participants who
thought they were being exposed to a dangerous odorant (Zhang & Firestein, 2007).

Emotions may even have their own unique odors. We might produce certain fatty acids in our sweat
when we feel stressed or disgruntled—an old onion smell, maybe—while the sweat we produce during a


hike on a sunny day off from work might make us smell appealing, spicy, and animal-ish in a good way.
Moreover, evidence suggests that the smell of an anxious friend could make you feel similarly anxious
while getting a whiff of a friend just coming back from the sunny walk on the mountain might give you a
sunny smile yourself. In a social species, it may be advantageous for our survival to be able to receive
chemical messages by way of multiple sensory avenues to warn us of danger or help us to bond (de
Groot et al., 2012; Zhou & Chen, 2009).

Researchers have found that our sense of smell can help us know who is closely related to us and who
is not. Sweaty T-shirts seem to be many researchers’ go-to, and some studies have found that a part of
the brain called the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex is activated when research participants smell the
sweat from T-shirts of individuals with whom they are genetically close (Trouton et al., 2012). Scientists
who study olfaction and human attraction have found that women prefer the body odors of people who
are neither too genetically close nor too genetically distant. They hypothesize that these olfactory
preferences promote a sweet spot for producing healthy offspring: parents-to-be minimize the risk of
fetal health problems caused by too much genetic overlap, while maximizing the benefits conferred by
geographical or regional proximity, which could provide for immunity to local pathogens or other
adaptations to local ecosystems, such as temperature hardiness (Trouton et al., 2012).

Loss of Smell and Olfactory Disorders

Perhaps you have noticed a beloved elder choosing hyper-sweet flavors and strongly scented
perfumes—this is likely related to a diminished ability to taste and smell with maturity. As we age, we
begin to lose sensitivity to odorants, a phenomenon called hyposmia, which is even more extreme in
people experiencing neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. Parosmia is a condition
in which people experience distorted odor detection, while phantosmia designates the hallucination of
smells.

Almost every living person has experienced temporary anosmia when their favorite foods were tasteless
because of a blocked nasal passage during a respiratory infection. Individuals with anosmia have lost or
lack the ability to perceive odors. Certain genetic mutations could cause this condition, but most often
anosmia is a result of aging, smoking, respiratory infection, head injury, or chemical or radiation
exposure. When a person experiences a blow or aggressive jostling of the skull, the frontal lobes where
the olfactory structures are located can become injured; the olfactory nerve fibers can become snagged
where they travel through the cribriform plate from the nasal cavity to the skull, breaking the connections
between receptor cells and the brain, or the structures of the nose itself could become damaged,
interfering with the passage of odorant molecules. Chronic inflammation of the nasal passages, such as
from persistent sinusitis, can cause long-term or permanent loss of smell, particularly when nasal polyps
form. A broken nose, a deviated septum, a tumor, hay fever, viral upper respiratory infection, and other
structural problems related to growths, fractures, or inflammation can also interfere with cilia (smell
sensory hairs), receptors, and olfactory tissue function in the nose. Some researchers and clinicians
identify anosmia as one of the earliest signs of Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s disease (Boesveldt et al.,
2017). Some individuals born with anosmia experience this as part of a condition called Kallman
syndrome, in which the pituitary gland is unable to produce sufficient hormone due to a hypothalamic
issue. However, approximately 25% of people with loss of smell experience idiopathic anosmia, in which
many tests are performed but no cause of olfactory loss can be determined (Boesveldt et al., 2017).
Finally, the smallest group of anosmia sufferers experience loss of smell due to a wide variety of medical
causes, including low-functioning thyroid, diabetes, liver failure, epilepsy, and pharmaceutical side
effects.


Loss of a sensory ability, especially smell, can profoundly impact our sense of connection to the world
around us. Because smell, in particular, is linked to emotion and memory, people experiencing anosmia
report blunted emotions and clouded sensory experience. Researchers even maintain that the loss of
smell can interfere with a person’s ability to connect with others and maintain relationships, resulting in
anxiety and depression (Boesveldt et al., 2017). Scientists and clinicians have also observed that the
loss of olfactory perception can interfere with a person’s ability to recall memory, which can feel
devastating to identity and relationships (Boesveldt et al., 2017).

AROMATHERAPY AND OTHER BODY SYSTEMS

Volatile oils are volatile aroma compounds found in plants, which have developed these compounds to
protect from herbivory by insects, foragers, and microbes. Aromatherapy refers to the topical application
and inhalation of volatile oils and compounds for the purposes of physiological and emotional wellness;
this often involves essential oils, which are highly concentrated volatile substances extracted from plant
materials through a process of distillation. Volatile oils are hydrophobic, meaning that they don’t dissolve
in water but rather do dissolve in fat.

Practitioners of aromatherapy maintain that inhalation of volatile oils can affect, via the olfactory
apparatus, the limbic system, influencing emotions and emotional behaviors. Upon inhaling lavender or


eucalyptus, for example, people may notice a sense of relaxation, arousal, alertness, or stimulation
(Huang & Capdevila, 2017). In some cases, such aroma compounds can stimulate the release of
endogenous mood-enhancing hormones, including serotonin and endorphins (Babar et al, 2015; Vitale,
2018). Remember, the sense of smell is 10,000 times more powerful than the other senses and operates
through a direct pathway to the brain, and thus is nearly immediate. Aromatherapists operate with the
understanding that the human sense of smell offers access to the functioning of the subconscious mind
(Herz, 2016; Hunt, 2018). While much more research in this field is needed for clinical practice, scientists
studying aromatherapies have found that essential oils and hydrosols have effects on a variety of body
systems, not just the central nervous system.

In a literature review, researchers found menopausal participants, over the course of three studies,
reported a significant increase in sexual desire upon inhaling lavender (Lavandula spp.) essential oil,
while a blend of lavender, fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) , geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), and rose
(Rosa spp.) essential oils was found to improve sexual function on a variety of relevant scales tested,
including frequency of desire versus avoidance of intimacy, ease of arousal, lubrication, orgasm, and
sense of satisfaction. Researchers posit that both inhalation and skin absorption into the bloodstream
can display such effects (Khadivzadeh et al., 2018).

In a 2015 study, among 105 pregnant individuals followed from 35 weeks of pregnancy until 6 weeks
after delivery, inhalation before bed of both 7 drops of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil and
1 mL of rosewater (Rosa x damascena) showed statistically significant reduction in symptoms of
depression as compared to both control and placebo groups (Kianpour et al., 2018). A study published
in 2017 examined markers of stress and efficacy in task-performance and the use of aromatherapy.
Participants were asked to perform keyboard tasks on a website, and the group exposed to aerosolized
petitgrain bigarade (Citrus x aurantium var amara) essential oil completed their tasks quicker and
exhibited a reduction in stress markers related to heart rate. Researchers concluded that aromatherapy
could help individuals accomplish tasks more efficiently through decreased stress and increased arousal
and attention (Huang & Capdevila, 2017). Because so many of the human body’s intersecting systems
are affected by the stress response, it seems likely that one mechanism by which aromatic herbs work is
by reducing sympathetic engagement, reducing and balancing the tone of the physiology affected by
cortisol (Hosseini et al., 2016; Toda & Morimoto, 2011).

In hospitalized acute leukemia patients reporting low-quality sleep, researchers found statistically
significant reduction in tiredness, drowsiness, lack of appetite, depression, and anxiety in patients
receiving either peppermint (Mentha x piperita) , lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) , or German chamomile
(Matricaria recutita) essential oil aromatherapy over the course of 4 weeks of initial chemotherapy
treatment (Blackburn et al., 2017). In 2018, researchers published a study of adults older than 60 years
who reported diminished symptoms of depression following an 8-week regimen of either aromatic
inhalation or aromatherapy massage of essential oils of bergamot (Citrus x bergamia) , sweet orange
(Citrus x
sinensis), and lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) in a carrier oil (Xiong et al., 2018). Similarly,
researchers found a reduction in anxiety among cardiac patients who inhaled lemon balm (Melissa
officinalis) essential oil (Lotfi et al., 2019).


HERBS AS VIBRATIONAL ALLIES

Among scientists, health workers, and philosophers, the question of who and what is conscious—and
how we know these things—has long been a subject of interest. In the past decades, researchers
have come to a fragile agreement on two points: that everything in the universe vibrates with a
particular frequency, and that consciousness—and all the anatomical structures associated with the
human brain—is also a matter of vibration and frequency (Hunt, 2018).

In the past century, researchers have made inquiries concerning the various vibrational oscillations of
the human body and the relationship between vibrational frequencies and the healing process.
Notably, the medical doctors Robert O. Becker and Royal Raymond Rife documented frequencies in
the human body. Most recently, Bruce Tainio has developed technologies to examine the relationship
between frequencies and disease molecules and progressions. The study and practice of vibrational
therapies—acupuncture, aromatherapy, color therapy, sound healing—have ancient origins, which
many researchers are now investigating in a modern context (Beri, 2019; Fairfax & Chate, 2012).

Essential oil vibrational frequencies may explain some of the actions of essential oils we have yet to
explain scientifically. Essential oils can act as antimicrobial agents, and of course, their powerful odors
can help to calm, restore, and support the central nervous system. Because all molecules, and even
living tissues, in the universe have various vibrational frequencies, aromatherapists may be able to
utilize yet another aspect of essential oils as high-frequency substances, which may act upon the
subtle body.


FRAGRANCE TOXICITY AND SAFETY

Synthetic fragrances, found in a variety of toiletries, soaps, cosmetics, and perfumes, are known to have
negative consequences for both human health and the environment. Common consumer fragrances may
have 100-350 ingredients, many of which are volatile and can vaporize easily (Goa et al., 2019).
Researchers have found many of these chemicals to be linked to the development of cancer and
neurological disorders as well as endocrine disruption, which can interfere with growth and sex hormone
pathways (Sowndhararajan & Kim, 2016). Individuals, especially those with chemical sensitivity, may
experience rashes, asthma, headaches, fatigue, nausea, aches, dizziness, and other symptoms when
exposed to scented products. Many of these products and chemicals are restricted in the European
Union and Japan (Goa et al., 2019). Unfortunately, monitors still find synthetic musks and other
synthesized chemicals accumulating in water habitats and their aquatic denizens. Researchers have also
found these chemicals in human milk, fat tissue, and blood (Goa et al., 2019).

While it is quite difficult to avoid many of these products out in the world, there are some tactics for
reducing the chemical load you and your family experience. These include choosing scent-free products,
maintaining good ventilation in your home and workspace, avoiding synthetic body perfumes, and
keeping scented products away from the bed and bedroom.


But what about natural fragrances? Can they pose health concerns? Because essential oils are highly
concentrated, direct application on the skin can cause tissue damage, especially on already irritated or
wounded tissue. Very young, very old, or immune-compromised individuals may be more sensitive to
strong substances such as essential oils. Furthermore, it is important to learn more or seek out the
advice of an aromatherapist who can help to differentiate between certain essential oils and their safety
precautions. Several general strategies can be helpful in guiding the use of these oils.

First, make sure of the source of the oil. Adulterated essential oils are far more likely to have adverse and
unintended effects than unadulterated essential oils. Second, do your research on the safety precautions
for individual essential oils. Some essential oils, such as citronella (Cymbopogon spp.) and cinnamon
(Cinnamomum spp.), contain aldehydes, while others such as oregano (Origanum vulgare) and thyme
(Thymus vulgaris) are packed with phenols, and both of these compounds have been known to cause
skin reactions when not properly diluted in a carrier oil before topical application (National Association
for Holistic Aromatherapy [NAHA], 2019).

For most people, inhalation (as opposed to topical application) poses the lowest risk of an adverse
reaction, with a very small percentage of people potentially prone to headaches, vertigo, or nausea after
prolonged exposure (e.g., an hour or more in a highly saturated environment) (NAHA, 2019). Those who
are very sensitive to odor or experience chemical sensitivity may experience negative reactions to
essential oil inhalation after even a short time. The use of aromatherapy during pregnancy is a
controversial subject, although many educated providers propose that the stage of pregnancy, the
dosage, and the application method are all highly relevant to potential safety risks. We’ll cover more
about essential oil safety precautions in Lesson 3.

CONCLUSION

Often disregarded in strategies for healing, the human sense of smell is a powerful pathway for
maintaining and recovering health. The research on smell and the limbic system is progressing at the
same time that clinicians and practitioners continue to accumulate ever more experience on the nature
of scent and the human homeostatic response. While cautious use is always a wise idea in learning to
use any new substance, aromatherapy can be a non-invasive and low-side effect tool for managing
symptoms as well as the underlying causes of a condition. Adding essential oils to an herbal apothecary
can add a new dimension to a home or clinical practice.


A Future Perspective for Regenerative Medicine: Understanding the Concept of Vibrational Medicine by
Keri Becker: http://doi.org/10.4155/fsoa-2017-0097
Aroma Compounds and Their Odors by A.M. Helmenstine:
https://www.thoughtco.com/aroma-compounds-4142268
Aromatherapy: Basic Mechanisms and Evidence-Based Clinical Use by Giacinto Bagetta, Marco
Cosentino, and Tsukasa Sakurado
Essential Chemistry for Safe Aromatherapy by Sue Clark
Essential Oils: A Handbook for Aromatherapy Practice by J. Peace Rhind
Seven scents: Healing and the Aromatic Imagination by Dorothy Abram and Laura Mernoff
The Body Electric by Robert Becker and Gary Selden
The Hippies were Right: It’s all About the Vibrations, Man! A New Theory of Consciousness by Tam
Hunt:
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-hippies-were-right-its-all-about-vibrations-man/


LESSON 3: THE COMPOSITION OF

BOTANICAL PERFUME

INTRODUCTION

Advertisers suggest to us that the right perfume or cologne will make us attractive to a potential mate,
make us look and feel sexy, and make us powerful. From Cleopatra's famous seductive scents to
Carmelite Water to Eau de Cologne, perfumes made with essential oils and other natural extracts have a
long history. But most perfumes today are created from synthetic fragrances that mimic their natural
antecedents. This is done primarily to maintain consistent recipes with consistent results over time. One
would not be pleased to find that one’s favorite perfume smelled different this month than it did last
month!

Yet, although one wants a favorite perfume to have a consistent fragrance over time, one of the beauties
of natural, botanical perfumes made from essential oils and other plant extracts is that different batches
can have different nuances of aroma. Although a recipe might call for lavender, the Lavandula
angustifolia essential oil sold at one retailer might smell different than that from another retailer. You, the
fragrance blender, can choose which bottle of essential oil to include in your personal perfume, making it
smell exactly how you want it to.

Another joy of using essential oils, in particular, in our botanical perfumes, is that we know that inhaling
essential oils can balance our moods, center us, and ground us. Aromatherapist Danielle Sade puts this
beautifully when she says, “because they have such a wide range of therapeutic benefits, using essential
oils in personal care products allows you to establish a connection between inner well-being and
external beauty” (2017, p. 11). We can choose to include those essential oils that help us manage our
stress and use them as the core of our personal perfume. This can help us get through our day, as well
as affect people we encounter along the way (Baron, 1988).


Join Jennifer Allen of Mythique Aromatics for an Exploration

of Botanical Perfumes:

Visit the course to watch the video and download the Botanical Perfumery video transcript as a PDF.

MAKING BEAUTIFUL, AROMATIC MUSIC: NOTES AND
ACCORDS

One of the primary ways essential oils are categorized when blending for aroma is by “note,” a concept
developed by the perfumer Septimus Piesse (Rhind, 2014b), and which is determined by how quickly an
essential oil evaporates. Essential oils that evaporate quickly, over minutes or hours, are called “top” or
“head” notes, while those that evaporate at a moderate rate, usually several hours, are called “middle” or
“heart” notes, and the most viscous essential oils that evaporate very slowly are called “base” notes.

These categories are not clearly delineated but produce more of a spectrum of fragrance, like a musical
scale, and are often relative—an aroma may be a top note in some combinations and a middle note in
others. Chemical composition variability can also make a difference, with the Virginia cedarwood
(Juniperus virginiana) you buy today playing a middle note role, while the Virginia cedarwood you bought
last month might have been more of a base note. The citrus essential oils are all top notes, whereas
many of the floral or herbal essential oils, like lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) , are middle notes. As one
might expect from energetics, the rooty and woody essential oils, such as vetiver (Chrysopogon
zizanioides) and sandalwood (Santalum spp.), are usually base notes.


If one combines only top notes, the aroma will

initially be vibrant but will disappear quickly. If
one adds some middle notes to the blend, the
overall aroma will last a little longer, with the
top notes fading, leaving the middle notes
behind. If one adds in one or more base notes
to anchor the other aromas, the overall
fragrance will last a little longer, and there will
be more depth and complexity to the
fragrance as it changes over time.

A harmonious combination of top, middle, and
base notes is combined to form an aromatic
“chord,” also known as an “accord.” Groups
of essential oils in the same note category or a
combination of notes may be grouped
together to form an accord, to which other
essential oils are added in various
combinations to create different final
fragrances.

Accords are used in perfume making for a
variety of purposes, including replacing or
extending notes, and adding depth, originality,
creativity and/or a story point. Multiple chords
in a perfume are like those wonderful layers in
great storytelling, seamlessly blended to
create a synergy greater than the sum of its
parts.

Experiential Exercise

Try a little experiment to see for yourself how essential oil volatility affects the duration of scent and
how the scent may change over time. Use scent strips or small squares of paper towel for this. Be
sure to label each strip or square in order to be able to identify it with certainty later. Select one top
note, a couple of middle notes, and one base note essential oil (see chart below). Place 1 drop of each
essential oil on a separate scent strip or square of paper towel. Smell each of them right after
preparing the experimental strips, then, again, an hour later. Record your observations. Smell them
again every few hours for the next couple of days. How do the aromas change? How do the strengths
of the aromas change over time? Do the aromas themselves change over time as well?

This experiment is quite simple and can give you an idea of how quickly an essential oil aroma
disappears or changes, but once you put it on your body, the changes can be even more dramatic.
The heat from your body will cause the essential oils to evaporate more quickly, which is why
botanical perfumes usually need to be applied more often than commercial perfumes, and, just as
with commercial perfumes, the chemical constituents of the essential oil can interact with the
chemistry of your body to change even more dramatically. This is why perfume blending can be such
a personal enterprise.


Once one has an idea of how an essential oil’s volatility affects how its fragrance changes over time, one
can start combining notes together. Authors differ in their recommendations for appropriate ratios of
notes, but, in the end, it is what you love that counts. To start, ratios to consider include top:middle:base
at 3:2:1 or 4:3:1 or a combination with the majority of fragrance coming from the middle notes.

Some fairly common examples of the three note categories are:

Visit the course to download the Three Note Categories in Perfumery worksheet as a PDF.


Other Fragrance Categories

If notes are based on the volatility, viscosity, and evaporation rates of aromatics, then how might one
describe the fragrance or odor of an essential oil? There are a number of odor types in perfumery, both
for individual aromas as well as for certain perfumery combinations. Odor types one might see referring
to botanical fragrances are agrestic, anisic, balsamic, camphoraceous, caramel, cineolic, citrus,
coniferous, earthy, fecal, floral, fruity, green, hay, herbaceous, honey, medicated, minty, mossy, oily,
peppery, resinous, rosy, smoky, spicy, waxy, wintergreen, or woody (Rhind, 2014a; Rhind, 2014b).


Visit the course to download the Fragrance Families worksheet as a PDF.

One might also consider a fragrance’s intensity. For instance, vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) has a
stronger fragrance than sandalwood (Santalum spp.), and lime smells stronger than orange. When these
intensities are compared to each other, each essential oil can be given a relative rating or blending
factor, which is sometimes used in mathematical formulae to balance the fragrance of a therapeutic
blend. Blending factor is not used so much in perfumery, yet fragrance intensity can still play a role in
determining the proportions of essential oils in your final perfume.

Fragrance blends range from very simple to inordinately complex. A simple blend might only have two
ingredients. Essential oils with woody aromas, such as sandalwood (Santalum s pp.), combine well with
one other essential oil, such as vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) absolute, rose (Rosa spp.) absolute, or
cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) essential oil. Some blends stay within a fragrance category, such as
a floral blend or a citrus blend. These may include a base note, such as vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) ,
sandalwood (Santalum spp.), or vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides), to give the overall fragrance depth
while keeping the basic blend very simple.

An excellent approach to any kind of essential oil blending is to first blend your fragrant extracts in a
small, dark-colored glass bottle with an orifice reducer to use as your stock bottle. You can tweak this
blend over time since it is separate from the final product. You can also use it in several different


products, such as roll-ons, lotions, creams, bath bombs, solid perfumes, etc. The concentration of the
stock blend you would include in your final product would be whatever were appropriate for that product
or recipe.

Although training one’s nose to distinguish subtle nuances of scent takes years, there is always value in
improving one’s scent awareness. One can identify note, fragrance intensity, fragrance category, and
eventually, the subtle difference within a fragrance category. Additionally, one will want to learn the
correct terminology to communicate these characteristics of the essential oil. If one uses just one
essential oil at a time, to explore all of its characteristics, including its possible effect on your own
wellbeing, one can easily pair it with meditation or prayer to enhance both the understanding of the oil
and the meditative focus. “When we engage with a scent and it becomes our focus, we can detach from
busy, distracting thoughts … and experience a state of mindfulness and reflective awareness” (Rhind,
2014b, p. 23).

Types of Aromatic Extracts Used in Botanical Perfumery

There are several different processes that produce aromatic plant extracts. Each of these extract types
contains different combinations of chemical compounds, even when extracted from the same plant.
Some plants can undergo several of these processes, and some processes cannot be used with certain
plants. For instance, vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) and jasmine (Jasminum s pp.) cannot produce essential oils
through steam distillation, while rose (Rosa s pp.) can produce both an absolute and essential oil.


Concrete

Concretes are extracts created by washing plant material with a nonpolar solvent, often hexane. The
hexane is evaporated off, leaving behind a solid or semi-solid substance, which also contains plant
waxes, pigments, and other larger molecules.

Absolute

Absolutes are made by washing a concrete with ethanol to dissolve and separate out the aromatic
molecules. Some people are concerned about possible hexane residues from the concretes in these
extracts, but ethical suppliers make a concerted effort to remove all of the hexane from their products.
Most floral extracts, such as jasmine (Jasminum spp.), are only available as concretes or absolutes.

Supercritical CO2 Extract

Liquid carbon dioxide (CO2), under extreme pressure, is used to extract plant compounds. The CO2 is
then allowed to return to its gaseous state, leaving the extracted compounds behind. Of all types of
extracts, CO2 extract aromas are perhaps the closest, organoleptically, to their plant forebears. Although
the CO2 extraction process has been around for a while, being used in the decaffeination of coffee, for
instance (Hellivan, 2012), the use of CO2 extracts for general aromatherapeutic practice is relatively
recent. As a result, these extracts’ safety is less-well understood, but they offer many new opportunities,
both for fragrance and therapeutic blending.

Enfleurage

In enfleurage, flowers are infused into solid fat. The flower blossoms are replaced repeatedly until the fat
has absorbed the maximum amount of volatile oil, creating a fragrant pomade. The fragrance is
separated from the fat using alcohol, which then evaporates, leaving an absolute behind. This is
extremely labor-intensive and produces very small amounts of product.

Essential Oil

All true essential oils are extracted using one of two processes: steam/water distillation or expression,
sometimes inaccurately called “cold pressing.” Only three flowers produce essential oils: rose (Rosa
spp.), bitter orange blossom (neroli) (Citrus x
aurantium var. amara) , and ylang ylang (Cananga odorata).
All other flowers can only be used to produce enfleurage, concretes, and absolutes.

Hydrosol or Hydrolat

Hydrosols, also known as hydrolats, are the re-condensed water that results when steam distilling a
plant. They are extremely dilute, although their aromas can still be potent. The challenge with hydrolats
is that they are easily contaminated and, as with other water-based products, need to be handled in as
sterile a manner as possible and have the final product either contain a preservative or be made fresh
every couple of weeks. Keeping the product in the refrigerator can extend its shelf life.


Pre-Diluted Extracts

Many of the extracts used in perfumery can be very expensive. Because they are highly concentrated,
some extracts are also very viscous, and may even be so thick as to be extremely difficult to use. These
may need to be first diluted in alcohol or oil in order to be able to work with them. Plant extracts that are
exceptionally strong in their odor profile may also need to be diluted substantially in order not to
overpower a fragrance blend. Luckily, many botanical extract companies provide ready-made dilutions
for use in your first perfumes so that you don’t need to worry about math or chemistry right away; these
diluted extracts are also much less expensive! Check with your supplier to see if they sell pre-diluted
extracts, often diluted to 10%, or infused fixed oils.


ESSENTIAL OILS COMMONLY USED IN PERFUMERY



Visit the course to download the Essential Oils Used in Perfumery worksheet as a PDF.


GENERAL ESSENTIAL OIL SAFETY GUIDELINES

Dilution

Since perfumes are usually applied to a
small area of the body, they can
incorporate overall higher concentrations
of essential oil than what is usually
recommended in dilution charts. That
said, it is always best to use the lowest
dilution necessary to achieve the desired
effect. Using a stronger perfume does not
make it last longer or smell better. Also
keep in mind that there may be essential
oils listed in older recipes that one should
avoid altogether, and one should always
watch out for personal allergies or
sensitivities and avoid certain essential
oils when pregnant or breastfeeding. It’s
important to do your research before
blending and using a perfume!

The following are examples of essential oil
concentrations specifically for perfumery:

● Alcohol-based perfume: 5-25%
essential oils
● Oil-based perfume: 15-30%
essential oils
● Solid perfume: 25-40% essential
oils (Eden Botanicals, n.d.)

Most perfume blends are between 20%
and 30% essential oil (e.g., approximately
20 drops of essential oil and/or absolute
is combined with 80 drops of carrier oil or alcohol). A formula with 15-20% essential oil content is
generally called an eau de parfum, an eau de toilette contains 10-15% essential oil, an eau de cologne
5-10%, and a splash 2-5% (McCoy, 2018).

Although there may be times when you might choose to use the dilutions recommended above, it is a
good idea, especially to start, to use dilutions of 10% or less. For most essential oils and oil blends,
dilutions of 3-5% will be adequate to produce a beautifully scented product. Absolutes and CO2
extracts often tend to have more potent aromas even than essential oils, so the type of botanical extract
used can have a strong effect on the dilution necessary to achieve your fragrance goal, as will the type
of carrier or style of perfume. Start small and build only as necessary.

However, some essential oils have maximum concentration recommendations that should still be
followed, even for perfumery. It is important to understand why certain essential oils have dilution level
restrictions and to maintain safe dilution levels for any skin-irritating, skin-sensitizing, or phototoxic
essential oils. For example, if using jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum) absolute, the overall dilution of


jasmine absolute in the final product should not exceed 0.7% to prevent possible skin irritation and
sensitization, especially in fragrance-sensitive individuals (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Even lower concentrations than those recommended above are also more appropriate for some
essential oils that have very potent aromas. Some aromas, especially the florals, may even improve
when a lower concentration is used. A good rule for creating both therapeutic and perfume blends is to
use the lowest concentration necessary to achieve the desired goal. Increasing the amount of essential
oil in a blend can have negative side effects, such as causing headaches and nausea, without providing
any additional desired effects, such as durability of the aroma. The table below summarizes the
maximum concentration recommendations for several common perfumery essential oils and absolutes.

Visit the course to download the Maximum Dermal Use Level worksheet as a PDF.


Dispersion

Dispersion is important to consider when making perfume sprays. Although ethanol is good for
emulsifying essential oils, if you simply shake the essential oil/ethanol/water mixture and spray it, the
essential oil drops may still be fairly large. Using an additional solubilizer, such as Solubol, can make the
droplets smaller, so they both hang in the
air longer when used as a room spray
and distribute more evenly onto your
body when used as a body spray.

Whether an emulsifier is needed, how
much emulsifier to use, and how well the
alcohol disperses the essential oils
depends on the essential oils used in the
blend and the type of emulsifier being
used (if any), making it recipe-specific.

Solubilizing

Solubilizing dissolves one substance into
another. Ethanol can solubilize essential
oils into water, but the alcohol one uses
must be a minimum of 75.5% or
151-proof (Moore, 2017). Vodka, which is
usually 70-proof, is not adequate to
solubilize the essential oils into water,
although, with enough volume, it may
help preserve the mixture. Yet, even
190-proof alcohol may not solubilize all
essential oils, making the use of an
additional solubilizer necessary. Each
solubilizer has its own
solubilizer-to-essential oil ratio required
to make the essential oils soluble in
water. For example, if your solubilizer
instructs you to use 4 drops of solubilizer
for each drop of essential oil, put that
much solubilizer and essential oil in your
bottle first. Add in the alcohol and shake
gently. Then mix in any other ingredients.
Let the bottle sit overnight. If the essential oils separate out of the mixture, then you know you need
more solubilizer in your formulation. Discard the original batch and adjust your formulation to try again
with more solubilizer.

Solubiliziers may be derived from petroleum products or from plants; look for certifications such as
COSMOS and EcoCert, which certify ingredients that are approved for “organic” and “natural” products.


Preservatives

Any aqueous mixture must include a preservative to be safe. Essential oils do not preserve water-based
blends, even if the essential oils have antimicrobial actions. A separate preservative is needed when
including water-based ingredients such as hydrosols in a product, and this preservative is usually
product specific. When using ethanol as a preservative, a general rule is to have at least 20% of your
blend be ethanol or perfumer’s alcohol. Other preservatives will have other requirements.

How To Calculate Percent Alcohol

Be sure also to note that 20% refers to the amount of ethanol in the final product. That means that if
your alcohol is 80-proof, or 40% ethanol, you must calculate how much of that 80-proof alcohol to
use in order to have your final product contain at least 20% ethanol. To do that, you can use this
formula:

% Alcohol Required in Formula = 100 x (Desired % Ethanol in Formula ÷ Ethanol Content of Starting
Alcohol)
If you want your final product to contain 20% ethanol, and you’re using an alcohol that is 40%
ethanol, this equation becomes:
% of Alcohol Required in Formula = 100 x (20 ÷ 40) = 50%
So 50% of the menstruum will be your starting alcohol and the remaining 50% will be water and other
ingredients (like essential oil, hydrosol, etc.).
To give another example, if using 190-proof grain alcohol (95% ethanol), the % alcohol required in the
formula to achieve 20% ethanol in the final product would be 100 x (20 ÷ 95) = 21% grain alcohol and
79% water and other ingredients.

Preservatives other than ethanol can also be used; as with solubilizers, these preservatives may come
from a range of starting ingredients, so you may wish to choose only preservatives that are certified for
use in natural products.

SUSTAINABILITY AND PERFUMERY
Several essential oils commonly used in the perfume industry or of great interest to botanical perfumers
are currently on the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List or are CITES (The
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)-protected,
depending on the country of origin. Some, like palo santo (Bursera graveolens), spikenard (Nardostachys
jatamansi) , East Indian sandalwood (Santalum album) from India, and rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora) have
reached such a level of concern that some aromatherapists will no longer purchase them, regardless of
the source.


IUCN Red List Essential Oils of Concern

Critically Endangered Essential oil Possible Substitutes
Agarwood (Aquilaria rostrata) Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides)
Frankincense (Boswellia sacra) Boswellia carterii
Palo santo (Bursera graveolens) Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana)
Sandalwood (Santalum album) Santalum austrocaledonicum

Sandalwood, Hawaiian (S. paniculatum and Santalum spicatum
several other species)
Spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi, N. Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides)

grandiflora) Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin)
Endangered Essential oil
Atlas Cedarwood (Cedrus atlantica) Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana)

Guaiacwood (Bulnesia sarmientoi) Sandalwood (Santalum austrocaledonicum, S

.
spicatum)
Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora) Ho wood (Cinnamomum camphora ct. linalool)
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) Benzoin (Styrax benzoin)

For more information on countries of origin see the IUCN Red List (https://www.iucnredlist.org/).
CONCLUSION
Botanical perfumes are essences that meld with your own unique chemistry, each layer of scent quietly
revealing itself over time to create an ever-changing olfactory palate for your pleasure. Using botanical
extracts in perfumes intertwines daily personal care rituals with plants’ therapeutic support. Botanical
perfume blends can also be used in recipes for other personal care products, such as bath products,
creams, or lotions. Choose your essential oils and botanicals to make a perfume blend that is uniquely
yours, and which will support your psyche as well as the emotions of the people you encounter in your
daily journey. In the following lesson, we’ll explore a handful of perfume-making techniques and provide
recipes to get you started!


Aromatherapeutic Blending by Jennifer Peace Rhind
Fragrance and Wellbeing by Jennifer Peace Rhind
Gourmet Perfumery by Jeanne Rose: http://jeanne-blog.com/gourmet-perfumery/
Listening to Scent by Jennifer Peace Rhind
Perfumery: The Psychology and Biology of Fragrance edited by S. Van Toller and G. H. Dodd


LESSON 4: PERFUMERY TECHNIQUES

AND RECIPES

INTRODUCTION

At this point in the course, you may be itching to get into your kitchen and start making botanical
perfumes! In this lesson, we’ll give you detailed instructions on a few basic perfume-making techniques
that you’ll need to know before getting started. And if you’re not quite ready to start creating your own
unique perfume blends, we’ve got a handful of recipes at the end of the lesson to give you some
practice.

Botanical perfumes usually take one of three forms: solid, oil-based, and spray. The solid and oil-based
perfumes are simple to formulate and create, and can be as simple as a carrier oil combined with
essential oils (and wax, in the case of solid perfume), but can be augmented by incorporating an
herb-infused oil. Spray perfumes are most often alcohol-based and can be a simple combination of
ethanol and essential oil or can include an aromatic tincture, hydrosol, or water.


OIL-BASED BOTANICAL PERFUMES

Oil-based perfumes are crafted using a carrier oil and essential oils. The loveliest carrier oil to use in a
roll-on, oil-based botanical perfume is undoubtedly jojoba oil, which is actually a liquid ester wax. Jojoba
has a very long shelf life, is beneficial for most skin types, has no significant aroma of its own, absorbs
easily into the skin, has a beautiful golden color, and is simply luxurious. Jojoba can be used alone or
can be infused with any of a number of herbs before being used to make the perfume. Still, any
non-aromatic fixed oil can be used as a carrier oil for a perfume blend. Fractionated coconut oil also has
a long shelf life and no aroma, making it another good choice. Apricot kernel and sweet almond oil are
also good choices but have shorter shelf lives.

Making Herb-Infused Oils for Perfume

When it comes to blends where the primary purpose of the blend is to smell wonderful, one can use the
carrier oil itself as one of the aromatics by infusing the carrier oil ahead of time. This works well with rose
(Rosa spp.) blossoms, vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) oleoresin, neroli (bitter orange) (Citrus x aurantium v ar.
amara) blossoms, jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum) blossoms, champa (Michelia champaca o r M. alba)
blossoms, or lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) blossoms. Experiment with any plant material that smells
good to you—try infusing the flowers of honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), linden (Tilia s pp.), carnation
(Dianthus spp.), or butterfly bush (Buddleia spp.)! (Note that if you are using fresh flowers, they may need
to be wilted first to remove excess water before infusing in oil).

Using the infused carrier oil can be less expensive than using the corresponding essential oils or
absolutes, as is certainly the case with rose otto (R. x damascena) essential oil, vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)
absolute or CO2 extract, neroli (Citrus x aurantium var. amara) essential oil, or champa (Michelia
champaca o r M. alba) absolute. It is possible to purchase such infused oils, but you can make your own
quite easily.

There are several methods you can use to prepare an herbal oil; in this lesson, we’ll present both a very
simple warm infusion method and a heated method using a saucepan or slow cooker. The instructions
below are based on the folk method of making an infused oil, which means you will eyeball the amounts
and not measure or weigh. If you are more comfortable using measurements, the ratio is approximately
30 grams (1 oz) of dried plant material to 355 mL (12 fl oz) of oil.

Infused oils are less stable than other herbal preparations such as tinctures. Oils can more easily oxidize
or become rancid, and they can even develop mold or bacterial growth. Adding water to oil is one of the
things that makes it more prone to spoilage—be sure not to wash the plant material or use a wet jar or
wet spoon for mixing. Because of this, infused oils are most often made with dried plant material to
eliminate the potential bacterial contamination, mold, and spoilage that may result when water is
introduced to oil. However, some plants do not retain much of their fragrance when dried and are best
infused fresh, so we also include some tips for infusing fresh plant material safely.


Herb-Infused Oil Supplies

To make an herb-infused oil, you’ll need the following supplies:

● Heat-safe glass jar
● Spoon or chopstick
● Large glass measuring cup or bowl with a spout
● Natural waxed paper
● Cheesecloth or jelly or nut-milk bag
● Mesh strainer
● Glass jars or bottles with lids (ideally, dark-colored glass)
● Marker and label(s)
● Mortar and pestle (optional)
● Saucepan or crockpot (optional)
● Vitamin E oil (optional)


Warm Oil Infusion Directions

1. Grind dried plant material in a mortar and pestle or break up in your clean hands to produce
smaller pieces.
2. Fill a clean, dry glass jar half full with plant material.
3. Pour room-temperature oil over plant material in the jar, nearly to the top, making sure plant
material is completely covered and oil is at least 1 inch above the top of the plant material. Use a
clean, dry spoon or chopstick to mix thoroughly so that all plant surfaces are coated and no air
bubbles remain.
4. Place a square piece of natural waxed paper on top of the jar, then seal the jar with a lid (this
protects the herbal oil from any chemical coating that may be on the lid).
5. Roll the jar back and forth in your hands to continue to thoroughly mix the plant material and oil.
6. Place the jar in a dark, warm spot, but not directly in the sunlight unless you are using a
dark-colored glass bottle or jar or have placed the jar in a brown paper bag. Let sit for 4-6
weeks. Every 1-3 days, roll the jar in your hands to help mix the contents.
7. Decant the oil after 4-6 weeks. Place a cheesecloth-lined strainer inside a large bowl with a
spout. Pour the contents from the jar into the strainer. With clean, dry hands, gather the ends of
the cheesecloth together and squeeze the remaining oil from the plant material into the bowl.
You’ll want to squeeze hard to get every last drop!
8. Repeat steps 1 through 7 one or more additional times until the oil is saturated with fragrance to
your liking.
9. After the last decanting, pour the oil into a clean, dry glass jar, cap, and let it settle overnight or
for a few days.
10. Strain the oil again, being careful to avoid pouring out any of the remaining particulates that have
settled to the bottom of the jar.
11. Pour the oil into a clean and dry glass bottle or jar (ideally, use dark-colored glass to protect
from light) and add a couple drops of vitamin E oil, if desired, to slow down the oxidation of the
oil. Cap tightly.
12. Label the bottle or jar and store in a cool, dark place. Shelf life will depend on the carrier oil
used.

Heated Oil Infusion Directions

Seal the plant material- and oil-filled heat-safe glass jar and place in a saucepan or crockpot that has
been filled with 2-3 inches of water and place a few jar lids under the jar to protect the base. Heat on
very low heat for 8 hours (or more), making sure oil does not get warmer than 120 degrees F (preferably
100-105 degrees F) and refilling with warm water as necessary as it evaporates (add warm, not cold
water to avoid shocking the jar, causing breakage). When measuring the temperature of the oil, be sure
not to introduce water into the oil jar! Remove jar from the saucepan and allow it to cool. Decant, repeat
the above process the desired number of times, decant a final time, bottle, label, and store in a cool,
dark place.


TIPS FOR USING FRESH PLANT MATERIAL

After harvesting, place plant material on a drying screen and let wilt for at least 1 day to remove some
of the moisture. Once wilted, finely chop plant material into small pieces on a cutting board (or crush
in a mortar and pestle) and fill the jar about ⅔-¾ full with plant material, adding oil to cover at least 1
inch above the top of the plant material.

If using the warm infusion method, keep an eye on the oil throughout the infusion process to make
sure the plant material stays below the surface of the oil to avoid mold growth. Smell the oil at the
start of the infusion process and throughout to note any changes that might indicate spoilage (e.g., a
fermented, swampy, or musty smell).

The heated infusion method is ideal for fresh plant material, as some of the water left in the plant
material will evaporate during the infusion process; simply leave the lid off the jar during the infusion
process.

Because oil is less dense than water, any water released from the plant material during the infusion
process will sink to the bottom of the jar where it will mix with any particulates that have settled. When
decanting, pour slowly, and keep a close eye on this layer of water so it does not mix with the oil;
decant only the oil portion, and discard any water or oil that is in contact with the water. After
decanting the first time, let it settle again for a couple of days and repeat the process before the final
bottling.


Herb-Infused Oil Recipes

Below are a couple of recipes to get you started making herb-infused oils for perfumery. These recipes
include measurements to help you get a feel for the herb-infused oil process, but you can take this basic
framework anywhere—just follow your nose! Below the recipes, we’ve included a few unique ideas to
spark your imagination.

Rose-Infused Jojoba Oil

Use your own rose-infused jojoba as a luxurious base to your perfume. This can also be less expensive
than buying rose otto (Rosa x damascena) essential oil.

Ingredients

¼ cup rose (Rosa s pp.) petal
½ cup (4 fl oz) jojoba oil
1 drop vitamin E oil (optional)

Directions


● Follow directions in the herb-infused oil tutorial.

Vanilla-Infused Jojoba Oil

Vanilla adds a warm, base note undertone to perfume, and you can infuse jojoba with vanilla oleoresin
to use with all of your perfume and massage oil blends. You can infuse a full gallon of jojoba with ½
ounce of vanilla oleoresin. Allow it to stay in the jojoba oil, continuing to infuse, as you incorporate the
jojoba into your aromatherapeutic blends.

Ingredients

1 g vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) oleoresin or ½ vanilla bean pod, chopped
½ cup (4 fl oz) jojoba oil
1 drop vitamin E oil (optional)

Directions

● Place vanilla oleoresin or chopped vanilla bean pod into a clean, dry glass jar and cover with
jojoba oil.
● Allow to infuse for approximately 2 weeks.
● Strain out chopped bean pods. No straining is necessary when using oleoresin. Note that the
same oleoresin can be used for a second infusion with another 4 fluid ounces of jojoba oil.
● Pour oil into a clean and dry glass bottle or jar (ideally, use dark-colored glass to protect from
light) and add vitamin E oil, if desired, to slow down the oxidation of the oil. Cap tightly.
● Label the bottle or jar and store in a cool, dark place for up to 1 year.

UNIQUE IDEAS FOR PERFUMERY INFUSED OILS

Conifer Cones
Pine (Pinus spp.) or fir (Abies s pp.) cones will provide a more subtle aroma than that provided by the
corresponding essential oils, which may be overpowering and have a “medicinal” fragrance. Be sure
to only use cones from trees that are safe to use in herbalism, such as white pine (Pinus strobus) or
balsam fir (Abies balsamea) . Also, use only fresh cones harvested from the tree—avoid harvesting
cones from the forest floor for this purpose.

Earl Grey Tea
Looking for a tea note in your perfume blend? Tea extracts well in warm oil as the heat allows it to
release its aroma. Earl Grey is especially lovely as the tea leaves are infused with bergamot (Citrus x
bergamia), but experiment with various types of tea to see which you like best!

Dried Apples and Basil
Many people enjoy a fruit note in their perfume and typically this can only be achieved using synthetic
fragrance oils. CO2 extracts are showing promise in possibly allowing for naturally derived fruit notes,


but using freeze-dried fruit, such as apples or strawberries, combined with dried herbs, such as basil,
allow you to extract a very subtle fruit note into an oil base. The ratio of fruit to basil is purely up to
your personal preference—you can also separate the fruit and the basil into two different infusions and
combine them later to your liking. Several refreshes of the plant material will be necessary to get the
desired result.

SOLID PERFUMES

Carrier oils or herb-infused oils can be converted into a solid perfume with the addition of beeswax and
essential oils. This is essentially the same as making an herbal salve or balm!

Solid perfumes are more or less the consistency of lip balm and soften when applied to the skin. The
shelf life of a solid perfume depends in part on the type of oil used to make it. In general, when stored in
a cool location, solid perfumes will last for several months to 1 year. You can also extend the shelf life by
minimizing opportunities for microbial contamination of your finished product: dispense solid perfumes
from a tube; use a clean spoon, cotton swab, or other tool to apply solid perfumes; or, at a minimum,
make sure you use freshly washed (and dried!) fingers for application.


Making a Solid Perfume

Beeswax is typically used as the wax component of solid perfumes. Its sweet scent is a welcome
addition; however, be sure to use beeswax that is ethically produced in a manner that supports viable
honeybee populations. For those who prefer a vegan option, carnauba wax, a vegetable wax made from
the Brazilian palm tree (Copernicia cerifera) , and candelilla wax, a vegetable wax made from the Mexican
candelilla shrub (Euphorbia cerifera) , may be used; however, be aware that there may be sustainability
concerns with both, so do your research before buying. Other vegan wax options include soy and
sunflower wax. Note that these waxes have different melting points and consistencies than beeswax, so
recipe proportions may need to be adjusted to obtain the desired consistency.

Solid Perfume Ingredients and Supplies

To make a solid perfume, you’ll need the following ingredients and supplies:

● 1 oz (by weight) fixed oil or herb-infused oil
● ½ oz beeswax
● 1 mL essential oil stock blend
● Saucepan or double boiler
● Grater (unless using pre-grated beeswax or beeswax pastilles)
● Spoon
● Salve tins or jars with lids

Solid Perfume Directions

1. Measure 1 ounce (by weight) of oil and place in a saucepan or a double boiler (or a heat-safe
glass or ceramic bowl or canning jar over a small saucepan of simmering water) over low heat.
2. Grate ½ ounce of beeswax and add to the warmed oil. Continue to heat the mixture (over low
heat), stirring with a clean, dry spoon until the beeswax has melted.
3. Dip a clean, dry spoon into the formula and place it into a refrigerator so the solid perfume will
cool quickly and you can determine if its consistency is what you desire. If the sample is too
soft, add a little more wax to the warm mixture; if the sample is too hard, add a little more of the
infused oil.
4. After the mixture has cooled down significantly, but is not yet solid, add essential oil and stir to
thoroughly combine.
5. While warm, pour individual portions into appropriate containers and allow them to cool,
uncapped, at room temperature.
6. Once cool, put the lids on and label the containers.
7. Store in a cool, dark place.

Tips for Wax Clean Up

Note: To clean wax from equipment, bring a big pot of water to boil on the stove and then turn off the
heat. Carefully immerse the waxy pans and utensils in the hot water and let them sit for a few minutes.
Skim any wax that floats to the surface of the water and discard in the garbage or compost—do not


put down the drain! Using canning tongs, remove the equipment from the hot water and use a cloth or
paper towels to wipe down any wax residue. Once this step is complete, skim off any remaining wax
from the water bath before dumping down the drain. Then, wipe out the large pot to remove any wax
residue. Once the wax residue is manually removed, wash dishes for a thorough final cleaning.

ENFLEURAGE

Enfleurage is a traditional French perfumery
method that uses fresh flowers to create an
aromatic solid fat, sometimes called a
pomade. The resulting fragrant fat can be
used as-is or made into solid perfumes,
body butters, soaps, creams, or massage
oils. This method is well-loved by perfumers,
as it captures the true scent of the flowers
and excels at capturing the top notes of the
fragrant material, which are often lost in oil
infusions (McCoy, 2018).

The Enfleurage Process

Any fresh, sturdy, highly fragrant flower that
keeps its scent for at least a couple of days
can be used for enfleurage, including
hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis), honeysuckle
(Lonicera spp.), jasmine (Jasminum spp.),
rose (Rosa s pp.), lily (Lilium s pp.), peony
(Paeonia s pp.), lilac (Syringa vulgaris) ,
magnolia (Magnolia spp.), daffodil (Narcissus
spp.), and gardenia (Gardenia spp.). Flowers
should be harvested when free of dew and
rain and should be wilted slightly before use.


Enfleurage Ingredients and Supplies

For the enfleurage process, you’ll need the following ingredients and supplies:

● Deodorized coconut shortening, shea butter, or lard (choose a fat that is solid at room
temperature in your climate)
● Fresh, sturdy, fragrant flowers that are accessible for an extended period of time
● Stainless steel or glass container with a lid
● Flexible spatula
● Butter knife
● Tweezers
● Glass jar with a tight-fitting lid for storage

Enfleurage Directions

1. Spread the solid fat on the inside of the bottom of a container to a depth of approximately 0.5
inches (1.3 cm). Alternatively, melt the solid fat over low heat and pour it into the container.
2. If desired, spread additional solid fat onto the lid of the container.
3. Score the solid fat lightly with a butter knife to increase the surface area for the volatile oils in the
flowers to adhere to.
4. Lay freshly wilted flowers on top of the layer of solid fat, pressing them in gently so that they
make contact with the fat, but are not submerged within it.
5. Place container in a dark, cool, dry place.
6. Cover the container lightly to avoid particulates falling into the enfleurage, but do not secure the
lid tightly, as this may invite microbial growth.
7. Check the enfleurage every so often to make sure none of the flowers are molding and that they
are still releasing their fragrance. Remove any rotting or browning material.
8. After 1-2 days (or once the flowers have turned translucent, browned, or are no longer fragrant),
remove all flower material. Tweezers may be necessary to avoid leaving any flower particulates
in the fat, which may invite microbial growth if not removed.
9. Repeat steps 4-8 as many times as you like until your desired level of fragrance is achieved. This
may be anywhere from 6-36 times.
10. When you are happy with the level of fragrance and have removed all flower material, use a
flexible spatula to move the solid fat to a glass jar with a tight-fitting lid.
11. Label, and store in a cool, dark place for up to 1 year.


TINCTURE BASES FOR SPRAY PERFUMES

There are times that you may want to add an ingredient that may not be available as an essential oil,
absolute, CO2 extract, or infused oil to your perfume, and is not suitable for enfleurage. This is not
always a setback! By infusing less common aromatherapy ingredients in alcohol (tincturing), you can add
a subtle level of mystery and complexity to your finished product. Alcohol allows one to capture more
subtle aromas that may be more challenging to achieve in oil. Since alcohol is a clear base it also allows
for a color transfer that may be aesthetically pleasing in the final product. Tincturing for fragrance is a bit
different than making a traditional herbal tincture, and patience is required to achieve an effective,
fragrant tincture.

Some of the motivation for working with fragranced bases in this way is that it allows for less essential oil
to be used in the final product. Covering 1 cup of lavender buds in alcohol, for example, will produce
approximately 4 fl oz of the finished lavender tincture. By comparison, it takes 3 lbs of lavender to
produce only ½ fl oz of essential oil! Thus, using a “layering” approach by incorporating fragrant
tinctures can reduce the amount of essential oils necessary to reach the desired effect. Although
distillation allows for a stronger and more complex range of aromatic constituents to come through,
ethical perfumers are always looking for ways to reduce consumption and avoid placing plants at risk.


Making Tinctures for Perfumes

Effective, aromatic tinctures can be crafted right in the kitchen from plant material that is ethically
wildcrafted, grown in the garden, or purchased, using only a few simple tools. Note that we will be
demonstrating the folk method of tincturing in this lesson, which requires very little measuring and no
weighing. However, if you are aiming to make multiple, consistent batches of a given perfume, you may
want to use the mathematical method of tincturing to achieve consistent results between batches.

Any plant material that has a delightful aroma can be used to make a fragrant tincture. Aromatic plant
material that works well in a tincture perfume base includes vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) pod, linden (Tilia
spp.) flower, mint (Mentha s pp.) leaf, clove (Syzygium aromaticum) bud, scented geranium (Pelargonium
spp.) leaf, and conifer needles, cones, or resin. But you need not limit yourself to traditional plant
material—we’ve included a few ideas for unique tincture projects below.

To make a tincture for a perfume base, you’ll need 190-proof alcohol in order to break down plant resins
and produce a complex finished product. If 190-proof alcohol is not available, you can use 100-proof
vodka and achieve a more mild fragrance base.

Note that we recommend straining your
finished tincture through a fine filter, such
as a coffee filter, in order to remove
sediment that could cloud your final
product. However, some perfumers enjoy
leaving plant sediment in the alcohol as
there is little chance of it molding and it
looks more rustic and natural.

Tincture Supplies

To make an aromatic tincture, you’ll need
the following supplies:

● Sharp knife and cutting board (if
using fresh plant material)
● Wide-mouth glass jars with lids
● Cheesecloth
● Natural waxed paper
● Large glass measuring cup or
bowl with a spout
● Funnel
● Mesh strainer (optional)
● Fine filter, such as a coffee filter
(optional)
● A coffee grinder, blender, or
mortar and pestle (these may
speed the process, but are not
crucial)


Tincture Directions
1. Chop fresh plant material or grind/crush dried material into small pieces to expose the most
surface area for maceration.
2. Place plant material in a clean, wide-mouth glass jar. Fill the jar nearly full with fresh material or
about half full with dried material, which will expand as it absorbs the alcohol.
3. Add enough alcohol to cover the plant material by 1 inch. All plant material should stay below
the surface of the alcohol by at least 1 inch during the entire maceration process. Material above
the surface of the alcohol can oxidize and begin to decompose or mold. (Note that the alcohol
and plant material can be blended together in a blender or food processor to reduce the volume
of the material and then poured into a glass jar. This is just a quick chop, not a puree! Blending
time should be minimized to avoid overheating the plant material.)
4. Place a square piece of natural waxed paper on top of the jar, then seal the jar with a lid (this
protects the tincture from any chemical coating that may be on the lid).
5. Give the jar a shake to ensure that the plant material and alcohol are thoroughly mixed.
6. Label the jar and store in a dark location (such as a cupboard) and visit every few days, giving
the jar a shake. Do be sure to check back the next day to see if the alcohol needs to be topped
off a bit due to the expansion of the plant material.
7. Let macerate (steep) for 1 day to 1 week (fragile plant parts such as flowers and delicate leaves
will be quicker to release their fragrance, while roots and barks will take longer time). Check for
strength by placing some on a scent strip (paper strips specifically made for sampling aromatic
extracts) or your skin. Continue to macerate, if desired, for up to 6 weeks. If after 6 weeks the
scent is not strong enough, strain the liquid and add in more plant material. Repeat this “refresh”
until the tincture reaches the desired strength of scent.
8. Once desired strength is reached, line a wire strainer with a few layers of cheesecloth, or simply
place the cheesecloth within a funnel placed in the mouth of a jar, and decant the mixture.
9. Strain the mixture through the cheesecloth and with clean, dry hands, gather the cloth up and
squeeze strongly, squeezing as much liquid from the plant material as possible.
10. Transfer the liquid into a clean glass jar and let settle overnight in a cool, dark location.
11. Strain the tincture through a finer filter such as a coffee filter.
12. Transfer the tincture into clean, dark-colored glass bottles using a funnel.
13. Label and store in a cool, dark place for up to 3 years.

UNIQUE IDEAS FOR TINCTURE PERFUME BASES

Basmati Rice
Think beyond the spice cabinet in your kitchen for inspiration! Uncooked basmati rice provides a
warm, sweet, and nutty base for a complex perfume.

Acorns and Autumn Leaves
A complex and earthy aroma loved by many, it is often difficult to duplicate using essential oils alone.
Acorns, along with decomposing leaves from various non-poisonous trees, can bring a unique aroma
and autumn energetic to your blend. Several refreshes may be necessary to get the desired result.

Fresh-Cut Grass
A nostalgic smell for many, fresh-cut grass imparts a bright green color and freshness to an
herbaceous perfume. Avoid for individuals who may be allergic to grass, as it may cause a rash when
applied to the skin of these individuals.


ADDITIONAL SUPPLIES

In addition to the supplies needed to make oil- and alcohol-based perfume bases, you may want to have
the following supplies on hand before beginning your perfume-blending journey:

● Scent strips: Scent strips are paper strips specifically made for sampling aromatic
extracts—they can be dipped into a perfume or essential oil blend to test different combinations
and durability. They are available from various sources, but you can make your own by cutting
strips of acid-free watercolor paper that is at least 120-pound weight (McCoy, 2018).
● Glass droppers: Orifice reducers on essential oil bottles are not ideal measurements as they are
often not consistent, and glass droppers are preferable. Be sure to use a new dropper for each
essential oil/absolute so that you do not contaminate your stock bottles.
● A dedicated perfumery notebook: As you experiment with essential oil blends, solubilizers,
and perfume bases, you will want to write down exact ratios and material used so that you can
recreate your masterpieces. If you haven’t already, check out the companion product to the
Natural Perfumery Course—our inspiring, full-color Fragrance Journal contains predesigned
record pages to fill in as you discover and experience each scent!
https://theherbalacademy.com/product/fragrance-journal/
● A protective cover or tray for your work area: Undiluted alcohol, essential oils, and absolutes
can damage surfaces (including your skin!). Use a stainless steel or enamel tray or surface, and
wear protective gloves.


PERFUME RECIPES

D’Herbes Aromatiques

A custom recipe designed for Herbal Academy by Jennifer Allen of Mythique Aromatics.

This perfume starts with a tinctured base of fresh-cut grass and is overlaid with sharp, refreshing
herbaceous and floral notes. You can also make the perfume below without the tinctured grass base
and instead use plain 190-proof alcohol. If you do not have access to 190-proof alcohol, you can use
plain jojoba oil or fractionated coconut oil as a base for your perfume. Note that this recipe uses
pre-diluted tonka bean and violet leaf absolute. Be sure to use furanocoumarin-free (FCF) or
bergapten-free bergamot; if using expressed bergamot, keep exposed skin out of the sun or ultraviolet
(UV) radiation for at least 18 hours after applying to prevent possible serious burns. You will need a
5-mL, dark-colored glass bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients

80 drops tinctured fresh-cut grass or 190-proof alcohol
5 drops tonka bean (Dipteryx odorata) a
bsolute (20% dilution)
4 drops patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) e ssential oil
3 drops lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil
2 drops rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens v ar. roseum) essential oil
2 drops Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) essential oil
1 drop clary sage (Salvia sclarea) essential oil
1 drop marjoram (Origanum majorana) essential oil
1 drop FCF bergamot (Citrus x bergamia) essential oil
1 drop violet leaf (Viola odorata) absolute (10% dilution)

Directions

● Combine alcohol/tincture, absolutes, and essential oils in a 5-mL, dark-colored glass bottle.
Shake gently to combine.
● Cap, label, and allow the perfume to age for a minimum of 1 week. It should deepen in
complexity over time.
● Alternatively, combine essential oils and absolutes in a 5-mL, tightly sealed, dark-colored
glass bottle and allow to age for 1 week or longer. After 1 week, test on a scent strip to
evaluate the synergy, taking notes on your impressions and modifying if necessary. Add
alcohol/tincture to essential oil/absolute blend, and shake gently to combine.
● If there is undesired sediment in the fragrance, filter through a non-bleached coffee filter that
has been spritzed with alcohol.


Heart Wood

A recipe contributed by Roxana Villa of Illuminated Perfume.
When creating botanical perfumes, we have the option to create layers of similar notes
(chords/accords), and then add those into our final orchestration. In some instances, chords can be so
beautiful and complex they can be considered soliflores (single floral scents) in their own right.

This Heart Wood perfume formula can be used as a stand-alone fragrance or a chord to enhance or
replace the wood note in a perfume. Ambrette seeds add a musk note without the need for using
animal ingredients. You will need a 5-mL, dark-colored glass bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients

3.8 mL ambrette (Abelmoschus moschatus) seed tincture or 190-proof alcohol, or a combination
thereof
4 drops Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana) essential oil
4 drops cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) essential oil
4 drops pink peppercorn (Schinus molle) essential oil
3 drops vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) essential oil
3 drops patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) essential oil
3 drops amyris (Amyris balsamifera) essential oil
3 drops palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii) essential oil
2 drops ho wood (Cinnamomum camphora c t. linalool) essential oil
2 drops juniper berry (Juniperus communis) essential oil
Directions

● Combine alcohol/tincture and essential oils in a 5-mL, dark-colored glass bottle. Shake gently
to combine.
● Alternatively, combine essential oils in a 5-mL, tightly sealed, dark-colored glass bottle and
allow to age for 1 week or longer. After 1 week, test on a scent strip to evaluate the synergy,
taking notes on your impressions and modifying if necessary. Add alcohol/tincture to essential
oil blend, and shake gently to combine.


Floral Mist

This is a lovely, floral body or room spray. If essential oils separate out, you may need to tweak the
amount of solubilizer for your blend, depending on the type you use. Be sure to use
furanocoumarin-free (FCF) or bergapten-free bergamot; if using expressed bergamot, keep exposed
skin out of the sun or ultraviolet (UV) radiation for at least 18 hours after applying to prevent possible
serious burns. To make this recipe you’ll need a 100-mL, dark-colored glass bottle with a sprayer top.

Ingredients

27 mL 190-proof alcohol
1 mL solubilizer
3 drops jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum or J. sambac) absolute
2 drops rose otto (Rosa x damascena) essential oil
36 mL jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum or J. sambac) hydrosol
35 mL rose (Rosa s pp.) hydrosol

Directions


● Combine alcohol, solubilizer, and essential oils in a sterilized, 100-mL, dark-colored glass
spray bottle.
● Shake gently to combine.
● Add hydrosols. Shake gently again.
● Label and keep in a cool, dark place for up to 6 months.
● Shake before using.

Orange Blossom Special

This roll-on perfume is a blend of orange and floral fragrances. To make this recipe, you’ll need a
10-mL glass roll-on bottle.

Ingredients

5 mL neroli (Citrus x
aurantium var. amara) flower-infused jojoba oil
4 mL jojoba oil
3 drops sweet orange (Citrus x sinensis) essential oil
2 drops rose (Rosa spp.) absolute
1 drop ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil
1 drop neroli (Citrus x aurantium var. amara) essential oil
1 drop vitamin E oil

Directions

● Combine all ingredients in a 10-mL glass roll-on bottle.
● Shake gently.
● Label and keep in a cool, dark place for up to 1 year.


Fruity Chypre


Chypre, as a fragrance classification, was made popular by Aimé Guerlain’s Jicky in 1889 and in 1917
by François Coty with the release of “Coty’s Chypre.” The French word comes from the Island of
Cyprus in the Mediterranean. At the heart of the Chypre structure is the contrast between the sweet,
fresh notes of an unripe Italian citrus called bergamot and the rich, heavy note of oakmoss. These two
pivotal ingredients are built upon with woody, floral, and animalic notes. Be sure to use
furanocoumarin-free (FCF) or bergapten-free bergamot; if using expressed bergamot, keep exposed
skin out of the sun or ultraviolet (UV) radiation for at least 18 hours after applying to prevent possible
serious burns. Be sure to use an IFRA-compliant oakmoss absolute, as others will need to be used at a
lower dilution. You will need a 5-mL, dark-colored glass bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients

3.8 mL dried fruit (e.g., berries, citrus, lychee) tincture or 190-proof alcohol, or a combination thereof
5 drops labdanum (Cistus ladaniferus) absolute
4 drops oakmoss (Evernia prunastri) absolute, IFRA-compliant



3 drops fresh ginger (Zingiber officinale) essential oil
3 drops Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana) essential oil
2 drops davana (Artemisia pallens) essential oil
1 drop patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) essential oil

Directions

● Combine alcohol/tincture, absolutes, and essential oils in a 5-mL, dark-colored glass bottle.
Shake gently to combine.
● Alternatively, combine essential oils and absolutes in a 5-mL, tightly sealed, dark-colored
alcohol/tincture to essential oil/absolute blend, and shake gently to combine.

Honeysuckle Heaven

Adapted from The Herbal Body Book by Jeanne Rose (Rose, 2000).

This blend starts with a honeysuckle-infused oil base. To make the base oil, follow the directions in the
herb-infused oil tutorial and use any species of honeysuckle that has a pleasant aroma. To make this
recipe, you’ll need a 10-mL glass roll-on bottle.

Ingredients

8 mL honeysuckle (Lonicera s pp.) flower-infused oil
18 drops violet (Viola odorata) absolute
18 drops carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) absolute
7 drops benzoin (Styrax benzoin) tincture
2 drops jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum) absolute

Directions

● Combine all ingredients in a 10-mL glass roll-on bottle.
● Shake gently.


What is Benzoin?

Styrax benzoin is a tree native to the region we now call Indochina. Gum benjamin, loban, kemenyan,
onycha, and Sumatran benzoin tree are among the many common names for this botanical, which has
been treasured by many cultures for thousands of years. Ancient Assyrians recognized useful
properties of S. benzoin at least as early as 700 BCE.

Benzoin resin is secreted from the tree if the trunk is damaged. This resin protects and heals the tree,
and it is believed to have similar protective properties when applied to the skin. Benzoin powder is
used in perfumes as a fixative and benzoin tincture may provide stabilization in liquid perfume (Rose,
1990). Benzoin can also be used as a substitute for vanilla in perfume recipes.

Note: The following recipes are written in “parts” in order to make a stock solution to be used in any final
product as desired. A part can be any measure you choose—a drop, a milliliter, a teaspoon, a
tablespoon, etc. Be sure to follow concentration recommendations discussed above when using these
stock blends in a perfume.


Walk Through a Flower Garden

This blend is especially for those who love floral perfumes. It should be used at a low dilution in the
final product, given its pungent floral aroma and large proportion of essential oils and absolutes with
maximum dermal use level restrictions. Be sure to store in a dark-colored glass bottle.

Ingredients

7 parts Fragonia™ (Agonis fragrans) essential oil
6 parts ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil
6 parts jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum) absolute
3 parts neroli (Citrus x aurantium var. amara) essential oil
2 parts rose otto (Rosa x damascena) essential oil
1 part sandalwood (Santalum spp.) essential oil, sustainably sourced

Directions

● Blend all ingredients in a dark-colored glass bottle with orifice reducer.
● Label and store in a cool, dark place for up to 2 years.


Sugar and Spice

If warm, spicy fragrances are more your style, this may be the blend for you. Be sure to store in a
dark-colored glass bottle.

Ingredients

13 parts Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana) essential oil
10 parts cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) essential oil
5 parts coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum) essential oil
4 parts ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil
4 parts jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum o r J. sambac) absolute
4 parts rose (Rosa centifolia) absolute

Directions


Moss Boss

Adapted from Creative Aromatherapy b y Christine Wildwood (Wildwood, 1993).

This woodland-inspired blend will make you feel like you are forest bathing all day long! Be sure to
store in a dark-colored glass bottle. Note that tree moss absolute, while an important perfumery
ingredient, is highly sensitizing and the maximum dermal use level is 0.1%—pay careful attention to
dilutions when using this stock perfume blend!

Ingredients

5 drops conifer essential oil (e.g., Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) or balsam fir (Abies balsamea))
5 drops clary sage (Salvia sclarea) essential oil
5 drops yarrow (Achillea millefolium) essential oil
5 drops tree moss (Evernia furfuracea) absolute

Directions



A Hint of Rose

If you love the smell of rose and do not have rose otto on hand, this blend will make a reasonable
substitute. It is also less cloying than rose can be. Be sure to use furanocoumarin-free (FCF) or
bergapten-free bergamot; if using expressed bergamot, keep exposed skin out of the sun or ultraviolet
(UV) radiation for at least 18 hours after applying to prevent possible serious burns. Be sure to store in
a dark-colored glass bottle.

Ingredients

7 parts palmarosa (Cymbopogon martini) essential oil
7 parts FCF bergamot (Citrus x bergamia) essential oil
2 parts vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) essential oil
2 parts vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) absolute (or use vanilla-infused jojoba in the final product instead)
2 parts sandalwood (Santalum spp.) essential oil, sustainably sourced
1 part ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil
1 part rose (Rosa x centifolia) absolute (optional)

Directions




CONCLUSION

We have introduced you to some of the basic perfume-making techniques in this lesson, but don’t stop
here! We hope you’ll spend some time in your kitchen getting comfortable with the perfume-making
process and different fragrance blends. Don’t be afraid to experiment! Review the blending notes in the
previous lesson, grab your favorite aromatic plants and essential oils, and before you know it you’ll be
inventing aromatically delightful formulations that are uniquely yours.


DIY Sweet Oranges and Rose Perfume o n the Herbal Academy blog:
https://theherbalacademy.com/diy-sweet-oranges-rose-perfume/
How to Make a Perfumed Locket by Jade Shutes:
https://aromaticstudies.com/how-to-make-a-perfumed-locket/
How to Make Essential Oil Solid Perfume to Warm Your Winter Romance b y Sherilyn Siegmund-Roach
on the Herbal Academy blog: https://theherbalacademy.com/essential-oil-solid-perfume/
Illuminated Perfume: https://illuminatedperfume.com/
Mythique Aromatics: https://www.mythiquearomatics.com/
Usage rate calculator: https://www.eocalc.com/enter-your-own-blend/
Working the Bench by Justine Crane


LESSON 5: PERFUMERY PLANT

MONOGRAPHS

INTRODUCTION

In this lesson, we’ll introduce you to 10 of our favorite plants used in perfumery. These aromatic plants
have long delighted the olfactory sense of our ancestors and continue to be used in perfumes, scented
bath products, and room sprays today.

Each monograph contains information about the plant itself—where and how it grows, what part of the
plant is used in perfumery, and how to harvest for perfume-making endeavors. If you don’t have access
to fresh plants at the time that you are experimenting with perfumery, all of the plants mentioned here
are readily available in dried (sometimes fresh!) form from grocery or herbal stores, farmers markets, and
online retailers. We have also included the types of preparations that work best for each plant, as well as
the preparations that are commercially available. Each monograph contains a description of the plant’s
aroma, whether it is a top, middle, or base note, what other fragrances it combines well with, and the
plant’s energetics (i.e., whether the plant tends to produce a cooling, warming, drying, or moistening
effect on the body). At the end of each monograph, we have included contraindications for each plant
and any safety notes to be aware of. We’ve also included a recipe that showcases each plant.

As you study the properties of individual aromatic plants in this lesson and in your future perfumery
ventures, you may consider compiling your own perfumery materia medica, a collection of information
organized into individual plant monographs. Start a notebook (or computer file) to store all of the
information that you gather about each plant you use in your perfume blends. Use this as an opportunity
to introduce yourself in theory and in person to each plant as you begin your journey with these
beautiful, aromatic herbs!


MONOGRAPHS

Bitter orange – Citrus x aurantium v ar. amara (Rutaceae) – Peel, flower, twig,
leaf

Bitter orange is an evergreen
tree native to Southeast Asia,
although it is widely cultivated
throughout Asia and the
Mediterranean. Three separate
essential oils are produced
from the tree: neroli essential
oil from the flowers, petitgrain
bigarade from the leaves and
twigs, and bitter orange from
the fruit peel. There are three
different neroli essential oils:
neroli Portugal, made from the
blossoms of sweet orange
(Citrus x sinensis), neroli
citronnier, made from lemon
tree (Citrus x limon) blossoms,
and neroli bigarade, made
from bitter orange blossoms.
However, “neroli” as a
stand-alone title almost always
refers to bitter orange blossom essential oil. Image: Citrus x aurantium var. amara

The lovely aromatic influences of other citrus may be considered akin to those described here.
Grapefruit, lime, clementine, yuzu, and many others may pique your interest, so experiment with these
also—each has its unique profile. Citrus peels are an easy herb to access for your homemade
perfumery endeavors. Just save the washed peels from the oranges, tangerines, grapefruit, lemons, or
limes you buy at the grocery store and use them to make an infused oil or tincture for a perfume base.
Simply shave off the white pith on the underside of the peel, lay the peels in a basket or even a plate
to dry, and once dry, store in an airtight jar in a cool, dark place. If you live in a humid environment,
the peels can be placed in a 150 degrees F oven for 45-60 minutes to complete the drying process.
Dried citrus peels can also be purchased. Bitter orange peel is available as an essential oil; neroli and
petitgrain bigarade are available as essential oils and absolutes.

Aroma: Neroli: floral, green, light, sweet; peel: bitter, bright, citrus, fresh, light, woody; petitgrain:
citrus, floral, fresh, herbaceous, sharp, warm, woody

Note: Neroli: top to middle; peel: top; petitgrain: top to middle

Combines well with:
Neroli: champa, citrus, clary sage, geranium, frangipani, jasmine, lavender, palmarosa, petitgrain
bigarade, Roman chamomile, rose, tuberose, ylang ylang;


peel: basil, bergamot, cinnamon, clary sage, frankincense, geranium, grapefruit, juniper, lavender,
other citrus, patchouli, rosewood, vanilla, ylang ylang;
petitgrain: basil, benzoin, bergamot, clary sage, clove, coriander seed, frankincense, geranium,
jasmine, juniper, lavender, lemon, marjoram, palmarosa, patchouli, rose, rosemary, ylang ylang

Energetics: Cooling

Use: Bitter orange peel oil has been called the “oil of tranquility” (Rose & Earle, 1996, p. 88) for its
ability to promote a feeling of wellbeing. The scent of all types of oranges and their blossoms has
been said to be uplifting and even a mild stimulant to the nervous system (Rose, 1990).

Neroli is highly popular as both an essential oil and a hydrosol and is a common ingredient in
homemade body care products. It is said to be calming and stabilizing to the heart and mind (Mojay,
1997); encourages lightness; lifts sorrows; and brings joy, calm, and peace. Petitgrain is also uplifting
and promotes inner vision, strength, and confidence (Worwood, 2006).

Many of the extracts produced from the bitter orange tree are “soothing to the heart rhythms” (Rose &
Earle, 1996, p. 88), and harmonizing and soothing to anxiety. In Ayurveda, they are considered
vata-balancing and may gently encourage sluggish or spastic digestion, much like other carminative
herbs. In a perfume blend, orange may benefit frenetic, frenzied individuals who need a cheery, but
not-too-stimulating, scent that envelops them in a sense of wellbeing.

Although bitter orange can lend a zing to suggestive or aphrodisiac blends, it is also a staple in blends
for the very young and for elders. For the young, it is innocent. For elders, it is cheerful, classic, or
exotic. Citrus is versatile in being neither especially floral or feminine—its versatile presence is not
predetermined. It can be rounded and candylike, or confident and spicy, or complex and aphrodisiac,
depending on how it is blended and worn.

Safety: Bitter orange peel essential oil is phototoxic and may cause skin irritation. To prevent
photosensitivity, use up to the maximum dermal use level of 1.25%. Neroli and petitgrain bigarade
have no known safety hazards or contraindications. Neroli absolute has a maximum dermal use level
of 1.0% (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Fragrant Citrus Bath

Adapted from Kitchen Cosmetics by Jeanne Rose (Rose, 1990).

While not what we typically think of as a perfume, this bath blend does have staying power on the skin
after a bath. And what a luxury! In cases of sensitivity to almonds, use oat flour instead. The almond
meal or oat flour will give a slippery and mildly oily quality, which will moisturize, soothe, and help a bit
of the scent of the bath adhere to your skin. Alternatively, omit the flour and infuse the herbs in almond
oil, jojoba oil, extra-virgin olive oil, or another oil that suits you as an after-bath aromatic moisturizer.

Ingredients

1 part orange (Citrus x sinensis or any orange you eat) peel


1 part orange (Citrus s pp.) flowers (if available)

1 part lemon (Citrus x
limon) peel
1 part comfrey (Symphytum officinale) leaf
1 part chamomile (Matricaria recutita or C hamaemelum nobile) flower
1 part almond flour

Directions

● Mix ingredients together in equal parts and store for later use. Parts can be teaspoons,
tablespoons, cups, etc.
● Be kind to your plumbing and those with whom you share a home by using a muslin pouch,
mesh container, or a clean sock or other section of fabric to enclose the herbs and flour
loosely.
● Tie to the faucet and draw a bath.

Cinnamon – Cinnamomum spp. ( Lauraceae) – Bark, leaf

Two species of cinnamon are
used in perfumery: “true” or
Ceylon cinnamon
(Cinnamomum verum or C.
zeylanicum), an evergreen tree
native to Sri Lanka, and cassia
cinnamon (Cinnamomum
cassia), an evergreen tree native
to southern China. True
cinnamon is light brown, is
softer and easier to grind, is
very expensive, and has a
sweet taste. Cassia cinnamon is
darker with a reddish color, is
much less expensive, and has a
spicier taste. True cinnamon is
often preferred in perfumery for
its softer aroma.
Image: Cinnamomum verum

Both the bark and leaf of cinnamon trees are fragrant, and even the root yields essential oils, although
each part of the tree has a different characteristic scent, and the most valuable essential oil is from the
bark (Aftel, 2001). The primary constituent of cinnamon bark oil is cinnamaldehyde, while the primary
constituent of cinnamon leaf is eugenol (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Although powdered cinnamon bark, usually cassia cinnamon, is readily available in grocery stores, it is
best to use cinnamon “sticks” or “chips” to make cinnamon-infused oil or tincture, simply for ease of
straining. Cinnamon-infused oil or alcohol can be used as a perfume base, and both true and cassia
cinnamon essential oils and absolutes are available.


Aroma: Spicy, sweet, warm

Note: Middle

Combines well with: Bay, benzoin, cardamom, clove, coriander seed, geranium, ginger, grapefruit,
lemon, lime, orange, patchouli, petitgrain, rose, ylang ylang

Energetics: Warming

Use: Ancient Egyptians used cinnamon in mummification and the ancient Greeks and Romans used it
in religious rites, adding cinnamon to ritual fires or burning it as incense (Aftel, 2014). Today,
cinnamon is a much-loved staple in our kitchens and is widely used in baked goods, beverages, and
potpourris. It’s also an important herb in many herbalists’ apothecaries. Its sweet, floral, clove-like,
earthy, and spicy aroma and flavor helps to make herbal formulas more palatable, and it has countless
uses in herbalism—from balancing blood sugar to stimulating digestion.

Cinnamon adds a warming and stimulating middle note to botanical perfumes. Both cinnamon bark
and leaf essential oils can be used in perfumery, but they have strong aromas, hence be used
sparingly. Some perfumers prefer the CO2 extract of cinnamon rather than the essential oil, for its
warmth, softness, and roundness (Aftel, 2014). True cinnamon and cassia cinnamon both have the
familiar cinnamon scent, but cinnamon leaf has a very different, sweet, clove-like aroma.

Cinnamon is no waif in a perfume blend. It is intense in all of its forms. Called powerful, hot, diffusive,
and tenacious, it invigorates and promotes strength, confidence, and motivation (Worwood, 2006). It is
said that the association with foods and potpourri presents a challenge to modern perfumers, who
would probably do best to disguise it a bit, using the slightest amounts among other scents. As one
aromatherapist describes it, “Its top note is very fresh, fruity, and candylike followed at some distance
by a dry, dusty powdering dryout note” (Aftel, 2001, p. 107).

Safety: Cinnamon essential oils may irritate mucous membranes and cause sensitization. They should
not be used while pregnant or nursing nor used on diseased or damaged skin or in children under the
age of 2. Maximum dermal use level for cassia cinnamon is 0.05%, true cinnamon bark is 0.07%, and
true cinnamon leaf is 0.6% (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Cinnamon Spice Solid Perfume

Adapted from Fragrant: The secret life of scent b
y Mandy Aftel (Aftel, 2014).

Don’t be deceived by the name—this delightful perfume will not leave you smelling like granola! You
will need two shallow, flat perfume cases for this recipe—small compacts or pillboxes work well.

Ingredients

16 mL jojoba oil
1 tsp beeswax pastilles
20 drops labdanum (Cistus ladaniferus) absolute


1 drop cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum verum) essential oil

8 drops rose (Rosa spp.) absolute (optional)
20 drops distilled lime (Citrus x aurantifolia) essential oil

Directions

● Place grated beeswax and jojoba in a saucepan or a double boiler (or a heat-safe glass or
ceramic bowl or canning jar over a small saucepan of simmering water) over low heat.
● Continue to heat the mixture (over low heat), stirring with a clean, dry spoon until the beeswax
has melted.
● Dip a clean, dry spoon into the formula and place it into a refrigerator so the perfume base will
cool quickly and you can determine if its consistency is what you desire. If the sample is too
soft, add a little more wax to the warm mixture; if the sample is too hard, add a little more of
the infused oil.
● After the mixture has cooled down significantly, but is not yet solid, add essential oil and stir
to thoroughly combine.
● While warm, pour into shallow, flat perfume cases. Allow them to cool, uncapped, at room
temperature.
● Once cool, put the lids on and label the containers.
● Store in a cool, dark place.


Frankincense – Boswellia s pp. (Burseraceae) – Resin

Of the approximately 25 Boswellia s pecies,
only two species are commonly used in
perfumery, B. sacra (sacred frankincense)
and B. serrata (Indian frankincense).
However, most of the trees in the genus are
aromatic, and all parts of the trees—flowers,
fruit, bark, resin, and wood—have the
resinous scent of frankincense. Several of
these species are used in aromatherapy.

Image: B oswellia sacra. Frankincense tree
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Frankincense_tree.jpg) by B en Norvell
[C C BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0/legalcode)]

The particular component used in perfumery
(and herbalism) is the resin exudate from
Boswellia t rees, which is obtained by cutting
into the bark of the tree. A long downward
cut is made, and at the bottom of the cut, a
5-inch strip of bark is removed. When the
sap becomes exposed to the air, it hardens.
After about 3 months, the resin fully hardens
into yellow “tears” and can be scraped off
for use. Resin that has run down the tree is
also used, however, it is considered to be of
poorer quality. Resin must be collected in
the dry season.

The International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN) has assessed 13 frankincense
species, and nine of these have a status of
“vulnerable” or higher. Sri Lankan B. serrata is critically endangered (near-extinct), and B. sacra is
classified as near threatened (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, 2019). The
method of collecting resin from frankincense trees seriously damages the tree and may prevent the
tree from further growth. Yemen, Oman, and Somalia are the countries in which the tree populations
have been most affected (Ablard, 2019). This tree has also been overharvested by the paper industry,
and frankincense is a rare non-coniferous source of turpentine for paints and varnishes. Therefore, it is
recommended to limit your use of frankincense and use resin to create your own infused oil or tincture
perfume base rather than using the essential oil or absolute. When using essential oil or absolute (or
any form of frankincense), use a sustainable source. Alternatively and more responsibly, use a
frankincense substitute (some recommendations are listed below).
Aroma: Camphorous, dry, resinous, rich, spicy, sweet, warm, woody
Note: Base


Combines well with: Bergamot, black pepper, cinnamon, clary sage, coriander, cypress, geranium,
grapefruit, jasmine, lavender, lemon, neroli, palmarosa, patchouli, pine, rose, vetiver, Virginia
cedarwood, ylang ylang

Energetics: Warming

Use: The historical use of frankincense as incense is far-reaching. It has been used in many religious
rituals, and it was one of the four “sweet scents” used in Biblical Jewish ceremonies and during the
Sabbath day offering. Frankincense was used as an offering in ancient Babylon during the feast of
Marduk or Bel as well as in ancient Persia and Assyria. Traditions such as this continue today in
Western India, and frankincense is still an ingredient in the incense used by Roman Catholic and
Greek Orthodox churches (Worwood, 2006). Ancient Romans did not confine their use of frankincense
to ritual but also used it in the home (Grieve, 1971).

In perfume blends, frankincense (sometimes called olibanum) relaxes yet revitalizes the nervous
system and provides an uplifting base note (Mojay, 1997). It may induce feelings of emotional stability,
introspection, courage, and inspiration (Worwood, 2006). The resin, which is alcohol-soluble, also
serves as a powerful fixative in perfume blends, helping the combination of ingredients stay together
and hold a scent longer. The essential oil and absolute are also used this way. From a sensory
standpoint, frankincense is a standout as a base, with a full and lasting scent, which may round out
the sum of the parts in any blend (Watt & Sellar, 1996).

Frankincense and its sister resin, myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) , provide a unique incense-like quality to
perfumes. Woody, resinous, and potentially smoky scents can stand in for it. Other sources of
aromatic resins and some rarer plant and animal ingredients, as well as cinnamon (Cinnamomum spp.)
and costus (Saussurea costus) root are used similarly to frankincense and myrrh to accomplish this
aromatic type (Watt & Sellar, 1996). Other substitutes include other resinous essential oils,
sandalwood (Santalum s pp.), Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana) , lavender (Lavandula
angustifolia), vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) , helichrysum (Helichrysum italicum), and calamus
(Acorus calamus) . However, sandalwood and calamus populations and other resinous essential oil
plants are also affected by overharvesting. When considering substitutes for a blend, always test
combinations on paper strips first to determine scent compatibility.
Safety: Avoid old or oxidized frankincense essential oils to prevent skin irritation. Store the oil or
resultant product in dark, airtight containers under refrigeration (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Frankincense Oil Perfume

Adapted from Fragrant: The Secret Life of Scent b y Mandy Aftel (Aftel, 2014).

This perfume uses both frankincense essential oil and CO2 extract. Remember that either can be
replaced by a frankincense-infused oil or one of the substitutes mentioned above. You will need a
½-ounce glass roll-on bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients


10 mL fractionated coconut oil
6 drops frankincense (Boswellia s pp.) essential oil, sustainably sourced
6 drops fir (Abies s pp.) essential oil
4 drops lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil
6 drops frankincense (Boswellia s pp.) CO2 extract, sustainably sourced

Directions

● Combine all ingredients in a ½-ounce glass roll-on bottle.
● Shake gently.
● Label and keep in the refrigerator for up to 1 year.

Juniper – Juniperus communis (Cupressaceae) – Berry

Junipers are evergreen shrubs
or small trees that prefer full
sun and well-drained, slightly
acidic soil, although they will
adapt to a variety of conditions
and can even grow in wetlands
and tolerate drought. The best
place to find juniper is in open
areas—fields, ridges, rocky
slopes, cliffs, and balds
(Ladner, n.d.). When
harvesting, collect ripe berries,
which are actually not berries
at all, but small, fleshy cones
that resemble a berry. Berries
take 2-3 years to ripen and are
blue to silvery-purple in color.
Both fresh and dried berries
can be infused in alcohol or oil
for perfume bases, and the
essential oil and absolute are
available commercially. Image: J uniperus communis

There are more than 70 species of juniper—the species most commonly used in perfumery is
Juniperus communis, the same species that is typically used in herbalism for its antimicrobial and
diuretic properties. If you live in the far north or are making perfume during the winter months, and are
feeling discouraged about a dearth of harvestable perfume plants, juniper is your ally. Berries can still
be harvested in the colder months. As always, make sure of your botanical identification and note that
there are poisonous juniper species that should not be used internally or even topically. If you are
uneasy about your botanical identification and the large number of juniper species, remember that it is
also a culinary spice; juniper berries are available at many grocery stores.


Aroma: Fresh, fruity, herbaceous, piney, pungent, sweet, woody

Note: Top to middle

Combines well with: Basil, bay laurel, bergamot, cardamom, cedarwood, chamomile, clary sage,
cypress, fennel, frankincense, geranium, grapefruit, labdanum, lavender, lemon, mandarin, marjoram,
peppermint, pine, plai, rose, rosemary, tulsi, vetiver, Virginia cedarwood

Energetics: Warming and drying

Use: Juniper berry has been used since ancient times for spiritual and physical purification. In Tibet,
there is a tradition of burning bunches of juniper during rooftop prayers every morning to “force the
sky door open” and allow for communication with the heavens (Worwood, 2006). In unrelated
traditions across the world (e.g., Tibetan, Chinese, European, and Native American), juniper has a
history of use “against bad magic, plague, and various negative influences” (Moore, 1989, p. 65). In
herbal folklore, it is not unusual for plants that are described as being used against “negative
influences” to have some sort of antimicrobial property, and this is also true for juniper. Juniper
essential oil has been found to have antibacterial properties (Maurya et al., 2018), and, during the 19th
century, juniper berries were burned in French hospitals to combat the spread of smallpox (Mojay,
1997).

As an aromatic ingredient in skincare products and perfumes, juniper berry offers a warming, drying,
and stimulating action. It can be incorporated into invigorating perfume blends to add a lively top to
middle note, added to skincare products to ease excessively oily skin, or made into a
congestion-easing balm (Mojay, 1997).

Aromatherapist Gabriel Mojay writes that juniper’s fragrance can “break through psychological
stagnation and consolidate will-power” and is therapeutic for individuals who are “deeply absorbed in
their own thoughts—thoughts which revolve around worries, pressures, and unpleasant memories.”
He goes on to say that juniper “… helps to purge us of the worry and self-absorption that is rooted in
a fear of failure. Restoring our determination to overcome life’s obstacles, it replaces stasis and
isolation with movement and openness” (1997, p. 87).

Safety: Skin sensitization can occur when using oxidized juniper essential oil. Old or oxidized essential
oil should be avoided (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Juniper Joy Perfume

Adapted from Personalized Perfumes by Gail Duff (Duff, 1994).

This blend can be made with a variety of base oils (e.g., apricot, sweet almond, or jojoba) and can also
be adapted into a solid perfume or other perfume or body care product. Juniper adds a dry spiciness
to the juicier, sweeter notes of mandarin and carnation in this recipe, and clary sage encourages joy
(Duff, 1994). You will need a 1-ounce glass roll-on bottle for this recipe.


Ingredients

1.5 tbsp (0.75 fl oz) base oil
12 drops mandarin (Citrus x reticulata) essential oil
9 drops juniper (Juniperus communis) essential oil
6 drops carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) absolute

Directions

● Combine all ingredients in a ½-ounce glass roll-on bottle.
● Shake gently.
● Label and keep in the refrigerator for up to 1 year.

Lavender – Lavandula angustifolia ( Lamiaceae) – Flowering tops

Lavender is a short perennial
shrub with tall spikes of small,
fragrant, blue-to-violet flowers.
It is native to the Mediterranean
region, southern Europe, and
parts of northern Africa,
northeast India, and Southeast
Asia. There are four widely
used lavenders: Lavandula
latifolia, a Mediterranean
lavender; Lavandula
angustifolia, commonly known
as English lavender and the
most frequently used in
perfumery and aromatherapy;
Lavandula stoechas,
sometimes known as French
lavender; and Lavandula x
intermedia ( lavandin), which is a Image: Lavandula angustifolia
sterile cross between L. latifolia and L. angustifolia. Lavandula angustifolia has the calming lavender
qualities we know and love, while the other lavenders are used in aromatherapy for a variety of other
purposes. The spectrum of fragrances from these different lavender species provides the perfumer a
diverse palette of fragrance from which to choose. All in all, there are over 30 species and many
hybrids and cultivars (Koulivand et al., 2013). If you are excited to experience the many types of
lavender, you might find a local lavender garden or labyrinth to explore!

Harvest lavender flowers and flower buds on a completely dry day and dry the material as soon as
possible after harvesting to decrease the likelihood of molding. When drying, do not expose to
heat—you’ll want the plant to retain its volatile oils and lovely scent! Fresh or dried lavender flowers
and flower buds can be used to create an infused oil or tincture for a perfume base. Lavender


essential oil and absolute are also available. You may even experiment with a bit of lavender-infused
glycerin for an alternative type of application.

Aroma: Floral, fresh, herbaceous, pungent, soft, spicy, sweet, woodsy

Note: Top to middle

Combines well with: Bergamot, black pepper, cedarwood, clary sage, coriander seed, cypress,
geranium, grapefruit, jasmine, juniper, labdanum, lemon, marjoram, palmarosa, patchouli, peppermint,
pine, ravensara, rosemary, vanilla, vetiver

Energetics: Cooling and drying

Use: The name lavender comes from the Latin word lavare, “to wash,” originating from the Romans
who used lavender to scent their baths. Lavender has long been used for cleansing purposes, being
strewn about households to ward off plague and tucked into cupboards and drawers to repel insects
(McIntyre, 1996).

Although lavender is commonly added to topical herbal preparations for its scent alone, lavender
offers many actions that benefit the skin. Due to its antibacterial and analgesic properties, lavender is
useful for disinfecting cuts, wounds, and sores while it soothes pain and aids healing. Its circulatory
stimulating effect also helps to encourage healthy blood flow to the site of an injury and thus
encourages resolution (Foster, 1993; McIntyre, 1996). Lavender also soothes the itch and pain of
insect bites. When used to soothe burns, lavender reduces the severity and scarring of the burned
skin and speeds healing (Berger, 1998).

When added to a footbath, lavender can ease stiff and tired feet, and the aroma can relax someone
clenched and exhausted with stress. Lavender seems to wash the emotional grime and tension from
the day, leaving us refreshed for what follows (Rose, 2000). It encourages clarity, comfort, vitality, and
emotional balance in a perfume blend (Worwood, 2006). The sweet spirit of lavender uplifts and
balances emotions, eases mild depression, and restores strength and vitality. It’s like a mother’s hand
on your back, gentle and loving yet strong and supportive. As such, it can also be an ally during
grieving (Rose, 2000).

Lavender absolute and lavender oil are two products worth distinguishing. Lavender absolute, from
the flowers and stalks, is dark green and has a slight herbaceous scent that is also woodsy, spicy, and
pungent. Consider lavender absolute as a scent in its own right, since it has a very different fragrance
profile than lavender blossom oils or other products made from flowers alone. L avender essential oil is
a more pungent, but less complex, blend of scents, and is extracted from the flowering tops alone. It
is more potently characteristic of lavender, but one perfumer calls it thin and astringent in comparison
to the blend of flowers and stems. Thus, the absolute is considered a fuller middle note than the
essential oil (Aftel, 2001).

Safety: Most sources report no contraindications for lavender essential oil. However, there are some
instances when a lavender ingredient may have had an undesired effect in a limited number of cases.
Gynecomastia (enlargement of breast tissue in males) was reported in three adolescent boys, each
exposed to a perfume called “agua de violetas.” The cologne was determined by liquid
chromatography, mass spectrometry, and organoleptic testing (sense of smell) to contain lavender.
The lavender ingredient was considered a potential estrogenic in these three prepubescent boys (Diaz
et al., 2016). Although this evidence came from only one case study, and Robert Tisserand (2013) has


argued against this claim, following these reports, some parents have decided to avoid excessive
lavender use during pregnancy and childhood. Additionally, lavender essential oil showed a weak
estrogenic action in isolated breast cancer (MCF-7) cells, but no estrogenic activity was found in an
animal model (Politano et al., 2013).

Some fairly large dermatology studies have tested the degree to which lavender oil causes dermatitis.
Small percentages (0.9%-2.0%) of dermatitis patients reacted poorly to lavender. There are a few
reports of aestheticians and hairdressers who have frequently handled lavender products developing
sensitivity to lavender oil (Tisserand & Young, 2014), and lavender sensitivity reports are on the
increase.

Maximum dermal use level for lavender absolute is 0.01%. There is no restriction on the essential oil
(Tisserand & Young, 2014).
Flower and Spice Perfume

Adapted from Homemade Perfume b y Anya McCoy (McCoy, 2018).

A little bit floral, a little bit spicy, this well-balanced blend is delightfully aromatic and can be
personalized by your choice of hydrosol. If essential oils separate out, you may need to add an
additional solubilizer to your blend. You will need a 2-ounce, dark-colored glass spray bottle for this
recipe.

Ingredients

45 mL distilled water, patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) hydrosol, or lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)
hydrosol
1 mL rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens var. roseum) essential oil
1 mL coriander seed (Coriandrum sativum) essential oil
1 mL lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) essential oil
Solubilizer, as needed, to dissolve essential oils

Directions

● Combine alcohol, solubilizer, and essential oils in a sanitized, 2-ounce, dark-colored glass
spray bottle.
● Add hydrosols. Shake gently again.


Peppermint – Mentha x piperita (Lamiaceae) – Leaf

Peppermint is an herbaceous
plant native to Eurasia. There
are approximately 20 true mint
species and hundreds of
hybrids (Foster, 1993).
Peppermint is a vigorous
perennial that will spread
rampantly by runners,
particularly when planted in
moist, humus-rich areas, so
take care where you plant it in
your garden! It even grows
well in a pot and can be kept
on hand year-round.
Image: M entha x p
iperita. Photo
by Forest and Kim Starr
https://www.flickr.com/photos
/starr-environmental/ [CC BY 2.0
license (https://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.0/legalcode)]

Peppermint is a hybrid between spearmint (Mentha spicata) and watermint (M. aquatica) . The leaves
are dark green and very smooth in contrast to other garden mints, and the stems are dark purple. The
strongest-scented of the mints, peppermint’s essential oil contains up to 48% menthol and up to 30%
menthone, with other aromatic constituents in supporting roles (Rose & Earle, 1996). Although
peppermint is the most popular, multiple mint species can be used in perfumery.
Harvest mint leaves by pinching off the topmost part of the plant before it is in flower. Leaves can also
be picked individually, as needed, directly from the plant. Both fresh and dried mint leaves can be
used in tincture or oil perfume bases, and the essential oil and absolute is available commercially.

Aroma: Clean, cool, fresh, herbal, minty, pungent, sweet, zesty

Note: Top

Combines well with: Basil, benzoin, bergamot, black pepper, cypress, geranium, grapefruit, juniper,
lavender, lemon, marjoram, pine, ravensara, rose, rosemary

Energetics: Cooling and drying

Use: Mint is named after Minthe, a beautiful river nymph of Greek mythology with whom Hades fell in
love. When Persephone (Hades’ wife) found out about his infatuation with Minthe, she turned Minthe
into a plant so that people would trample her. Although Hades was unable to undo the spell, he was
able to gift Minthe with a wonderful aroma, so that he could smell her fragrance when anyone would
tread on her.


Peppermint and other assorted mints are known for their zesty, fresh, herbal, clean scents (McCoy,
2018) and have a long history of use. Traditionally considered a visionary herb, peppermint was
thought to uplift the spirit and even bring dreams of prophecy (Mojay, 1997). 17th-century botanist
John Gerard wrote that “the smelle (sic) rejoiceth the heart of a man” (Grieve, 1971). The Ancient
Egyptians used mint as a ritual perfume, and it was an ingredient in the incense kyphi offered to the
sun god, Ra.

Just as peppermint gives a lively accent to tea blends, it offers excellent support when someone
needs a boost of physical and mental energy. It encourages vibrancy and concentration (Worwood,
2006), and it may ease nervousness, fatigue, nausea, vertigo, anger, confusion, mild depression, and
mental strain. Statements about plants affecting mood and cognitive function are often left to be
borne out by individual experience, yet aromatherapeutic applications using mints have been studied
to test mint's influence on memory, proficiency, and alertness, and even athletic performance, with
favorable results (Kennedy et al., 2018; Meamarbashi & Rajabi, 2013; Rose & Earle, 1996). And
although traditionally peppermint’s antiemetic properties have been delivered via tea, a clinical trial on
individuals who experienced nausea after a cesarean section revealed the effectiveness of merely
inhaling the aroma of peppermint (Lane et al., 2012).

Perfumer Mandy Aftel writes, “I like to use a hint of mint to bring focus to a floral or a soft resin
fragrance. It is also useful for punctuating green, earthy blends of oakmoss or woods, or to bring a
fresh greenness to floral blends” (Aftel, 2014, p. 117).

Safety: Peppermint or spearmint essential oil may cause mucous membrane irritation. Peppermint
should be avoided in children under the age of 3 to prevent respiratory distress. Topical use in
children ages 3-6 should be limited to 0.5%. The adult maximum recommended dermal use level is
5.4%. Peppermint is contraindicated for cardiac fibrillation or G6PD deficiency (Tisserand & Young,
2014). Using mint oil at night, inhaled or applied topically, may promote insomnia by way of being
stimulating to the mind, skin, and nerves. Additionally, mints are contraindicated with homeopathic
preparations (Rose & Earle, 1996).

Mint and Vetiver Liquid Perfume

Adapted from Fragrant: The Secret Life of Scent b y Mandy Aftel (Aftel, 2014).

Grounding vetiver and uplifting mint create a well-balanced perfume for everyday use. If essential oils
separate out, you may need to add an additional solubilizer to your blend. Be sure to use
furanocoumarin-free (FCF) or bergapten-free bergamot or keep exposed skin out of the sun or
ultraviolet (UV) radiation for at least 18 hours after applying if using expressed bergamot to prevent
possible severe burns. You will need a ½ -ounce, dark-colored glass spray bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients

6 drops vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides) essential oil
4 drops benzoin (Styrax benzoin) absolute



6 drops ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) essential oil
4 drops spearmint (Mentha spicata) essential oil
2 drops black pepper (Piper nigrum) essential oil

Directions

● Combine ingredients in a ½-ounce, dark-colored glass spray bottle.

Pine – Pinus spp. ( Pinaceae) – Needle, resin

Pines are evergreen conifer
trees, all of which have fragrant
needles and resin. The most
commonly used pine in
perfumery is Scots pine (Pinus
sylvestris), also known as
Scotch pine, which is native to
Europe and parts of Asia and is
often used as a Christmas tree
fragrance (University of
Connecticut Plant Database,
n.d.).

Image: P
inus sylvestris

Needles and resin of any pine
species local to your
geographical area can be
harvested year-round and infused in oil or alcohol to make a base for perfumes. Other conifers, such
as spruce (Picea spp.), fir (Abies s pp.), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and hemlock (Tsuga s pp.)
can also be used this way. Each evergreen’s needles and resin will have a different scent, some more
“piney” and some (like some spruce and fir) more “musky.” Ultimately you may find that you prefer the
odor of a particular tree or downright dislike the smell of another! Essential oil and absolute of Scots
pine leaf are available commercially.

While pine resin has properties and aromas that are beneficial to us humans, its primary purpose is
maintaining the health of the tree. Trees produce resin as a protective agent both to seal physical
wounds to create a barrier to bacterial or fungal infections, or invasion by insects. Resin produced in
the tree’s cells are directed through ducts toward an injury and can flush and seal the wound, trap
invaders, and act as an antimicrobial to eradicate them (Meyer, n.d.; Trapp & Croteau, 2001). As such,


it’s important to be conscientious when harvesting resin in order not to interfere with the tree’s efforts
to maintain its health. Always collect resin that has dripped onto the bark below a wound, as this is
genuinely excess resin. Warmer weather months mean the resin will be softer and easier to harvest,
although sometimes the hardened chunks can be popped off the tree somewhat easily in colder
weather. Resin can be gathered with a dedicated butter knife and glass jar—be aware that it will stick
to everything once harvested!
Aroma: Coniferous, crisp, dry, fresh, pungent, resinous, strong, woody

Note: Middle

Combines well with: Bergamot, clary sage, frankincense, grapefruit, juniper, lavender, lemon,
marjoram, peppermint, ravensara, rose, rosemary

Energetics: Warming

Use: The aroma of pine has a traditional spiritual use for grieving the loss of a loved one, and as an
incense to clear a house of spirits (Moermann, 1998). In Poland and the Czech Republic, pine resin
was traditionally burned through the long nights of winter to drive away ill-intentioned spirits
(Worwood, 2006). Pine and other evergreens have long been cherished at this time of year as a natural
symbol of life amid the winter whiteness. Because of this, Northern traditions the world over have
brought evergreens indoors as a promise that the earth would once again turn green, and pine often
shows up in winter-themed perfumes.

Pine and other evergreens add a delightful woodsy aroma to perfume blends. On an emotional level,
pine can be incorporated into perfumes to encourage humility, perseverance, mindfulness, trust, and
tenacity (Worwood, 2006).

But pine adds more than a woodland aroma and emotional quality to perfumes—when included in
topical preparations such as liniments and balms, pine can ease muscle soreness, painful joints, and
arthritis, and encourage circulation (Wood, 2009). Pine twigs even have a history of being added to the
bath for rheumatic pain as well as nervous exhaustion (Mojay, 1997). Pine’s pungent aroma is also
appropriate for cold, congested conditions due to the stimulating effects of its volatile oils, which help
to open and move stuck energy or matter. According to Chinese medicine, it is considered one of the
best essential oils to clear cold phlegm from the body (Mojay, 1997). As a nervine, it is calming and
grounding, helping to quiet the mind while offering a sense of connectedness and rootedness to
something bigger. Pine has a benevolent elder presence, tapped into ancient wisdom and readily
offering care and support. Sitting in the presence of a pine tree instills one with a deep sense of
peace.

Safety: Pine essential oil can cause skin irritation on sensitive skin (Worwood, 2006), usually when the
oil has oxidized. Old or oxidized pine oils should be avoided. Additionally, there is a history of
adulteration of pine essential oil with turpentine (Tisserand & Young, 2014).


Evergreen Infused Oil

Evergreen needles lend their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties to this woodsy infused oil
perfume base. Any evergreen will do, including the annual Christmas tree, but do avoid yew (T axus
spp.) as they are toxic. Spruce, pine, hemlock, and fir are all lovely options, with white fir (A bies
concolor) being a particular favorite.

Ingredients

Pine (Pinus spp.), fir (Abies s pp.), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) , hemlock (Tsuga spp.), or spruce
(Picea spp.) needles (fresh)
Fixed oil (e.g., fractionated coconut oil, jojoba oil, grapeseed oil)
Vitamin E oil (optional)

Directions

● Grind evergreen needles in a mortar and pestle or break them up in your clean hands to
produce smaller pieces.
● Fill a sanitized, dry glass jar half full with evergreen needles.
● Pour oil over plant material in the jar, nearly to the top, making sure plant material is
completely covered and oil is at least 1 inch above the top of the plant material. Use a clean,
dry spoon or chopstick to mix thoroughly so that all plant surfaces are coated and no air
bubbles remain.
● Place a square piece of natural waxed paper on top of the jar, then seal the jar with a lid (this
protects the herbal oil from any chemical coating that may be on the lid).
● Roll the jar back and forth in your hands to continue to thoroughly mix the plant material and
oil.
● Place the jar in a dark, warm spot, but not directly in the sunlight unless you are using a
dark-colored glass bottle or jar or have placed the jar in a brown paper bag. Let sit for 4-6
weeks. Every 1-3 days, roll the jar in your hands to help mix the contents.
● Decant the oil after 4-6 weeks. Place a cheesecloth-lined strainer inside a large bowl with a
spout. Pour the contents from the jar into the strainer. With clean, dry hands, gather the ends
of the cheesecloth together and squeeze the remaining oil from the plant material into the
bowl. You’ll want to squeeze hard to get every last drop!
● Repeat steps 1 through 7 one or more additional times until the oil is saturated with fragrance
to your liking.
● After the last decanting, pour the oil into a clean, dry glass jar, cap, and let it settle overnight
or for a few days.
● Strain the oil again, being careful to avoid pouring out any of the remaining particulates that
have settled to the bottom of the jar.
● Pour the oil into a clean and dry glass bottle or jar (ideally, use dark-colored glass to protect
from light) and add a couple of drops of vitamin E oil, if desired, to slow down the oxidation of
the oil. Cap tightly.
● Label the bottle or jar and store in a cool, dark place. Shelf life will depend on the carrier oil
used.


Rose – Rosa spp. (Rosaceae) – Petal

A deciduous climbing or
shrub-like perennial, usually
with thorned stems, rose
produces decadent flowers in a
range of colors and aromas.
The genus Rosa boasts over
100 species and more than
18,000 cultivars (Boskabady et
al., 2011).
Image: R
osa damascena
When harvesting your own rose

petals for perfumery, choose
any rose that smells good to
you. Using only organic
fair-trade roses is crucial
because standard commercial
roses are notorious for chemical
contamination and exploitative trade practices.
Harvest roses on a dry morning when they are at their most fragrant, just after blooming. Some people
choose to remove the stamens before infusing in oil or alcohol for a perfume base. Roses can also be
used for enfleurage, and rose essential oil and absolute are available commercially. Rose essential oil
(commonly referred to as rose otto) is produced from the Damask rose (Rosa x damascena) . Rose
absolute may be extracted from several different rose species, including Damask rose.
Aroma: Deep, floral, fresh, rich, sweet

Note: Middle to base

Combines well with: Bergamot, champa, citrus, clary sage, clove bud, frangipani, geranium, jasmine,
mint, neroli, niaouli, palmarosa, petitgrain bigarade, sandalwood, Scotch pine, tuberose, ylang ylang

Energetics: Cooling

Use: A longtime symbol of love and beauty, early use of rose likely began primarily as an aromatic
strewing herb, flavoring for wine, bath herb, and as aesthetic decoration. Maude Grieve (1971) reports
that the idea to distill the essence of rose originated at the wedding of Persian Princess Nour-Djihan to
the Emperor Djihanguyr in 1582, although some report that rose was being distilled long before this.
The newlyweds were rowing in a rosewater-filled canal created especially for the wedding feast when
the couple observed the heat from the sun had separated the essential oil of rose onto the water’s
surface. Soon after, distilleries in Persia began producing and exporting the exquisite “Otto of Roses”
as a perfume.


The 11th-century physician Avicenna wrote that “Because of its exquisite fragrance, the rose
addresses the soul … it has a calming effect and is highly beneficial for fainting and for rapid
heartbeats.” He also praised rose for its ability to enhance comprehension, strengthen memory,
sharpen the senses, and increase the life force (Ibn Sinna, 2003, as cited in Hüsnü Can Baser et al.,
2012).

In Ayurveda, rose is considered balancing to all doshas and especially helpful for cooling high pitta
dosha. It is said to open the heart chakra and encourage feelings of patience, compassion, and love
(Pole, 2012).

Meditating on the rose, we can see its inviting petals and thorny boundaries—a soft but resilient heart
that is open yet protected. Roses are often used to promote healthy spiritual and emotional
boundaries and protection. While using rose in this way, it can be helpful to visualize the strong,
thorny branches of a wild rose protecting the boundaries of our energetic heart.

Safety: Maximum dermal use level for rose otto essential oil is 0.6%, and Rosa x centifolia absolute is
2.5% (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Rose Bouquet Splash


Splash on a bit of rose with this lovely floral blend! You will need a 1-oz, dark-colored glass bottle for
this recipe.

Optional: Potentize your rose tincture by adding a small rose quartz crystal during maceration.

Ingredients

20 mL rose (Rosa s pp.) petal or hip tincture or 190-proof alcohol, or a combination thereof
6 drops petitgrain bigarade (Citrus x aurantium v ar. amara) essential oil
4 drops benzoin (Styrax benzoin) absolute
2 drops sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) essential oil, sustainably sourced
2 drops styrax (Liquidambar styraciflua) essential oil
2 drops Peru balsam (Myroxylon balsamum v ar. pereirae) essential oil
1 drop lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) essential oil

Directions

● Combine alcohol/tincture, absolutes, and essential oils in a 1-ounce, dark-colored glass
bottle. Shake gently to combine.


● Cap, label, and allow the splash to age for a minimum of 1 week. It should deepen in
● Alternatively, combine essential oils and absolutes in a 1-ounce, tightly sealed, dark-colored
alcohol/tincture to essential oil blend, and shake gently to combine.

Rosemary – Rosmarinus officinalis (Lamiaceae) – Aerial parts

Rosemary is a warm-climate
perennial shrub with both erect
and creeping, prostrate
cultivars. The needle-like, dark
green, leathery leaves are
glossy on the top and covered
with grayish-white downy hairs
on the underside. Small blue,
pink, or white flowers bloom
from May to July in warm
climates, and later, or not at
all, in colder climates.

Image: R
osmarinus officinalis

Rosemary prefers sandy,
well-drained soil and copious
amounts of sunshine. In
regions with sub-freezing
winter temperatures, rosemary
does not overwinter
successfully, so it can be potted and brought inside until spring comes—just be sure to set your
rosemary plant in a sunny window and don’t overwater. Those in warmer climates get to enjoy
rosemary plants and hedges outdoors year-round.

Both fresh and dried aerial parts can be used in perfume tincture or oil bases, and the essential oil and
absolute is available commercially. There are several different chemotypes of rosemary essential oil.
The cineole chemotype is most common and will usually be the type if none is specified.

Aroma: Camphorous, fresh, herbaceous, pine-like, strong, woody

Note: Top to middle


Combines well with: Basil, bergamot, black pepper, cedarwood, clary sage, frankincense, geranium,
grapefruit, juniper, lavender, lemon, marjoram, palmarosa, peppermint, pine, ravensara, Virginia
cedarwood

Energetics: Warming and drying

Use: The volatile oils in rosemary are antimicrobial and diaphoretic, making rosemary a key ally for
colds, sore throats, the flu, and coughs—whether inhaled or used internally in teas or tinctures.
Historically, rosemary was used “to dispel the foul air of disease and death” in homes, hospitals, and
streets (McIntyre, 1996).

Rosemary has long been associated with improvements in memory as well as sentimental
remembrance, with sprigs worn by mourners or tossed onto caskets of the deceased. In ancient
Egypt, sprigs were placed in tombs to help the dead remember their former lives (Mojay, 1997).
Indeed, several studies on rosemary’s ability to enhance memory have confirmed what herbalists have
always known, and research at Northumbria University showed that smelling the scent of rosemary for
a period of time improved memory as well as performance in mathematics (Moss & Oliver, 2012).

Rosemary essential oil adds an invigorating, uplifting, slightly woody aroma to perfumes and topical
products. In liniments, oils, and balms, its rubefacient action stimulates blood flow, while its analgesic
action eases tense muscles, inflamed rheumatic joints, sciatica, neuralgia, sores, eczema, bruises,
wounds, and sprains (Edwards, 2000; Foster, 1993; Hoffmann, 2003; Lust, 1974). Rosemary oil has
also been inhaled to ease headaches (Rose, 1990) and may be most helpful for sinus
headaches—some chemotypes are high in cineole or camphor and very clearing to the sinuses. Those
less high in camphor have a softer aroma and are preferable for perfume making (McCoy, 2018).

In addition to its many beloved herbal uses, the characteristic of rosemary scent can be homey and
traditional or scintillating and spicy. Perfumers know it as a possible substitute for lavender both in its
position as a top to middle note in blends and in its influence on the mood and senses. A bit less
rosemary essential oil should be used than that of lavender to avoid an overpowering scent that could
be associated with savory food!

Safety: Do not apply rosemary essential oil on or near the face of infants or children. The different
rosemary chemotypes have different dermal use level recommendations. Rosmarinus officinalis ct.
cineole has widespread use and is easy to safely incorporate in blends for adults (Tisserand & Young,
2014).

Zesty Herbal Perfume Spray

Adapted from Organic Perfume by Karina Wilde (Wilde, 2016).

This room or body spray is a breath of herb-filled fresh air! You will need a 2-ounce, dark-colored glass
spray bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients


2 tbsp (1 fl oz) 190-proof alcohol

2 tbsp (1 fl oz) jojoba oil
3 drops rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis ct. cineole) essential oil
3 drops tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) essential oil
3 drops German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) essential oil

Directions

● Combine ingredients in a sanitized, 2-ounce, dark-colored glass spray bottle.
● Label and store in a cool, dark place for up to 1 year.

Vanilla – Vanilla planifolia ( Orchidaceae) – Seed pod

Vanilla is a climbing tropical orchid vine with
pale, yellow-green flowers that lack the
characteristic vanilla scent. Upon
pollination, the flower’s ovaries develop
fruits—hanging pods—which grow between
6 and 10 inches long (Missouri Botanical
Garden, n.d.). The pods, which resemble
thin runner beans, each contain thousands
of minute black seeds.

Image: V anilla planifolia. Photo by Forest and Kim
Starr https://www.flickr.com/photos/starr-
environmental/ [ CC BY 2.0 license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
2.0/legalcode)]

Vanilla has been coveted and beloved by
both indigenous populations and visiting
explorers. The road to vanilla’s
domestication wasn’t an easy one!
Spaniards in Mexico, for instance, had not
predicted the need for the tiny endemic
melipona bee, also called mountain bee, or
abeja de monte, to bring the flower to
fruition via pollination. Vanilla vines could be
propagated via cuttings, but lay sterile for
hundreds of years, flowers blooming futilely
for only one day of the year.

These days, vanilla beans and products are
quite expensive due to the labor required to
grow the orchid and harvest and process
the seed pods and seeds. While vanilla does


grow wild in tropical forests, mostly in Mexico or Madagascar and nearby islands, cultivation for
commercial purposes requires partial clearing of forested land (or planting support trees in plantation
growing), propagation by stem cutting and pruning, and hand-harvesting of pods (Worwood, 2016).

Once harvested, the scentless pods must be fermented and cured to increase the levels of vanillin and
other constituents that provide vanilla’s aroma and flavor. Curing requires several steps. The first step
is killing (or wilting), in which pods are briefly immersed in hot water. Sweating the pods is next, where
damp pods are gently steamed in blanket-lined boxes. It is at this stage that the aroma first becomes
apparent. The third stage of curing is sun-drying, in which beans are laid on blankets directly in the
sun, and then returned to sweating. The quality of vanilla pod depends on the number of times these
steps are alternated. Next, the pods are slow-dried on racks at about 95 degrees F (35 degrees C),
where they take on the appearance seen in the marketplace, developing a deep brown-black color
and heavy longitudinal wrinkles. Finally, vanilla pods are conditioned by storing in a wax paper-lined
box for at least 2 months (Medina et al., 2009).

There is no true vanilla essential oil, although similar vanilla products are sold alongside essential oils.
Vanilla oils sold as essential oils are technically either absolutes or CO2 extracts made from vanilla
oleoresins (Tisserand & Young, 2014). Infused oils are available, although less potent than absolutes
or CO2 extracts, and you can easily make your own by infusing vanilla pods in your choice of fixed oil.
Handmade (or store-bought) alcohol-based vanilla extracts can also be useful in creating perfumes.

Aroma: Soft, spicy, sweet, warm

Note: Base

Combines well with: Champa, citrus, frangipani, geranium, jasmine, lavender, neroli, rose, tuberose,
ylang ylang

Energetics: Warming

Use: When researchers conducting psychological and medical research need an odor universally
regarded as pleasant, vanilla has long been a standard (Fox, n.d.). Vanilla has been called comforting,
calming, aphrodisiac, and exciting in a softly tantalizing way. Aromatherapists, as well as some
researchers, suggest that some of the pleasure we experience from the scent of vanilla is from
associating it with home and homemade sweets. Some go so far as to suggest an overlap between
the light, warm, sweet taste of vanilla and mother’s milk (Aftel, 2001; Rose 2000)!

Aromatherapists may turn to vanilla to support those with stress-induced conditions, nervous anxiety,
insomnia, restlessness, nervous digestion, and a general inability to relax (Worwood, 2016). On the
other hand, Eclectic physicians Harvey Wickes Felter and Uri Lloyd describe vanilla as exhilarating to
the brain (Felter & Lloyd, 1898), and it is said to have a particular aphrodisiac potential to lull men into
a state of comfort, relaxation, and curiosity (Aftel, 2001; Rose 2000).

Bourbon vanilla, also called French vanilla, is from Madagascar. Sweet, with wood, tobacco, and
balsamic notes, it is the richest in scent and considered the choicest type of vanilla (Aftel, 2001).
Mexican vanilla has less depth, but perhaps more pungency, and is preferred by some (Agarwal,
2011). Other types include Indonesian vanilla, which can be full-bodied but lacks the consistency of
the aforementioned types; Tahitian vanilla, which contains less vanillin than the Madagascar or
Mexican types; and West Indian vanilla, which is lowest in vanillin. Vanilla’s scent is generally rich and
tenacious in a variety of preparations, however, so you need not limit yourself to a single product


(Agarwal, 2011). In all forms, vanilla generally persists as a familiar and smooth base onto which
less-permanent scents dance in and out.

Safety: Individuals who are sensitive to Peru balsam (Myroxylon balsamum) may also be sensitive to
vanilla (Tisserand & Young, 2014).

Vanilla Base Liquid Perfume

Adapted from Homemade Perfume b y Anya McCoy (McCoy, 2018).

Vanilla grounds this refreshing perfume blend with a top note of grapefruit and harmonizing jasmine.
This recipe makes a small batch; you may be tempted to double or triple it, but a little of this perfume
goes a long way! If essential oils separate out, you may need to add an additional solubilizer to your
blend. You will need a 5-mL, dark-colored glass spray bottle for this recipe.

Ingredients

4 drops grapefruit (Citrus x paradisi) essential oil
6 drops vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) absolute or CO2 extract
1 drop Sambac jasmine (Jasminum sambac) absolute

Directions

● Combine ingredients in a 5-mL, dark-colored glass spray bottle.
● Label and store in a cool, dark place for up to 1 year.




Visit the course to download the Perfumery Plants worksheet as a PDF.


CONCLUSION

The fact that these 10 botanicals are among the most-loved worldwide is no coincidence—from culinary
use to skincare and perfumery, these are some of the botanicals that people choose time and again for
their herbal utility and redolent aromas. You may be familiar with some or all of these, and yet there is
still much you can discover by getting hands-on with them, recording your observations of how they
make you feel, noting which resonate with you, and tinkering with blends that showcase them in ways
that appeal to you. Perfumery is yet another way to deepen your understanding of these plants and
enlist their unique characteristics for support and enjoyment.

Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit b y Gabriel Mojay
Aromatherapy for the Soul b y Valerie Ann Worwood
Essence and Alchemy: A Book of Perfume by Mandy Aftel
Essential Oil Safety, 2nd ed. B y Robert Tisserand & Rodney Young
Herbal Body Book b y Jeanne Rose
Homemade Perfume b y Anya McCoy
The Aromatherapy Book by Jeanne Rose
The Complete Book of Essential Oils and Aromatherapy by Valerian Ann Wormwood
The World of Aromatherapy e dited by Jeanne Rose & Susan Earle


LESSON 6: BOTANICAL PERFUMES IN

EVERYDAY RITUAL

INTRODUCTION

In this lesson, we will explore how to incorporate botanical perfumes into daily life through the practice
of ritual. As we will see, ritual is not necessarily a spiritual practice, nor does it have to be complicated or
elaborate. Rituals are a way of working with intention, and they can be crafted or altered to fit your own
desires. Here we will discover some everyday rituals to help you make the most of your aromatic
creations and enjoy them in uplifting, mindful ways.

EVERYDAY RITUALS
What is a Ritual?

The word “ritual” can mean different things to different people. It often conjures up images of religious
ceremonies, such as lighting candles or burning incense within a church setting. However, we have all
likely participated in secular rituals, perhaps without thinking of them in those terms. Consider a


graduation ceremony: participants walk in a procession dressed in ritual robes, traditional words are
intoned, and diplomas are ceremonially accepted before an audience.
Although rituals often accompany major rites of passage like weddings or funerals, another meaning of
the word simply refers to habitual or customary practices. Author Arin Murphy-Hiscock offers a lovely
definition of ritual as “an intuitive ceremony or something set apart from everyday action by mindfulness
and conscious intent” (2018, p. 13). Ritual can be as subtle as a simple act of daily self-care practiced
with intention. Being present in the moment and remaining mindful during ordinary activities are ways of
evoking ritual in everyday life (Murphy-Hiscock, 2018).
Participating in ritual encourages us to slow down in the midst of our busy schedules, providing an
occasion to reflect and rejuvenate. It gives us the chance to infuse our actions with intention and
meaning, so that we move through life with a sense of purpose, even while immersed in commonplace
tasks. As an author and natural wellness advocate Shiva Rose explains:

“It is the difference between rushing through a shower or bath and consciously connecting with your
body; between hastily splashing on body oil and taking the time to indulge your senses and anoint
yourself; between speeding through your bedtime routine and savoring it with gratitude” (2018, p.
12).

Why Use Plants in Ritual?

By bringing mindfulness into our lives, ritual also affords us the opportunity to cultivate a more
intentional relationship with plants. It is a means of honoring the botanicals we use in herbal preparations
through our appreciation and conscious awareness of the gifts they bring. As some herbal practitioners
believe, it is the depth of our relationships with plants that counts the most in any wellness journey.
Others may find mindfulness brings them closer to the deity, energy, or vital force they believe created
the plants.
Herbalist Thea Summer Deer (2011) points out that consistency is key to reaping the rewards—whether
physical, emotional, or spiritual—of being in relationship with plants. As she explains, “The commitment
is made in the present moment, one moment at a time, and that commitment becomes a constant flow
of energy and intimacy that deepens as you progress” (Deer, 2011, p. 2). Developing everyday rituals
with plants helps us maintain our commitment to botanical relationships as part of our daily lives. Just as
a regular yoga practice or meditative prayer can be deeply satisfying on many levels, we can also
experience a sense of richness, depth, and nourishment when mindfully connecting with plants on a
regular basis.


Why Use Fragrance in Ritual?

Fragrance possesses the power to shift perception and is capable of triggering profound emotional
responses. This has been understood since ancient times by many different cultures who have used
fragrance in various forms of ritual, such as for divine offerings or purification (Hume, 2007). In the
modern world, the impact of scent on the psyche has been studied for its use in psychotherapy to
trigger memories and evoke strong emotions (La Torre, 2003). Fragrance is also researched for
marketing purposes; the impact of ambient scent in a retail store, for instance, has been shown to affect
consumer behavior and alter perceptions of time duration spent within a retail setting (Morrin et al.,
2011).
By using botanical perfumes in ritual, we can harness the potency of scents and their powerful impacts
upon the psyche. Different aromas provoke varying responses. One scent may be wonderful for a
bedtime ritual to help us shed the stresses of the day, while another may lift our spirits, fostering cheer
and mental clarity during the dark days of winter. No matter the purpose, incorporating scent helps us
mark the occasion as a ritual—that is, as a mindful practice done with awareness and intention.


INCORPORATING BOTANICAL PERFUMES INTO RITUAL
Getting a Sense of the Scents

One of the best ways to get started using
botanical perfumes in ritual is to open
your senses and explore how particular
scents make you feel on an intuitive level.
You may already be familiar with the
common responses to particular aromas
(e.g., that lavender (Lavandula
angustifolia) is often used for relaxation
and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) for
stimulation). Nevertheless, it is a good
practice to maintain a “beginner’s mind”
when working with perfumes—attempt to
forget about what you already know or
have heard about a scent and take the
time to really tune in to your own feelings
surrounding each fragrance.
Ask yourself how each scent affects your

mood, and also what kinds of memories,
thoughts, or emotions it brings up for
you. Compare and contrast how different
aromas that are used for similar
purposes affect you personally. For
instance, do you feel more energized by
the fragrance of peppermint (Mentha x
piperita) or lemon (Citrus x
limon)? As
you experiment with new botanicals and
blends, keep a fragrance journal and
record the feelings that each scent
evokes within you. This will allow greater
ease in matching fragrances to various
intentions and rituals (Eason, 2004).


Visit the course to download the Fragrance Journal Pages as a PDF.

Formulating Intentions
As you become familiar with your own responses to various fragrances, you can start to develop
perfumes for specific ritual purposes. In fact, the creation process can be a ritual unto itself when you
take a moment to mindfully infuse a perfume with your intentions. Simply holding the bottle and inhaling
the aroma while visualizing what you intend for that perfume can be a powerful practice (Cunningham,
1989; Kynes, 2013). Because scent carries a strong association with memory, the fragrance becomes a
way to instantly connect back to your original intention each time you use the perfume, anchoring that
intention into your daily life (Miller & Miller, 1990).
For example, fragrance blends can be crafted with the express intention of evoking certain states of
mind or mood. This might take the form of a courage blend to wear during a job interview or onstage
performance. Pine (Pinus spp.), Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana) , and lavender (Lavandula
angustifolia) combine well together for this purpose. Or, you may craft a delightful heart-opening blend
with rose (Rosa s pp.) and ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) to diffuse into the air while bonding with your


partner. Some practitioners like to choose a signature stone, crystal, or plant to add to all of their ritual
perfumes as a way of personalizing the blends (Murphy-Hiscock, 2018).
Ritual perfumes can also be created to encourage deeper states of meditation or to honor a higher
power or deity. Natural perfume makes a lovely home or church altar offering by simply placing a few
drops into a vessel like a seashell or porcelain bowl (Kynes, 2013).
Another idea is to develop perfumes to mark and honor the passing of the seasons. This can be done by
crafting a blend for each of the four seasons, choosing plants that have some connection with the time
of year. You might choose pine (Pinus s pp.) for its associations with winter, for instance, or craft a blend
from your favorite scent(s) of the season, such as lilac (Syringa s pp.) for spring (Rose, 2018). Once
developed, these seasonal blends can be
used for any number of personal rituals:
as a spray to cleanse or bless your home
at the beginning of each season or simply
as a perfume to dab on daily throughout
the season with the intention of staying in
tune with natural cycles.
Sensual Self-Care
One of the wonderful things about
botanical perfumes is that they help us
indulge our senses and connect with our
bodies. Self-care is an area of life that
many folks find difficult to squeeze into
busy calendars, and we may feel so
pressed for time that we treat it like a
chore. Perfumes engage our senses,
supporting a subtle yet palpable shift to a
more relaxed and open state. With this
shift in perception, we are better able to
let go of racing thoughts and harried
feelings, transforming self-care chores
into rituals of self-love (Rose, 2018).
Getting started can be as easy as

incorporating fragrances into an existing
self-care ritual, like anointing oneself with
perfume before prayer, meditation, dance,
or yoga. Anointing, meaning to sanctify or
set apart for sacred purposes, is an
ancient practice used within various
traditions to this day (Young, 2017). However, “to set apart” does not require isolation, but can be
understood as a means of honoring within the context of everyday life (Murphy-Hiscock, 2018).
Anointing is traditionally done with oil, but you can use any botanical perfume that is safe to apply to the
skin. It is customary to dab the top of your head and pulse points: neck, wrists, ankles, and behind the
knees. This simple act sets the tone of ritual for your self-care practice, helping to ground you into a
state of mindful embodiment (Young, 2017).


Ritual baths are a lovely place to incorporate botanical perfumes, as they can activate intentions for
purification, relaxation, and opening the intuition (Cunningham, 2002; Eason, 2004). Light some candles,
turn on soft music, and add a few drops of perfume to the bathwater, making sure the blend you choose
is safe for contact with the body. Instead of reading, watching a screen, or doing anything else that
stimulates the mind, let yourself truly relax, softening your gaze and allowing thoughts to dissolve. When
you leave the bath, you can set an intention, either silently or aloud, that all stress and sorrow flow out
through the drain, leaving behind only peace and harmony (Eason, 2004).
Another wonderful self-care ritual is facial steaming, which brings circulation to the skin and opens the
pores. This practice also allows for some quiet, meditative time, which can be greatly enhanced by the
addition of botanical aromas to the water. Start by washing your face and heating a few cups of water
on the stove. When the water boils, remove the pot from heat and add a few drops of perfume; begin
with a small amount at first, as a little goes a long way. Set the pot on a table, protecting the surface
from heat, and bring your face into the steam just to where it is a comfortable temperature, covering
your head with a towel to create a tent. Be sure to close your eyes to protect them from the hot steam
and possible irritation from the constituents in the perfume!
You can sit for 10-20 minutes or more in

relaxation, enjoying the sensation of
warmth on your skin. If the heat is too
much, open up the towel to let in some
fresh air or wait a few minutes for the
water to cool down. You may want to set
positive intentions for health and
wellbeing as you sit, or simply relax and
meditate on the aroma, consciously
connecting with the plants used in your
perfume. When you are done, splash your
face with cool water and follow up with a
moisturizer if desired.
Bedtime rituals are a great way to wind

down at the end of the day and mindfully
transition into a state of relaxation. A few
moments tending to ourselves in a
bedtime ritual, especially with the use of
soothing aromas, can have a palpable
effect on our ability to unwind. Crafting an
herbal sleep pillow is an easy way to
incorporate scent into a bedtime ritual.
Simply fill a small pouch or handmade
pillow with dried herbs such as lavender
(Lavandula angustifolia) or mugwort
(Artemisia vulgaris), mixing a few drops of
perfume into the herbs. Place it under
your pillow or into your pillowcase before
bedtime to foster restful sleep and
pleasant dreams, refreshing the perfume
periodically as needed (Eason, 2004;
Murphy-Hiscock, 2018).


Hearth and Home

Much more than simply a roof over our heads, our home represents a collection of many vital aspects of
life. It provides us with shelter, warmth, and safety; it is a sanctuary where we share treasured moments
with our family, where we cook nourishing meals, where we feel comfortable enough to do creative work
and relax. As author Arin Murphy-Hiscock suggests, “A house is a neutral structure, and a home is a
living, thriving place that is created by the actions and intentions of the people who live within that
house” (2018, p. 19). Our home environment has a significant impact on how we feel from day to day,
influencing our sense of wellbeing in body, mind, and spirit. In a sense, our home can be understood as
a reflection of ourselves; how we choose to treat our living space can provide some insight into how we
perceive and care for ourselves (Murphy-Hiscock, 2018).
The term “hearthcraft” refers to a spiritual tradition rooted in the concept that the home is a sacred
space and that everyday home life can become a spiritual practice simply through conscious awareness
of domestic tasks. Botanical perfumes enhance this process, lifting routine chores to the level of
intentional rituals. A focal point for many hearthcraft rituals is keeping the energy of the home clear and
flowing to support and nurture the people who live there (Murphy-Hiscock, 2018). This can be as simple
as incorporating perfumes into household cleaning products with the intention for purification or
diffusing perfumes into a room as you clear clutter in a ritual release of outdated or stagnant energies
(Kynes, 2013).
You can take this a step further and

perform more specific rituals for the
home; common themes include
purification and cleansing, protection,
fostering love, and attracting good fortune
(Eason, 2004; Murphy-Hiscock, 2018).
One ritual for protecting the home and
promoting domestic happiness involves
anointing the entry points to the home
with perfume. This can be done by
applying a few drops of the aroma of your
choice onto thresholds, doorknobs, and
windowsills (Eason, 2004). Some prefer to
use a tealight candle diffuser for this
purpose, allowing the scent to permeate
each room before moving the diffuser to
the next room.
As you bring the perfume into each room

of your home, you may be inspired to
speak words of blessing and protection,
or you can simply hold the intention that
only harmony and love enter the home.
You can also use perfume to clear the
room of discordant energy following
moments of family tension, or simply as
periodic maintenance to the overall
positivity of the household. Choose
scents that feel uplifting and harmonizing,
catering to the needs of the moment, and


remain mindful of your positive intentions for the home during the ritual (Eason, 2004).
When moving into a new home, it is a nice practice to clear the energy of previous inhabitants and bless
the role your new residence will play in the lives of you and your family. One method is to walk from
room to room with a bottle of perfume crafted for the purpose. Place a drop of perfume in each corner of
every room as you say a few simple words of blessing appropriate to the room’s function; for example,
when anointing the kitchen, you might say, “May the food prepared in this room always nourish those
who eat here” (Young, 2017, p. 296). Similarly, you can intend that love always resides in the bedroom,
and that it be a place where the day ends gently and rest comes easily (Young, 2017).
CONCLUSION
As we’ve seen, there are myriad ways to incorporate botanical perfumes into ritual. Hopefully, this lesson
has inspired you with some ideas to get started; it is likely that once you begin to work with perfumes in
this way, more ideas will come to you. From the simple to the elaborate, from the secular to the spiritual,
rituals can be created and honed to serve your own desires. The thread that runs through all ritual is
intention; whether that intention is simply to be mindful during house chores or bathing rituals or to walk
a particular spiritual path is up to you. In any case, perfumes can uplift the senses and help us slip more
easily into a mindful state of awareness, adding richness and sensual joy to our lives, one drop at a time.

Aromatherapy for Healing the Spirit b y Gabriel Mojay
Aromatherapy for the Soul b y Valerie Ann Worwood
Listening to Scent by Jennifer Peace Rhind
The Healing Art of Essential Oils: A Guide to 50 Oils for Remedy, Ritual, and Everyday Use by Kac Young
Whole Beauty: Daily Rituals and Natural Recipes for Lifelong Beauty and Wellness by Shiva Rose


LESSON 7: COURSE CONCLUSION

Congratulations—you have just finished the Natural Perfumery Course! We hope that after working your
way through these six lessons, you are feeling confident about using plants to create safe, appealing,
and personally meaningful aromatic blends.
You have been on quite a fragrant journey! You have visited ancient cultures and dived deep into the
science of scent. You have seen that fragrance has the power to invoke the sacred, balance emotions,
and allow you to travel through time. You have discovered a handful of ways to turn your favorite
fragrant plants into oil-based, solid, and liquid perfumes for your olfactory enjoyment. And you’ve met 10
of our favorite aromatic plant friends that you can start experimenting with right away—we hope this will
be the start of a lasting friendship and that you will get to know many more aromatic plants along the
way!

You’ve taken in quite a bit of information on plants, physiology, and perfume-making. Don’t be afraid to
kick back, relax, and dream up all the ways that you are going to incorporate this new and exciting
knowledge into your life. As you digest this new information, spend some time in your kitchen getting
comfortable with the perfume-making process; from there, the possibilities are endless! Give yourself a
chance to play with different ingredients, and before you know it you’ll be inventing formulations that are
uniquely yours and, we’re sure, aromatically delightful.


If you’re still mulling over the information you’ve gleaned from this course and are not sure where to
start, here are a few ideas:

● Choose the recipe that appeals to you the most in this course and start there. Purchase the
ingredients you need and make some for yourself, your family members, and your friends!
● Begin your perfumery materia medica by checking out a few of the recommended resources in
Lesson 5 from your local library and compiling information about the plants discussed in this
course or new fragrant plants that are calling to you.
● Purchase or make your own scent strips and start combining aromatic ingredients that you
already have on hand to start getting a feel for formula proportions and top, middle, and base
notes. Once you’ve exhausted your collection, experiment with one new essential oil, infused oil,
tincture, CO2 extract, or absolute at a time until you have a feel for how it combines with your
on-hand ingredients.
● Create four perfumes—one for each season of the year. Gather inspiration from the plants that
are available in your area during that season!
● Use your own inner landscape as a creative jumping-off point for the formulation process. Using
personal story as a catalyst can help you to think in a deeper way about how you might
conceptualize and formulate a perfume. What are some of your family or cultural traditions? How
might you capture the aromas of those traditions?
● Think about one of your favorite places. What are the perfume notes of that place? How many of
those can be found in an essential oil, absolute, or CO2 extract, and how many could you
extract using an infused oil or tincture?
● As you walk through the world and experience compelling aromas, ask yourself what does it
smell like? What does a cobblestone walkway after a rainstorm smell like? What botanical
extracts could be combined to capture the fragrance in perfume?


Most importantly, as you experiment with new botanicals and blends, start a fragrance journal to keep
track of your forays into the alluring world of botanical perfumery. Head over to the Goods Shop and
check out our beautiful and easy-to-use journal set. Our Fragrance Journal companion to the Natural
Perfumery Course comes with a set of 100 tester strips to conveniently sample your scents on a neutral
surface. In addition to space for recording your fragrance impressions and blending notes, the notebook
includes useful charts and tables from the course:
https://theherbalacademy.com/product/fragrance-journal/.


Remember that perfuming is an art form.
Composed in a similar fashion to music,
each botanical “note” is layered to create
a synergistic composition in which one
note does not overpower another, but
adds to the whole. This, like herbalism,
requires an intimate knowledge of plants
and how they synergize with each other
in order to create well-composed blends.
It also involves a willingness and ability
to trust intuition, imagination, and the
wisdom that is within you, as well as a
curiosity to research and learn new
information about the botanicals you’d
like to work with.

We hope this course has delivered
inspiration for your aromatic
endeavors—whether you plan to make
perfumes as gifts for family and friends,
incorporate personalized perfume blends
into your current herbal practice, or
simply acquire more aromatic plant
knowledge.
If you are curious to learn more about

herbs and how they can support you,
you may be interested in our other
Herbal Academy courses, such as the
Introductory Herbal Course, the
Intermediate Herbal Course, or the
Botanical Skin Care Course. You can
learn about all of our courses here: theherbalacademy.com/courses-classes/.

Thank you for joining us for the Natural Perfumery Course—we wish you all the best in your future
botanical and aromatic adventures!


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LESSON 3:

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Aromatics International (2019b).Vanilla oleoresin. Retrieved from https://www.aromatics.com/products/vanilla-oleoresin

Aromaweb. (2019). Jasmine hydrosol. Retrieved from: https://www.aromaweb.com/hydrosols/jasmine-hydrosol.asp

Baron, R.A. (1988). Perfume as a tactic of impression management in social and organizational settings. In S. Van Toller & G.H.
Dodd (Eds.), Perfumery, The psychology and biology of fragrance (pp. 91-106). New York, NY:Chapman and Hall.

Battaglia, S. (2018). The complete guide to aromatherapy (3rd ed.). Vol 1: Foundations and materia medica. Brisbane, Australia:
Black Pepper Creative.

Battaglia, S. (2019). Aromatree: A holistic guide to understanding and using aromatherapy. Brisbane, Australia:Black Pepper
Creative.

Catty, S. (2001). Hydrosols: The next aromatherapy. Rochester, VT:Healing Arts Press.

Eden Botanicals. (n.d.). Natural perfumery basics. Retrieved from https://www.edenbotanicals.com/natural-perfumery-basics.html

Hellivan, PJ. (2012). The expanding supercritical fluid CO2 extract universe. Perfumer & Flavorist, 37, 26-34.

Holmes, P. (2019). Aromatica: A clinical guide to essential oil therapeutics: Vol. 2: Applications and profiles. London, UK:Singing
Dragon.

International Union for Conservation of Nature. (n.d.). The IUCN red list of threatened species. Retrieved from
https://www.iucnredlist.org/

McCoy, A. (2018). Homemade perfume. Salem, MA: Page Street Publishing Co.

Moore, G. (2017). Effective use of alcohol for aromatic blending. Retrieved from
https://tisserandinstitute.org/effective-use-alcohol-aromatic-blending/

Rhind, J.P. (2014a). Fragrance and wellbeing. London, UK:Singing Dragon.

Rhind, J.P. (2014b). Listening to scent. London, UK:Singing Dragon.

Sade, D. (2017). The aromatherapy beauty guide: Using the science of carrier & essential oils to create natural personal care
products. T oronto, Canada: Robert Rose.

Shaath, N.A. (2017). Healing nations: The search for therapeutic essential oils and nutrients. Petaluma, CA: Cameron & Company.

Tisserand, R. (n.d.). Shelf-life tables. Tisserand Institute.

Tisserand, R. (2013). Lemon on the rocks: Keep your essential oils cool. Retrieved from
https://roberttisserand.com/2013/07/lemon-on-the-rockskeep-your-essential-oils-cool/

Tisserand, R., & Young, R. (2014). Essential oil safety (2nd ed.). London, UK: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.

LESSON 4:



Rose, J. (1990). Jeanne Rose’s kitchen cosmetics. Berkely, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Rose, J. (2000). Herbal body book. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Wildwood, C. (1993). Creative aromatherapy. San Francisco, CA: HarperCollins.

LESSON 5:

Ablard, K. (2019). Essential and carrier oil-bearing plants: Conservation consciousness. Retrieved from
https://unitedplantsavers.org/essential-and-carrier-oil-bearing-plants-conservation-consciousness/
terling Publishing Company.

Agarwal, B. (2011). Healing spices. New York, NY: S
Aftel, M. (2001). Essence and alchemy: a book of perfume. New York, NY: North Point Press.
Aftel, M. (2014). Fragrant: The secret life of scent. New York, NY: Riverhead Books.
Boskabady, M.H., Shafei, M.N., Saberi, Z., & Amini, S. (2011). Pharmacological effects of Rosa Damascena. Iranian Journal of
Basic Medical Sciences, 14( 4), 295-307. http://doi.org/10.22038/IJBMS.2011.5018
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. (2019). Trade in Boswellia spp. (Burseraceae). Retrieved from
https://www.fws.gov/international/cites/cop18/pdfs/cop18-frankincense.pdf
Diaz, A., Luque, L., Badar, Z., Kornic, S., & Danon, M. (2016). Prepubertal gynecomastia and chronic lavender exposure: Report of
three cases. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, 29(1) , 103-107. http://doi.org/10.1515/jpem-2015-0248
Duff, G. (1994). Personalized perfumes. N

ew York, NY: Breslich & Foss.
Edwards, G.F. (2000). Opening our wild hearts to the healing herbs. Woodstock, NY: Ash Tree Publishing.
Felter, J.W., & Lloyd, J.U. (1898). King's American dispensatory. Cincinnati, OH: Ohio Valley Co.
Foster, S. (1993). Herbal renaissance. Layton, UT: Peregrine Smith Books.
Fox, K. (n.d.). The smell report: An overview of facts and findings. Social Issues Research Centre. Retrieved from
http://www.sirc.org/publik/smell.pdf
Grieve, M. (1971). A modern herbal. New York, NY: Dover Publications.
Hoffmann, D. (2003). Medical herbalism. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.
Hüsnü Can Baser, K., Altintas, A., & Kürkçüoglu, M. (2012). Turkish rose: A review of the history, ethnobotany, and modern uses of
rose petals, rose oil, rose water, and other rose products. Herbal Gram, 96, 40-53.
Kennedy, D., Okello, E., Chazot, P., Howes, M.J., Ohiomokhare, S., Jackson, P. … Wightman, E. (2018). Volatile terpenes and brain
function: Investigation of the cognitive and mood effects of Mentha × Piperita L. essential oil with in vitro properties relevant to
central nervous system function. Nutrients, 10(8), 1029. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10081029
Koulivand, P. H., Khaleghi G.M., & Gorji, A. (2013). Lavender and the nervous system. Evidence-Based Complementary and
Alternative Medicine : eCAM, 2013, 681304. http://doi.org/10.1155/2013/681304
Ladner, J. (n.d.). Juniperus communis L. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000461.htm

Lane, B., Cannella, K., Bowen, C., Copelan, D., Nteff, G., Barnes, K. ... Lawson, J. (2012). Examination of the effectiveness of
peppermint aromatherapy on nausea in women post C-section. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 30( 2), 90-104.
http://doi.org/10.1177/0898010111423419

Lust, J. (1974). The herb book. New York, NY: Bantam Books.
Maurya, A., Devi, R., Kumar, A., Koundal, R., Thakur, S., Sharma, A. … Agnihotri, V. (2018). Chemical composition, cytotoxic and
antibacterial activities of essential oils of cultivated clones of Juniperus communis and wild juniperus species. Chemistry &
Biodiversity, 15. http://doi.org/10.1002/cbdv.201800183.



McIntyre, A. (1996). Flower power. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.

Meamarbashi, A., & Rajabi, A. (2013). The effects of peppermint on exercise performance. Journal of the International Society of
Sports Nutrition, 10, 15. http://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-10-15
Medina, J.C., Jiménes, G.C.R., García, H.S., Zarrabal, T.L.R., Alvarado, M.A.G., & Olvera, V.J.R. (2009). Vanilla: Post-harvest
operations. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/inpho/docs/Post_Harvest_Compendium_-_Vanilla.pdf
Meyer, E. (n.d.). Softwood anatomy. Retrieved from http://www.wood-database.com/wood-articles/softwood-anatomy/

Missouri Botanical Garden. (n.d.). Vanilla planifolia. Retrieved from
http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?taxonid=283438

Moermann, D. (1998). Native American ethnobotany. Portland, OR: Timber Press.

Mojay, G. (1997). Aromatherapy for healing the spirit. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.

Moore, M. (1989). Medicinal plants of the desert and canyon west. Santa Fe, NM: Museum of New Mexico Press.

Moss, M., & Oliver, L. (2012). Plasma 1,8-cineole correlates with cognitive performance following exposure to rosemary essential
oil aroma. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, 2( 3), 103-113. http://doi.org/10.1177/2045125312436573

Pole, S. (2012). Ayurvedic medicine: The principles of traditional practice. Philadelphia, PA: Singing Dragon Press.

Politano, V., McGinty, D., Lewis, E., Hoberman, A., Christian, M., Diener, R., & Api, A.M. (2013). Uterotrophic assay of
percutaneous lavender oil in immature female rats. International Journal of Toxicology. 32.
http://doi.org/10.1177/1091581812472209

Rose, J. (1990). Kitchen cosmetics. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Rose, J. (1992). The aromatherapy book: Applications and inhalations. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Rose, J. (2000). Herbal body book. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Rose, J., & Earle, S. (eds). (1996). The world of aromatherapy. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Tisserand, R. (2013). Lavender oil is not estrogenic. Retrieved from
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Tisserand, R., & Young, R. (2014). Essential oil safety: A guide for health care professionals. N ew York, NY: Churchill Livingstone.

Trapp, S., & Croteau, R. (2001). Defensive resin biosynthesis in conifers. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular
Biology, 52, 689-724. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.52.1.689
University of Connecticut Plant Database. (n.d.). Pinus sylvestris. Retrieved from

http://www.hort.uconn.edu/plants/detail.php?pid=333

Watt, M., & Sellar, W. (1996). Frankincense & myrrh. Saffron Walden, EN: C.W. Daniel Co, Ltd.

Wilde, K. (2016). Organic perfume: Your guide to making simple and easy homemade organic perfume. Scotts Valley, CA:
CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Wood, M. (2009). The earthwise herbal: A complete guide to new world medicinal plants. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books.

Worwood, V.A. (2006). Aromatherapy for the soul. Novato, CA: New World Library.

Worwood, V.A. (2016). The complete book of essential oils and aromatherapy. Novato, CA: New World Library.


LESSON 6:

Cunningham, S. (1989). Magical aromatherapy: The power of scent. S
t. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.
Cunningham, S. (2002). The complete book of incense, oils and brews. S

t. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications.
Deer, T.S. (2011). Wisdom of the plant devas: Herbal medicine for a new earth. R
ochester, VT: Bear & Company.
Eason, C. (2004). Fragrant magic: Modern spells and rituals to evoke the protective powers of perfume magic. B
erkshire, UK:
Quantum.
Hume, L. (2007). Portals: Opening doorways to other realities through the senses. New York, NY: Berg.
Kynes, S. (2013). Mixing essential oils for magic: Aromatic alchemy for personal blends. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn Publications.
La Torre, M.A. (2003). A

romatherapy and the use of scents in psychotherapy. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 39(1), 35-37.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6163.2003.tb00672.x
Miller, R., & Miller, I. (1990). The magical and ritual use of perfumes. Rochester, VT: Bear & Company.
Morrin, M., Chebat, J., & Gelinas, C. (2011). The impact of scent and music on consumer perceptions of time duration. In A.
Krishna (Ed.), Sensory marketing: Research on the sensuality of products (pp. 123-134). New York, NY: Routledge.
Murphy-Hiscock, A. (2018). The house witch: Your complete guide to creating a magical space with rituals and spells for hearth and
home. Avon, MA: Adams Media.
Rose, S. (2018). Whole beauty: Daily rituals and natural recipes for lifelong beauty and wellness. N
ew York, NY: Artisan.
Young, K. (2017). The healing art of essential oils: A guide to 50 oils for remedy, ritual, and everyday use. W
oodbury, MN: Llewellyn
Publications.


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LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE

Incense: The First Perfume

Early Western Perfume

Queen of Hungary Water

LESSON 2: THE SCIENCE OF SCENT

Image: Head olfactory nerve by Patrick J. Lynch

How Chemoreception Works

SMELL AND MEMORY IN THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

AROMATHERAPY AND OTHER BODY SYSTEMS

LESSON 3: THE COMPOSITION OF

Join Jennifer Allen of Mythique Aromatics for an Exploration

If one combines only top notes, the aroma will

ESSENTIAL OILS COMMONLY USED IN PERFUMERY

GENERAL ESSENTIAL OIL SAFETY GUIDELINES

% of Alcohol Required in Formula = 100 x (20 ÷ 40) = 50%

Agarwood (​Aquilaria rostrata)​ Vetiver (​Chrysopogon zizanioides​)

Frankincense (​Boswellia sacra​) Boswellia carterii

Palo santo (​Bursera graveolens​) Virginia cedarwood (​Juniperus virginiana)

Sandalwood (​Santalum album)​ Santalum austrocaledonicum

Spikenard (​Nardostachys jatamansi,​ ​ N. Vetiver (​Chrysopogon zizanioides​)

Endangered Essential oil

Atlas Cedarwood (​Cedrus atlantica​) Virginia cedarwood (​Juniperus virginiana)

Guaiacwood (​Bulnesia sarmientoi)​ Sandalwood (​Santalum austrocaledonicum​, S

Rosewood (​Aniba rosaeodora​) Ho wood (​Cinnamomum camphora ​ct. linalool)

Vanilla (​Vanilla planifolia)​ Benzoin (​Styrax benzoin​)

LESSON 4: PERFUMERY TECHNIQUES

OIL-BASED BOTANICAL PERFUMES

Warm Oil Infusion Directions

Rose-Infused Jojoba Oil

● Follow directions in the herb-infused oil tutorial.

Vanilla-Infused Jojoba Oil

Making a Solid Perfume

Enfleurage Ingredients and Supplies

Making Tinctures for Perfumes

Orange Blossom Special

3 drops rose (​Rosa ​spp.) absolute

Walk Through a Flower Garden

Sugar and Spice

● Label and store in a cool, dark place for up to 2 years.

LESSON 5: PERFUMERY PLANT

Fragrant Citrus Bath

1 part orange (​Citrus s​ pp.) flowers (if available)

Aroma: ​Spicy, sweet, warm

Cinnamon Spice Solid Perfume

1 drop cinnamon bark ​(​Cinnamomum verum)​ essential oil

Aroma: ​Camphorous, dry, resinous, rich, spicy, sweet, warm, woody

Frankincense Oil Perfume

Juniper Joy Perfume

Flower and Spice Perfume

Mint and Vetiver Liquid Perfume

6 drops clary sage ​(​Salvia sclarea​) ​essential oil

Aroma: ​Coniferous, crisp, dry, fresh, pungent, resinous, strong, woody

Evergreen Infused Oil

When harvesting your own rose

Aroma​: Deep, floral, fresh, rich, sweet

Rose Bouquet Splash

Zesty Herbal Perfume Spray

2 tbsp (1 fl oz) 190-proof alcohol

Vanilla Base Liquid Perfume

LESSON 6: BOTANICAL PERFUMES IN

What ​is a​ Ritual?

Why Use Plants in Ritual?

Why Use Fragrance in Ritual?

INCORPORATING BOTANICAL PERFUMES INTO RITUAL

Agarwood (Aquilaria rostrata) Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides)

Frankincense (Boswellia sacra) Boswellia carterii

Palo santo (Bursera graveolens) Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana)

Sandalwood (Santalum album) Santalum austrocaledonicum

Spikenard (Nardostachys jatamansi, N. Vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides)

Atlas Cedarwood (Cedrus atlantica) Virginia cedarwood (Juniperus virginiana)

Guaiacwood (Bulnesia sarmientoi) Sandalwood (Santalum austrocaledonicum, S

Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora) Ho wood (Cinnamomum camphora ct. linalool)

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) Benzoin (Styrax benzoin)

3 drops rose (Rosa spp.) absolute

1 part orange (Citrus s pp.) flowers (if available)

Aroma: Spicy, sweet, warm

1 drop cinnamon bark (Cinnamomum verum) essential oil

Aroma: Camphorous, dry, resinous, rich, spicy, sweet, warm, woody

6 drops clary sage (Salvia sclarea) essential oil

Aroma: Coniferous, crisp, dry, fresh, pungent, resinous, strong, woody

Aroma: Deep, floral, fresh, rich, sweet

What is a Ritual?

terling Publishing Company.

Duff, G. (1994). Personalized perfumes. N

Foster, S. (1993). Herbal renaissance. Layton, UT: Peregrine Smith Books.

Grieve, M. (1971). A modern herbal. New York, NY: Dover Publications.

Hoffmann, D. (2003). Medical herbalism. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press.

Ladner, J. (n.d.). Juniperus communis L. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000461.htm

University of Connecticut Plant Database. (n.d.). Pinus sylvestris. Retrieved from

Cunningham, S. (2002). The complete book of incense, oils and brews. S

La Torre, M.A. (2003). A