CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161

CYTOLOGY (CELL BIOLOGY): The study of structure and function of cells of plants and animals.

TERMS IN CYTOLOGY
TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE / COMMENT
Smallest structural and functional unit of an organism Life processes: respiration,
1. Cell capable of carrying out life processes under suitable nutrition, excretion, movement,
conditions reproduction, growth, response
2. Unicellular organism Organism whose whole body is made of only one cell Amoeba, paramecium
3. Multicellular organism Organism whose body is made up of many cells Animals and plants
4. Cytoplasm Region within a cell composed of these three major elements: cytosol, organelles and inclusions
(a) Cytosol The fluid part of cytoplasm not contained within membrane-bound organelles.
(b) Cell organelle Separate structure within a cell which performs specific function e.g. mitochondria, chloroplast, etc
(c) Cytoplasmic Insoluble, non-living substance Glycogen granules in liver and muscle cells.
inclusion suspended in the cytosol of a cell Lipid droplets in fat cells.
not capable of carrying out any Melanin pigment in melanocyte cells of skin and hair.
Water filled vacuoles.
metabolic activity.
Crystals e.g.
(i) inside sertolli cells and leydig cells of human testes.
(ii) calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plant cells.
Protoplasm is divided into:
The fluid living part of the cell consisting of plasma
5. Protoplasm (i) cytoplasm
membrane and all that it encloses.
(ii) nucleoplasm (cell nucleus)
6. Prokaryotic cell Cell without membrane-bound organelles inside. Bacteria and cyanobacteria
7. Prokaryote Organism without membrane-bound organelles in cells Bacteria and cyanobacteria
Cell having the nucleus and other organelles enclosed Cells of plants, animals, fungi and
8. Eukaryotic cell
within membranes. protists
Organism whose cells have the nucleus and other
9. Eukaryote Plants, animals, fungi and protists
organelles enclosed within membranes.
Microfilaments
Complex network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm
10. Cytoskeleton Microtubules
enabling maintenance of cell shape and support.
Intermediate filaments e.g. keratin.

ULTRASTRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTIC CELL

Parts ALWAYS present Parts SOMETIMES present
(e.g. ROD-SHAPED BACTERIUM)
70S ribosome: site of Mesosome: site of
protein synthesis 70S Ribosome respiration, cell wall synthesis
Capsule
Cell wall: Flagellum: elongated,
peptidoglycan layer that Cell wall relatively flexible cork-screw
protects and maintains cell shaped structure that moves
shape Mesosomes the cell
Cell membrane: Cell membrane Capsule (slime layer): for
phospholipid layer Pilus
protection
controls entry and exit of Nucleoid (Fimbria) Pili (fimbriae): protein
substances. filaments that facilitate cell
Nucleoid: region of one Photosynthetic adhesion and conjugation
Cytoplasm
free strand of DNA membrane Plasmid: independent small
Food granules: circle of DNA
glycogen and lipid Food stores Plasmid - Offers resistance to drugs
Cytoplasm: centre for Photosynthetic
biochemical reactions. membranes: where
Flagellum
photosynthesis occurs.
DIFFERENCES IN CELL WALL STRUCTURE
(i) Gram positive cells: Have thick peptidoglycan layer
that reacts with gram stain to form a violet complex
(ii) Gram negative cells: Have thin peptidoglycan layer
that is not stained by gram stain.

Page 1 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
COMPARISON OF EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Feature Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell
Examples Cells of plants, animals, fungi and protists Bacteria and cyanobacteria
Structural differences
Feature Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell
Cell size Much larger (10µm -100µm) Much smaller (0.2µm -10µm)
Mostly unicellular, some cyanobacteria are
Cellularity Usually multicellular
multicellular
Nucleus Present with nuclear envelope and nucleolus Absent
DNA shape DNA is linear DNA is circular (has no ends))
DNA composition DNA complexed with proteins called histones DNA is naked, without histones
Main organelles Present Absent
Ribosomes Many, larger (80S type) and 70S (in cytoplasm) Smaller (mainly 70S type) and few [S: Svedberg]
If present there’s 9+2 microtubule arrangement
Flagella i.e. 9 peripheral doublets surround 2 central If present lack 9+2 microtubule arrangement
singlets.
Chemically simpler. In plants, cellulose wall, Cell wall usually chemically complexed with
Cell wall
fungi chitinous cell wall, in animals, no wall peptidoglycan
Plasma membrane Sterols and carbohydrates present No carbohydrates and generally lacks sterols
Glycocalyx Present in some cells that lack a cell wall Present as a capsule or slime layer
Cytoplasm Cytoskeleton present No cytoskeleton
Functional differences
Feature Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell
Cell division Occurs by mitosis Occurs by binary fission
Sexual reproduction Involves meiosis Occurs by conjugation
Cytoplasm activity Cytoplasmic streaming occurs No cytoplasmic streaming
Nitrogen fixation Does not occur Occurs in some bacteria

Similarities
Both: contain vacuoles, DNA, ribosomes, vesicles, cell wall, cytoplasm, cell membrane.

THE CELL THEORY

While Robert Hooke (1665) initially discovered cells from thinly sliced pieces of cork, it was Matthias Schleiden (1838)
and Theodor Schwann (1839) who proposed the cell theory, with modifications by Rudolf Virchow (1858).

Modern ideas of the Cell Theory

1. All known living things are made up of one or more cells (Schwann and Schleiden, 1838-39).
2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things (Schwann and Schleiden, 1838-39).
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells by division (Rudolf Virchow, 1858).
4. Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

EXCEPTIONS (DISCREPANCIES) TO THE CELL THEORY

The following show properties of life but their features are not of typical / regular cells:
Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites capable of replicating only inside host cells using the machinery of the
host. Viruses are therefore considered biotic but not organisms.
Coenocytic algae like Vaucheria and many fungi have a body that is a continuous mass of protoplasm with many
nuclei but without cell wall separations i.e. are aseptate.
Skeletal muscles have very long cells (up to 300 mm long) with hundreds of nuclei i.e. are Syncytia
Giant algae is an organism made of one long cell (up to100 mm long) but with only one nucleus.
Unicellular organisms can be considered acellular because they are larger than a typical cell/carry out all functions of
life.
Some tissues / organs contain large amounts of extracellular material e.g. vitreous humor of eye / mineral deposits in
bone / xylem in trees.

Page 2 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
FACTORS THAT LIMIT CELL SIZE

Factor Explanation of how each factor influences cell size

1. Surface area Small cells have large SA : V ratio while large cells have a small SA : V ratio.
to volume ratio A large SA : V ratio enables fast rate of diffusion while a small SA : V ratio slows the rate of
diffusion.
surface area Small cells have low metabolic demands and form low amount of wastes while large cells have
volume higher metabolic demands and form much amount of wastes.
Therefore, the large SA : V ratio in small cells enables adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients
and expulsion of wastes e.g. carbon dioxide via the surface of the cell by simple diffusion while
the small SA : V ratio in large cells limits diffusion hence the supply of nutrients by simple
diffusion is inadequate to meet the metabolic demands of the cell. Hence:
(i) In animals, some large sized cells take in substances in bulk by endocytosis and expel bulk
substances by exocytosis to supplement on simple diffusion.
(ii) Some animal cells increase their surface area by forming many tiny projections called
microvilli.
(iii) Some cells divide when they reach a certain size to maintain suitable SA : V ratio.
Note:
SA : V ratio particularly limits the size of bacterial cells, i.e. prokaryotic cells which are
incapable of endocytosis and exocytosis.
2. Nucleo- DNA in the nucleus provides instructions for protein synthesis hence controls activities of the
cytoplasmic whole cell.
ratio Each nucleus can only control a certain volume of cytoplasm.
Specialization forms some long / large cells, therefore to overcome this limitation such cells are
modified to become multinucleate / coenocyte e.g. skeletal muscle cells and fungal hyphae.
3. Fragility of As cell size increases, the risk of damage to the cell membrane also increases.
cell membrane This limits the maximum size of cells, especially animal cells which lack cell walls.
4. Mechanical Cells with tough cell walls e.g. plant cells are larger than cells with only the fragile cell
structures that membrane e.g. animal cells because the tough walls provide support and maintain cell shape.
hold the cell Cells with complex internal cytoskeleton are larger than cells with little cytoskeleton because
together the cytoskeleton protects and supports the cell structure and maintains cell shape.

ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Endosymbiotic Theory
As proposed by Lynn Margulis (1967), the endosymbiotic theory suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts were
once separately existing small aerobic bacteria and photosynthetic bacteria respectively.
Larger anaerobic bacteria engulfed the smaller bacteria by the process of endocytosis, but digestion failed.
Initially, the smaller bacteria could have lived inside larger bacteria either as parasites or phagocytic vesicles, after
which a mutually benefitting relationship called endosymbiosis resulted, where the larger cell provided protection and
shelter while the smaller organisms removed oxygen which was toxic to the anaerobic larger cell.
With time, mitochondria and chloroplasts were modified into organelles suited for respiration and photosynthesis
inside the larger eukaryotic cells.
Note: Secondary endosymbiosis involves a larger eukaryotic cell engulfing a smaller eukaryotic cell.
Illustration of endosymbiotic theory
Vesicle membrane
Small bacterium

Invagination of the Membrane of smaller

cell membrane bacterium

Cell membrane of
Mitochondrion with inner
larger bacterium
and outer membranes

Page 3 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
EVIDENCE FOR ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
1. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts have their own DNA, and divide independently of the cell they live in.

2. There is great similarity between prokaryotic cells and the organelles of eukaryotic cells as shown below.

Chloroplasts of
Mitochondria of
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes photosynthetic
eukaryotic cells
eukaryotes
One circular Linear One circular One circular
DNA
chromosome chromosomes chromosome chromosome
Binary fission Binary fission Binary fission
Replication Mitosis
(1 cell splits into 2) (1 splits into 2) (1 splits into 2)
Ribosomes “70 S” “80 S” “70 S” “70 S”
Electron Transport Occurs in the plasma In mitochondria and In the membrane of In the membranes of
Chain membrane chloroplasts mitochondrion chloroplast
Approx. Size ~1 µm -10µm ~50 µm - 500 µm ~1 µm -10 µm ~1 µm -10 µm

3. The timeline of life on Earth shows that from fossil evidence of bacterial life, the mitochondria, chloroplasts and
eukaryotic cells emerged at about the same time, 1.5 billion years ago.

Mitochondria of Chloroplasts of
Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
eukaryotic cells photosynthetic eukaryotes
Anaerobic bacteria: ~3.8 Bn yrs ago
Appearance Photosynthetic bacteria: ~3.2 Bn yrs ~1.5 billion
~1.5 bn years ago ~1.5 bn years ago
on Earth ago yrs ago
Aerobic bacteria: ~2.5 Bn years ago

At about 3.8 billion years ago, the atmosphere of the Earth did not contain oxygen, and all life was anaerobic.
About 3.2 billion years ago, photosynthetic bacteria or cyanobacteria appeared and accumulated oxygen in the
atmosphere from their photosynthesis, which killed anaerobic cells.
Aerobic cells appeared at about 2.5 Billion years ago, followed by mitochondria, chloroplasts and eukaryotic cells at
almost the same time, approximately 1.5 billion years ago.

SEMI-AUTONOMOUS ORGANELLES
 Mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA is short hence provides only a small part of the genome needed for binary
fission, hence the process in organelles is controlled by the nucleus which contains the larger genome.
 Mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA is short, therefore can only code for a few of the proteins needed, hence
some of the required proteins are imported from the cytoplasm of the main cell where the organelle stays.

GENERALISED STRUCTURE OF CELLS AS OBSERVED UNDER LIGHT MICROSCOPE

Animal cell Plant cell

Page 4 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
ULTRASTRUCTURE OF CELLS (AS OBSERVED BY ELECTRON MICROSCOPE)
CILIA / FLAGELLA Parts of a typical animal cell
1. Cell membrane
2. Cytoplasm
(a) Cytosol
(b) Cell organelles
(c) Cytoplasmic inclusions

Cell organelles
(i) Nucleus
(ii) Ribosomes (free or attached to ER)
(iii) Endoplasmic reticulum (SER/RER)
(iv) Mitochondria
(v) Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus)
(vi) Lysosomes
(vii) Microfilaments
(viii) Centrioles
(ix) Microvilli
(x) Cilia and Flagella
(xi) Microtubules

Cytoplasmic inclusions
(i) Pinocytic vesicles
(ii) Glycogen granules
(iii) Fat droplets

Parts of plant cell

1. Cell membrane
2. Cell wall
3. Plasmodesmata
4. Cytoplasm
(a) Cytosol
(b) Cell organelles
(c) Inclusions
Cell organelles
(i) Nucleus
(ii) Ribosomes
(iii) Endoplasmic reticulum
(SER/RER)
(iv) Mitochondria
(v) Dictyosomes
(vi) Microfilaments
(vii) Microtubules
(viii) Vacuole
(ix) Chloroplasts
Cytoplasmic inclusions
(i) Starch grains
(ii) Fat droplets

OVERVIEW OFCELLULAR PARTS

Page 5 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
COMPARISON OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Similarities
All plant and animal cells contain the Cytoplasm, Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth and Rough), Ribosomes,
Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, Microtubules, Microfilaments, Nucleus, lipid droplets

Differences
Feature Animal Cell Plant Cell
Cell wall Absent Present, made of cellulose
Plastids Absent Present e.g. chloroplasts
Plasmodesmata Absent Present
Cilia Present on some cells Most plant cells lack cilia.
Centrioles Present in cytoplasm Absent
Cholesterol in
Present Absent
cell membrane
Centrioles Present in all animal cells Only present in lower plant forms.
Vesicles Present Absent
Shape Irregular shapes Fixed shapes
Vacuole Vacuoles small, many, scattered in cytoplasm Vacuole is 1, large (90% of cell volume), central position
Food stored Glycogen Starch

Note: In plants and fungi, lysosomes are called acidic vacuoles.

STRUCTURE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

According to S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson (1972), the structure of the cell membrane is a fluid-mosaic model.
It is described as:
Fluid because the individual phospholipid and protein molecules can move laterally, giving the membrane a flexible
structure that is constantly changing in shape.
Mosaic because the proteins that are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer vary in size, shape and pattern of
arrangement.
The main components of the cell membrane are: 1. Phospholipids 2. Proteins 3. Carbohydrates 4. Cholesterol

Fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane Description fluid mosaic model
Two layers of phospholipids (Phospholipid
Carbohydrate chain CELL OUTSIDE bilayer), whose lipid tails face inwards of the
membrane while phosphate heads face outwards.
Carbohydrate chain Phosphate heads are polar, hydrophilic and
Pore form hydrogen bonds with water.
Glycolipid Glycoprotein Lipid tails are non-polar, hydrophobic and
are attracted to each other by hydrophobic
interactions and Van der Waals forces.
Extrinsic (peripheral) proteins are found at
Phospholipid
the inner and outer surfaces.
layer Some intrinsic proteins are partly embedded in
any one of the phospholipid layers while others
Phospholipid span across the two phospholipid layers.
bilayer Some transmembrane proteins are porous.
Some proteins conjugate with short, branched
carbohydrates to form glycoprotein.
Cholesterol Some phospholipids conjugate with short,
Transmembrane Integral
Extrinsic protein branched carbohydrates to form glycolipid.
protein protein
(Peripheral protein) CELL INSIDE In animal cells, cholesterol molecules squeeze
between the phospholipid molecules.

NOTE: The cell membrane is supported by intracellular microfilaments at the inner surface which act as cytoskeleton

RESEARCH QUESTION: (a) Describe SIX roles of cell membrane proteins.

(b) How is the cell membrane SUITED for its functions?

OTHER TOPICAL QUESTIONS: See last page (page 20)

Page 6 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
CELL MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS

Component Function
1. General Forms a protective barrier between the inside and outside of the cell and determines cell shape.
2. Proteins Glycoproteins work as antigens in immunity.
Channel proteins allow diffusion of polar ions and molecules across the membrane.
Transport proteins move ions or solutes by active transport e.g. sodium ions or by facilitate
diffusion e.g. glucose, amino acids across the membrane
Membrane proteins provide sites for cytoskeleton filaments to anchor to support and maintain
cell shape.
Membrane proteins join cells together forming tissues which perform specific functions.
Glycoproteins are involved in cell-to-cell recognition by cells of complimentary sites e.g.
specific hormones.
Cell surface receptor proteins are involved in signal-transduction by converting an
extracellular signal to an intracellular one.
Some membrane proteins have enzymatic properties e.g. ATP synthase for ATP synthesis.
Some membrane proteins work as electron carriers in electron transport chains
3. Glycolipids Are involved in cell-to-cell recognition
4. Cholesterol Stabilizes membrane structure by preventing phospholipids from closely packing together
5. Lipid bilayer Being semi-permeable, it controls movement of substances in and out of the cell

MEMBRANE FLUIDITY
Membrane fluidity refers to the viscosity of the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane

Importance of regulating membrane fluidity

Membranes must be fluid to work properly.
Biological processes stop when the bilayer fluidity reduces too much e.g. membrane transport and enzyme activities.

Factors that affect membrane fluidity

Factor How the factor influences membrane fluidity
Low temperature decreases membrane fluidity because lipids are laterally ordered, the
lipid chains pack well together, mobility reduces to allow many stabilising interactions.
1. Temperature
Increase in temperature increases membrane fluidity because lipids acquire thermal
energy to become mobile and reduce stabilising interactions.
Lipids with shorter chains are more fluid because they quickly gain kinetic energy due to
their smaller molecular size and have less surface area for Van der Waals interactions to
2. Length of lipid tails stabilise with neighboring hydrophobic chains.
Lipids with longer chains are less fluid because their large surface area enables more
Van der Waals interactions hence increasing the melting temperature.
Lipid chains with double bonds (unsaturated fatty acids) are more fluid because the
kinks caused by double bonds make it harder for the lipids to pack together.
3. Lipid saturation
Lipids that have single bonds only (saturated fatty acids) have straightened hydrocarbon
chain which pack together to reduce membrane fluidity.
At low temperatures, cholesterol increases membrane fluidity by preventing fatty acid
hydrocarbon chains from coming together and crystallizing there by inhibiting the
4. Presence of cholesterol transition from liquid to solid (decreases the membrane freezing point).
e.g. in membranes of At warm temperature (e.g. 370C) cholesterol decreases membrane fluidity by interacting
animal cells with lipid tails to reduce their mobility, thereby increasing the melting point.
At high concentrations, cholesterol also prevents fatty acid hydrocarbon chains from
coming together and crystallizing. (The ratio of cholesterol to lipids in a membrane can be as high as 1:1)

Page 7 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
Effect of lipid tail movement Effect of fatty acid unsaturation

Note
1. Most of the lipids and some proteins drift laterally
2. Rarely does a molecule flip-flop transversely
across the membrane.

Structure of phospholipid
The phosphate head is composed of glycerol and phosphate
Phosphate head Tail made from two fatty acids, which could be saturated or
Phospholipid

unsaturated fatty acid

Arrangement in membrane
Lipid tail Phospholipids form a bilayer, where the heads face outside the
membrane / tails face inside the membrane
How phospholipid properties maintain cell membrane structure
Phospholipids are held together by hydrophobic interactions
Phospholipid layers are stabilized by interaction of hydrophilic heads and surrounding water
Phospholipids allow for membrane fluidity/ flexibility
Fluidity/ flexibility enables membranes to be functionally stable
Phospholipids with short fatty acids and those with unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid
Fluidity is important in breaking and remaking membranes (e.g. endocytosis / exocytosis)
Phospholipids can move about / move laterally (horizontally) / "flip flop" (move transversely) to increase fluidity
Hydrophilic / hydrophobic layers restrict entry/ exit of substances.

DISTRIBUTION AND FUNCTION OF MEMBRANES OF CELLS

Membranes of cells DOES NOT only include the cell membrane (plasma membrane), which forms the cell boundary
plus its various modifications, BUT ALSO all other membranes enclosing some organelles and some cytoplasmic
inclusions within cells.
Distribution Function
Forms a protective barrier between the cell inside and outside.
Plasma membrane Determines cell shape and provides cell stability.
Selectively regulates entry and exit of substances.
Separate nuclear contents from cytoplasm hence limits DNA within the nucleoplasm
but allows exit of RNA.
Nuclear envelope
Controls flow of information to nucleus and DNA that are carried by the
macromolecules.
Outer mitochondrial membrane Allows entry of ATP, NADH and from glycolysis
Inner mitochondrial membrane Contains electron carriers in electron transport chain
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Intracellular transport and sites for ribosome attachment
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Intracellular transport
Outer chloroplast membrane Allows photosynthetic products out and substrates in
Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts Store photosynthetic pigments e.g. chlorophyll Contains electron carriers
Golgi complex membrane Storage of glycoprotein Synthesis of polysaccharides e.g. cellulose in plants
Lysosomes Isolates autolytic enzymes from unnecessary digestion of cell components
Tonoplast Limits cell sap within the vacuole
Limit the contents of the vesicles within until when ready for exit e.g. calcium ions
Membranes surrounding vesicles
and neurotransmitters in neurones, undigested materials in phagocytic vesicles, etc.
Neurilemma of neurones Contains protein pumps for Na+ and K+ which bring about impulse propagation
Myeline sheath membrane Insulates nerve fibre to increase transmission speed.

Page 8 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
STRUCTURE OF PLANT CELL WALL
NOTE: Plant cell wall is an extracellular component of plant cells. Others: glycoprotein and basement membrane.

 The cell wall consists of 3 main layers (regions) i.e. middle lamella; primary cell wall; and secondary cell wall
 It is tough; usually flexible/bendable/fairly rigid; of variable thickness [1 µm - 10µm] ; surrounding plant cells;
 The outermost layer (middle lamella) cements (binds/glues) adjacent plant cells together; and is rich in calcium and
magnesium pectates and proteins;
 The next layer (primary cell wall); is generally a thin; flexible and extensible;
 It consists mainly of cellulose microfibrils; hemicelluloses; pectin; water; and protein; In plant epidermis it is
usually impregnated with cutin and wax; to form an impermeable barrier called plant cuticle;
 The various chemical components are tightly (closely) bound together;
 In some cells there is the secondary cell wall inside the primary cell wall; It is thick/ has 3 layers; and contains several
proteins; and polymers like: cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin in WOOD and XYLEM; suberin in CORK and
ROOT CASPARIAN STRIPS; silica crystals in GRASS;
 Certain small areas of the cell wall remain unthickened to form pits; which concide in adjacent cells to form pit pairs in
which the two cells are separated only by the middle lamella and through which plasmodesmata (cytoplasmic
strands) pass;

FORMATION OF PLANT CELL WALLS Stages of Cytokinesis in a plant cell

Cell wall forms during telophase stage of cell division when the
Phragmoplast Nucleus New cell
cell plate forms between daughter cell nuclei.
wall
Cell plate forms from a series of vesicles produced by Golgi
(Dictyosomes).
Vesicles migrate along the microtubules and actin filaments
within the phragmoplast and move to the cell equator.
Phragmoplast contains mitotic spindles, microtubules,
microfilaments, and endoplasmic reticulum surrounded by nuclear
envelopes.
Vesicles join up their contents, and the membranes of the vesicle Membrane-bound Cell plate Daughter cells
become the new cell membrane. vesicles
 Dictyosomes synthesize the non-cellulosic polysaccharides like Details of mature cell
pectins and transported to build the middle lamella.
Cellulose is made at the cell surface, catalyzed by the enzyme
cellulose synthase.
While the cell plate is growing, segments of smooth endoplasmic
reticulum are trapped within it, later forming the plasmodesmata
connecting the two daughter cells

Functions of plant cell wall

 Maintaining / determining cell shape.
 Provides support and mechanical strength to the cell against gravity.
 Pathway for water and dissolved mineral salt movement by the apoplast pathway.
 Prevents excessive entry of water to the cell in a hypotonic medium (i.e., resists turgor pressure of the cell)
 Has a metabolic role i.e., some of the proteins in the wall are enzymes for transport and secretion.
 In suberized cells, acts as physical barrier to: (a) pathogens; and (b) water loss.
 Carbohydrate storage - components of the wall can be reused in other metabolic processes, like in seeds.
 allows turgor pressure/high pressure to develop inside the cell;
QUESTION
Eukaryotic cells have intracellular and extracellular components. State the functions of one named extracellular
component. (Any one of: cell wall/Glycocalyx/basement membrane/bone matrix, etc.)

Page 9 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
How the plant cell wall is suited for functioning

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
 Cellulose polymers associate through very many H-bonds whose cumulative for providing support and
bonding energy provides high tensile strength of the cell wall; preventing rupturing
 The relatively thick multiple wall layers provide mechanical support
 Secondary walls may be cutinized / suberinised for preventing water loss
 The variety of functional proteins like oxidative enzymes enable performing several functions like protection
(peroxidases), hydrolytic enzymes (pectinases, cellulases) against pathogens, cell expansion, cell wall maturation
 The extreme rigidity of secondary wall provides compression strength
 Deposition of cellulose fibrils in alternating layers enables some degree of flexibility
 semi-permeable nature Allows exchange of water, dissolved salts and small protein molecules

COMPARISON OF PLANT CELL WALL AND PLASMA MEMBRANE

Differences
CELL WALL PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Number of main layers / regions varies (2 or 3)  Number of main layers / regions constant
 Skeleton mainly made of carbohydrates /  Skeleton mainly made of phospholipids
polysaccharides  Less permeable to molecules
 More permeable to molecules  Transmembrane proteins present
 Lacks transmembrane proteins  Plasmodesmata absent
 Plasmodesmata present  Lacks lignification and suberinisation
 May be lignified and suberinised  Lacks middle lamella
 Has middle lamella  Lacks secondary thickening
 Secondary thickening occurs

TASK: Outline the similarities between cell wall and cell membrane

NUCLEUS

Description of nuclear Drawing of the nucleus Adaptations of

structure nucleus
Cell nucleus is enclosed / bound DNA is long to
by a double-layered nuclear store many genes
membrane (nuclear envelope); Nuclear
Outer membrane is connected to membrane has
the endoplasmic reticulum; pores; for exchange
A fluid-filled space (perinuclear of DNA and RNA
space) exists between the two between the
layers of a nuclear membrane. nucleus and
Nuclear membrane is perforated cytoplasm;
by nuclear pores ~50 nm in Presence of
diameter nucleolus; enables
Enclosed within the inner production of
membrane are the nucleoplasm ribosomes which
(karyoplasm), nucleolus and are protein
chromosomes (chromatin); factories;
Nucleolus is a dense, spherical- Nuclear
shaped structure; Functions of the nucleus envelope; isolate
Chromosomes (chromatin) are (i) Controls the heredity features of an organism. nucleus from
thread-like. (ii) Controls protein synthesis, cell division, growth and interference by
(i) Heterochromatin: stain darkly, differentiation. processes in
genetically inactive, tightly coiled. (iii) Stores DNA, the heredity material cytoplasm;
(ii) Euchromatin: loosely packed, (iv) Stores proteins and RNA in the nucleolus. Nuclear pores
genetically active and enriched (v) Site for transcription in which messenger RNA are produced for are narrow;
protein synthesis. regulate entry and
(vi) Nucleolus produces ribosomes, which are the protein factories exit of substances

Page 10 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
MITOCHONDRION
Function: It is the site for aerobic respiration for production of ATP that powers cell activities.

Description of structure Drawings of mitochondrion from LS and TS Adaptations of mitochondrion

Mitochondrion has a Double membranes isolate the
diameter of about 0.5 µm – mitochondrion from interference
1µm, length of 2.0µm - 7µm; by processes in the cytoplasm
and variable shape (may be Small size gives large surface
spherical /rod shaped / are to volume ratio for rapid
filamentous); uptake / release of materials
It is double (2) membrane Matrix contains enzymes of
bound; outer membrane is Krebs cycle.
entire; inner membrane folds Inner membrane forms cristae
into the mitochondrial matrix to increase the surface area for
to form cristae; and in- electron transport chain
between the two membranes Inner membrane contains
is the intermembrane space. stalked particles that make ATP
Mitochondrial matrix is Narrow intermembrane space
fluid filled, with several enables H+ ion concentration
enzymes, small sized gradient to be rapidly established
ribosomes and circular DNA for chemiosmosis to occur
Each membrane is a Inner membrane contains
phospholipid bilayer, with molecules for electron transport
variable phospholipid pathway
compositions and protein-to- DNA is present to act as
lipid (PTL) ratios. genetic material for synthesis of
The PTL ratio for the outer some protein
membrane is about 50:50 while Many ribosomes for protein
that of the inner membrane is synthesis to reduce on importing
about 80:20 proteins from cytoplasm.

PLASTIDS FAMILY OF ORGANELLES

These are small organelles in the cytoplasm of plant cells, containing pigments or food

Examples of plastids
Proplastid: Undifferentiated organelle
which develops into plastid.
1. Etioplasts – colourless in absence of
light, turn into chloroplasts on exposure to
light
2. Chloroplasts (chloros - green)
manufacture carbohydrates by
photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts form chromoplasts
Chromoplasts (chromos - color) contain
xanthophyll or carotenes, hence the
yellowing in fruits, vegetables, and leaves.
3. Leucoplasts are colourless and include:
(a) Amyloplasts: form and store starch in
tubers of roots and stem.
(b) Elaioplasts: Form and store oil.
(c) Proteoplasts (Proteinoplasts): Store
crystalline proteins in plant seeds.

Page 11 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
CHLOROPLASTS
Main function: It is the site for manufacture of food by the process of photosynthesis.

Other functions:
(i) Ribosomes enable amino acid and protein synthesis.
(ii) They produce fatty acids
(iii) They store starch, but only temporarily
(iv) Produce new chloroplasts and pigments
CHLOROPLAST STRUCTURE
Chloroplast shape and size vary from
Granum Outer membrane
biconvex in higher plants with length of ~5 µm
to filamentous in algae, spherical, ovoid, etc. Inner membrane
It is enclosed by an envelope of double Thylakoid
membranes; outer membrane is semi- Intergrana
permeable. lamella
Inner membrane surrounds the stroma,
regulates entry and exit of materials to the Stroma
chloroplast, and is a manufacturing centre for
fatty acids, lipids and carotenoids.
Intermembrane space is narrow, ~10 nm-20 Starch grain 70S ribosome
Lipid globule
nm in between the outer and inner membranes.
Stroma is semi-gel-like fluid, alkaline, rich in Adaptations of chloroplast for its functions
protein (e.g. enzymes), with chloroplast DNA, Outer membrane is semi- permeable to regulate entry and exit of
70S ribosomes, starch granules, lipid globules substances for maintaining internal chloroplast environment.
and thylakoid membrane system. Abundant light trapping pigments for photosynthesis
Thylakoids are interconnected, membranous Abundant enzymes catalyse photosynthetic reactions in the stroma.
Extensive network of thylakoid membranes increase surface area for
sacs, with chlorophyll in the membranes.
photosynthesis.
At intervals, thylakoids form piles (~10-20) Narrow intermembrane space enables H+ ion concentration gradient
known as grana. to be rapidly established for chemiosmosis to occur
Inner membrane contains molecules for electron transport pathway
DNA is present to act as genetic material for synthesis of some
protein
Many ribosomes for protein synthesis to reduce on importing proteins
from cytoplasm.

COMPARISON OF CHLOROPLAST AND MITOCHONDRION

Similarities:
Both: are enclosed by double membrane, contain DNA, contain 70S ribosomes, have electron transport chain, produce
ATP by chemiosmosis, contain ATP synthase /ATPase

Chloroplast Mitochondrion
Site of photosynthesis Site of respiration
Contains thylakoid membranes Lacks thylakoid membranes.
Contains photosynthetic pigments that absorb light Lacks photosynthetic pigments.
There is light generated ATP production ATP production by oxidation of organic molecules
H+ gradient across thylakoid membrane H+ gradient across inner membrane
Cristae absent Cristae present
Larger size Smaller size

Page 12 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161

GOLGI COMPLEX (PLANTS: DICTYOSOME)

Note:
1. Golgi is abundant in secretory cells and in rapidly dividing cells e.g. pancreatic cells, goblet cells, salivary glands,
cells in testes and ovaries.
2. Golgi complex is the cell’s “post office” or “shipping department” where molecules are packaged, labelled and sent
to different parts of the cell.
STRUCTURE OF GOLGI COMPLEX

 Golgi complex is made up of piles Transport vesicle

(stacks) of flattened sacs called
cisternae (singular: cisterna) with
vesicles budding (pinching) off at edges
of sacs;
 One cisterna is a flattened sac, with a
lumen enclosed by a single membrane.
 Between 4-8 cisternae pile up to form a
stack which bends to form a semi-circle.
 A cell may have 40 to 100 stacks.
 An individual stack of the cisternae is
sometimes referred as dictyosome. One cisterna
 The Golgi complex contains a number of
separate compartments, as well as some
that are interconnected.
 The cisternae stack has 4 functional
regions: the cis-Golgi network, medial-
Golgi, endo-Golgi, and trans-Golgi
network.
 The cisternae carry structural proteins Large vacuole
important for their maintenance as
flattened membranes which stack upon
The cis face is adjacent to the endoplasmic reticulum and the trans
each other.
points towards the plasma membrane.

FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI APPARATUS ADAPTATIONS OF GOLGI

To modify, sort and package proteins that are made at the rough Cisternae are enclosed by selectively
endoplasmic reticulum for secretion (export) or for use within the cell. permeable membranes, which isolate the
To form carbohydrates e.g. polysaccharides are attached to a protein to inside cavity from cytosol for efficient
form proteoglycans present in the extracellular matrix of the animal cell.
functioning.
Transport of lipid molecules around the cell.
Formation of lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes. Tubular structure enables transportation
Formation of peroxisomes. of soluble protein and lipids from the
In plant cells, Golgi produces vesicles that join to form cell plates endoplasmic reticulum for modification.
during cell division. Variety of enzyme systems for modifying
Secretory vesicles produced by Golgi contain a variety of important proteins by adding carbohydrates and
substances e.g. neurotransmitters, hormones, mucin, zymogen e.g. phosphate by the process of glycosylation
pepsinogen, etc.
and phosphorylation respectively.
Fusion of Golgi vesicles with cell membrane maintains the membrane
which is used to form phagocytic vacuoles and Pinocytic vesicles Many cisternae increase the surface area
for modifying synthesised macromolecules.
Note: Golgi complex is the cell’s “post office” or “shipping There are many compartments at the cis,
department” where molecules are packaged, labelled and sent to located at the beginning of the Golgi
different parts of the cell. apparatus to facilitate passage of proteins
through the Golgi apparatus

Page 13 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
FUNCTIONING OF GOLGI APPARATUS THE SECRETORY PATHWAY
Proteins made at Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
have, as part of their amino acid sequence, a signal that
directs them where to go, just like an address directs a letter
to its destination.
(i) Proteins arriving at cis-Golgi but having RER retention
signal (were wrongly sent), are repackaged into vesicles then Early Secretary
returned to RER. endosome vesicle
(ii) Soluble or properly folded macromolecules (proteins,
lipids and polysaccharides) from RER enter cis-Golgi Late Vesicle containing
network via transport vesicles endosome membrane proteins
Within cis-cisternae, macromolecules are partly modified
i.e. carbohydrates are added to proteins (glycosylation),
phosphate is added to protein (phosphorylation) etc. Lysosome
After partial modification, coated vesicles bud (pinch) off
the swollen ends of cis-cisternae and fuse with ends of
medial cisternae.
Within medial-cisternae, different enzymes further
transform macromolecules differently, depending on their
structures and destination i.e. some are modified for
secretion, others for the membrane, and some for lysosomes.
After further modification within the medial-cisternae,
coated vesicles bud (pinch) off the swollen ends of the
medial-cisternae and fuse with the ends of trans-cisternae for
further transformation.
From trans-cisternae, the transformed macromolecules
exit the Golgi and are sorted into different transport vesicles
destined for lysosomes, plasma membrane or storage
vesicles for secretion.
(a) Vesicles containing hydrolase enzymes fuse with
membranes of growing lysosomes so that the contents of
both structures fuse.
(b) Vesicles containing hormones e.g. insulin remain until
when signaled by the cell, the vesicles then fuse with plasma
membrane to release (secrete) the hormone outside the cell
by exocytosis.
(c) Vesicles containing membrane proteins fuse with the cell
membrane and some of the modified proteins become part of
the cell membrane e.g. protein receptors.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
This is a membrane-bound organelle which forms a network of tubules, vesicles and cisternae within eukaryotic cells,
except mammalian red blood cells.

TYPES OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER), studded membrane-bound ribosomes.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER), without ribosomes attached.

RER is more prominent in cells concerned with protein synthesis e.g. liver cells.
SER is prominent in cells concerned with the production of lipids

NOTE:
1. The rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum can transform from one type to another, depending on especially the
enzymatic needs of the cell.
2. The transformation happens through the embedding of proteins.

Page 14 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161

FUNCTIONS OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Specific functions by RER General functions by SER and RER Specific functions by SER
Production and processing of Transporting proteins and Synthesis of lipids and other steroids like
specific proteins at ribosomal carbohydrates to other organelles like cholesterol, progesterone and testosterone.
sites, that are later exported lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, and Synthesis and repair of membranes by
Folds proteins into three plasma membrane. producing cholesterol and phospholipids,
dimensional shapes e.g. Form part of the cell’s skeletal For metabolism of glycogen in the liver e.g.
haemoglobin for further framework. glucose-6-phosphatase enzyme in SER converts
processing e.g. carbohydrates Offer increased surface area for glucose-6-phosphate to glucose.
may be added. cellular reactions. Contains enzymes that detoxicate lipid-
Transports ready proteins to Form the nuclear membrane during soluble drugs, alcohol and metabolic wastes
the sites where they are cell division. from the liver.
required. SER attaches receptors to cell membrane
Checks the quality of proteins in plant cells
proteins formed, especially Sarcoplasmic reticulum regulates muscle
correct ordering and structure. contraction through storage and release of
calcium ions.

STRUCTURE OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

RER is an extensive membrane network of cisternae The SER is a folded structure composed of a network of
(sac-like structures), which are held together by the interconnected disc-like sacs and tubules called cisternae
cytoskeleton. which are held in their place by the cytoskeleton.
A phospholipid membrane encloses a space, the lumen The SER is bound by a phospholipid membrane
from the cytosol, which is continuous with perinuclear enclosing a fluid-filled space known as cisternal space or
space. lumen.
The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is The lumen or cisternal space is continuous with the
studded with ribosomes, which give it a rough appearance perinuclear space.
hence the name rough endoplasmic reticulum. A part of SER is continuous with the nuclear envelope,
A part of RER is continuous with the nuclear envelope some other part may be at the periphery of the cell.

ADAPTATIONS OF ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

The interconnected network provides the cell with skeletal framework.
Forming an extensive network increases the surface area for metabolic reactions e.g. protein synthesis at RER.
The endoplasmic reticulum membrane compartmentalizes the cytoplasm (isolates lumen from cytosol), which:
(i) Enables transporting soluble and well packaged substances to their specific destinations.
(ii) Prevents interference of different metabolic processes taking place in the cell at the same time.
Contains a variety of enzymes for performing diver roles in cell metabolism.
The SER is modified into sarcoplasmic reticulum storage and release of calcium ions.
The membrane has a variety of proteins that offer unique properties including signal reception.
The RER membrane has sites for attachment of many ribosomes for protein synthesis

Page 15 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
LYSOSOMES
These are tiny spherical sac-like structures surrounded by a single membrane containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes.
They are mostly abundant in secretory cells e.g. epithelial cells, in phagocytic cells e.g. liver cells and kidney cells.
Lysosomes are also referred to as “suicide bags”, “digestive bags”, “cell garbage disposal system”, etc.

STRUCTURE OF LYSOSOMES
Irregular / spherical, sac-like structure enclosed by a single membrane, about 1 µm in diameter.
A single lysosome contains over 50 different enzymes known collectively as acid hydrolases, in an acidic medium
(about pH 4.8 to 5).
Lysosomal membrane has a protein complex that is highly glycosylated forming a continuous glycoprotein layer,
whose structure consists of a mucin-like domain that resists break down by enzymes within the lysosome.

MAIN TYPES OF LYSOSOMES

Primary lysosome: This is the lysosome produced at the Golgi complex, containing many hydrolytic enzymes.
Secondary lysosome: This is the lysosome formed by the combination of a primary lysosome with a food vacuole, in
which lysis takes place through the activity of hydrolytic enzymes.

FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOMES

Function Explanatory notes

Primary lysosome fuses with worn-out cellular components like mitochondrion to form
autophagic vacuole in which digestion occurs by lysosomal enzymes into end products which
1. Autophagy
leave by diffusion or with the aid of specialized transporters into cytoplasm while
undigested materials (residual body) is released outside by exocytosis.
Primary lysosome fuses with food vacuole engulfed by endocytosis to form digestive vacuole
2. Heterophagy (heterophagic vacuole) in which digestion occurs by lysosomal enzymes into end products
(Cellular digestion) which leave by diffusion or with the aid of specialized transporters into cytoplasm while
undigested materials (residual body) is released outside by exocytosis.
3. Autolysis Primary lysosome releases hydrolytic enzymes within a dead cell to digest the whole cell.
Tadpole metamorphosis (regression of tail) and regression of Wolffian ducts involve
4. Development
shedding of tissues with removal of whole cells and extracellular material by lysosome enzymes
processes
During bone development, osteoclasts release lysosomal enzymes that remodel bones.
Acrosome in spermatozoa releases enzymes which digest the limiting membrane of the ovum
5. Role in fertilization to enable sperm entry and start fertilization.
The lysosome in cytoplasm of Ova enables digestion of stored food.
6. Role in immunity Leucocytes (WBC) digest foreign particles, bacteria and viruses enabled by lysosomes.
Golgi, Endoplasmic Reticulum and Lysosome system regulates the secretory activities of the
7. GERL system
Golgi and ER as well as modification of secretory products.

ILLUSTRATION OF AUTOPHAGY AND HETEROPHAGY IN THE ANIMAL CELL

Food vacuole Endocytosis
Cell membrane NOTE:
(Phagocytic vesicle) Endocytosis forms
Primary lysosome endosomes (membranes
Secondary lysosome surrounding food
-A heterophagic vacuole particles) of various
sizes:
Residual body
Golgi apparatus 1. Pinocytosis forms
vesicles (less than 100nm
Exocytosis in diameter)

Primary lysosome 2. Phagocytosis forms

vacuoles (more than
100nm in diameter)
Old mitochondrion Secondary lysosome
-An autophagic vacuole

Page 16 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
RIBOSOMES
These are small (diameter of 20 nm -30nm), non-membranous particles made up of a large and small subunits, present in
large numbers in all living cells.
Function: Site of protein synthesis.

 Ribosomes are made of large (protein) and small (rRNA) STRUCTURE OF ONE RIBOSOME
subunits.
Ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum form proteins for
export out of the cell e.g. hormones, etc. Large subunit
Ribosomes that occur freely in the cytoplasm make proteins Small subunit
that remain with cytoplasm e.g. dissolve in solution or form
structural cytoplasmic elements.
Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes (small subunit of 30S and
large subunit of 50S) while Eukaryotes have mainly 80S
ribosomes which are larger and more complex, each consisting of
small (40S) and large (60S) subunit.
S stands for the Svedberg unit for sedimentation velocity
The ribosomes share a core structure which is similar to all
ribosomes despite differences in its size

MICROBODIES
Examples:
(i) Peroxisomes, which contain a variety of enzymes that rid the cell of toxic wastes e.g. catalase breaks down hydrogen
peroxide, liver microbodies detoxify alcohol and fat-soluble drugs.
 Peroxisomes and lysosomes are similar in appearance, but differ in origin. Lysosomes are formed in the Golgi
complex, whiles peroxisomes self-replicate using protein imported from the cytosol.
(ii) Glyoxysomes, which contain enzymes that degrade lipids into sugars during seed germination.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures.

Cilia Flagella
Numerous Less in number
Short and hair-like organelle (about 10µm) Long whip-like organelle (about 150µm)
Occur throughout the cell surface Presence at one end
Beat in coordination Beat independently
Show sweeping movement or pendular stroke Undulatory movement

STRUCTURE OF CILIA AND

Outer microtubule doublet
FLAGELLA
Both the cilia and flagella arise from a Radial spoke
small granular structure called basal
body. Dynein arm
Cilia and flagella are covered by a unit
membrane, which is an extension of the Cell membrane
cell membrane.
There is a central filament called
axoneme formed of 11 microtubules Central microtubule
arranged in the pattern of 9+2 i.e. 2
central singlets (single microtubules) and
9 peripheral doublets (pairs of
microtubules).
Note:
Each centriole is made of nine triplets of
microtubules arranged in a ring (9+0
pattern)

Page 17 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
FUNCTIONS OF CILIA AND FLAGELLA
(i) Ciliary movement enables paramecium to drive food into their gullet.
(ii) In certain molluscs Ciliary movement facilitates gaseous exchange by passing water currents over the gills
(iii) In echinoderms Ciliary movement enables locomotion by driving water through the water vascular system.
(iv) Cilia lining the respiratory tract of humans drives away the microbes and dust particles towards the nose or mouth.
(v) Cilia in the oviduct or fallopian tubes of human female moves ova towards the uterus.
(vi) Cilia in nephridia of annelids e.g. earthworms moves wastes
(vii) Flagellum of sperms enables their swimming movement.
(viii) Flagellum enables the movement in certain protozoans like euglena

CYTOSKELETAL ELEMENTS
Cytoskeleton is the network formed by microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
The cytoskeleton connects to every organelle and every part of the cell membrane, giving structural support and
maintaining shape.

1. MICROFILAMENTS (ACTIN FILAMENTS) 2. MICROTUBULES

Structure: Structure:
Two strands of actin, (a globular protein) twist Two alternating strands of alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin
around each other to form a solid, right-handed, long (globular protein) bind together in a helical shape to form a
helical-shaped rod, about 5nm-9nm in diameter hollow, straight cylinder with length of 200nm-25µm and
(see figure next page) diameter of about 25nm. (see figure next page)

Functions: Functions:
They enable a dividing cell membrane to pinch off Serve as conveyor belts moving other organelles throughout
into two cells the cytoplasm.
Are also involved in cell movement e.g. amoeboid Are the major components of cilia and flagella in cell motility
movement, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, etc. They form spindle fibers during cell division.
Associate with myosin to cause muscle contraction. Give shape and mechanical support to the cell.
Support the cell membrane and maintain cell shape. Enable vesicles to move during cell wall formation in plants.
Location: Location:
They nucleate at the plasma membrane, with the cell Found throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, forming
periphery (edges) having the highest concentration. part of cytoskeleton that gives structure and shape to cells.

3. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
These are a broad class of fibrous proteins whose diameter ranges between 8nm-2nm.
Examples of intermediate filaments Functions of intermediate filaments
(i) Keratins in animal epithelial cells They are tension-bearing elements that maintain cell shape and
(ii) Desmin, which integrates sarcolemma, Z-disc rigidity.
and nuclear membrane in sarcomeres of muscle cells. They anchor in place several organelles, including the nucleus
(iii) Peripherin and neurofilaments in neurons and desmosomes.
(iv) Nuclear lamins inside the nucleus, which attach They are involved in formation of the nuclear lamina, a net-
the chromosomes to nuclear membrane and provide like meshwork array that lines the inner nuclear membrane and
anchorage points for nuclear pores. governs the shape of the nucleus.

CENTRIOLES
Location: Are found only in animal cells, Functions:
near the nucleus in the centrosome which In animal cell division, centrioles organise microtubules to form
serves as an organizing centre for spindle fibers which separate chromosomes.
microtubules. Cellular organization - centrosomes are involved in organizing
Structure: Two cylinders, held at right angle microtubules, whose position determines position of organelles e.g.
to each other, each about 0.3µm-0.5µm long nucleus
and 0.24µm in diameter, made of nine triplets Ciliogenesis- In ciliated and flagellated organisms, the mother
of microtubules arranged in a ring in a 9+0 centriole which becomes the basal body determines the position of these
pattern. organelles.

Page 18 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161
CENTRIOLE STRUCTURE MICROFILAMENT MICROTUBULE STRUCTURE

G-actin
-tubulin
β-tubulin

VACUOLES
Plant vacuoles are large, sac-like structures in which a single membrane called tonoplast encloses a fluid called cell
sap, containing water and various dissolved substances. In animal cells, vacuoles, when present are smaller in size.

Formation of plant vacuole

A newly formed plant cell lacks sap vacuole. As the cell matures, vesicles that pinch off Golgi apparatus and RER
enlarge into small vacuoles. Smaller vacuoles fuse together to form a large vacuole.

Functions of vacuoles
(i) The tonoplast isolates the vacuolar sap from the cytosol, enabling vacuolar pathway of water.
(ii) Vacuoles in some flowers have coloured pigments that give petals bright coloured for attracting pollinators.
(iii) Serve as stores of reserve food, secretory products or waste product.
(iv) It stores salts, nutrients, minerals, pigments, proteins etc.
(v) It maintains cell turgor by osmotic uptake of water since vacuolar sap has a higher solute concentration than cytosol.
(vi) In meristematic cells, vacuoles bring about growth by initiating cell elongation.
(vii) Serve as stores of waste products like tannins, which are excreted when leaves fall.
(viii) In fresh water protozoans like amoeba and paramecium, contractile vacuoles regulate the water content of cells.
(ix) Food vacuoles formed by phagocytosis (endosomes) enable bulk intake of food.

Page 19 of 20
 CYTOLOGY ǁ Author: DONGO SHEMA FREDERICK ǁ MAY 2016 ǁ +256 700 484 161

TOPICAL QUESTIONS FOR PAPER 2 (P530/2)

Qn. 1. (a) Distinguish between cell organelle and cytoplasmic inclusion (3 marks)
(b) Describe the fine structure of the following:
(i) Golgi complex (ii) Nucleus (iii) Mitochondrion (12 marks)
(c) How are the structures in (b) above suited for functioning? (5 marks)

Qn. 2. (a) Describe the structure of any two named cytoskeletal elements. (10 marks)
(b) State the roles of each of the named cytoskeletal elements in (a) above to cells. (10 marks)

Qn. 3. (a) What are the main ideas of the cell theory?
(b) Discuss possible exceptions to the cell theory.
(c) Explain how surface area to volume ratio and nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio influence cell size.

Qn. 4. (a) Describe the functioning of Golgi apparatus in animal cells.

(b) Explain the role of lysosomes in animal cells.

Qn. 5. By stating differences in structure and function, distinguish between

(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
(b) Cell wall and cell membrane
(c) Cilia and flagella

Qn. 6. Give an account of

(a) Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure (6 Marks)
(b) The different functions of the membranes of cells. How do these functions relate to the structure of the membrane?
(14 marks)
Qn. 7. (a) Describe the structure of plant cell wall (10 Marks)
(b) Compare the structures of plant cell wall and plasma membrane (07 Marks)
(c) How is the plant cell wall suited for functioning? (3 Marks)

Qn. 8. (a) Describe the structure and function of TWO eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles other than the nucleus.
(b) Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have some non-membrane bound components in common. Describe the function of
TWO of the following and discuss how each differs in prokaryotes and eukaryotes:
(i) DNA (ii) Cell wall (iii) Ribosomes.
(c) Explain the endosymbiotic theory of the origin of eukaryotic cells, and discuss one example of evidence.

Qn. 9. Membranes are essential components of all cells.

(a) Identify THREE macromolecules that are components of the plasma membrane in a eukaryotic cell and discuss the
structure and function of each.
(b) Explain how membranes participate in each of the following biological processes
(i) Muscle contraction (ii) Fertilization of the egg (iii) Chemiosmosis production of ATP

Qn. 10. Describe the structural arrangement and function of the membranes associated with each of the following
eukaryotic organelles:
(a) Mitochondrion (b) Endoplasmic reticulum
(c) Chloroplast (d) Golgi apparatus

Qn. 11. (a) Describe the structure of a generalized eukaryotic plant cell.
(b) Indicate structurally how a non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell differs from a generalized eukaryotic plant cell.

Qn. 12. Membrane are important structural features of cells.

(a) Describe how membrane structure is related to the transport of materials across a membrane.
(b) Describe the role of membranes in the synthesis of ATP in either cellular respiration or photosynthesis.

Qn. 13. (a) Compare the structure of chloroplast and mitochondrion in relation to function.
(b) Eukaryotic cells have intracellular and extracellular components. State the functions of one named extracellular
component.

Page 20 of 20