List three instruments used in tacheometry.

(3 marks) (b) The following readings were recorded

when using a theodolite stadia lines. Vertical Angle Staff Readings 0° 0 3.64 m -2° 36' 0.52 m
yet.com The reduced level of the instrument height of collimation was 28.73 m. The levelling staff
was held vertically. Calculate the horizontal distance of the staff station from the instrument and
the reduced level of the staff position. (7 marks) (c) Explain three errors in stadia measurement.
(d) State four features of tacheometer. (6 marks) (4 marks)
ChatGPT
(a) Three instruments used in tacheometry are:

1. Tacheometer (also known as a theodolite with stadia hairs).

2. Stadia Rod (Levelling Staff).
3. Prism Pole (for reflecting measurements).

(b) To calculate the horizontal distance of the staff station from the instrument and the reduced
level of the staff position, we can use the stadia method.

Given data:

 Vertical Angle = 0° 0'

 Staff Readings: Top Stadia (S₁) = 3.64 m, Bottom Stadia (S₂) = 0.52 m
 Height of Collimation (Instrument Height) = 28.73 m

First, convert the vertical angle from degrees and minutes to decimal degrees: Vertical Angle = 0°
0' = 0.0°

Now, we can use the stadia method formula:

Horizontal Distance (D) = (S₁ - S₂) * K

Where:

 D is the horizontal distance.

 S₁ is the top stadia reading.
 S₂ is the bottom stadia reading.
 K is the stadia constant.

The stadia constant (K) is calculated as: K = (100 * F) / (D₁ - D₂)

Where:

 F is the focal length of the instrument.

 D₁ is the horizontal distance for a known staff reading (usually 100.0 m).
 D₂ is the horizontal distance for another known staff reading (usually 100.0 m).

You haven't provided the values for F, D₁, and D₂. Please provide these values, and I can calculate
the horizontal distance and the reduced level of the staff position for you.

(c) Three errors in stadia measurement are:

1. Instrumental Error: This error can occur due to imperfections or misalignment of the instrument's
stadia hairs, which can lead to inaccuracies in readings.
2. Atmospheric Refraction: Changes in atmospheric conditions, such as temperature and air density,
can cause light rays to bend as they pass through the atmosphere. This bending can affect stadia
measurements.
3. Curvature and Earth's Radius: Stadia measurements assume a flat plane, but the Earth's surface is
curved. Over long distances, the curvature of the Earth can lead to errors in stadia measurements.

(d) Four features of a tacheometer are:

1. Telescopic Sight: Tacheometers are equipped with a telescopic sight for aiming at the target or
staff.
2. Stadia Hairs: Tacheometers have stadia hairs or wires in the telescope's reticle. These hairs are
used for stadia measurements.
3. Horizontal and Vertical Angle Measurement: Tacheometers can measure both horizontal and
vertical angles, making them versatile instruments for various surveying tasks.
4. Stadia Method: Tacheometers use the stadia method for distance measurement, allowing
surveyors to determine horizontal distances quickly and accurately.
(a) Factors that influence the choice of balancing lines in mass haul diagrams include:

1. Topography of the Site: The natural contours and features of the site, such as hills, valleys, and
slopes, play a significant role in determining the placement of balancing lines. Balancing lines
should follow the terrain to minimize cut and fill operations.
2. Project Scope: The size and complexity of the project, including the volume of earthworks
required, can impact the choice of balancing lines. Larger projects may require multiple balancing
lines to efficiently manage cut and fill.
3. Environmental Considerations: Environmental regulations and concerns, such as protecting
sensitive ecosystems or minimizing soil erosion, can influence the placement of balancing lines to
minimize the project's impact on the environment.
4. Economic Factors: Balancing lines are often chosen to optimize the cost of earthmoving
operations. This includes minimizing the cost of transporting excavated material and maximizing
the use of existing on-site materials.
5. Equipment and Resources: The type of construction equipment and resources available can
influence balancing line selection. Efficient equipment utilization and resource allocation are
critical for cost-effective earthwork operations.
6. Site Accessibility: Accessibility to the site, including existing roads and transportation routes, can
affect the choice of balancing lines. Efficient transportation of materials to and from the site is a
key consideration.
7. Safety and Construction Schedule: Balancing lines should be selected to ensure the safety of
workers and construction activities. Additionally, the project schedule and timeline may impact
the choice of balancing lines to meet project deadlines.

(b) To sketch the parcel of land and calculate its area using the double median distance method:

Sketch of the Parcel of Land:

cssCopy code
A --------------- --B | | | | | | | | | | D--------------- --C
 Given dimensions: AB = 168 m BC = 255 m CD = 180 m DA = 240 m AC = 340 m

Offsets from DA to the irregular boundary:

 Distance from point A (m): 0, 60, 120, 180, 240

 Offsets (m): 0.0, 5.8, 1.5, 4.8, 0.0

Using the double median distance method, we calculate the area:

1. Calculate the median distance (M): M = (Offsets at 60 m + Offsets at 120 m + Offsets at 180 m) /
3 M = (5.8 + 1.5 + 4.8) / 3 M = 12.1 / 3 M = 4.033 m
2. Calculate the corrected distance (D): D = AC - 2 * M D = 340 m - 2 * 4.033 m D = 340 m - 8.066
m D = 331.934 m
3. Calculate the area (A) in hectares: A = (D * DA) / 10,000 A = (331.934 m * 240 m) / 10,000 A =
79,663.36 square meters A = 7.966336 hectares

So, the area of the land is approximately 7.97 hectares.

7. (a) (b) Outline five advantages of tic site plumb in establishing precise
vertical alignment. (5 marks) Explain the general procedure for setting out
works. (12 marks] (c) Calculate the area of irregular plot of land. (Use
trapezoidal rule). The strip is 20 m wide and the ordinate readings y₁, Ya, ys,
y, and ys are 65, 68, 70, 73, 75 respectively. (3 marks Y₁ Y2 Y3 Y. Ys
ChatGPT
(a) Advantages of Using Site Plumb in Establishing Precise Vertical
Alignment:

1. Accuracy: Site plumb ensures precise vertical alignment, reducing errors in

vertical measurements and ensuring that structures are erected with high
vertical accuracy.
2. Improved Foundation Design: Accurate vertical alignment aids in the design
and construction of stable and efficient foundations for structures.
3. Reduced Settling Issues: Precise vertical alignment helps prevent settling or
tilting problems in buildings and structures, which can occur when vertical
alignment is not properly maintained.
4. Structural Integrity: It contributes to the overall structural integrity of
buildings, ensuring that they can withstand vertical loads and stresses over
time.
5. Compliance with Building Codes: Following precise vertical alignment
standards is often a requirement in building codes and regulations,
ensuring compliance with safety and quality standards.
 (b) General Procedure for Setting Out Works:

The procedure for setting out works involves several steps to ensure that
construction is carried out accurately and in the correct location:

1. Site Survey: Conduct a thorough survey of the construction site to

determine the exact boundaries and positions for the proposed structures
or features.
2. Establish Reference Points: Set up reference points or benchmarks on the
site that can serve as a basis for all measurements. These points should be
well-defined and securely marked.
3. Site Layout: Use the reference points to layout the desired features or
structures, ensuring they are correctly positioned and aligned according to
the construction plans.
4. Measurement and Marking: Use measuring instruments, such as
theodolites, total stations, or levels, to take precise measurements. Mark the
locations for foundations, walls, columns, and other critical elements.
5. Pegging: Drive pegs or stakes into the ground to mark the positions of
critical points or lines. These pegs serve as visual guides for the
construction team.
6. Verify Alignment: Double-check all measurements and alignments before
any construction work begins to ensure accuracy.
7. Record Data: Maintain detailed records of all measurements and layout
points. These records are essential for quality control and future reference.
8. Monitor Construction: Continuously monitor the construction process to
ensure that the structures are being built in the correct locations and
according to the specified alignments.
9. Adjustments: Make any necessary adjustments during construction to
maintain proper alignment and positioning.
10.Quality Control: Implement a quality control process to verify that the
constructed elements meet the required standards and tolerances.

(c) Calculation of Area Using Trapezoidal Rule:

Given data: Strip width (w) = 20 m Ordinate readings (y₁, y₂, y₃, y₄, y₅) = (65,
68, 70, 73, 75)

Using the trapezoidal rule formula:

 Area (A) = (w / 2) * (y₁ + 2y₂ + 2y₃ + 2y₄ + y₅)

A = (20 / 2) * (65 + 2 * 68 + 2 * 70 + 2 * 73 + 75) A = (10) * (65 + 136 + 140

+ 146 + 75) A = (10) * (562) A = 5620 square meters

So, the area of the irregular plot of land is 5620 square meters.

(a) Definitions of Terms Used in Photo Planes:

(i) Positive (Photo Planes): In the context of photo planes, a positive refers to a photographic print
or image that is produced directly from the exposed and developed film negative. Positives are
the final images used for interpretation, analysis, or visual representation, such as maps and
photographs.

(ii) Negative (Photo Planes): A negative in photo planes is the original film exposed during aerial
photography. It contains reversed or inverted tones, where dark areas appear light, and vice
versa. Negatives are used to create positives through the development process and are essential
for generating multiple copies or enlargements of aerial photographs.

(b) Differences Between Maps and Aerial Photographs:

Maps and aerial photographs serve different purposes and have distinct characteristics:

Maps:

1. Representation: Maps are graphic representations of geographical features, boundaries, and

information using symbols, lines, and colors.
2. Scale: Maps have a defined scale that indicates the ratio of map distance to actual ground
distance. Scales can vary from small-scale (covering large areas) to large-scale (covering smaller
areas in detail).
3. Interpretation: Maps are designed for human interpretation and convey a wide range of
information, including topography, land use, roads, political boundaries, and more.
4. Data Integration: Maps can integrate various types of information, such as cultural, physical, and
thematic data, into a single visual representation.
5. Cartographic Techniques: Cartographic techniques are used in map production to ensure
accurate representation, including contour lines, legends, and grid systems.

Aerial Photographs:

1. Source: Aerial photographs are captured images of the Earth's surface taken from an elevated
perspective, typically from aircraft or satellites.
2. Scale: Aerial photographs have inherent scales based on the altitude of the capture platform. The
scale of a single aerial photograph may vary across its extent.
3. Realism: Aerial photographs provide realistic depictions of the Earth's surface, showing actual
features, vegetation, buildings, and terrain as they appear from the air.
4. Interpretation: Aerial photographs serve as source materials for interpretation, analysis, and
mapping. They are often used for land use planning, environmental assessment, and other
applications.
5. Georeferencing: Aerial photographs are georeferenced to accurately relate the photographic
image to specific geographic coordinates on the Earth's surface.

(c) Procedure for Proper Orientation of Stereo Model:

The orientation of a stereo model (a pair of overlapping aerial photographs used for stereoscopic
viewing) is critical for accurate interpretation and measurement. The procedure for proper
orientation typically involves the following steps:

1. Identifying Control Points: Identify well-defined control points or ground features that are visible
in both photographs. These could include prominent landmarks, road intersections, or surveyed
ground control points.
2. Measurement of Control Points: Use specialized photogrammetric equipment, such as a
stereoplotter or stereo comparator, to measure the precise positions of control points in both
photographs. These measurements establish the baseline for orientation.
3. Bundle Adjustment: Perform a bundle adjustment, a mathematical process that adjusts the
interior and exterior orientation parameters of the camera system. This step ensures that the
stereo model accurately represents the terrain's geometry.
4. Matching Control Points: Match the control points in both photographs by superimposing them
in the stereo model. This involves adjusting the rotation, tilt, and scale of one photograph relative
to the other to achieve precise alignment.
5. Stereoscopic Viewing: Use a stereoscope or similar optical device to view the stereo model. This
allows for three-dimensional viewing, where depth and elevation differences become apparent.
6. Interpretation and Measurement: Analysts can now interpret and measure features in the stereo
model with depth perception, enabling accurate mapping, terrain analysis, and other
applications.
7. Documentation: Document the orientation parameters, control point coordinates, and any
adjustments made during the orientation process for reference and quality control.

Proper orientation of a stereo model is essential for photogrammetric mapping, topographic

surveying, and many other applications that rely on precise measurements and visual analysis of
aerial photographs.

(a) To calculate the distance from the eyepiece to the staff using stadia
tacheometry, you can use the following formula:

Distance (D) = (F × S) / (S₂ - S₁)

Where:

 D = Distance from the eyepiece to the staff

 F = Focal length of the stadia diaphragm (300 mm in this case)
 S₁ = Lower stadia reading (1.5 m)
 S₂ = Upper stadia reading (2.5 m)

Plugging in the values:

D = (300 mm × 1.5 m) / (2.5 m - 1.5 m) D = (300 × 1.5) / 1 D = 450 meters

So, the distance from the eyepiece to the staff is 450 meters.

(b) Reasons for Preliminary Survey Before Tacheometric Surveying:

1. Ground Assessment: Preliminary survey helps assess the terrain, ground

conditions, and any obstacles that may affect the tacheometric survey. This
assessment is crucial for planning the survey and ensuring safe and efficient
data collection.
2. Control Point Establishment: Preliminary survey involves the establishment
of control points that serve as reference markers for the tacheometric
survey. These points are used for orientation and calibration during the
main survey.
3. Site Reconnaissance: It allows surveyors to familiarize themselves with the
survey area, identify suitable instrument positions, and plan traverse routes
for efficient data collection.
4. Safety Precautions: Identifying potential safety hazards, such as unstable
ground or steep slopes, helps in taking necessary precautions to ensure the
safety of the survey team during the main survey.

(c) Principle of Stadia Tacheometry:

The principle of stadia tacheometry is based on the concept that the

apparent size of an object in the stadia diaphragm (crosshairs with stadia
hairs) of the theodolite's telescope can be used to determine distances. This
method relies on the ratio of the stadia hairs' spacing to the focal length of
the telescope.

The stadia hairs in the diaphragm consist of two horizontal hairs with a
known separation distance. When the surveyor sights a target (such as a
levelling staff) through the telescope, the difference in the apparent height
between the upper and lower stadia hairs (i.e., the stadia interval) can be
used to calculate the distance from the instrument to the target.

The principle is expressed by the formula:

 Distance (D) = (F × S) / H

Where:

 D = Horizontal distance from the instrument to the target

 F = Focal length of the telescope
 S = Stadia interval (the difference in staff readings between the upper and
lower stadia hairs)
 H = Height of the instrument above the ground (or height of the
instrument's line of sight)

Stadia tacheometry is widely used in surveying for its speed and accuracy in
measuring distances to remote objects without the need for pacing or
direct measurement. However, it requires proper calibration and careful
observation of stadia readings for accurate results.

(d) Field Procedure for Carrying Out Tacheometric Survey:

The field procedure for tacheometric survey involves the following steps:

1. Preliminary Survey: Conduct a preliminary survey to assess ground

conditions, establish control points, and plan instrument positions.
2. Instrument Setup: Set up the tacheometer (theodolite with stadia
diaphragm) on a stable tripod at a known control point with a level
instrument platform.
3. Levelling: Level the instrument using a spirit level to ensure the horizontal
axis is truly horizontal.
4. Target Sighting: Sight the target (levelling staff) through the telescope and
align it precisely with the crosshairs and stadia hairs.
5. Record Stadia Reading: Record the staff readings for both the upper and
lower stadia hairs.
6. Calculate Distance: Calculate the horizontal distance to the target using the
stadia tacheometry formula.
7. Repeat Measurements: Repeat the measurements for multiple points of
interest, ensuring accuracy and consistency.
8. Note Vertical Angles: Record vertical angles if necessary for three-
dimensional positioning.
9. Data Collection: Record all measurements, including stadia readings, target
descriptions, and instrument settings.
10.Data Reduction: Process the collected data to calculate distances and
perform any necessary adjustments.
11.Plotting: Plot the surveyed points on a drawing or map to create a
topographic representation of the surveyed area.
12.Quality Control: Review and verify the accuracy of the survey data and
make any necessary corrections.

Tacheometric surveying is commonly used in various applications, including

topographic mapping, construction layout, and engineering surveys. Proper
instrument calibration, careful observation, and diligent data processing are
essential for accurate results.

(a) Characteristics of Mass Haul Diagram:

1. Earthwork Volumes: A mass haul diagram is used to represent the volumes of earthwork (cut and
fill) required for a construction project. It provides a visual representation of the movement of soil
and materials on the construction site.
2. Horizontal Distance: The diagram typically includes horizontal distances along the x-axis, which
represent the length of the project or construction site. These distances help in tracking the
movement of materials over the project's length.
3. Elevation or Vertical Distance: The vertical axis of the diagram represents elevation or vertical
distance above a reference point, often related to sea level or a specified datum. It shows how
the ground elevation changes along the length of the project.
4. Cut and Fill Zones: Mass haul diagrams divide the project area into cut (excavation) and fill
(embankment) zones. These zones are indicated by the slopes of the diagram's lines, with
ascending slopes representing cut areas and descending slopes indicating fill areas.
5. Slope Lines: The slopes in the diagram represent the grades or gradients of the terrain. Steeper
slopes indicate significant changes in elevation, while gentler slopes represent gradual elevation
changes.

(b) Calculation of Volume Between Contours 145 m and 120 m Using End Area Method:

To calculate the volume of earthwork between contours 145 m and 120 m using the end area
method, you can follow these steps:

1. Calculate the cross-sectional areas between each pair of contour lines and the water level.
2. Multiply each area by the horizontal distance between the contour lines.
3. Sum the areas for all cross-sections to obtain the total cut (or fill) volume.

Here's the calculation for the given data:

Cross-Section 1 (Between 150 m and 145 m): Area = (150 m - 145 m) * 745 m² = 5 m * 745 m² =
3725 m³
 Cross-Section 2 (Between 145 m and 140 m): Area = (145 m - 140 m) * 12300 m² = 5 m * 12300
m² = 61500 m³

Cross-Section 3 (Between 140 m and 135 m): Area = (140 m - 135 m) * 11200 m² = 5 m * 11200
m² = 56000 m³

Cross-Section 4 (Between 135 m and 130 m): Area = (135 m - 130 m) * 9800 m² = 5 m * 9800 m²
= 49000 m³

Cross-Section 5 (Between 130 m and 125 m): Area = (130 m - 125 m) * 7100 m² = 5 m * 7100 m²
= 35500 m³

Now, sum the volumes of all cross-sections: Total Volume = 3725 m³ + 61500 m³ + 56000 m³ +
49000 m³ + 35500 m³ = 205725 m³

So, the volume of earthwork between contours 145 m and 120 m is 205725 cubic meters.
a) Procedure for Providing Control for a Multi-Storey Structure:

Control points are essential for accurately setting out and constructing multi-storey structures.
The following is a simplified procedure for providing control:

1. Establish Reference Datum:

 Begin by establishing a reference datum or benchmark for the entire project site. This
reference point serves as the base elevation and horizontal control for the entire
structure.
2. Survey the Site:
 Conduct a detailed topographic survey of the construction site. This survey includes
measuring the site boundaries, existing features, and any underground utilities or
services. The survey helps in understanding the existing conditions of the site.
3. Set Up Primary Control Points:
 Set up primary control points at strategic locations across the site. These control points
should be well-distributed and securely fixed to the ground to minimize movement. Use
precise surveying equipment like total stations or GPS to establish these points.
4. Establish Building Baselines:
 Determine the building baselines or axes that define the orientation and layout of the
multi-storey structure. These axes serve as reference lines for the entire construction
process.
5. Transfer Control to Each Floor:
 As construction progresses vertically, transfer the established control points and building
axes to each floor of the structure. This ensures that each floor is correctly aligned with
the ones below and above.
6. Check for Accuracy:
 Regularly check the accuracy of control points and building axes using surveying
instruments. Any deviations from the planned positions should be corrected promptly.
7. Control for Structural Elements:
 Control points are also used for setting out structural elements such as columns, beams,
and walls. Precise measurements are essential to ensure that these elements are correctly
positioned.
8. Monitor During Construction:
 Continuously monitor the control points throughout the construction process. This
includes checking for any movements, settling, or other changes that may affect the
alignment and levelness of the structure.
9. Final Verification:
 Once construction is complete, conduct a final survey to verify that the structure is in
alignment with the design plans and specifications. Any necessary adjustments should be
made before handing over the project.

(b) Applications of Automatic Site Plumb:

1. Precise Vertical Alignment: Automatic site plumb is used to establish precise vertical alignment
for various construction and engineering applications, ensuring that structures are level and
vertical.
2. Foundation Construction: It is crucial in foundation construction, especially for structures with
deep foundations like high-rise buildings or bridges. It helps in ensuring that the foundation
elements are vertically aligned.
3. Monitoring Structural Stability: Automatic site plumb instruments are used for monitoring the
vertical stability of structures during and after construction, detecting any settlement or
movement.
4. Geodetic Surveys: Geodetic surveys for mapping and cartography use automatic site plumb to
establish accurate vertical control points for reference in geographic information systems (GIS).

(c) Calculation of Area Using Mid-Ordinate Rule:

The mid-ordinate rule is used to calculate the area of an irregular plot. The formula for
calculating the area using this rule is:

Area = Sum of (Width * Mid-Ordinate) for All Sections

Given the data:

 Distance (m): 20, 40, 60, 80, 100

 Ordinates (m): 20, 18, 18, 23, 26

Calculate the area:

 Section 1: (20 m * 20 m) / 2 = 200 m²

 Section 2: (40 m * 18 m) / 2 = 360 m²
 Section 3: (60 m * 18 m) / 2 = 540 m²
 Section 4: (80 m * 23 m) / 2 = 920 m²
 Section 5: (100 m * 26 m) / 2 = 1300 m²

Now, sum the areas of all sections:

Total Area = 200 m² + 360 m² + 540 m² + 920 m² + 1300 m² = 3320 m²

So, the area of the irregular plot is 3320 square meters.

 Procedure for Using a Planimeter:

A planimeter is a mechanical or digital instrument used to measure the area

of irregularly shaped objects or regions on a map or drawing. Here's a
procedure for using a mechanical planimeter:

1. Calibrate the Planimeter:

 Before use, ensure that the planimeter is properly calibrated.
Calibration involves setting the planimeter's wheel(s) to zero.
2. Set the Starting Point:
 Place the planimeter on the starting point of the area you want to
measure. Ensure that the reference arm (long arm) of the planimeter
aligns with the object's boundary.
3. Trace the Boundary:
 Begin tracing the boundary of the area you want to measure using
the tracing arm (short arm) of the planimeter. Keep the tracing arm in
contact with the paper or surface.
4. Complete the Tracing:
 Carefully follow the entire boundary of the area without lifting the
tracing arm. Ensure that you return to the starting point to close the
loop.
5. Read the Measurement:
 After completing the tracing, read the measurement displayed on the
planimeter. Mechanical planimeters often have a counter that
displays the measured area directly. For digital planimeters, the
measurement is typically displayed on a screen.
6. Record the Measurement:
 Record the measured area in the appropriate units, such as square
meters or square feet, depending on the scale of the drawing or map.
7. Repeat if Necessary:
 If you need to measure multiple irregular areas on the same drawing,
reset the planimeter to zero, and repeat the tracing process for each
area.
8. Calculate the Total Area (If Needed):
 If you are measuring multiple areas, calculate the total area by
summing up the measurements obtained for each area.
 Using a planimeter requires practice to achieve accurate results. It's
essential to maintain a steady hand while tracing and ensure that the
tracing arm remains in contact with the surface throughout the process.

(ii) Calculation of Invert Levels and Sight Rail Heights:

Given data:

 Backsight reading (BM) = 0.83 m (R.L. -50.49 m)

 Distance AB = 105 m
 Distance BC = 153 m
 Server rise = 1 in 300

(i) Invert Level at B and C:

 Invert Level at B = BM + (AB * Server Rise) = -50.49 m + (105 m * 1/300) = -

50.49 m + 0.35 m = -50.14 m
 Invert Level at C = BM + (AB * Server Rise) + (BC * Server Rise) = -50.49 m
+ (105 m * 1/300) + (153 m * 1/300) = -50.49 m + 0.35 m + 0.51 m = -
49.63 m

(ii) Height of Sight Rail at A, B, and C:

 Height of Sight Rail at A = Ground Level at A + BM = 1.80 m - 50.49 m = -

48.69 m
 Height of Sight Rail at B = Ground Level at B + Invert Level at B = Ground
Level at B - 50.14 m
 Height of Sight Rail at C = Ground Level at C + Invert Level at C = Ground
Level at C - 49.63 m

Explanation of Terms:

(i) Survey Grid:

 A survey grid is a network of horizontal and vertical lines established on a

construction site or a survey area. It serves as a reference system for
locating and measuring points, structures, and features during the
surveying and construction processes.

(ii) Site Grid:

 A site grid is a subset of the survey grid that specifically covers the
construction site. It consists of regularly spaced reference points or lines
that help in positioning and setting out various elements of the
construction project accurately.

(iii) Structural Grid:

 A structural grid is a grid system used within the framework of a building or

structure. It typically includes horizontal and vertical lines that define the
positions and spacing of structural components such as columns, beams,
walls, and other load-bearing elements. The structural grid ensures precise
alignment and layout of these elements during construction.

(a) Photogrammetry is the science and technique of obtaining accurate measurements and
three-dimensional data of objects, surfaces, and terrain from aerial or terrestrial photographs. It
involves the use of photographs to create maps, models, and other spatial information.

(b) Methods of Making Mosaic:

(i) Paper Prints:

 In the paper print method, individual prints (photographs) are physically arranged and
overlapped to create a mosaic. These prints are usually geo-referenced to specific ground control
points. Precise alignment and registration are required to ensure accurate mosaic creation.

(ii) Negatives:

 In the negative method, photographic negatives are used to create the mosaic. The negatives are
typically scanned or digitized, and specialized software is employed to stitch them together.
Overlapping features in the negatives aid in alignment and matching.

(iii) Digital Imagery:

 Digital imagery involves the use of digital photographs taken with modern cameras or sensors.
These digital images are processed using specialized photogrammetric software to create a
mosaic. The software can automatically align and stitch the images together, taking advantage of
overlapping features.

(c) Uses Necessitating Overlaps in Aerial Photographs:

Overlaps in aerial photographs are necessary for various purposes, including:

1. Stereoscopy: Overlaps in pairs of aerial photographs are essential for creating stereoscopic
vision, allowing photogrammetrists to measure elevation and depth accurately. The overlap
ensures that corresponding features are visible in both photographs.
2. Orthophoto Generation: Overlapping photographs are used to create orthophotos, which are
geometrically corrected aerial images that have consistent scale and minimal distortion. Overlaps
help in the rectification process.
3. Feature Matching: Overlaps aid in matching common features and points between
photographs, facilitating the process of tying images together for accurate mosaic creation.
4. Accuracy and Precision: Overlaps provide redundancy in captured data, which is crucial for
ensuring the accuracy and precision of measurements and mapping. They help in reducing errors
caused by distortion, terrain relief, and perspective.

(d) Calculation of Building Height:

Given data:

 Height of camera (above ground) = 1200 m

 Measurement in photo from top of building = 88.40 mm
 Measurement in photo from bottom of building = 90.50 mm

To calculate the height of the building, we can use the concept of similar triangles. The vertical
distance in the photo (88.40 mm - 90.50 mm) corresponds to the actual height of the building (h)
above the ground. The height of the camera (H) above the ground is known.

Using the principle of similar triangles, we can set up the following proportion:

ℎ�=Vertical distance in photoHeight of camera Hh=Height of cameraVertical distance in photo

Substitute the known values:

ℎ1200=90.50��−88.40��1200�1200h=1200m90.50mm−88.40mm

Now, solve for h:

ℎ=(90.50��−88.40��)×1200�1200h=1200(90.50mm−88.40mm)×1200m

Calculate the value of h to find the height of the building in meters.