TPO 24

Passage ❶

Lake Water

Where does the water in a lake come from, and how does water leave it? Water enters a lake from in-
flowing rivers, from underwater seeps and springs, from overland flow off the surrounding land, and
from rain falling directly on the lake surface. Water leaves a lake via outflowing rivers, by soaking into
the bed of the lake, and by evaporation. So much is obvious.

The questions become more complicated when actual volumes of water are considered: how much water
enters and leaves by each route? Discovering the inputs and outputs of rivers is a matter of measuring
the discharges of every inflowing and outflowing stream and river. Then exchanges with the atmosphere
are calculated by finding the difference between the gains from rain, as measured (rather roughly) by
rain gauges, and the losses by evaporation, measured with models that correct for the other sources of
water loss. For the majority of lakes, certainly those surrounded by forests, input from overland flow is
too small to have a noticeable effect. Changes in lake level not explained by river flows plus exchanges
with the atmosphere must be due to the net difference between what seeps into the lake from the
groundwater and what leaks into the groundwater. Note the word "net": measuring the actual amounts of
groundwater seepage into the lake and out of the lake is a much more complicated matter than merely
inferring their difference.

Once all this information has been gathered, it becomes possible to judge whether a lake's flow is
mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs. If the former are
greater, the lake is a surface-water-dominated lake; if the latter, it is a seepage-dominated lake. Occa-
sionally, common sense tells you which of these two possibilities applies. For example, a pond in hilly
country that maintains a steady water level all through a dry summer in spite of having no streams flow-
ing into it must obviously be seepage dominated. Conversely, a pond with a stream flowing in one end
and out the other, which dries up when the stream dries up, is clearly surface water dominated.

By whatever means, a lake is constantly gaining water and losing water: its water does not just sit there,
or, anyway, not for long. This raises the matter of a lake's residence time. The residence time is the aver-
age length of time that any particular molecule of water remains in the lake, and it is calculated by di-
viding the volume of water in the lake by the rate at which water leaves the lake. The residence time is
an average; the time spent in the lake by a given molecule (if we could follow its fate) would depend on
the route it took: it might flow through as part of the fastest, most direct current, or it might circle in a
backwater for an indefinitely long time.

Residence times vary enormously. They range from a few days for small lakes up to several hundred
years for large ones; Lake Tahoe, in California, has a residence time of 700 years. The residence times
for the Great Lakes of North America, namely, Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario,
are, respectively, 190,100,22,2.5, and 6 years. Lake Erie's is the lowest: although its area is larger than
Lake Ontario' s, its volume is less than one-third as great because it is so shallow-less than 20 meters on
average.

A given lake's residence time is by no means a fixed quantity. It depends on the rate at which water en-
ters the lake, and that depends on the rainfall and the evaporation rate. Climatic change (the result of
global warming?) is dramatically affecting the residence times of some lakes in northwestern Ontario,
Canada. In the period 1970 to 1986, rainfall in the area decreased from 1,000 millimeters to 650 mil-
limeters per annum, while above-average temperatures speeded up the evapotranspiration rate (the rate
at which water is lost to the atmosphere through evaporation and the processes of plant life). The result
has been that the residence time of one of the lakes increased from 5 to 18 years during the study period.
The slowing down of water renewal leads to a chain of further consequences; it causes dissolved chemi-
cals to become increasingly concentrated, and this, in turn, has a marked effect on all living things in
the lake.
 Paragraph 1

❶Where does the water in a lake come from, and how does water leave it? ❷Water enters a lake from
inflowing rivers, from underwater seeps and springs, from overland flow off the surrounding land, and
from rain falling directly on the lake surface. ❸Water leaves a lake via out flowing rivers, by soaking
into the bed of the lake, and by evaporation. ❹So much is obvious.

1. The phrase “so much” in the passage refers to

A) the negative effects of overland flow, rain, and evaporation on river water levels
B) water that a lake loses to outflowing rivers, to the lake bed, and to evaporation
C) the importance of rivers to the maintenance of lake water levels
D) the information given about ways that water can enter or exit a lake

Paragraph 2

❶The questions become more complicated when actual volumes of water are considered: how much
water enters and leaves by each route? ❷Discovering the inputs and outputs of rivers is a matter of
measuring the discharges of every inflowing and outflowing stream and river. ❸Then exchanges with
the atmosphere are calculated by finding the difference between the gains from rain, as measured (rather
roughly) by rain gauges, and the losses by evaporation, measured with models that correct for the other
sources of water loss. ❹For the majority of lakes, certainly those surrounded by forests, input from
overland flow is too small to have a noticeable effect. ❺Changes in lake level not explained by river
flows plus exchanges with the atmosphere must be due to the net difference between what seeps into the
lake from the groundwater and what leaks into the groundwater. ❻Note the word "net": measuring the
actual amounts of groundwater seepage into the lake and out of the lake is a much more complicated
matter than merely inferring their difference.

2. The word "gains" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) results
B) increases
C) resources
D) savings

3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the movement of water into a lake?

A) Heavy rain accounts for most of the water that enters into lakes.
B) Rainfall replaces approximately the amount of water lost through evaporation.
C) Overland flow into lakes is reduced by the presence of forests.
D) Seepage has a smaller effect on water level than any other input.

4. Why does the author use the phrase Note the word "net" in the passage?

A) To emphasize the impact of seepage on water levels

B) To point out that seepage is calculated differently from river flows and atmospheric exchanges
C) To compare the different methods of calculating seepage
D) To emphasize the difficulty of obtaining specific values for seepage inputs and outputs
 Paragraph 3

❶Once all this information has been gathered, it becomes possible to judge whether a lake's flow is
mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs. ❷If the former are
greater, the lake is a surface-water-dominated lake; if the latter, it is a seepage-dominated lake. ❸Occa-
sionally, common sense tells you which of these two possibilities applies. ❹For example, a pond in
hilly country that maintains a steady water level all through a dry summer in spite of having no streams
flowing into it must obviously be seepage dominated. ❺Conversely, a pond with a stream flowing in
one end and out the other, which dries up when the stream dries up, is clearly surface water dominated.

5. The word "conversely" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) on the other hand

B) in the same way
C) in other words
D) on average

6. According to paragraph 3, which of the following best describes a seepage-dominated lake?

A) A lake that is fed by streams but still has fluctuating water levels
B) A lake with a constant water level that has no streams or rivers as inputs
C) A lake with a stream flowing into it and a stream flowing out of it
D) A lake that has surface and underground inputs but loses water during dry seasons

Paragraph 4

❶By whatever means, a lake is constantly gaining water and losing water: its water does not just sit
there, or, anyway, not for long. ❷This raises the matter of a lake's residence time. ❸The residence time
is the average length of time that any particular molecule of water remains in the lake, and it is calcu-
lated by dividing the volume of water in the lake by the rate at which water leaves the lake. ❹The resi-
dence time is an average; the time spent in the lake by a given molecule (if we could follow its fate)
would depend on the route it took: it might flow through as part of the fastest, most direct current, or it
might circle in a backwater for an indefinitely long time.

7. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that the length of time a given molecule of water remains in a lake

A) depends entirely upon the average speed of a lake' s currents

B) can be measured by the volume of the lake alone
C) can be greater or lesser than the residence time
D) is similar to the length of time all other molecules remain in that lake

Paragraph 5

❶Residence times vary enormously. ❷They range from a few days for small lakes up to several hun-
dred years for large ones; Lake Tahoe, in California, has a residence time of 700 years. ❸The residence
times for the Great Lakes of North America, namely, Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and On-
tario, are, respectively, 190,100,22,2.5, and 6 years. ❹Lake Erie's is the lowest: although its area is
larger than Lake Ontario's, its volume is less than one-third as great because it is so shallow-less than 20
meters on average.

8. According to paragraph 5, Lake Erie's residence time is lower than Lake Ontario's for which of the
following reasons?
A) Lake Erie has a larger area than Lake Ontario.
B) Lake Ontario is shallower than Lake Erie.
C) Lake Ontario has a greater volume than Lake Erie.
D) Lake Erie receives less rainfall than Lake Ontario.

9. Why does the author discuss the Great Lakes in paragraph 5?

A) To demonstrate the extent to which residence times vary from lake to lake
B) To illustrate how residence times are calculated for specific lakes
C) To argue that the residence time of a lake increases with area
D) To emphasize that Lake Tahoe's residence time is unusually long

Paragraph 6

❶A given lake's residence time is by no means a fixed quantity. ❷It depends on the rate at which water
enters the lake, and that depends on the rainfall and the evaporation rate. ❸Climatic change (the result
of global warming?) is dramatically affecting the residence times of some lakes in northwestern Ontario,
Canada. ❹In the period 1970 to 1986, rainfall in the area decreased from 1,000 millimeters to 650 mil-
limeters per annum, while above-average temperatures speeded up the evapotranspiration rate (the rate
at which water is lost to the atmosphere through evaporation and the processes of plant life). ❺The re-
sult has been that the residence time of one of the lakes increased from 5 to 18 years during the study
period. ❻The slowing down of water renewal leads to a chain of further consequences; it causes dis-
solved chemicals to become increasingly concentrated, and this, in turn, has a marked effect on all liv-
ing things in the lake.

10. The word "further" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) expected
B) additional
C) serious
D) unfortunate

11. According to paragraph 6, which of the following explains the increase in residence northwestern
Ontario?

A) The amount of water flowing into the lakes has increased.

B) The rate of evaporation has decreased more sharply than the amount of rainfall.
C) The renewal of the lakes' water has slowed due to changes in climate.
D) Plants have required less water from the lakes

12. According to paragraph 6, residence time is affected by all of the following EXCEPT:

A) amount of rainfall
B) rate of evaporation
C) temperature of surrounding air
D) concentration of chemicals in lake water

13. Look at the four squares [▣] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the pas-
sage.

Of course, a lake may be neither surface-water-nor seepage-dominated if, for example, its inputs
are predominantly surface and its outputs are predominantly seepage.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square ▣ to add the sentence to the passage.
Once all this information has been gathered, it becomes possible to judge whether a lake's flow is
mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs. ▣ If the former
are greater, the lake is a surface-water-dominated lake; if the latter, it is a seepage-dominated lake. ▣
Occasionally, common sense tells you which of these two possibilities applies. ▣ For example, a pond
in hilly country that maintains a steady water level all through a dry summer in spite of having no
streams flowing into it must obviously be seepage dominated. Conversely, a pond with a stream flowing
in one end and out the other, which dries up when the stream dries up, is clearly surface water domi-
nated. ▣

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Com-
plete the summary by selected THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the pas-
sage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in
the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To
review the passage, click View Text.

Water enters, remains, and eventually leaves a lake in a variety of ways.

Answer Choices

A) By measuring the water quantities at each of a lake's inputs and outputs, it can be determined
whether water enters the lake mainly from surface or groundwater sources.

B) Changes in lake level and volume are caused principally by the amount of evaporation of water into
the atmosphere.

C) It is sometimes possible to decide whether a lake is surface water dominated or seepage dominated
by simple observation at different seasons.

D) The average period of time that molecules of water spend in a lake—the residence time—varies
from lake to lake and overtime within a particular lake.

E) The residence times of surface-water-dominated lakes are usually longer than those of seepage-
dominated lakes.

F) The residence time of a lake frequently depends on the kinds of organisms to be found in the lake.
TPO 24
Passage ❷

Breathing During Sleep

Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discov-
ered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences
in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function.
Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the di-
aphragm more important. Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight against
the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. However, there are many
other changes that affect respiration when asleep.

During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. The first is an automatic, meta-
bolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate and
depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ratio in
the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the fore-
brain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignoring
or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing.

During NREM (the phase of sleep in which there is no rapid eye movement) breathing becomes deeper
and more regular, but there is also a decrease in the breathing rate, resulting in less air being exchanged
overall. This occurs because during NREM sleep the automatic, metabolic system has exclusive control
over breathing and the body uses less oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. Also, during sleep the
automatic metabolic system is less responsive to carbon dioxide levels and oxygen levels in the blood.
Two things result from these changes in breathing control that occur during sleep. First, there may be a
brief cessation or reduction of breathing when falling asleep as the sleeper waxes and wanes between
sleep and wakefulness and their differing control mechanisms. Second, once sleep is fully obtained,
there is an increase of carbon dioxide and a decrease of oxygen in the blood that persists during NREM.

But that is not all that changes. During all phases of sleep, several changes in the air passages have been
observed. It takes twice as much effort to breathe during sleep because of greater resistance to airflow in
the airways and changes in the efficiency of the muscles used for breathing. Some of the muscles that
help keep the upper airway open when breathing tend to become more relaxed during sleep, especially
during REM (the phase of sleep in which there is rapid eye movement). Without this muscular action,
inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon—the narrow passages tend to collapse. Also there is a regu-
lar cycle of change in resistance between the two sides of the nose. If something blocks the "good" side,
such as congestion from allergies or a cold, then resistance increases dramatically. Coupled with these
factors is the loss of the complex interactions among the muscles that can change the route of airflow
from nose to mouth.

Other respiratory regulating mechanisms apparently cease functioning during sleep. For example, dur-
ing wakefulness there is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase in breathing effort when inhaling is
made more difficult (such as breathing through a restrictive face mask). This reflexive adjustment is to-
tally absent during NREM sleep. Only after several inadequate breaths under such conditions, resulting
in the considerable elevation of carbon dioxide and reduction of oxygen in the blood, is breathing effort
adjusted. Finally, the coughing reflex in reaction to irritants in the airway produces not a cough during
sleep but a cessation of breathing. If the irritation is severe enough, a sleeping person will arouse, clear
the airway, then resume breathing and likely return to sleep.

Additional breathing changes occur during REM sleep that are even more dramatic than the changes
that occur during NREM. The amount of air exchanged is even lower in REM than NREM because, al-
though breathing is more rapid in REM, it is also more irregular, with brief episodes of shallow breath-
ing or absence of breathing. In addition, breathing during REM depends much more on the action of the
diaphragm and much less on rib cage action.
 Paragraph 1

❶Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been dis-
covered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. ❷Not only are there differ-
ences in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function.
❸Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the di-
aphragm more important. ❹Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight
against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. ❺However, there are
many other changes that affect respiration when asleep.

1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following can be inferred about the diaphragm during sleep?

A) During sleep the diaphragm requires increased movement of the rib cage.
B) The diaphragm helps with breathing as movements of the rib cage decrease during sleep.
C) The diaphragm requires a great amount of pressure to function properly.
D) The diaphragm contributes to the effective functioning of the rib cage.

Paragraph 2

❶During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. ❷The first is an automatic,
metabolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. ❸It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate
and depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ra-
tio in the blood. ❹The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. ❺Its control center is based
in the forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. ❻It is capable
of ignoring or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breath-
ing.

2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of the voluntary breathing system EXCEPT:

A) It has its control center in the brain stem.

B) It controls breathing for a number of activities during wakefulness.
C) It is able to bypass the automatic system.
D) It produces an irregular breathing pattern.

Paragraph 3

❶During NREM (the phase of sleep in which there is no rapid eye movement) breathing becomes
deeper and more regular, but there is also a decrease in the breathing rate, resulting in less air being ex-
changed overall. ❷This occurs because during NREM sleep the automatic, metabolic system has exclu-
sive control over breathing and the body uses less oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. ❸Also,
during sleep the automatic metabolic system is less responsive to carbon dioxide levels and oxygen lev-
els in the blood. ❹Two things result from these changes in breathing control that occur during sleep.
❺First, there may be a brief cessation or reduction of breathing when falling asleep as the sleeper waxes
and wanes between sleep and wakefulness and their differing control mechanisms. ❻Second, once
sleep is fully obtained, there is an increase of carbon dioxide and a decrease of oxygen in the blood that
persists during NREM.

3. The word “exclusive” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) consistent
B) perfect
C) partial
D) sole

4. According to paragraph 3, which of the following may occur just before NREM sleep begins?

A) The automatic, metabolic system may increase its dependence on air exchanges.
B) Breathing can stop for a short time as a person falls asleep.
C) An increase in the oxygen level in the blood can occur as sleep becomes fully obtained.
D) The level of carbon dioxide in the blood may drop suddenly.

Paragraph 4

❶But that is not all that changes. ❷During all phases of sleep, several changes in the air passages have
been observed. ❸It takes twice as much effort to breathe during sleep because of greater resistance to
airflow in the airways and changes in the efficiency of the muscles used for breathing. ❹Some of the
muscles that help keep the upper airway open when breathing tend to become more relaxed during
sleep, especially during REM (the phase of sleep in which there is rapid eye movement). ❺Without this
muscular action, inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon—the narrow passages tend to collapse.
❻Also there is a regular cycle of change in resistance between the two sides of the nose. ❼If something
blocks the "good" side, such as congestion from allergies or a cold, then resistance increases dramati-
cally. ❽Coupled with these factors is the loss of the complex interactions among the muscles that can
change the route of airflow from nose to mouth.

5. What is the author's purpose in stating that “inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon”?

A) To refute the argument that additional effort is necessary for breathing during sleep
B) To argue that REM sleep is more important than NREM sleep
C) To illustrate the difficulty of breathing during sleep
D) To illustrate how blockage of narrow passages can be prevented during sleep

6. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as being characteristic of breathing during sleep
EXCEPT:

A) relaxation of the muscles involved in the respiratory system

B) changes in resistance between the two sides of the nose
C) easier airflow in the passages of the upper airway
D) absence of certain complex muscle interactions

Paragraph 5

❶Other respiratory regulating mechanisms apparently cease functioning during sleep. ❷For example,
during wakefulness there is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase in breathing effort when inhal-
ing is made more difficult (such as breathing through a restrictive face mask). ❸This reflexive adjust-
ment is totally absent during NREM sleep. ❹Only after several inadequate breaths under such condi-
tions, resulting in the considerable elevation of carbon dioxide and reduction of oxygen in the blood, is
breathing effort adjusted. ❺Finally, the coughing reflex in reaction to irritants in the airway produces
not a cough during sleep but a cessation of breathing. ❻If the irritation is severe enough, a sleeping per-
son will arouse, clear the airway, then resume breathing and likely return to sleep.

7. According to paragraph 5, what happens during NREM sleep when inhaling is difficult？

A) There is an immediate, automatic, adaptive increase in breathing effort.

B) The sleeping person takes several inadequate breaths before the breathing effort is adjusted.
C) The coughing reflex causes the breathing effort to adjust.
D) The airways become cleared as the blood removes irritants.

8. It can be inferred from paragraph 5 that a very mild irritation during sleep will likely cause the sleep-
ing person to

A) increase the breathing effort

B) wake up and remove the source of irritation
C) cough while still sleeping
D) stop breathing temporarily while still sleeping

9. The word “considerable” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) significant
B) Steady
C) Usual
D) necessary

10. The word "resume" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) reduce
B) stop
C) Readjust
D) restart

Paragraph 6

❶Additional breathing changes occur during REM sleep that are even more dramatic than the changes
that occur during NREM. ❷The amount of air exchanged is even lower in REM than NREM because,
although breathing is more rapid in REM, it is also more irregular, with brief episodes of shallow
breathing or absence of breathing. ❸In addition, breathing during REM depends much more on the ac-
tion of the diaphragm and much less on rib cage action.

11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in
the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A) Because breathing is more shallow and irregular in REM than in NREM, less air is exchanged in
REM.
B) Breathing in NREM is less effective than breathing in REM because of irregular episodes of rapid
breathing during NREM.
C) Because breathing is more rapid in NREM sleep than in REM sleep, breathing often becomes shal-
low.
D) Although REM has brief episodes of shallow breathing or lack of breathing, breathing is more rapid
than in NREM.

12. Look at the four squares [▣] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the pas-
sage.

To better understand breathing during sleep, it is, however, helpful to first understand how respi-
ration works in general.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square ▣ to add the sentence to the passage.
Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discov-
ered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences
in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function.
Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the di-
aphragm more important. ▣ Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight
against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. ▣ However, there are
many other changes that affect respiration when asleep.

▣ During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. ▣ The first is an automatic,
metabolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate
and depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ra-
tio in the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the
forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignor-
ing or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing.

13. Directions: From the seven statements below, select the statements that correctly characterize
breathing during wakefulness and those statements that correctly characterize breathing during sleep.
Drag each answer choice you select into the appropriate box of the table. Two of the answer choices
will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To
review the passage, click View Text.

Wakefulness
•
•
Sleep
•
•
•

Answer Choices

A) The role of the rib cage increases and the role of the diaphragm decreases.

B) Carbon dioxide in blood rises and oxygen drops.

C) The coughing reflex is extremely complex.

D) A great deal of effort is used for breathing.

E) Upper airways are resistant to colds and allergies.

F) There is a drop in the volume of air that is exchanged.

G) Automatic and voluntary respiratory systems are both involved.

TPO 24
Passage ❸

Moving into Pueblos

In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thir-
teenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, of-
ten constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-
family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was
probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense popu-
lations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the
landscape almost at will. And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living
in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood,
and food to their homes was a major chore. The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood
needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos
were not very hygienic.

Given all the disadvantages of living in aggregated towns, why did people in the thirteenth century
move into these closely packed quarters? For transitions of such suddenness, archaeologists consider ei-
ther pull factors (benefits that drew families together) or push factors (some external threat or crisis that
forced people to aggregate). In this case, push explanations dominate.

Population growth is considered a particularly influential push. After several generations of population
growth, people packed the landscape in densities so high that communal pueblos may have been a nec-
essary outcome. Around Sand Canyon, for example, populations grew from 5-12 people per square kilo-
meter in the tenth century to as many as 30 - 50 by the 1200s. As densities increased, domestic architec-
ture became larger, culminating in crowded pueblos. Some scholars expand on this idea by emphasizing
a corresponding need for arable land to feed growing numbers of people: construction of small dams,
reservoirs, terraces, and field houses indicates that farmers were intensifying their efforts during the
1200s. Competition for good farmland may also have prompted people to bond together to assert rights
over the best fields.

Another important push was the onset of the Little Ice Age, a climatic phenomenon that led to cooler
temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. Although the height of the Little Ice Age was still around the
corner, some evidence suggests that temperatures were falling during the thirteenth century. The envi-
ronmental changes associated with this transition are not fully understood, but people living closest to
the San Juan Mountains, to the northeast of Mesa Verde, were affected first. Growing food at these ele-
vations is always difficult because of the short growing season. As the Little Ice Age progressed, farm-
ers probably moved their fields to lower elevations, infringing on the lands of other farmers and pushing
people together, thus contributing to the aggregations. Archaeologists identify a corresponding shift in
populations toward the south and west toward Mesa Verde and away from higher elevations.

In the face of all these pushes, people in the Mesa Verde area had yet another reason to move into com-
munal villages: the need for greater cooperation. Sharing and cooperation were almost certainly part of
early Puebloan life, even for people living in largely independent single-household residences scattered
across the landscape. Archaeologists find that even the most isolated residences during the eleventh and
twelfth centuries obtained some pottery, and probably food, from some distance away, while major cer-
emonial events were opportunities for sharing food and crafts. Scholars believe that this cooperation al-
lowed people to contend with a patchy environment in which precipitation and other resources varied
across the landscape: if you produce a lot of food one year, you might trade it for pottery made by a dis-
tant ally who is having difficulty with crops—and the next year, the flow of goods might go in the oppo-
site direction. But all of this appears to have changed thirteenth century. Although the climate re-
mained as unpredictable as ever between one year and the next, it became much less lo-
cally diverse. In a bad year for farming, everyone was equally affected. No longer was it helpful to share
widely. Instead, the most sensible thing would be for neighbors to combine efforts to produce as much
food as possible, and thus aggregated towns were a sensible arrangement.

Paragraph 1

❶In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thir-
teenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, of-
ten constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. ❷Abandoning small extended-
family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was
probably traumatic. ❸Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense
populations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around
the landscape almost at will. ❹And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors,
living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. ❺For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water,
wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. ❻The stress on local resources, especially in the fire-
wood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated
pueblos were not very hygienic.

1. The word "traumatic" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) essential
B) highly stressful
C) highly unusual
D) unwise

2. The word "intense" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) strong
B) questionable
C) obvious
D) deliberate

3. According to paragraph 1, before the thirteenth century the people of southwestern

North America lived in households that

A) shared daily chores with neighboring households

B) occupied dwellings that were built into the sides of cliffs
C) were largely free to conduct their lives as they pleased
D) enforced common standards of behavior and cooperative conduct within their communities

4. Which of the following best indicates the organization of paragraph 1?

A) It presents the conditions that caused a change in a population' s living patterns and then explains
why those conditions got worse.
B) It identifies certain present-day cultural traditions and rules and then traces them to their roots in the
thirteenth century.
C) It casts doubt on one explanation of the move to pueblos and then introduces an alternative explana-
tion that the passage will defend.
D) It describes a major change in a population' s living patterns and then presents a number of problems
that resulted from that change.
 Paragraph 3

❶Population growth is considered a particularly influential push. ❷After several generations of popu-
lation growth, people packed the landscape in densities so high that communal pueblos may have been a
necessary outcome. ❸Around Sand Canyon, for example, populations grew from 5 -12 people per
square kilometer in the tenth century to as many as 30-50 by the 1200s. ❹As densities increased, do-
mestic architecture became larger, culminating in crowded pueblos. ❺Some scholars expand on this
idea by emphasizing a corresponding need for arable land to feed growing numbers of people: construc-
tion of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses indicates that farmers were intensifying their
efforts during the 1200s. ❻Competition for good farmland may also have prompted people to bond to-
gether to assert rights over the best fields.

5. According to paragraph 3, which of the following was one of the consequences of increasing popula-
tion densities?

A) People were increasingly crowded into collections of large housing units.

B) People stopped planting crops that have relatively low yields.
C) Domestic buildings were pushed beyond the canyon limits.
D) The natural landscape was destroyed.

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in
the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A) Some scholars even claim that the intensification of farmers' various efforts during the 1200s led to
further population growth and the consequent need for more arable land.
B) Evidence of intensifying agriculture in the 1200s indicates a need to feed a larger population and so
extends the argument that a growing population was the cause of the move to pueblos.
C) During the 1200s, farmers met the demand for more arable land, but they also succeeded in cultivat-
ing existing land more intensively with the help of agricultural construction projects.
D) Some scholars feel strongly that the construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field
houses in the thirteenth century is independent evidence for growth in the number of people.

Paragraph 4

❶Another important push was the onset of the Little Ice Age, a climatic phenomenon that led to cooler
temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. ❷Although the height of the Little Ice Age was still around
the corner, some evidence suggests that temperatures were falling during the thirteenth century. ❸The
environmental changes associated with this transition are not fully understood, but people living closest
to the San Juan Mountains, to the northeast of Mesa Verde, were affected first. ❹Growing food at these
elevations is always difficult because of the short growing season. ❺As the Little Ice Age progressed,
farmers probably moved their fields to lower elevations, infringing on the lands of other farmers and
pushing people together, thus contributing to the aggregations. ❻Archaeologists identify a correspond-
ing shift in populations toward the south and west toward Mesa Verde and away from higher elevations.

7. The word “transition” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A) change
B) climate
C) decline
D) problem

8. Why does the author state that "Growing food at these elevations is always difficult because of the
short growing season"?
A) To explain why the higher elevations were always relatively sparsely populated
B) To suggest that any worsening of conditions would have significant consequences
C) To emphasize how resourceful the people growing food at these elevations were
D) To argue that farming was not the primary source of food at high elevations

9. According to paragraph 4, what did farmers do in response to falling temperatures during the Little
Ice Age?

A) Moved to areas away from Mesa Verde

B) Moved closer to the northeastern part of Mesa Verde
C) Began to cultivate crops adapted to a short growing season
D) Gave up the cultivation of the highest-lying lands

Paragraph 5

❶In the face of all these pushes, people in the Mesa Verde area had yet another reason to move into
communal villages: the need for greater cooperation. ❷Sharing and cooperation were almost certainly
part of early Puebloan life, even for people living in largely independent single-household residences
scattered across the landscape. ❸Archaeologists find that even the most isolated residences during the
eleventh and twelfth centuries obtained some pottery, and probably food, from some distance away,
while major ceremonial events were opportunities for sharing food and crafts. ❹Scholars believe that
this cooperation allowed people to contend with a patchy environment in which precipitation and other
resources varied across the landscape: if you produce a lot of food one year, you might trade it for pot-
tery made by a distant ally who is having difficulty with crops—and the next year, the flow of goods
might go in the opposite direction. ❺But all of this appears to have changed thirteenth century. ❻Al-
though the climate remained as unpredictable as ever between one year and the next, it became much
less locally diverse. ❼In a bad year for farming, everyone was equally affected. ❽No longer was it
helpful to share widely. ❾Instead, the most sensible thing would be for neighbors to combine efforts to
produce as much food as possible, and thus aggregated towns were a sensible arrangement.

10. According to paragraph 5, major ceremonial events were occasions for

A) leaders to persuade people from the countryside to move into a pueblo

B) farmers to collect information about where crops could be reliably grown
C) people to develop better techniques for producing pottery and crafts
D) people in the early Puebloan era to share farm and craft products

11. According to paragraph 5, which of the following was a reason people in the Mesa Verde area
formed communal villages in the thirteenth century?

A) The climate in the Mesa Verde area became more locally diverse.
B) Individuals were no longer interested in exchanging pottery and food.
C) Cooperation between people became more important for survival.
D) Bad years of farming began to occur more frequently.

12. Paragraph 5 supports which of the following statements about cooperation among the people in the
Mesa Verde area from the eleventh through the thirteenth century?

A) Cooperation allowed many households to give up farming and to specialize in making pottery and
crafts.
B) People went from exchanging food and crafts they individually produced to sharing in a cooperative
effort to produce as much food as possible.
C) Overtime there was less cooperation as farmers competed with each other for trade with distant ar-
eas.
D) Individuals stopped cooperating with each other because they did not have enough food for them-
selves.

13. Look at the four squares [▣] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the pas-
sage.

Performing everyday household tasks required more effort.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square ▣ to add the sentence to the passage.

In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thir-
teenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, of-
ten constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-
family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was
probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense popu-
lations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the
landscape almost at will. ▣ And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, liv-
ing in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. ▣ For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water,
wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. ▣ The stress on local resources, especially in the
firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated
pueblos were not very hygienic. ▣

14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Com-
plete the summary by selected THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the pas-
sage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in
the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To
review the passage, click View Text.

In the thirteenth century, the people in the Mesa Verde area went from living in scattered inde-
pendent households to living in large pueblos.

Answer Choices

A) Because the thirteenth-century inhabitants of the Mesa Verde area did not have the cultural expecta-
tions of today's city dwellers, they easily adapted to communal life.

B) Even though living in pueblos had disadvantages, the population of the area had grown so large that
there may have been no other arrangement that would have met its needs.

C) From the eleventh century onward, farmers began to increase food production on existing farmland
and started bringing more land under cultivation.

D) A development that contributed to increasing population densities was a cooling climate that led
many people to leave the coldest areas and crowd into climatically more favorable areas.

E) The primary reason for moving to pueblos was the social benefits associated with communal life.

F) People were brought together by the need to produce food cooperatively, as the use of food sur-
pluses in one place to relieve shortages in another ended due to a change in climate.
 TPO 24

Passage ❶ Passage ❷ Passage ❸

1 D 1 B 1 B

2 B 2 A 2 A

3 C 3 D 3 C

4 D 4 B 4 D

5 A 5 C 5 A

6 B 6 C 6 B

7 C 7 B 7 A

8 C 8 D 8 B

9 A 9 A 9 D

10 B 10 D 10 D

11 C 11 A 11 C

12 D 12 C 12 B

13 D 13 AG 13 B
BDF

14 ACD 14 BDF