-.

THEATRE OF LIFE: RITUALS, TRANSITION AND PROGRESSION

AMONG THE IGBO

by

MARY -BLOSSOM CHINYELUM OKAFOR

A thesis submitted to the University of Plymouth

in partial fulfilment for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Exeter School of Arts & Design

Faculty of Arts and Education

March 1998
 Thesis Abstract

THEATRE OF: LIFE: RITUALS, TRANSITION AND PROGRESSION AMONG

THE IGBO

by

MARY-BLOSSOM CHINYELUM OKAFOR

The lgbo are perpetual celebrants of life. Their need to celebrate life means that the

Igbo will ceaselessly try to make the best of life, because they believe that although

life may be full of uncertainties, such uncertainties are only temporary. So, the Igbo

will celebrate whatever fortune brings in the knowledge that tomorrow will definitely

be different. It is this insight into the transitory nature of things that makes the lgbo

celebrate life, aware that time has the ability to obliterate uncelebrated memories.

In the researcher's opinion, this work has succeeded in establishing the fact that the

study and understanding of rituals do not have to be a schematic nightmare neither

do they have to prove that they belong to either the dramatic or theatrical genres -

rituals are just what they are - performance. Rituals reflect life in action, and this

study has demonstrated that these rituals can be better understood by breaking them

down into various categories and clusters (families). From such sub-division will,

hopefully, emerge specific attributes which can enable us to determine the cluster

each ritual belongs to. Furthermore, the analyses of rituals, ritual agents and

performance styles bring out the real flavour of Igbo performance. These make it

evident that lgbo performance is vibrant, symbolic and full of life, and that

conversely, Igbo life is equally vibrant, symbolic and full of theatre and rituals that

need to be constantly performed. It is hoped that Igbo theatre practitioners and users

(playwrights, directors, producers and actors) would fmd the ritual categorisation and

explanation of ritual symbols useful in enabling their work to be as meaningful as

possible.
This study developed and used the concept of Triangle of Life (ToL) to facilitates the

emergence of the real nature of Igbo theatre because it enabled the classification of

Igbo rituals into clusters of either passive, controlled active or active. These

adjectives as used here, refer to the extent of the performer's involvement in the ritual

action. However, while for the performer(s) a ritual can either be passive, controlled

active or active, it is always active for the participatory spectator- audience or

participant.

The ToL is an equilateral triangle (three equal sides marked as A-B, B-C and C-A

axes), and from plotting the rituals along the axes of the triangle, it becomes evident

that lgbo theatre is in two main phases- the theatre of the living, and that of the dead

- this means that while at any time any of the phases is dominant, it still has

undertones of the other. For example, the rituals on the A-B and B-C axes belong

to the theatre of the living, and these are performed in readiness for life after death

in the ancestral realm. However, the C-A axis is made up of rituals in which the

dead are made to rest and empowered to re-incarnate and re-appear at point A. This

axis is equally important to the living because in empowering their dead, the living

ventilate painful emotions through mourning and in so doing, they are healed not only

of the departure of the deceased, but also of the most of life's pent up pains. This

is a demonstration that the theatre of the living and the dead are both two sides of the

same coin - none is more important than the other. In lgbo theatre, therefore, we

come in direct contact with the core of lgbo dualism in which the human being

operates as a spirit, and vice versa. A full appreciation of this form of theatre will

depend primarily on how willing one is to remain open to the way the Igbo see,

interpret and live their lives. In view of this, I shall throughout this work,

continually strive to achieve the following:

(a) to use the study of Igbo ritual performance to add to the picture of Igbo life
·.
(hence, Igbo theatre) which archaeology, oral tradition a11d observation from

the Europeans gave little or no insight into,

(b) to use Igbo rituals as a practical framework for understanding aspects of lgbo

performance

(c) by the end of thls work to be able to have contributed a model that can be

applied to the study of most ritual performances, and in doing so, to provide

a cross-cultural perspective in ritual performance, theory and practice.

Chapter 1 traces the origin of the Igbo, their entire belief system and encounter with,

and progression through Christianity and colonialism. It is important that this chapter

be read as dispassionately as possible, for it is only in this manner that the full effect

of dualism on Igbo performance can become clearer. Chapter 2 examines some

existing theoretical perspectives in relationship to ritual practices in Igboland.

Chapter 3 and 4 contain the main thrust of the work because they apply the

information gathered during the fieldwork to enable a better understanding of the

performative structure and process of Igbo rituals.

A lot of lgbo words have been unavoidably used in order that the full flavour and

essence of the work is savoured. Most of these words have been explained.
 LIST OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

AUTHOR'S DECLARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

CHAPTER 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

IGBO LIFE AND THEOSOPHY - A BACKGROUND TO AN ACTIVE

PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
Geography and history of the lgbo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5
Myth and oral tradition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Archaeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Observation from the Europeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
lgbo theology and philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The coming of the Europeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
The impact of Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CHAPTER 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

A PERSPECTIVE ON IGBO RITUAL PRACTICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

The role of rirual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Rirual and Social Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
The language of rirual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Rirual essence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
The Rirual Process and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

CHAPTER 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

THE TRIANGLE OF LIFE: TRANSITION AND PROGRESSION IN IGBO

WORLD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
The place of rirual in a contiguous universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The dramatic significance of divination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Types of sacrifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Basic concepts in ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Passive, controlled active and active rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Rirual categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Rirual agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Categories of ritual agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
lgbo ritual agents and the notion of transference . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Symbolism and inanimate ritual agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Rirual Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
The Structure of Ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Maternity/childhood rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Adolescence-adulthood sub cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
lma muo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
lso ebe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Ikpa •Y• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Inu nwanyi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Status enhancement sub-cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
lchi ozo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Ichi lyom!lchi Lolo or Igbu odu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Funeral-ascendency cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . 125
CHAPTER4 130

RITUAL PROCESS: PERFORMATIVE DIMENSIONS OF IGBO

RITUALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Ritual Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
lwa oji (consecration of the kolanut) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Numerology and the kolanut: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Significance of cotyledons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

MATERNITY/INFANCY CLUSTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Ichi oga (in Nkpologu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Owoo owolo anyi (in Umuahia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Inwa uwa in Nkpologu: (Re-incarnation divination) . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Iba nwa afa/iputa ife/ikubata n'uno (naming ceremony) . . . . . . . . . 159
The naming ceremony as theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

ADOLESCENT/ADULTHOOD RITUALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Background to initiation into womanhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
lkpa iyi (in Nkpologu) and iso ebe (in Agulu) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
lma muo (initiation into the masquerade cult) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
lnu nwanyi (traditional marriage rite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Inu nwanyi in Imilike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Inu nwanyi in Onitsha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

STATUS ENHANCEMENT RITUALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Ichi ozo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Ozo in Umuawulu and Agulu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
lchi ozo in Onitsha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
A performance analysis of the ozo ritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Mortuary-Ascension Rituals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
The immediate burial rites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
The second burial ceremony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Performance overview of burial rites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
 ..
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Figure 3.1: The contiguous world of lgbo existence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Figure 3.2: Categories of ritual agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Table 3.3: Animate ritual agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Table 3.4: Inanimate-inorganic ritual agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Table 3.5: Inanimate-organic ritual agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Table 3.6: Maternity/Infancy Cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Table 3. 7: Adolescence-Adulthood Cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Table 3.8(a): Status Enhancement Sub-Cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Table 3.8 (b): Mortuary-Ascendency Sub-Cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ill

Figure 3.9: The Triangle of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Figure 3.10: Representation of the initiation and marriage rituals . . . . . . . 123

Table 4.1: Variations in meaning 139

Table 4.2: Variations in lchi oga 152

Table 4.3: Variations in lgba agu 158

Table 4.4: Variations in initiation into womanhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

Table 4.5: Variations in lma muo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Table 4.6: Variation in lnu nwanyi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING IGBOLAND . . . . . . . . . 231

APPENDIX B: MYTH OF ORIGIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

APPENDIX C: SAMPLES AND INTERPRETATION OF NSIBIDI . . . . . 233

APPENDIX D: EXCERPTS FROM INTERVIEW WITH ARAZU . . . . . . 234

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work started with the realisation that the lgbo perform life through rituals.
These rituals exist to enable them to socialise and inculcate in their children relevant
lgbo values. The structure of the performance that develops reveals a unique form
of lgbo theatre and highlights how through rituals, they make life as understandable
and as memorable as possible for their people.

I am very thankful to Dr Osita Okagbue for his encouragement, especially at the

initial stages of this work. His dedication, critical mind set and numerous scheduled
seminars and impromptu discussions enabled me to remain stimulated and focused
throughout this research. The speed and scrutiny with which he dealt with any work
submitted enabled me to keep to set targets and agreed standards. His intervention
also made it possible for me to be awarded an Israeli government sponsorship which
paid for my accommodation for a week's stay in Tel-Aviv during which I attended
and presented a paper at the IFTR/FIRT Conference in June 1996. I am also grateful
to Mrs Nonyem Iweh of the Languages Department, Delaware State University, for
her valuable network and support which enabled my attendance and presentation of
a paper at the ALA Conference in Ohio during March 1995. To Mrs Nkiru Okpara,
Producer, Patterns of our Life at the Anambra Broadcasting Service for her critical
evaluation of my on-going work and support in arranging interviews during my field
work.

I am greatly indebted to the panel of lgbo scholars who are actively involved in the
re-instatement of lgbo values, for their help in helping me to focus and direct my
fieldwork. These include Mr Goddy Agbasi (Director of Sports, Anambra State Sport
Council), Rev. Fr (Dr) Raymond Arazu (State Ministry of Sports, Youth & Culture),
Professor John 'Nwadibia' Umeh (Head of Finance Department, University of
Nigeria, Enugu Campus) and Mazi Nathan Nkala (Senior Lecturer and author). Their
various contributions, moderated by Mr Agbasi, added a lot of richness and flavour
to this work. I am grateful to the discussion panel at the National Commission for
Museums and Monuments; headed by Chief J.C Obi (Assistant Chief Ethnographer)
and which include Mr Michael Ak:ukwe (Librarian), Emmanuel Chukwunwike Arab
(Principal Technical Officer, Conservation and Documentation) :Mrs Comfort
Nwankwo (Cleaner) for their very useful contributions to the debate on lgbo rituals.
My gratitude also goes to Mazi Chime Emeoha' and Mrs Patti Emeoha for their
contribution towards rituals in Imilike town. I am immensely grateful to Munachimso
Ejiofor, my nephew, who was my companion and camera operator throughout the
fieldwork, to my beloved aunt, Nne Udenkwo, for her mastery in re-telling our
family genealogy, and to my uncles; James Oyegbo Okafor and Peter Udeagbala for
revealing ancestral places and things that gave me an insight into Igbo symbolism -
these may have otherwise been lost, if not documented.

I could neither have started nor finished this work without the emotional, spiritual and
physical sacrifices willingly made by my ever-dependable children, Nnaemeka,
Uchenna, Nnamdi, Nwando and lkem. Their uncontested support and belief in my
ability to always be, and succeed as their role model is the bastion that buoyed me
through the roughest times during this study. To my sisters who are also my closest
friends Adaora, Maud, Kay, Doy, Nne Omenyi, Uju and Tessy- for all the years we
loved, laughed and cried together. I am also grateful to Amaka (Nne nwam) for her
sense of humour and encouragement, especially when I felt that I could give no more
and to Helen and Victor (Mbe-Charmer) for their prayers and help in proof-reading
this work. I have not forgotten "Roses" (Mrs Adims) who willingly took in and
cared for my children for a whole week (in spite of her own five), to enable me to
start the initial work on this thesis.

My gratitude goes to my brothers, Nnamezue, Tony and Oyichim for their love and
sponsorship, to Omelum- my dedicated friend, adviser and brain-storming companion
who shared my passion for this work; and to Dr lames Eneje for his scholarly
contributions, patience and understanding.

Finally, I dedicate this work to my mother, Iyom Helen Afulenu Okafor, who on
many occasions took care of my home, especially during my field trip. Mother, your
implicit belief in me, support and encouragement continue to make that much needed
difference. Your excellent nurturing and discipline instilled a great and enduring
sense of value, and brought out the best in me - the Igbo woman. De-erne nu of (I
thank you all)

Mary-Biossom Chinyelum Okafor March, 1998

ii
 -.

AUTHOR'S DECLARATION

At no time during the registration for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy has the
author been registered for any other university award.

This study was self-financed except for an Israeli goverrunent grant which paid for
my accommodation during my one week stay in Tei-Aviv while attending the
IFTRIFITR Conference in 1996.

Two relevant conferences were attended at which work presented; external institutions
were visited for consultation purposes and several papers prepared for publication.

Other forms of creative work: Poetry

Presentation and Conferences attended: (1995) ALA Conference in Ohio

"Rituals: A Theatre of Therapy and Affmnation.

(1996) IFTRIFITR Conference, Tel Aviv

"lwa Anya Theatre and Transition in Action"

Signed -~..)£)':=1.'~~

Date OL}.. N\.~ . . . ..\.qq 8-

iii
 CHAPTER 1

IGBO LIFE AND THEOSOPHY - A BACKGROl.IND TO AN ACTIVE

PERFOR..."\IIANCE

Life among the lgbo is a gift from Chukwu-Okike/Chukwu (God-the-Creator). So,

no matter how uneventful life may turn out, it is celebrated with elaborate rituals in

thanksgiving and to keep the lgbo in favour with Chukwu. This statement sums up

the lgbo view of life which begins at the time of conception. From the time a

woman conceives (and all through the entire gestation period) until about six months

post-delivery, she is regarded as sacred be:::ause she is carrying and nurruring a new

life. Her happiness and well-being are the primary responsibility of her entire family

and communiry who take great care to ensure that her physical and spiritual health

are sustained. She is shielded from all fearful and ugiy sights, for example, she is

discouraged from viewing corpses or grotesque masquerades because the lgbo believe

that foeruses are impressionable, and as such have the ability while in the formation

stages to copy the attributes of things and people that the mother sees. As such, both

expectant mother and unborn baby are actively protected from hann from some

diabolical forces. The expectant mother's diet is carefully chosen and she is closely

monitored bv her two mothers (her own and her mother-in-law), to ensure that she

does not eat anything that may later on have an adverse effect on the baby. For

instance, pregnant women are advised against eating snails as they are believed to

produce excessive salivation that will make the baby drool. Furthermore. she must

be spoken to in the kindliest of manners so that she may not become upset. In fact,

she is exempt from any chores that she does not wish to engage in. Age commands

great respect among the Igbo and while :1 woman is pregnant, she is accorded the

same respect and love only reserved for the elderly. Hence a pregnant woman is

fondly referred to as agadi nwanyi (old woman)- a summation of the amount of love,

1
care and respect her state confers on her.

The gestation period is also a time for active consultation with various deities, oracles

and ancestral spirits to enlist their protection for the expectant mother. All these

activities are geared towards ensuring the safe delivery of the infant, and are deeply

rooted in the Igbo belief that the precious gift of life from Chukwu can be tampered

with or impacted upon by evil people and spirits. As such, it needs to be protected

from those evil forces that may prove inimical to human progress as planned by God.

Therefore, through divination, the Igbo get to know who or what wields these forces

and proceed to neutralise, placate and/or fortify the expectant mother against them.

Funhermore, they believe that the binh of a child is Chukwu · s prerogative - and that

it is not dependent on what material attributes couples may possess. For example,

it is a .::ommon belief that no matter how intelligent, powerful, rich, beautiful or

brave couples may be, they cannot intluence Chulnvu into giving them children, nor

can they int1uence his decision about the sex of their children. So the Igbo would use

names given at binh as a testimonial to affirm (a) the pre-eminence of children. for

instance, Ginikanwa (what gift is greater than a child?), /feyinwa (nothing compares

to a child), Maduka (a person is more important that riches) and (b) to acknowledge

God as the giver of life, and names like Chimvendu (God owns all life), Chinenyenwa

{God gives a child), Chinyelum (God has given [this child] to me) demonstrate this

fact. Moreover, the Igbo are patrilineal and as such, male children ensure continuity

and coupies who seek a particular sex may or may not have their wishes fulfilled.

In either case. they would still use names to express either gratitude or submission

to the will of Chukwu. Such names as Chukwuebuka (God is great) will normally be

given to express gratitude at the birth of a male child while others like

Amaogechuhvu (who knows God's timing) or Kosisochuk:wu (the way it pleases God)

express resignation to the will of the Creator.

2
Having said that, every child is a unique blessing and is treated as such. This is why

the lgbo would say that, "ofu nne n' amu, mana ofu chi ada eke" (children are born

of the same mother but created by different gods [destinies]). So among the lgbo,

each child's life is a unique opportunity for celebrating Chukwu's benevolence, and

in honour of the individual's material existence from birth to death. The term

"material existence" is used because the lgbo believe that at any given time the soul

exists on two planes - muo na mmadu (the spiritual and the human). The material

plane covers an individual's life on earth, and even while on this plane, the lgbo

realise the extensive interplay between the material and the spiritual. hence the

detailed attention paid to maintaining the delicate balance between the more visible

material aspect of their being and the less visible, but subliminal spirit plane.

The Igbo, therefore, go through life knowing that life is not an end in itself, but a

passage to the higher ancestral realm. This must not be seen as a pessimistic view,

but a philosophical and optimistic one born out of the belief that at death, the spirit

plane predominates and becomes empowered depending on how individuals (while on

the material plane) made use of the attributes Chukwu endowed them with at birth

(see Chapter 3). Hence, when at death the spirit essence becomes liberated. it

embarks on a perilous journey to the prestigious land of the revered ancestors.

However, this journey is not a smooth passage because the Igbo believe that along the

path there are forces inimical to the progress of the depaned (or his/her family) that

will fight to detract the spirit from ascension. Thus, Igbo separation and ascension

rituals are specitically formulated to enable the depaned individual 10 single-mindedly

achieve two objectives. First. to sever all forms of eanhly attachment that may hold

the spirit eanh-bound. And second. to constantly remind the depaned of their

expected ascension and, to symbolically fonify them against harmful forces (see

Chapters 3 & 4 ). For example, the Igbo bury their dead ensuring that the corpse

3
 ·,

faces owalowuwa anyanwu or the rising sun (the East) so as to ensure that the spirit

sees and remembers to rise with the rising sun - if not, the departed may be made to

'oversleep' by its enemies, and thus will forget to embark on that important journey

to the ancestral land. The consequence of missing the prompt from the rising sun to

embark on this ultimate journey is that the spirit will not be able to reincarnate. To

the Igbo, the failure to re-incarnate is a disaster.

The concept of reincarnation within the Igbo world view deals with the possibility

or/and ability of the spirits of men and women who had led fulfllling lives while here

on earth, to rerum after death to be born again. These souls rerum with a mission

and they have the freedom to either re-incarnate in their original families or in

different families and places. It is the responsibilir:y of the family to whom the child

is born to rind out what the child's mission is through lgba agu - a special kind of

divination rirual performed by the afa priest, during which the afa (oracle) infonns

the family of the identity and mission of the re-incarnated soul are (see also Chapters

3 & 4). This insight gained from afa forms the blueprint for the new individual's

earthly existence.

Hence for the lgbo. the material and the spirit planes are two sides of one existence

that unite to form one great performance on which there is an interplay of both the

seen and unseen forces surrounding and impacting on human performances. These

performances involve different people and stages but with a common theme - the

celebration of the great gift of life. The importance of celebrating life for the lgbo

demonstrates that nothing is too great to be employed in these celebrations as

individuals, their family and friends use their various talents - songs, music, dance,

mimes. arrs and craft (painting, sculprure, woodwork) ere in thanksgiving to Chukwu.

This is what lgbo riruals are about, and through these performances people answer

4
their various needs to belong to a group, affirm themselves as part of a bigger

universe, distinguish themselves using the gifts that Chukwu bestowed on them at

birth; and finally use these gifts as vehicles to enable them to ascend to the ancestral

realm when their work here on earth is concluded. This is the central idea

underpinning lgbo rituals - a unique form of performance that enables individuals to

move from the human to a more sublime spiritual realm.

Having established the background to the different levels of existence, the remaining

pan of this chapter lays the geo-historical, ethno-philosophical, religious, socio-

economic and political framework for the study of Igbo ritual performances. This

holistic approach has been chosen to enable an understanding and appreciation of the

Igbo. their way of life and the logic that underpins their interactions and relationships

with the universe. It is a method of inquiry that offers a bener insight into lgbo

theatre - a theatre embedded in rituals.

Geographv and historv of the lgbo

Igbo people are one of the rain forest agrarian peoples who inhabit the South Eastern

pan of Nigeria, which is an area within the rain forest belt. The homeland of the

Igbo is between the Niger and Cross Rivers, while some also live west of the River

Niger. They, like a lot of the ethnic groups in Nigeria. have no naturally defined

boundaries. To the northern fringes, they merge with the Igala. Idoma and Tiv; to

the west. with the Ishan and Urhobo; to the south east, the Arochukwu Igbo merge

with their Ibibio neighbours; and tinally to the south with the Ijaw and Ogoni (see

appendix A). Traditionally, the lgbo were a non-migratory people who nevertheless

had some degree of internal geographical mobility born out of their need to create an

ecological and demographical balance. For instance, people could move away from

5
 ·.

the centre into more remote farm lands if their immediate surrounding became

overpopulated to the point that the availability of adequate arable land for their

increasing family size became a problem. At other times, movement could result

from the agricultural practice of crop rotation - where extensive pieces of farmland

may be left to lie fallow to enable the rejuvenation of natural resources that may have

been depleted due to years of farming. Where this happened, people would also re-

locate to be nearer to distant farmlands.

From the earliest times, their main cash crop in lgboland was the yam seedling

cultivated by the men. Women grew (and still grow) cocoyarn and vegetables, and

they enjoyed (and still enjoy) a great deal of economic independence because apart

from farming, they were (and still are) involved in petty trading.

The statement that the lgbo are non-migratory m no way suggests that their

geographical boundaries were tixed. In actual fact, the Igbo were flexible with their

geographical boundaries. as well as the ease and hospitality with which they adopted

new cultural boundaries. As a result of this flexibility. people in the Igbo society

have over time merged, intermarried and exchanged aspects of their culture with

those of their non-Igbo neighbours. Sometimes, due to this cultural mix, the Igbo

would import and worship the deities of their non-Igbo neighbours, that is, those gods

that were not traditionally theirs. Furthermore, it is still common in most border

towns like Ogwurugwu and !gala (to the north) and Agbor (to the west), to find

people with linguistic traits that are neither Igbo nor their neighbour's - a ret1ection

of their years of harmonious co-existence.

The history of the Igbo can be divided into three major phases - the pre-colonial,

colonial and post- colonial periods. Beyond written history, the beginning of the

6
 ·.

lgbo, like that of a lot of other West African peoples, is shrouded in uncertainty, and

as such, no one is sure how long they have been in their present homeland. Isichei

(1973) is of the opinion that linguistic evidence suggests that the Igbo and their

ancestors have lived there for a long time:

Available evidence suggest that the lbo (sic) and their forbears have lived very much in their
present homes from the dawn of human history. The fact that they and their neighbours speak
very different but related languages points to this conclusion (19)

Before this time, Armstrong (1962) had attempted using Igbo linguistic structure to

trace the origin of the people. He argued that the lgbo language has some primary

root words with the rest of the Lower Niger language group collectively known as the

Kwa language group. But Onwuejeogwu (1987), a trained and experienced

ethnographer and anthropologist, cautions against the use of such linguistic parameters

to defme the borders of the lgbo and the time of their origin in South-East Nigeria.

According to him, the use of such argument may seem

straightforward, easy and convincing while indeed it is the most complex and unconvincing
evidence to handle, especially by the untrained (9).

His caution is based on two reasons. First, is that the Kwa linguistic group covers

an estimated three hundred and twenty kilometres extending from the Guinea Coast

into Liberia, then to Cross River State of Nigeria. Onwuejeogwu argues that the

vastness of the area covered has, so far made it impossible for linguists to carry out

an all-inclusive study of languages within this geographical expanse. Secondly, that

"linguists are still debating what criteria are useful for identifying the Lower-Niger

languages" (9) suggesting a lack of agreement in the use of such methodology.

Although attention needs to be paid to this note of caution, it IS also worth

acknowledging, that there really are still some similarities in some Igbo and Urhobo

7
words. For example, obalalobara (blood), ogologo (in"law); ndooldoo (I am

sorry/well done), ugegbe/ujegbe (mirror) to mention a few. Yet, Urhoboland is

approximately fifty miles from Agbor, the last lgbo border town to the west of the

River Niger. The researcher is, therefore, sympathetic towards Armstrong's view,

and hopes that before long linguists will have carried out more inclusive studies that

will qualify the use of linguistic traits in deciding the origin of ethnic groups such as

the lgbo.

It is important to note that there are dialectical variations to the lgbo language from

one geographical location to the other. Hence, a word like ana (earth) is variously

called ani, ala or ali, depending on which part of lgboland it is used in. Almost all

Igbo words follow this dialectical pattern and most lgbo words in this work will

usually reflect such variations. Some exceptions to this dialectic variation are three

out of the four market days (Eke, Oye (Orie), Afo, Nkwo) which are called the same

all over lgboland, the yam (ii) and the kolanut oji. These words that defy

geographical boundaries share common symbolism and use in lgbo social and

religious rituals and differ only slightly in the level of importance associated with

them in different places. Their symbolism and use suggest a common origin and a

closer relationship among the lgbo. Apart from their language, much of what is

known about the Igbo come from three main sources, namely:

a) myth and oral tradition

b) archaeology
c) observation by the Europeans

8
 ·.

Mvth and oral tradition

Until the early pan of the 20th Century, the lgbo society was a non-literate one in

which oral tradition was the principal fonn of telling and re-telling their historical

past. The little that was known about people in traditional Igbo society, before the

accidental discovery of some archaeological sites, was from their myths of origin

(Appendix B). According to the version of the myth collected by Onwuejeogwu

(1987), Chukwu or Chi Ukwu (the big Chi) the Creator sent Eri (his messenger) down

from the sky. On arrival, Eri sailed down the Anambra River, where he met "an

autochthonous group who had no living memory of their origin"(7). Onwuejeogwu

describes the tenn autochthony as "a claim of origin from the spot of present

habitation by maximal lineage generally named Umudiani (children of the earth" (7)

Eri, became the first king of Aguleri and maintained a cordial relationship with

Chukwu, and offered sacrifices each time Chukwu demanded him to do so (at some

point he sacrificed his first son and daughter) In return for his obedience, Chukwu

gave him the cash crops (yam and cocoyam), numerous wives and many more

children besides the ones he had already offered in different sacrifices. One of his

children Nri became the founder of Nri- which is still the spiritual centre of the lgbo.

He also established the Ozo title (see chapter 4) and the four Igbo traditional market

days. In effect, he established the lgbo calender. Below is an extract from the myth:

Nri migrated to the forest south

Through Amanuke he sojourned,
To found Enugwu-Ukwu and settle at Agukwu
He took the Nri title and became Nri ljikumlim
He established the Ozo title
And Chukwu was delighted
He sent four Alusi to Eze Nri (Onwuejeogwu: I)

9
Simply stated, an analysis of this myth of creation offers a better understanding of the

importance of numerology and symbolism among lgbo people. For example during

different rituals, the number of kolanuts presented depend on the deity being

venerated, and what is acceptable to it. Furthermore, this myth establishes the origin

and the primary place of the yam seedling which is used during all types of ritual

negotiations either as a form of payment, or eaten as ritual meals. For now, it

suffices to note that this myth establishes the origin of an important aspect of lgbo life

- the correlation between submission to the will of Chukwu-Okike and increased

human resources.

Evidence from oral tradition is the second factor to be considered in establishing lgbo

origins The researcher acknowledges that in this age of empiricism, the validity of

admitting oral tradition in works such as this may be questioned. However, this

attitude will not be unique to this work because Finnegan (1976) notes:

The concept of an oral literature is an unfamiliar one to most people brought up in cultures
which, like those of contemporary Europe, lay mess on the idea of literacy and wrinen
tradition. In the popular view it seems to convey on the one hand the idea of mystery, on the
other that of crude and anistically undeveloped formulation (x).

Having said that, the researcher wishes to argue that oral tradition can be admitted
in evidence because it is an art form extensively used by non-literate societies to hand
down their history, by word of mouth, from one generation to another. In pre-
westem lgbo society, oral tradition was an authentic mode of learning through which
continuity was ensured. Children were encouraged from an early stage (through
participation in repeated forms of libation and rituals), to learn the importance of the
correct rendition of their ancestry, and they spent years of apprenticeship under
renowned bards. Furthermore, oral tradition is a research methodology that is
accepted in the fields of history, sociology and anthropology as an authentic source
of information.

lO
 ·.

Turner (1977) seems to support the validity of oral tradition when in his description
of Celtic bardir,: utterances when he notes that:

such a device ... is all the more necessary in cultures without writing, where the whole
cultural deposit has to be transmitted either through speech or by repeated observation of
standardized behavioural patterns and artifacts. And I am beginning to wonder whether it is
not the structuring of functionless elements in myths and ritual patterns which preserves such
elements through centuries until they find a socio-economic milieu in which they may become
functional again (241).

Thus, oral tradition should be accepted as a valid source of information because

through it people re-told the myth of their existence and actualised their history.

Eliade (1956) notes that the process of re-telling their origin made people feel more

a part of a bigger universe:

... for religious man of primitive society, myths constitute his sacred history, he must not
forget them, by actualising the myths, he approaches his gods and participates in sanctity
(106).

Archaeology

Archaeological evidence is the third source of information to be considered.

Onwuejeogwu (1987) identified four main excavation sites namely Ugwuele, Ajikpo,

Nsukka and lgbo-Ukwu (5), and he is of the opinion that objects excavated from these

sites suggest that lgbo people have been in their present home for more than 4000

years - from the Stone Ages (dating from about 20,000 BC to 5000 BC -evidence

from the Ugwuele stone artifacts), through the Neolithic Age (5000 BC - 200 BC -

evidence from the Nsukka and Ajikpo pottery artifacts) to the Metal Age (400 BC -

AD 1500: lgbo-Ukwu metal artifacts). Most of the artifacts excavated were made

from bronze and copper which suggest that people in traditional Igbo society were

mostly bronze and copper smiths - apparently, their bronze and copper art work

withstood the test of time better than their wood carvings.

11
·.

Excavations from Nsukka (to the north) and Afikpo (to the south east) indicate that

Neolithic men lived .there as early as 3000 BC, making stone axes and pottery -

suggesting that they were mainly hunters. So far, only a few of these archaeological

sites have been excavated, but their results have been very helpful in, enabling a better

understanding of pre-colonial lgbo life. Furthermore, lsichei (1973:21-22) informs

us that results from radio-active tests on some excavated materials dated back to the

Nok civilization, suggesting that knowledge ofbronze and copper smithing probably

reached present day Nigeria and environs by 300 BC or earlier. A combination of

archaeological and historical facts suggest that lgbo people grew gradually from

hunting and gathering to horticulture, agriculture, and fmally, to market and exchange

economy.

However, written history of the lgbo shows they have fought numerous wars, been

invaded and invaded others, assimilated and acculturised other cultures. Therefore,

the lgbo evolution would be incomplete without mentioning the arrival of .the

foreigners from western Europe against whom Igbo people rebelled and organised

movements to resist their occupation. In spite of these resistance movements and

wars, the foreigners finally subdued and amalgamated them into one conglomerate,

Nigeria. Citing Ogali A Ogali, Isichei (1977) notes that British troops sometimes

used considerable force to quell some of this organised resistance:

... the colonial conquest of lgboland was accomplished at great cost, borh in human
lives and in property. The many deaths, the looted fanns and livestock, the houses
razed, the trees cur down. are adequately documented even in· British records, and
are remembered with poignant emphasis in the traditions of the lgbo community
concerned. The people of Ameka in Item still annually observe the day, in 1916, of
conflict with the British - 'the blackest time of Item when one of the four principal
villages was turned into a desert (137)

The legacy of the lgbo before and after they became part of Nigeria has been one

long struggle against different forms of oppression, beginning with slavery which

Onwuejeogwu (1987) refers to as "the trans-atlantic slave trade [that] shattered them

12
[the Igbo) to shreds" (69)). This was soon followed by colonialism and Christianity,

and finally between 1967-70, a civil war in quest of an independent homeland -

Biafra.

Having attempted to establish how far back the Igbo have lived in the area now

known as lgboland, this research will cover those lgbo people who remained in their

ancestral homeland, and neither migrated nor got carried away into slavery. Slavery

depleted the population of lgboland because the slave markets in South Eastern

Nigeria were mainly supplied from the lgbo hinterland. This meant that a lot of the

lgbo were captured, sold into slavery, and fmally taken to the New World.

Therefore, in discussing the lgbo, it is with respect that we remember those to whom

Isichei (1973) refers to as:

the lbos (sic) of the diaspora, the thousands of men and women who went as involuntary
emigrants to the new world in the era of the slave trade ( 11)

Isichei also notes that descendants of some of these ex-slaves from Igboland can be

found in Sierra Leone and parts of the Caribbean, while Cookey (1972) informs that

they are also in different parts of Nigeria. Both Isichei and Cookey agree that some

have retained a strong sense of their lgbo identity and still bear lgbo names. Cookey

cites Archdeacon D.C Crowther's 1880 encounter with a 14 year old former slave at

the creek town of Okirika:

My name is M'beke (Mgbeke), me papa's name is Okori - and my mother's M'leafo

(Mgbafor), all of us belong to Omoji (Umuoji). There was war at Omoji, and "me papa" sent
us little children to Onitsha for safety. I stayed more than two years there with a convert
woman called Awansia-de ... After the war was over at Omoji, we were taken home. One
day four of us went to cut wood in the farm, two men met us in the bush and said that "me
papa· owed him, and caught me, the rest of the girls ran away. I was taken to Mkpo-ho
(Mkpo), then sold to Umutshuku, then to Bende, then to Oloko, then to Akwete and lgoni
(Ogoni) and was lastly bought by Chief George of Okirika ... (l)

13
The researcher is of the opinion that these ex-slaves' ability to maintain such a strong

sense of their original identity was probably because they had undergone specific

rituals while still in Igboland. This is b~cause at the time in question; ethnic

identification through rituals would have been the only legacy a lot of slaves left their

motherland with. There is no doubt that collective and individual identity can be

preserved through rituals even in the face of the inhumanity which slaves were

subjected to. This goes to demonstrate the efficacy and resilience of ritualised

performances, a fact which 'Fumer (1977) notes in his discussion about the processes

and symbols in myth and ritual:

These symbols, visual and auditory, operate culrurally as liiJiemonics, or as communications

engineers would no doubt have il, as "storage bins" of infonna1ion, nm about pragmatic
techniques, blil about cosmologies, values and cul!ural axioms whereby a society's deep
knowledge is lransmiued from one generation 10 another (241 ).

Observation from the Europeans:

This is the third source of information regarding traditional Igbo society. Basden
(1966) notes that:

The 180 NATION ranks as one of the largest in the whole of Africa .... Their readiness 10
travel and tenacity of purpose, especially when seeking employmem, have carried many of
!hem far beyond their nmive enviroomem. When abroad, !hey maintain close comae!,
cememed and sustained by a Slrong tribal bond of union (xi)

This was the scene in colonial Igboland which Basden met on his arrival, and where

he remained as a District Officer for the next thiny five years. Pre-colonial Igbo

society was based on a set of commonly accepted beliefs and values, deeply rooted

in Igbo theology and philosophy - a "humanistic" philosophy based on "linking the

past, present, and future" (Onwuejeogwu:64). These three levels co-exist together

in the same time and space.

14
Furthermore, the myth of lgbo origin throws some light on how the Igbo universe

was organised. From this account, Chukwu (the great Chi or Chukwu Okike) sent his

messengers which were other lesser chi (gods and deities). The lgbo use these deities

as emissaries to channel their communication to Chukwu. This is because at some

point in this myth, Chukwu seemed to have decided to distance himself from direct

contact with human beings by the introduction of the alusi - Eke, Oye, Afo and Nkwo.

Their entrance into the original relationship between Chukwu and Eri marks the

beginning of a new level of interaction between the Igbo and their God - with the

deities as intercessors.

In the myth, four strangers appeared (apparently they were deities sent by Chukwu

to test E:.e Nri 's wisdom), and they would not disclose their names. Eze Nri patiently

watched these deities, then he hatched a plan to put rats in their baskets (possibly in

the hope that creating some fear in them would make them speak more to each other,

while he in turn hoped to gain some information about these strangers). He then

waited patiently for his nameless visitors' reaction, and on seeing the rats, they

started calling out to each other (by their respective names) to announce that they had

found rats in their baskets. Having outwitted these deities, Eze Nri was extolled, and

as a mark of respect for his wisdom, the deities set up the four traditional market

days that make an Igbo week. This explains the mystic significance of the number

four, and its multiples in Igbo numerology - as representative of the four market days

established and named after the alusi. One can only wonder what would have

happened had Eze Nri not been cunning enough to find out the names of the deities.

Would these deities have been as willing and as generous as they were when their

secret was eventually found out? This also demonstrates another Igbo belief that

Chukwu will endow his blessings only when an individual is able to demonstrate that

he or she really needs that blessing, and he or she is equally able to deal with the

15
ensuing responsibility. Sometimes. also, Chukwu would send these blessings as. a test

of an individual's integrity.

From this myth, Chukwu gave Nri mystical powers as .a reward for the latter's

obedience. This is still the prevalent view in present day lgbo society - the lgbo

believe that because all life belongs to Chukwu, .that he alone has the prerogative to

decide where and when to send an .individual on the sacred journey of life (just like

he did with En). While on this journey, the Igbo also believe that they would ensure

Chukwu 's blessings (like Eri and his children did) through total obedience to his will,

and by offering regular sacrifices. This explains the place of daily libations,

invocation and thanksgiving to Chukwu who in turn gives health, wealth and wisdom

to the Igbo.

lgbo theology and philosophy

The attitude of Eze Nri is typical of how, sometimes, the lgbo relate to the forces

around them. Where possible, the lgbo would manipulate them into working in their

favour. Nothing is ever taken for granted as the lgbo seek to know and understand

the forces that interplay in their daily existence. This forms the core of lgbo

theosophy - that individuals can transcend and achieve limitless heights when in

complete obedience to the will of Chukwu, and in harmony with all the other seen·and

unseen forces of the universe. This implication of this belief in the way the Igbo

interpret events in their lives is varied. As earlier mentioned, the pre-colonial lgbo

were agrarian and as such, they were in daily material contact with the elements, and

depended on them for their farm yields. For them, the correct interpretation of these

natural elements was as important as knowing and understanding which forces was

at play at any given time. To do this, the lgbo depended extensively on divination -

consultation with these unseen forces through an oracle.

16
 ·.
As a result of the many forces (some benign while others are malevolent) at play in

the lgbo world, superstition was rife and any new phenomena that did not fit into the

people's time-tested belief pattern were regarded as unnatural and viewed with

mistrust. In many ways, their world view was like that of the Tabwa of Congo

Orange Free State described by Robert (1988):

Tabwa consider that unfortunate events of minor importance such as fleeting illness may be
"the path" (or nowadays, "the writing") of God, can be treated in a matter-of-fact manner ....
States of being are caused ... the first step toward understanding what, as Westerners would
say is "happening" is to determine what agent is causing the distressing phenomenon (123)

For people in pre-colonial lgboland also, things were either done for or against them.

For example, the birth of twins was a phenomenon not understood by the lgbo and

as such was "done" against them- a sign that the gods were angry. To have a set of

twins was a curse - an abomination. As such, these innocent children were either

instantly put to death or abandoned to die in the "evil" forest. The same fate befell

anyone who suffered any unexplained affliction, and most contagious diseases like

leprosy, small pox, tuberculosis, any disease that caused the body to waste or distend

were in this unexplained category. Sufferers were usually cast away to die alone in

the evil forest without any transitional rites. Casting away the afflicted was a way

of fumigating the living and their environment against the vengeance of the deities

that may be defiled should the diseased individual be left to die within the homestead.

Top on the list of deities revered and protected in this way (by many traditional

societies, to which the lgbo was no exception), was the ecological cult of divine

Earth - variously referred to as Ani/Ana or AliiA/a in different parts of Igboland. It

was a mark of respect to Mother Earth not to bury corpses that died of unspecified

causes within her bowel. Any form of defilement was seriously guarded against, as

it was important to keep the Earth sacred and unsoiled as the sustainer of all life and

farm yields. Eliade (1956) notes regarding this relationship between most traditional

societies and Mother Earth:

17
 the eanh ·lOo is transparent, it presents itself as a ;universal mother and nurse, The cosmic
rhythms manifest order. harmony, permanence and fecundity (123)

With this kind of world view, it is understandable why families were willing to let

their loved ones die ignominious and lonely deaths instead of offending divine Earth,

and consequently the whole community should the "cosmic rhythms" be upset.

The coming of the Europeans

It was into this corporate traditional framework that the early European visitors

entered, either ignorant of/or unwilling to understand the people's relationship with

their universe, their way of life and their relationship with their gods. Instead, the

foreigners regarded these traditionalists as heathens who were in need of salvation.

To these foreigners, salvation meant a total undermining and dismantling of all bonds

that held the people and their world together before the Europeans arrived.

Consequently, total anarchy ensued, and Basden (1966) had this to say regarding the

Europeans' lack of understanding of lgbo life:

The downright truth is that the European finds it difficult to fathom the native miild; he is
generally ignorant of the native's mode of thinking, and he is seldom possessed of the
essential spirilllal. element. which will equip him to unravel the intricacies of ancient native
law and· custom. We can write of what we actually see and hear, but cannot always follow
the ramifications of the native mind (xiv)

What Basden describes as the "native mind" can be better understood through pre-

colonial Igbo religion and belief in duality - the law of equal and opposite which

manifests in dualities such as heaven and earth, day and night, rain and ftre, good and

evil, man and woman etc, the concept that nothing exists in isolation. The summation

of duality is in the lgbo saying that "ife kwulu, ife akwudebeya" (literarily meaning

that when a thing stands, something else stands next to it). It is this dualistic essence

that Okagbue (1993) describes when he writes that traditional lgbo religion is:

18
 founded on an essential cosmic dualism -that of matter and spirit, of the visible and invisible,
and ofform and formlessness ( 10)

Pre-colonial lgbo society was a very religious one in which Chukwu-Okike came,alive

in, and spoke through natural elements and the people responded to this awesome

power with reverence. 11he essence of Chukwu-Okike was to be seen inthe elements,

and these natural elements contained surprises, terror, marvels and miracles.

Abstract forces became personified and were given live roles in an active world.

Thus, the Igbo would describe the forces of wind, thunder or sun as the "spirits" of

wind, thunder or sun respectively. For them, when the spirit of nature came alive,

it was neither inen nor opaque, but active and transparent. If the gods were angry,

it was apparent and, so also when they were happy. People could tell when they

were in harmony with these unseen forces, because they resonated with life, felt a

sense of oneness with their surrounding and thus gained insight into their own

spiritual essence. They worked untiringly to maintain this equilibrium. As Eliade

(1956) puts it, the individual "fmds in himself the same sanctity that he recognised

in the Cosmos" (67). Therefore the sanctification of, and communication with the

gods were central to the Igbo quest for life's meaning and through these, they were

able to understood their place within the cosmic framework.

Tied up with their understanding of the universe was the revered place given to the

divine or Mother Earth, as the primary source of fenility and sustenance. She was

treated with utmost respect and caution, and all abominable acts were expiated. For

example, the spilling of human blood (even accidentally) meant that the guilty

individual and his/her immediate family were sent into a year's (and in some places,

seven years') forced exile. This gesture to appease Mother Eanh for the defilement

was a collective indication that the community did not condone such action. In

19
Achebe's (1969) fictionalised representation oflgbo life during colonialism, this form

of exile finally destroyed Okonkwo - the hero of Umuofia and protagonist of the

novel.

Other forms of cleansing rites (ikpu alu, meaning the .cleansing of abomination) were

performed on different occasions in propitiation to ,the Earth. For instance, in

Umuoji, Nkpor, Ogidi, Obosi and in all other towns belonging to the late ldemili

Local Government Area, eke ldemili (the royal python) is still revered as the child of

ldemili - the river goddess. This specie of python has evolved into a harmless

creature because of the protected status it enjoys, and as such, both indigenes and

visitors know that they are not to be harmed. If, however, anyone accidentally kills

this python, she or he must ensure that it receives a befitting burial as is stipulated

by the custom of the land. The burial rite involves a number of cleansing rituals

which are performed for three reasons. First, to appease the Earth on whom the

python bad been killed; second, ro appease the goddess ldemili whose "child" was

killed and third; to protect the family of the offender against the anger of other deities

who may be in sympathy with ldemili over the death of her child. Therefore the

exiling of, or the imposition of cleansing rituals on the offender ensured that the

entire community was safeguarded against the wrath of Mother Earth which usually

manifested in poor crop harvests, floods and/or drought and sometimes epidemics,

diseases and deaths. Any of these natural phenomena on any agrarian society,

amounts to annihilation or ruin.

However, this whole corporate sacred scenario was breached by the arrival of the

missionaries and colonialists who began a sustained and systematic attack aimed at

destroying anything they could not rationalise. The Chukwu of the lgbo and the cult

of Mother Earth came under a sustained and relentless attack, because they were at

20
the:cpre of the Igbo traditional religion which the missionaries wanted to wipe out as

they saw it embodying the exact opposite of their Christian precepts. In fact, the

European missionaries found the lgbo gods quite threatening as they conflicted with

their teaching of a monotheistic Christian God. T<he damage to lgbo life was

extensive as the Europeans imposed their own God. According to Onwuejeogwu

(1987):

Traditional Igbo religion was subjected to coumlessrhumiliations. The Chukwu;of the lgbo
was abandoned for the God of the Anglican and the Roman Catholics; The Chukwu of Igbo
religion described as creator of all things was rejected. Some even went as far to• argue that
the concept of Chukwu was a missionary innovation. The alusi and their moral injunctions
were bum!. down-graded and abandoned, and lastly the ancestors were destroyed and'buried
(70)

With the lgbo Chukwu desecrated, the missionaries probably thought that their work

was half done. Little did they know that the total conversion of lgboland was not to

be an easy task - much to their shock, anger and disillusionment. This was because

the lgbo were so engrossed in their own forms of religious worship which involved

all other aspects of their lives - the social, political and economic- with the result that

the Europeans would have to destroy the Igbo to separate them from their religion.

Isichei (1973) notes the frustration of one of the early missionaries to Obosi, a town

south of the Niger thus: "we had some progress, yet progress is painfully slow and

the great niass of heathenism is still untouched" (46-7)

While it was true that some unimaginable practices existed that needed to be changed

among the lgbo (for instance the killing of twins), available evidence show that the

missionaries arrived with neither awareness nor willingness to gain any insight or

respect into the people's way of life. Instead, they set about giving them a "new

life". What emerged was an uncontrolled confusion and destruction of well-

established and time-tested systems which had worked for and sustained the lgbo in

21
 ·.

their inclement forest environment. Writers such as Basden .and Isichei note that a

majority of European administrators came to Igboland already prejudiced. Isichei

described them as mostly disgruntled men who saw Africa as a way forward into the

career moves which they could not achieve elsewhere:

lboland's administrators came to Africa in search of change and adventure; or in pursuit of

a career they had been unable to make elsewhere. Their writings mirror their inflexible sense
of caste, their incomprehension and· disdain for the people they ruled - sometimes; indeed, to
the point of Kipling's imagery - "half devil and half child" (54)

With such misinformed administrators at the helm, the lgbo resistance to this alien

culture was to prove disastrous. With the total destruction of what the people stood

for, a combination of economic. political and spiritual crises was created. The

implications are yet to be fully explored as more scholars, like Onwuejeogwu,

become aware of the extent of decimation that went on in lgboland in particular and

Africa as a whole wherever there was an anempt to resist the colonialists.

The impact of Christianity

Christianity made some positive impact on traditional Igbo life. First was the

introduction of western-type education that enabled the lgbo to understand the

language of their colonial masters, thereby, limiting the kind of destruction that

happened prior to the adoption of a lingua franca shared by the Europeans and the

Igbo. The acquisition of this type of education will later afford the lgbo the

opportunity to become more involved with scientific and technological development

all over the world. Second, a modem form of medicine was introduced, and with this

came improved medicare. Consequently, a lot of people who would have died from

unexplained and then incurable illnesses such as kitikpa (small pox), ekpenta (leprosy)

and otolo (cholera) were given longer leases of life. Third, the killing of twins which

22
was a phenomenon not understood by the lgbo was stopped. A combination of the

Christian religion and modem medicine helped in.curbing superstition and opened up

alternative ways for interpreting the lgbo universe. Fourth, travel and conimercial

opportunities became more varied as remote places became more accessible with the

introduction of motor vehicles and steam engine trains. With increased economic

activities, came more wealth and improved quality of life.

Having considered some of the benefits that came with the colonisation of the lgbo,

there is evidence to show that before the coming ofthe Europeans, the lgbo had their

own type of civilization, education, currency and even handwriting (Nsibidi). The

researcher's opinion is that given time, and with the level of trade.and commerce the

lgbo were involved in, they would have been possibly been exposed to different but

more benign foreign cultures which could have influenced them in the same (if not

a better) way than the Europeans did; but without essentially destroying the hinges

of the lgbo belief system. For instance, lsichei (1977) notes contact with the

Europeans halted any further development of the Nsibidi (Appendix C):

Nsibidi took the form of formalised pictograms, like Chinese. Had not the experience of
colonial rule deflected .the lgbo and their neighbours from their own panerns of development,
it seems likely that, as in other societies, a knowledge of literacy would have become ever
more diffused in society as a whole and .that, like Chinese, the script would have acquired
more·character, becoming a richer and more flexible vehicle of literary expression. Its form
meam that, like Chinese, it could be used by speakers of different dialects or even languages
(37-8)

The impact of the negative effect of Christianity and the extent of the damage done

was on such a large scale because on arrival to some parts of lgboland, the Europeans

met with some resistance. They set about using tactics ranging from manipulation to

sheer brute force to crush such resistance. Further resistance was silenced using their

military might. Examples include the Ekumeku uprising in western lgboland from

23
1898-1910, Udi and Ikwo up~isings in 1914 and 1918 respectively, and the Aba

Women's riot of 1929. Nsichei:l21). Coupled with the effect of these revolts was

the impact of Christianity on the agricultural life of the Igbo. Before the Europeans

arrived, polygamy was a pragmatic way of life, and success and wealth were

measured in terms of the number of farm hands an individual could boast of within

one's own family network. Men, therefore, married not just for the love of marriage,

but as a means of economic and social survival. Given the people's experience with

slavery and warfare, polygamy helped ensure continuity, and also became a means

of increasing and securing their wealth, their socio-political as well as religious

standing within their community. It must be remembered that even to this day, the

lgbo measure wealth more in terms of the human than the material resources at an

individual's disposal. Hence, they give names like Madukaku, Nwakego (meaning a

person or a child is worth more than riches) and lgwebuike (there is power in

numbers).

When, therefore, the Europeans introduced their own non-agricultural commercial

products and routes, agriculture suffered. Participation in these trade networks set

up and controlled by the Europeans became a bait exclusive to those who were ready

to play by the missionaries' rule. Trading with the European who had the economic

power became an exclusive club to their Christian converts. Most of these traders

became the elite group and their masters' voices and were known for their over

zealousness in attacking traditional lgbo life. Adults were allowed access to trading

and their children access to western education only when they renounced the

traditional way of life, especially polygamy. Before long, farming which was the

people's mainstay was destroyed as more and more people became converted to

Christianity, most of them did so due to economic considerations. Converts were

forced to send long-standing wives back to their in-laws, and in traditional lgboland,

24
wives were only sent back to their parents when they were guilty of such gross

misconduct as adultery or when these wives died. Onwuejeogwu (1987) sums up the

destruction caused by Christianity thus:

Similarly, Igbo economy was destroyed. The agricultural techniques and know-how !hat took
the ancestors of lgbo people thousands of years to develop were abandoned for working in !he
White man's rubber and cocoa plantations in the West, in railways, marine and government
offices. Berween 1920 and 1960 thousands of lgbo, left Igbo land believing that they could
not make a living in lgbo land.... In a multi-ethnic oriented society like Nigeria, a rapid
dispersal in10 the territory of others, was bound to generate conflict (70)

The conflict Onwuejeogwu was suggesting came to a head when in 1966 alone, with

the onset of the Nigerian-Biafran civil war, when uncounted number of the lgbo were

killed in Northern Nigeria in some very gruesome manner, [in what today would be

termed ethnic cleansing]. In the civil war that followed between 1967-70, millions

of lgbo Ios their lives in their struggle for an independent homeland called Biafra.

The European missionaries succeeded in re-defining wealth in lgboland monetary

terms. The trend was not unique to the lgbo as Robert (1988) notes the same about

the Tabwa:

To a significant extent, an older ethic of egalitarianism and community interest was replaced
by the capitalist focus upon the individual. Success in the colonial political economy was
based upon individual initiative, talent, and achievement. In many contexts, group solidarity
and corporate identity became less imponant than personal status, accumulation of wealth, and
its attendant auainment of personal power ( 123)

Socially, the colonial masters also became involved in fuelling fratricidal wars already

escalated by broken marriage contracts in which innocent wives and husbands were

rejected for no reason other than that wives or husbands had become Christians and

as such, were entitled to only one spouse. Most of the intricate networks of social

contracts, friendships and relationships established through betrothal and marriages

25
 ·.

became possible sources of disagreement and conflict. These :led· to a breakdown in

communication and the foreigners capitalised on these widespread' social' dislocation

and soured contracted relationships to instigate one ,group against the other. They

would eventually provide their favoured side with sophisticated (compared to

traditional) ammunition, stand aside and watch the vanquishing of the unco-operative

cominunities. These disagreements precipitated wars during which extensive

farmlands away from homesteads were left derelict as people were too scared to

venture too far away from their villages for fear that they would either be kidnapped

or killed when attending such<distant farmlands. Consequently, trade in farm produce

slowed to a halt and starvation set in. People were forced to either join the Christians

or migrate elsewhere to make a living. The former option proved more favourable

as it meant more security while protected by the might of the foreigners. This sense

of destruction and dereliction was summed up in the plight of men from Arochukwu,

who were not only great farmers, but also traders and warriors. lsichei (1973) notes

that:

The men of Arochuku (sic), similarly, with their oracle destroyed and· their trade routes falling
into desuetude, faced the same unpalatable-alternative - to emigrate in search of work, or to
stay home, to face increasing economic stagnation (36)

Coupled with this wanton destruction of an entire nation were the effects of western

education, which were to prove quite extensive over time. Most of the intellectual

elite progressively detached themselves from the patterns of traditional culture, and

what emerged was a society split into sections. Members of this nouveau elite were

sent overseas to be educated as a way of "rubbing in" the consequences of their

unwise decision to those who had resisted joining the missionaries earlier on. Most

of these individuals educated by and in the West would return to flagrantly condemn

traditional ways. They were to become, in many years to come, their masters' voice

for the final and unabated denigration of lgbo culture. This was especially so because

26
on their return to lgboland, they joined the civil service, held positions of authority
1

and had the power to recruit others (who were by now more interested in white collar

jobs). Basden (1966) notes regarding the impact of the newly educated lgbo:

Chiefs of the old type are being rapidly replaced by their educated sons; educated, !hat is, in
the sense !ha! their fathers never were nor could be. The younger generation is learning to
read and write and 10 adopt European ideas and fashions in every detail of life, clothes,
houses and pastimes .... A! the moment, !he·balance of life has been, and is being, seriously
disrurbed. The younger generation has·shed old manners and customs freely, and somewhat
hastily. They are ardently grasping at all things new and foreign (xii)

The effect of this unprecedented shift oflife style were that foreign ideas was also felt

politically. Traditionally, the Igbo believed that a person's worth was measured only

by the sweat of their brows. Inherited wealth and position commanded little or no

respect. This meant that anyone who depended solely on inherited wealth or position

was scorned and derided. For instance, a man's worth was judged by the number of

wives he married himself (not those inherited from his father or brother[s]), and

consequently, by the number of children from such unions that he could cater for.

Age also had a lot of respect and elders from different clans were elected to represent

their people and to make important decisions. lsichei (1973) describes traditional

lgbo society as "a small democratic society" with a network of intricate political

systems in which age commanded a lot of respect. It was a system known for its

flexibility in motivating younger individuals who had proved themselves to remain

socially and politically upwardly mobile. Hence the lgbo proverb that "nwata kwo

aka o solu okenye lie nni" (when a child washes his hands clean of dirt, he will be

allowed to eat with the elders from the same source). Furthermore, moral astuteness

was valued more than any other achievement in traditional lgbo society. This is

noticeable in the lgbo saying that; "ezi afa k 'ego" (a good name is worth more than

riches). lsichei (1973) confirms the importance of age and good name when she

writes that:

27
 lbo communities were in practice ruled by titled men of mature age. These titles were
purchased, notinherited -though the recipient ola:title had to satisfy other. conditions as well,
1

and be of good character (37)

Politically, the lgbo were organised as interrelated states grouped into clans, united

by "the agnatic charter of a common ancestor" (37). People occasionally came

together to satisfy common needs, for example, .to•defend themselves.against invading

neighbours. These forms of contracts ended with ·the entrance of the Europeans.

Community works such as road building, clearing the path to streams and rivers and

general maintenance works were carried out by the young men organised into age

grades. The age grade system which is still in existence in most of Igboland

functions by organising people born within any three consecutive years into one age

grade to form a formidable governing and human workforce. These age grades are

usually named according to historical events and for a people whose four-market

week calender had not the means of counting the years, these age grades served as

historical reminders of events. For instance, ogbo influenza (the influenza age grade)

and ogbo Okono (O'Connor age grade) refer to the age grades that were born in the

years when there was an influenza epidemic and those born in the year when the

District Officer O'Connor came to Umuoji, respectively. Oka:for (1973) writes about

the age grade system thus:

our study not only shows the age grade as community-integrative mechanism, but also a
dominant politico-judicial system of the Umuoji community .... While the family and extended
family formed the political units at the lower levels, it is the age grade that dominates the
wider and top-level Umuoji political system ... (iii)

However, the Europeans also found this system of government by elders impossible

to adapt because negotiations were prolonged, as each elder bargained to ensure that

his clan got a good deal. The Europeans finally undermined this system of

government by the introduction of paramount chiefs. These were mostly men who

were hand-picked because they were sympathetic to the cause of Europeans, and the

chiefs were given enough financial muscle to enable them, on the one hand to

28
 ·.

galvanise people into action when needed, and to undermine the authority of the

elders, on 'the other. Above all, they were made judge and jury in community cases

which they were legally ill-equipped to preside over. As a result, established legal

and social orders became dislocated'. The lgbo 'legal system was such that after

judgement by elders, any individual who felt that he/she had been unfairly judged

could appeal to higher authorities for adjudication. In .extreme cases, people would

run unto the patronage of a deity for protection and justice:

Among the Igbo law, /wu, is based,on rules which are enacted by the elders and sanctioned
by the ances10rs ndichie. An infraction of a law does not constirute the breaking of a· taboo.
Those who break the law are punished or fined. lgbo concept of law is rooted in Igbo
jurisprudence which is·a-body of complete argument of ethical principles. Tbe.principles (sic)
that a person is not totally guilty in a case gives room for dialogue, discussion and appeals
through a hierarchy of lineages before appealing to the town obodo or eze ...
(0nwuejeogwu:63)

Thus the final arbiters were the various deities to whose shrines an accused could run

for succour and protection. Whenever this happened, the individual was

automatically protected by the deities, and no matter what the outcome of the case

being judged may be, no one dared to harass any person(s) protected by a god. In

traditional Igbo society, these individuals would never again return to live among

their kindred or clan although they would be in the same town. They were, however,

allowed to live at the shrine, but they were not allowed to intermarry with those

whom they fled from, and who were free citizens. Such individuals who fled to the

gods for refuge belonged to a special caste that the lgbo call the osu (children of the

gods). The Europeans also found it difficult to understand that an individual could

run to the gods, and consequently be free of punishment. They dismantled what in

their judgement was a flawed legal system which allowed this type of recourse.

However, as time went on, people found it more impossible to resist the Europeans,

what with their combination of military might and sometimes manipulation, new ideas

and irresistible technology. This was to be the final death of an inherited order. A

29
new order had been fully established which profaned deities, destroyed traditional

religious symbols without any immediate·consequences, as people stood by and waited

in vain for their deities to fight back. ·Prior to this time, the lgbo knew their gods to

always act swiftly to ·inflict pain and.even death on anyone Who dared desecrate them.

Thus began a history of loss of self-esteem among the lgbo, especially with the

onslaught from Christianity following almost immediately after years of slave trade

and colonialism. A predominant feeling began, of inadequacy and inferiority about

their entire culture in the face of constant .put-downs by a more fmancially viable,

manipulatively superior and powerful culture. Material and spiritual life became

differentiated and thus, meaningless. This for the lgbo whose existence was

dualistic, was catastrophic. This feeling of inadequacy has persisted into the present

day Igbo parlance to the extent that the adjective igbotic is derogatively used to

qualify any person, place or thing that are deemed outmoded or unsophisticated in

western terms. Eliade ( 1956) nares that when such things as these happen, people are

bound to feel that God has failed them and that nothing sustains any meaning when

natural rhythms are destroyed:

the periodical sanctification of Cosmic time then proves useless without meaning. The gods
are no longer accessible through cosmic rhythms. The religious meaning of the repetition~ of
paradigmatic gesrures is forgouen (I 06)

Repetition emptied of religious and ritual content lead to what Eliade describes as a

"pessimistic vision of existence" (107). To a large extent, this was and has remained

the legacy bequeathed to the Igbo by colonialism and Christianity - the destruction of

values and the replacement of traditional institutions with nothing comparable. The

forced conversion to Christianity - a religion the Igbo understood little or nothing of,

became a problem as it did not fit into their overall scheme of things. Faced with this

dilemma and, out of the need to relate to a supreme being they understood and felt

30
new order had been fully established which· ,profaned deities, destroyed traditional

religious symbols without any immediate consequences, as people stood by and waited

in vain for their deities to fight back. Prior to this time, the Igbo knew their gods to

always act swiftly to inflict. pain and•even death on anyone who dared desecrate them.

'Jlhus began a history of loss of self-esteem among the lgbo, especially with the

onslaught from Christianity following almost immediately after years of slave trade

and colonialism. A predominant feeling began, of inadequacy and inferiority about

their entire culture in the face of constant put-downs by a more financially viable,

manipulatively superior and powerful culture. Material and spiritual life became

differentiated and thus, meaningless. 'Jihis for the Igbo whose existence was

dualistic, was catastrophic. This feeling of inadequacy has persisted into the present

day Igbo parlance to the extent that the adjective igbotic is derogatively used to

qualify any person, place or thing that are deemed outmoded or unsophisticated in

western terms. Eliade (1956) notes that when such things as these happen, people are

bound to feel that God has failed them and that nothing sustains any meaning when

natural rhythms are destroyed:

the periodical sanctification of Cosmic time then proves useless without meaning. The gods
are no longer accessible through cosmic rhythms. The religious meaning of the repetition of
paradigmatic gestures is forgotten ( 106)

Repetition emptied of religious and ritual content lead to what Eliade describes as a

"pessimistic vision of existence" (107). To a large extent, this was and has remained

the legacy bequeathed to the lgbo by colonialism and Christianity - the destruction of

values and the replacement of traditional institutions with nothing comparable. The

forced conversion to Christianity - a religion the lgbo understood little or nothing of,

became a problem as it did not fit into their overall scheme of things. Faced with this

dilemma and, out of the need to relate to a supreme being they understood and felt

30
part of, and in their quest for a higher meaning to their own existence yet forbidden

by the fear of the whiteman's wrath, there emerged (and still exists} a form of lgbo

eclectism " a personal synthesis of the old and new.

Meanwhile; a majority of those already converted to Christianity but who had found

it inadequate in explaining their universe, returned ,to their abandoned deities and

ways of life. They re-claimed 'those wives they 'had' rejected, consulted their oracles

and attempted re-building their independence. llhe 'difference this time was that they

had realised the futility of a direct confrontation with this invading power. So while

they remained traditionalists, they sent their children,tojoin the missionaries in order

that they may obtain western education. For the people in traditional Igbo society,

obtaining western style education was the only way of understanding and containing

the type of power the whiteman used to destroy them. In their own wisdom, they

had come to accept that an open confrontation would lead to a further destruction of

their gods, their people and their land. In a nutshell, they had come to the realisation

that if not treated with caution, the whiteman had enough vengeance and purpose to

write them off the pages of history.

The decision in most families that the ageing members remained traditionalist was a

reflection of the fact that faced people within traditional Igbo society. In most cases,

this decision was taken to ensure that whichever side that fmally won in the contest

between tradition and Christianity, the lgbo would not lose out. This brand of

eclectism clearly exemplified the insecurity that marked lgboland at the time.

Because of their experience, the lgbo were, and would remain for a long time to

come, a people caught between two worlds.

31
In a conference paper, "Rituals: A Theatre of Therapy and Affirmation, ( 1995), the

researcher argued that this alienation from a proven way .of life (and beyond that, a

history tainted by slavery) will eventually give rise to a noticeable percentage of

people with little or no self-esteem and no meaningful understanding of their place

in the cosmic scheme of events.

In all this confusion, one aspect of lgbo life which persevered and remained

untouched was their belief in, and the need to affirm and celebrate life. The Igbo are

active celebrants who view life as one long performance during which they seize

every opportunity to give thanks to God for the gift oflife. They have evolved their

rituals to celebrate their communities, different deities, ancestors, history and

individuals achievements. Communities celebrate the changing seasons; the coming

of the rains marking the start of the farming season, and the coming of the dry season

to mark the beginning of the harvesting season. During these performances, different

communities stage and invite neighbouring towns to attend as their guests, as for

instance, during lfejioku (yam festival) which is celebrated throughout Igboland or to

more regional ones like Ene Mma in Nkpor, Nwafor in Ogidi and Uzo-lyi in Umuoji.

To the Igbo, the successful negotiation of any personal challenges calls for

celebration, and these include births, attainment of puberty, initiations, marriages and

deaths. History has proved that nothing can stop the lgbo from celebrating life.

This celebration of life is holistic, and the Igbo will employ all the elements of theatre

- performers, participants, music, mime, mask, elaborate costumes, make up and

dance - at their disposal to affirm and celebrate their oneness with the universe.

From conception to death, life is celebrated with very elaborate rituals through which

people disengage from the hustle and bustle of their daily existence to reflect on those

aspects of life that do not usually get looked into. Hence, in the quiet of ritual,

32
people are afforded a glimpse into the real nature of the Chukwu of their ancestors

whose greatness they partake of. In the ritual process, the lgbo re-awaken the God

essence they possess, and by partaking· in this unseen holiness, they gain back their

self-esteem. For the lgbo whose confidence and' self-esteem have been negatively

impacted upon by slavery and Christianity, rituals are therefore, their way of

affirming themselves and their oneness with creation. Without rituals and the

elaborate performance that they involve, life would become devoid of meaning.

However, the reason for Igbo performance and the form it takes can easily be lost on

the outsiders being embedded as it is in rituals. It seems that. the bruising experience

the lgbo had with slavery, colonisation and Christianity brought about a heightened

need to preserve their heritage through a process of selective dissemination, hence

aspects of their culture (performance inclusive) are coded in rituals. For example,

during the ima muo ritual, male children are not only taught, but they come in direct

contact with aspects of lgbo manhood symbolised by the courage, strength, kindliness

and decorum they encounter and display during their contest with the initiating

spirits/masks. This also marks the beginning of a life-long learning process in the art

masquerading - the carving of the mask, different musical instruments, costumes,

dance, songs, music and the different performance styles and decora of masking. For

a long time Igbo people have used ritualised performance not only as a means of

socialisation and education, but as a coded storage of valued aspects of their culture

which if unprotected would be destroyed through contact with external influences.

Unfortunately. in present day Igbo society, most rituals are quickly losing their pride

of place and this is reflected in societal values in which age no longer commands any

respect, honoured positions and titles are bought and paid for with riches acquired

through questionable means and young men and women shy away from formal

education because they regard it as a waste of their time. The negative influence of

33
 ·,

the 'cult' of individualism introduced' .by the Europeans is at its ,peak, and in direct

conflict with communal though capitalist fabric of Igbo life. The result is that self-

worth is now determined by material possession, and this has overtaken the need for

good reputation and· hard work. Education- both traditional and western - is derided

as a waste of valuable time that should be spent making money. As a result, a vast

majority of the younger generation are unschooled in any form of ethical conduct.

Sadly, the destruction of what remains of pre-Cbristian Igbo life is being completed,

especially by the new wave of Pentecostal churches under the new leadership of

indigenes, who engage in a wanton destruction of those aspects of lgbo life that

mainstream Christianity left untouched. Many interviewed by the researcher during

her fieldwork believe that the Igbo society is evolving, but that the rapid and

unpredictable pace of evolution is in itself destructive. As such, they fear that unless

the lgbo act fast by single-mindedly exhuming, re-examining, owning and recording

aspects and patterns of their lives, that there will be little that is authentically Igbo,

that the generations yet unborn can identify with and lay claims to,

From this researcher's experience, there is no doubt that unless the Igbo people stop

to re-discover and re-evaluate their roots in relation to where they have been, where

they are at present, and where they want to be in the future and in what role, it will

be challenging to share Onwuejeogwu's (1987) optimism about the lgbo nation:

My forecast is that lgbo-speaking people are mobilizing their forces and energy in lgbo land
towards a scientific revolution characterized by inventions and innovation in different fields
of human endeavour that will enable Nigeria plunge imo a new era of industrialization. This
will help Nigeria free herself from the economic yoke placed on her by the Western and
Eastern blocs. Bm this can only be achieved when the'lgbo cities might have discovered their
roots and how these roms are related to the roots of their ethnic groups in Nigeria.
Understanding their roots will enable them regain contidence in·themselves, develop the spirit
of self-reliance, inventiveness and creativity lost by the imervention of slave trade and
colonialism (71)

34
The answer to the present challenge facing the lgbo is to be found within rituals.

lgbo rituals have proved resilient, and it is hoped that this study will not only unearth

and strengthen them, but that it will lead to a greater understanding of the mechanics

of lgbo rituals in general.

35
 CHAPFER2

A PERSPECTIVE ON IGBO RITUAL PRACTICE

lgbo rituals are unique both in their nature and their perfonnance context. The study

of rituals has been very revealing, because it enabled the subtle distinction between

rituals from other types of perfonnance, such~as social action. By nature, lgbo rituals

are unlike social action because rituals are predominantly spiritually oriented. Every

ritual has stipulated and agreed objectives that can be monitored against set

perfonnance criteria, whereas social action are those activities which individuals

perfonn within an unstructured space and time in order to personalise and thus own

the lessons learnt during rituals. So social actions involve the unconscious transfer

and application of rituals lessons into the non-ritual milieu of daily existence. For

example, while initiations into the masquerade cult (ima muo) and into womanhood

(iso ebe) both involve special preparations and the separation of intended participants

from the community, social action such as knowing how to cater for the family herd

(igbo nni ewu) and involvement in moonlight play (egwu onwa) happen without

specific preparations of the participants. In addition, at the end of every ritual,

participants are re-integrated into their various communities while social action fonn

a non-differentiated aspects of every day living.

Furthennore, the study of lgbo riruals provide the framework for illustrating some

relevant ritual theories with an aim to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

36_
•. :..:..i...;:,_:; ... --: . . --__ ::_:f.:.. ~-
 ..

Defmition

Since 1908, when van Gennep's Rite of Passage was first published, theatre

practitioners (such as Kolawole Ositola), theatre anthropologists (Richard Schechner,

Victor Turner and Eugenio Barba) as well as anthropologists (Anthony Grainger,

Margaret Thompson Drewal, and Richard Werbner) to mention a few, have

contributed immensely to the study of ritual. It is important at this point to note the

contributions made by Turner and Schechner in bringing performance to the centre

stage by highligting performance as an all-encompassing genre. Their contributions

have succeeded in freeing rituals from the drama-theatre debate between some lgbo

scholars [Echeruo (1973), Obiechina (1978), Amankulor (1981), Enekwe (1981)]. and

many others were invovled in that debate during the 1970s and 80s in response to

some euro-centric claims made by especially Horton (1963) and Finnegan (1970).

This debate questioned the authenticity of lgbo rituals as either drama and/or theatre

using the Greek theatre as the main model. Essentially, there were two parallel

debates going on at the same time. The first one was between this group of lgbo

scholars and the euro-centrics, while the other was between the rest of lgbo scholars

on the one side and Echeruo and Uka on the other. Basically, Echeruo insisted that

although the euro-centrics were wrong in assuming that African theatre was "quasi",

he argued that what the African needed to do was what the Greeks did with their own

drama - free it from its submergence within rituals.

However, the researcher is of the opinion that lgbo rituals are a unique form of

performance and that they should be judged based on whether they fulfil performance

criteria. So in as much as these scholars have made immense contributions to the

understanding of lgbo rituals, the researcher feels that getting involved in their debate

will only limit the scope of this work which views lgbo rituals as belonging to the

37
more encompassing performance category. Above all if rituals are culture-specific

the researcher wonders what use there was in using the Greek-Dionysian festivals as

a yardstick for judging the authenticity of lgbo rituals as either drama or theatre.

Above all, the debate in question was valid some twenty to thirty years ago and does

not have much relevance today. However, these scholars seem to be in agreement

about one thing: that rituals are culture specific performances devised around the

assessment, containment and resolution of life crises.

Life crises are those biological and/or occupational progression that occur throughout

an individual's life and they include for example, "births, puberty, marriage,

father/motherhood, advancement to a higher class, occupational specialization, and

death" (van Gennep,1908:3). At close examination, the crises mentioned above all

follow a basic action and reaction panem. This means that new changes would

affect and disturb the normal or existing equilibrium, thereby necessitating the

negotiation of a new order. These negotiations use what van Gennep describes as

"special acts" which are ritualised performances through which individuals and

communities acknowledge, assess, negotiate and contain those crises brought about

by the very nature of their existence.

Funhermore, the resolution of these crises have a natural sequence that can be planed

against the basic biological development of an individual, and as a result distinct but

interrelated ritual clusters are observable. Among the Igbo, for instance, the period

of gestation is marked with a flurry of activities (staning with divinations and

consultations with the various oracles and traditional medicine practitioners) which

are performed to ensure that the expectant mother and foetus are protected from all

evil persons and/or spirits. All rituals in this period of life are performed with a

common aim in mind - the well-being of the expectant mother and the unborn baby.

38
 ·~

So, although the pregnant woman may not think that she is in need of protection, her

mother, mother-in-law and other relatives will nevertheless continue to seek

protection on her behalf. This need for protection stems from the lgbo belief that

diabolical forces can be unleashed on people's lives by either/or humans and spirits;

and also because of the belief that during pregnancy, the woman is both vulnerable

and susceptible to hann due to her delicate condition. Any interference with the well-

being of an expectant mother could, the lgbo believe, result in foetal malformation,

stillbirths and in extreme cases, the death of the expectant mother herself. However,

the birth of the child marks the end of what can be appropriately tenned maternity

rituals, which then ushers in the birth and infancy rituals which are geared towards

the severance of natal ties and re-connection with Mother Earth. These rituals

include ini nhe (separation in the form of the disposal of the placenta), ibe ugwu

(circumcision) and iba afa (naming ceremony marking the conferment of personal

identity on the child and its incorporation into the family and society at large).

At close examination of these ritual mentioned above, the Gennepian tripartite

structure of separation, initiation and incorporation become clearly evident. This

makes one wonder whether the possession of a tripartite structure qualifies any

performance as ritual, or if there are other characteristics to be on the look out for.

From the research performed, it can confidently be asserted that for any performance

to qualify as ritual, it must be meaningful to a level where its performance is a sine

qua non for the people within any particular cultural milieu in which that performance

exists. In addition, all rituals must be performed within a given time frame with all

actions following stipulated guideline(s), and that the consequences of non-

performance is usually felt, if not immediately but later in life as Ositola (1988)

notes:

39
 some,people may have obstacle (sic) in their lives .. ,noboily has given them a1proper initiation
intotlife .... By losing this imponant heritage.,. they willbe.a burden to'himself, to the parents
and the household, and to the society at·large because he will misbehave .. (32)

From the foregoing, rituals can be defined as those symbolic performances which

have great socio-religious essence and consequence which follow an already agreed

order, in a set time and place for/by a qualified individual or group of individuals .

During rituals, the participant(s) embark on a symbolic journey in the knowledge that

by the end, these reversible and sometimes irreversible actions would enable them

find personalised answers to whatever challenges they face. In the ritual framework,

every participant is confident that these complex performances:have"some intrinsically

subliminal and powerful attributes through which they are enabled to gain insight into,

and partake in the true nature of their unseen otherness. Riruals are essential

performances which are believed to have dire consequences when suspended, or not

performed using the prescribed format. The implication of a transition delayed or

denied for individuals and communities may be that they may remain in a state of

suspended animation - unable to move forward or backwards. Rituals are, therefore,

meaningful strips of action that link up to form an extended bridge on which the

participants can safely cross the deep waters of life, without necessarily stepping or

coming into too direct a contact with its cold reality.

For example, all girls born within a family in Igboland are called the

umuadalumuokpu. Young women are expected to be married, and Igbo mothers and

families invest a lot of time ensuring that their daughters are well brought up

(domesticated. morally astute, polite, etc) because if not, there will be nobody to

marry them when they are ripe for marriage. It is a shameful siruation when a full

grown woman does not attract suitors. On the contrary, the married daughters of the

family are accorded great respect in their father's compound, and when the need

40
.. ..:...·. ~~ --'----
 ·,

arises; these daughters return to arbitrate in cases that may arise in their birth

families. They wield such social and political powers that they .alone have the

authority to impose fmes and/or sanctions on whomsoever they pronounce guilty. It

is socially suicidal for anyone to go against the counsel or decisions of these

collective arbiters, who are held in indescribable awe by the wives of the family.

So, when at a certain age a woman remains unmarried and continues to live in her

father's compound, the wives in the family would naturally feel threatened and view

her with mistrust and suspicion because she is seen as the "ears" of the married

umuada. This is because she may be passing information which otherwise the

umuada would not have known about living as they are in their own marital homes.

So, the easiest means of discord in any family is to have a grown unmarried daughter

living within the family. The fact is that in Igboland, marriages save grown women

from the ridicule that they may otherwise be subjected to ifthey remained unmarried.

The marriage rirual in Igboland, therefore, bestows respect and saves women from

coming in direct conflict with the harshness of remaining in their fathers' compounds.

The role of ritual

In most societies, rituals play the threefold role of being an agent of cohesion, a

means of education and perpetuation of society life and values. Haralambos (1992)

states Durkheim' s view that society can

survive only if there exists amongst its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity; education
perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child from the beginning the
essential similarities which collective life demands. Without these '.:ssential similarities',
cooperation, social solidarity and therefore social life itself would be impossible. This
involves a commitment to society. a sense of belonging and a feeling that the social unit is
more imponant than the individual (230)

41
·•

Among the lgbo, this homogeneity is ensured in the way they use rituals to identify,

own and instruct their children from an early stage. For instance, the first ritual

performed at the birth of any child is called iti mkpu nwalichi oga (shouts of joy),

and its purpose is to inform the whole community of the birth, and to informally

prepare them for the numerous spontaneous celebrations that accompany the birth of

any child. So, through this single act, the community comes together to celebrate

their common bonds. In lgboland, these types of gathering are common at births,

marriages and deaths. Furthermore, Durkheim argues that such level of

homogeneous spontaneity is only possible if from the beginning, the society fixes in

its children the "essential similarities which collective life demands". The vital task

performed by the different rituals like the naming ceremony, initiations into the

masquerade cult, traditional marriages and burial ceremonies is that they enable

"welding a mass of individuals into a united whole, in other words, the creation of

'social solidarity'. This involves a commitment to the society .... " (230)

This is a point Robert (1988) seems to agree with when he writes regarding the

cohesive power of divination thus:

Through divination and related rituals, people remember, revise, rearrange and reconstitute
elements of history to understand and cope with present difficulties, so that a better future can
be negotiated (123)

Ritual is like life itself in the sense that people do not start to understand and cope

with difficulties unless they are enabled (as in counselling) to look at the causes rather

than effects. This is the role that ritual plays - it removes the smoke screen and gets

people involved in the serious business of delving deeply into their lives. Thus, in

going through the ritual process, individuals are enabled to process and re-arrange

their various life experiences into easily accessible compartments and stages they can

make sense of. Robert continues that during rituals:

42
 individual actors attempt to understand, cope with and take action to redress crises of health
and social welfare. People reflect upon the way life is and how it works in moments of
performance. They do so in heightened contexts of crises, when failure to take action, or
rather failure to take proper action may lead to intense suffering, death or destruction (123).

What rituals do for us is that they offer us a structured space and time in which to

deeply dwell on issues which may be perplexing to us, but which in our everyday life

we do not have the time and space to contemplate. For the lgbo who believe that the

human being is a material as well as a spiritual entity, their rituals are designed to

satisfy a deep sense of longing to understand their place within the cosmic order.

The sheer nature of this dualistic existence of the human being in one united spiritual

and material dimension engenders a lot of crises from conception right through to

death. Therefore, it seems that most lgbo rituals exist to enable individuals to answer

those needs born out of their spiritual and material make up as they strive to relate

and live in harmony with the seen and unseen forces of the universe. So it can be

imagined how amidst these uncertainties generated by the diametrically opposed

nature of being just humans, rituals provide a steadying keel that enables people to

focus and decide on their next course of action. Grainger (1974) notes that: "myths

and rituals are the ways in which society reassures itself: they bolster society up.

They are voices out of the past, part of a cultural heritage. This is why they exist".

(2)

For example, when an Igbo man performs the iwa oji ututu (morning prayer and

breaking of the kolanut), he does this, flrst, to thank Chukwu for his blessings all

through the night. It must be remembered that night time (even in present day lgbo

villages) is synonymous with impregnable darkness, unseen and capricious evil forces

and harmful creatures. For the lgbo, night time represents suppression of the sense

of sight. With the only form of illumination coming from the stars and the moon

43
 -.

(when it is full), night time is one of the fearful personal experiences whose mastering

starts with the initiation into the masquerade cult, and probably lasts the duration of

an individual's life. So when the lgbo breaks the flrst kolanut after more than ten

hours of eerie darkness, he celebrates the rising sun (a visible attribute of Chukwu),

he re-affirms himself as being important because Chukwu found him and his family

important enough to be kept from harm during those long hours of total darkness.

A new day, therefore, is a new experience which be starts with a new performance -

during which be recites his ancestry and retells his family history. Where a man's

father is deceased, be (the living) re-iterates the lessons of life taught him by his

father, and thus re-assures himself and those present that they are never alone. At

the same time, he transfers what he had been taught to his own children and listeners.

Libation is a form of continuous education.

Ritual and Social Action

It is important at this stage to differentiate between ritual and social action. Social

action is the sum total of human action. Haralambos (1992) in discussing the

Functionalist theory of social action as propounded by Emile Durkheim argues that

human action does not happen in the void because humans possess consciousness,

thoughts, feelings, meanings, intentions and awareness of being. And that all these

human attributes determine, to a great extent, how people accord meaning and

perception to external stimuli. He, therefore, concluded that since action and reaction

stem from these unseen human attributes, it follows that for human action (and

reaction) to be correctly interpreted and understood, one must first of all, look for

and correctly interpret the subjective and hidden logic that drives such action (and

reaction). In order words, the ability to interpret social action depends on one's

ability to understand the role(s) played by some unseen variables.

44
 ·~

On the contrary, rituals '1operate on a reflective meta-level" (Werbner:4), arid they

differ from social action in that rituals have set and agreed rhythmic ordering, timing

and the belief on the part ,of the participants that outcomes or expected results are

known from the onset. These results are empirical in the sense that the same results

will be achieved each time, provided that the prescribed rhythm, order, timing of

words and action are adhered to. In discussing divination rituals, Werbner stresses

the importance of adhering to already agreed format during ritual as it enables people

to give "interpretations of their symbols, icons and' indices ... they do not merely

respond to their signifying practices unreflectively ... " (4)

So during most rituals, the pre-liminal stage is a time for intensive induction during
which participants are empowered to reflect on issues by learning set guiding
principles. When ritual participants are re-incorporated into the society after their
performances, they are able to use the period between rituals to test out and
personalise those lessons learnt during rituals. Social action periods are those

relatively quiet periods between one ritual and another. They are like active holiday

periods during which individuals who had been involved in ritual become re-absorbed

as members of their community, and where in their everyday life, they are able to

test and implement the lessons learnt during rituals.

The language of ritual

The term "language" in this context refers to the verbal rendition of ritual. If it is
accepted that ritual affords people the space and time to reflect on the true meaning
of their existence, it then will follow that its language will be such that can describe
this heightened experience in which people become aware of their true nature as both
human and spirit. Nkala (1983) notes that:

ritual ceremonies are often occasions for instant rendition of folk poetry. The song, dance
and recitations that feature at rituals constitute a veritable corpus of imaginative
literature.(p.ll)

45
-·-···
 ..

'Fhe language of rituals is as culture specific and as varied as rituals themselves, and

varies from one performance to another, and depending on what purposes the rituals

they are employed in serve. The language may range from simple prayers and

supplications to the very complex and coded recitations and chants found in some cult

initiation. An example of the prayerful is that which the lgbo use in the consecration

of the morning kolanut. Through this ritual, the lgbo thank Chukwu-Okike for their

lives, and invite their ancestors to partake in their affairs and to protect them. By

doing so, they affirm themselves as part of a bigger universe. The more complex

forms of ritual language are those evident in secret initiation rites of which examples

include those used in iriitiations into the masquerade cult and the Egbenuoba or

hunters' guild. In these cases, the words used are participant-oriented and are

intentionally coded to exclude the ogbodu (or the uninitiated). So an individual's

ability to understand the language of the masquerade cult (language of the spirit

world) depends on the level of initiation he may have attained. Verbalised

communication in this category may have a graduated structure which explains why

people who belong to the same guild or cult may have a differentiated understanding

of various icons and symbols depending on their varying levels of exposure.

The language employed in separation rites is usually in the form of dirges, and they

are solemn reminders of the transitory nature of human life and the inevitability of

death. A common lgbo dirge goes:

Asim gi jicha anya mmili ebezina I say wipe off your tears and cry no more
Ficha anya mmili ebizina Wipe oif your tears and cry no more
lgwe nine je ko n 'uzu All iron must go to the smith
Mmadu nine nako be Chukwu Just like every person must return to God
Nwannem jicha anya mmili ebezina My beloved, wipe off your tears and cry no more,

46
Okpara ( 1995) in an interview, agrees that the use of language may differ from one

ritual to another when she, described the language,of ritual in lgboland as "a classified

mode of expression which has great potentials for excluding uninitiated individuals

or groups at different times and ,places". According to her, the complex nature of

rituals makes it difficult for anyone who had not undergone a particular ritual to

understand and make sense of the more complex ritual events. According to her, this

may be because different forms of coded communication befitting the initiands' new

status may have been learnt while the group was in seclusion, away from the rest of

the society. This is true during initiation rites such as initiations into

man/womanhood, the masquerade cult and ozo title. Furthermore, Okpara notes that

the verbal component of ritual can be as local and as reflective of images, symbols,

expressions and connotations unique to their locality. Okpara argues that these may

differ depending on whether the society is patrilineal (or matrilineal), riverine (like

Aguleri and Oguta) or upland (like the majority of landlocked lgbo towns). She

continues by saying that, most times, the language of rituals in male-oriented societies

tend to unbelievably marginalise women, and vice versa.

The researcher's experience during her fieldwork lends support to the fact that

generally, language in patrilineal societies can really be patronising and sexist. For

example, when she inquired as to why women do not consecrate the kolanut at

gatherings, an informant responded that it is because, "na ana ali nwanyi enu"

(women are subordinates who are mounted during sexual intercourse). Beyond this

apologist explanation, the fact is, that women are not allowed to consecrate or break

the kolanut for two reasons. First, the Igbo are patrilineal and as such, it is an age

old practice that men alone can offer libations and prayers to the ancestors. Second,

the Igbo society portrays the female as a paradox - an embodiment of the sacred and

the unclean. Women are sacred in their role as mothers, carriers and nurturers of

----~·-~·---.--- ~,
. t~::_-::~-:'_.
life, and by the same token unclean because they have menstrual periods. The Igbo

believe that during their monthly period women possess awesome powers which when

shed as impurities can diminishes the spiritual powers of those who have contact with

them. Therefore, they were confmed and forbidden from carrying out any activities

which may expose the public to them. These activities include attendance at the

market place, village streams, sex and preparation of meals. Hence the Igbo name

for monthly period is iso ezi (avoidance of public areas). In fact, in pre-Christian

Igbo society, menstruating women were confmed to rooms at the back of the house,

and were re-incorporated at the end of the period, having undergone cleansing herbal

baths.

Over the years, some women have developed sarcasm when describing their period

of isolation during menstruation. They would say anom n' ezi (I am in the public

place). It seems that this response began as mockery to the overt emphasis given to

their unclean state, and possibly, a psychological reassurance that they are not as

'lethal' as they are made out to be when menstruating.

l..Infortunately, this ambivalent attitude of the Igbo to their women has not changed

much. Many times during the fieldwork, the researcher was reminded of her status

in the society, primarily because some men found it difficult to share information

regarding Igbo rituals with a woman. Their amusement and sometimes indignation

at her quest into Igbo rituals (especially for academic purposes) could not be masked.

As exposed to western type of education as some of the men are, they still felt that

she had loss sight of her appointed role place as a woman - in the home. The

researcher always made known her objections to being treated this way, and she

sometimes got apologies for her hurt feelings, but not the needed information. Of

course, being so vocal did not help issues, but she nevertheless made her point.

48
Having said that, it is interesting to note that lgbo women had from time devised their

own ways of making a mockery of practices that they found demeaning, but felt

helpless to change. However, the Igbo woman is still in the process of carving out

a respectable niche for herself - in trying to combine her powerful traditional role as

mother with the more modem role of a professional. It will take time before her

male counterparts begin to recognise and accord her this well-deserved respect, but

this will hopefully happen, with time on her side.

So in trying to determine and understand the language of ritual (using the lgbo as an

example), it is very important to consider two points; frrst, that rituals exist to

negotiate both biological and occupational crises. This means that people who belong

to the same occupational group, may have different biological crises to resolve. It

is, therefore, no wonder that at any point in time, rituals are being performed by

different people to resolve different life challenges. Second, the language of lgbo

rituals addresses the lgbo belief in dualism -that the human being is a material as well

as a spiritual being. So the ritual language is crafted to aid in affirming and

negotiating this duality, and to enable people's expression of their yearning for the

meaning of life. Fromm (1956) describes ritual and the language it employs as:

a statement about man's identity as a structured spirit. In tbe rite man stands forth in all his
limited and conditional freedom, as tbe embodied soul, separate and defined, given
individuality, by his own body, living in relation to others who are at once like and unlike
himself whom he knows as his fellows but meets as strangers (xi)

The language of ritual is specialised and encourages performers to express their

experience in a way which may seem nonsensical to the ritual outsider. The

implication being that before the outsider can understand the goings-on in most

rituals, he/she needs to be open to the cultural milieu of the rituals. Grainger

49
 -~

articulates this point further when he writes, "that the culttire itself was shaped and

moulded by its religious beliefs; and this is why those beliefs cannot be reduced to

anything which is itself non-religious" .(18)

It can, therefore, be argued that since culture is the sum total of a people's way of

life, that ritual being culture-specific means that it has to be understood through the

interpretation of cultural symbols and elements manifest in the spoken language.

Furthermore, it can be argued that an understanding of the process of ritual depends

very much on the understanding of the language of the performance. This is because

a subtle juxtaposition and fusion of the secular and sacred on a personal as well as

the communal levels, which may be harder to detect unless one understands the

language and pays particular attention to the entire process.

This intrinsic ability of rituals to juxtapose and fuse elements of different densities is

clearly demonstrated in lgbo masking tradition, where by wearing a mask an

individual ceases to be a human being, and becomes an ancestral spirit. But at what

point the human becomes overtaken by the spirit is a matter of the momentary fusion

of the sacred and secular. However, there are a lot of existing materials on all

aspects of lgbo masking tradition by Ukaegbu (1996) and Okagbue (1993, 1997) that

have delved into the co-habitation of different cosmic zones in lgbo theatre and ritual.

However, from the on-going, the spoken component of ritual can be better understood

once a flexible attitude is adopted to the.defmition of ritual itself. This is because the

ritual experience is a very personal one and allowance needs to be made in defming

the language of rendition employed in rituals from different individual perspectives.

Therefore, this study advocates that there should be allowed, as many authentic

definitions of what constitutes a ritual as there are ritual participants. Only through

these personalised insights will scholars be able to extract the real attributes of rituals

50
• .~ • ----;-~:~::";:~~~a:'.·~-
. ·- ,·-:-., ____._ -~···.· .:___ ·- .. __T·:~; -..:..:·
and the language it employs. Until this is done, the term - ritual;_ will continue to

defy attempts at definition, as Schechner (1995) notes:

even to say it in one word, ritual, is asking for trouble. Ritual has been so variously defmed-
as concept, praxis, process, ideology, yearning, experience, function - that it means very linle
because it means too much (328)

Ritual essence

One wonders if the essence of ritual is truly indescribable, or if it is simply

misunderstood by those whom Werbner (1989) refers to as "meaning seeking

anthropologists"(4) as they attempt to transport what is a cultural and personal

experience of the greatest subliminality onto either the pages of text books and/or

stage. Some works of scholars and researchers such as Schechner and Turner,

sometimes, belong to this group, and it seems that the challenge posed in

understanding rituals is created by these people as they attempt to universalise rituals.

Ironically, Schechner (1995) warns against the premature "globalization" of rituals

which he describes as the "unavoidable expression of Western hegemony" and its

"attempts to cull and harvest the worlds cultures"? (257).

The researcher fmds this comment coming from Schechner quite interesting especially

in the light of the fact that Schechner himself underwent an initiation into Hinduism

just to enable him to gain access to the Temple (and possibly rituals). It can be

argued that Schechner may not have been the first person to join a group simply for

altrustic reasons but the question this raises is: what validates a ritual performance?

Is it the environment, participation in the rites, the content or belief? Did

participating in the initiation and the certificate given post-initiation make a Hindu out

of Schechner? In the researcher opinion, a ritual becomes authentic only when the

action and performance sequence are observed while guarded by the belief. This is

a position which Enekwe (1981) seemed to be in agreement with when he wrote:

51
 ritUal can.easily be transformed into theatre and vice versa - in a number of ways. A ritual
becomes entenainmem once it. is outside its original context or when the•belief that sustains
it has lost its potency. (155)

So, in spite of the controversy that may surround the definition of rituals, any

attempts made to transport and transpose rituals from one cultural milieu to another

will inevitably result in the reason for and meaning of the ritual being lost. 'fhe real

essence of any ritual has to be interpreted within the context of the culture in which

it operates. All forms of transposition will only result in the kind of confusion and

semantic waste of time that a lot of people (including this researcher) get into when

we anempt to grapple with some. literary works on rituals.

The Ritual Process and Structure

The process and structure of any ritual are determined by the purpose that ritual is

designed to achieve. It is important in discussing a ritual process to differentiate

clearly between process and structure. Structure refers to the shape or outline of any

ritual performance, while process is the arrangement of action in time and space.

The ritual process uses symbols and quality transference. For example, iwa anya is

a rite of separation during which an animal is slaughtered and, it is believed that by

dropping some of the blood from the animal into the eyes of the dead, that the

attributes of the animal are transferred to the corpse.

The ritual process enables detachment from other participants and this allows

individual participants the leeway to interpret the symbols and icons used in such a

manner that they are enabled to find personal answers to the challenges they face.

This is probably why Grainger (1974) describes ritual as that which "reconciles man

and his world". It is through detachment that individuals are allowed the space to

52
.·-~ ...
create lasting personalised images based on their different but individualised

perspectives. In this state, ritual participants are not afraid to explore the secret

places of their individual worlds. They do so in the knowledge that built into the

ritual framework, is a high level of support network which offers them safety in the

knowledge that they may come face to face with :the· fears within themselves, but that

they are nonetheless protected from harm. This is true of the initiation of young girls

into womanhood. What happens during most of this ritual, like in most initiation

rituals, is a closely guarded secret, but the general outline is that these young girls

are taught all about sex and sexual decorum, pregnancy, child birth, delivery etc.

Hence, the ritual process makes it possible for people at the pre-liminal stages to hold

a homologous and collective image of what their experience may be. This collective

understanding gets transfonned during the liminal stages when individuals are allowed

the space to come to tenns with the ritual truth. By the time the initiands are re-

incorporated into their society in the post-liminal stages, what originally was their

collective image in the pre-liminal stages would now have become coloured by

individual perceptions about themselves and things. In this manner, people who have

gone through the same initiation will emerge affected in different ways by a common

experience. No wonder Grainger (1974) describes rituals as "man's religious truth",

during which process individuals attain a level of solitude in which they see and know

things as they really are. Further on, Grainger writes that through the ritual process:

!he structure of the rite allows imeraction of persons who are both imerdependent and
independem, and neither isolated nor confused (Grainger:xi)

However, we must be careful in laying too much emphasis on the process, because

overt concern with process has the capability of undennining the meaning. Rituals

are not accidental happenings - their order, time and place are according to an

53
 ·~

agreed' action plan. •In discussing rituals, it is important to assume a holistic

approach to enable a clearer understanding of the underlying aim and purpose of

any particular ritual. Werbner (1989) highlights this point when he writes that:

the processual form of ritual is not as imponant. as the ·key idea and its combination of terms
- the terms being coordinates for sequencing of phase. (14)

The researcher wonders if this warning will not be more relevant to those studying

rituals from an anthropological point of view. For the purpose of this work which

approches ritual from a performance perspective, it is very important to go into in-

depth processual analysis because the correct interpretation of symbols, icons and

indices are contained within the process. This is because in the process we see the

relationship between various performers, how they use dialogue, their use of space,

costumes, arts, music and dance. Furthermore, if the this suggestion is correct, does

it make van Gennep's (separation, transition and incorporation) and Turner's (pre

liminal, liminal and post-liminal) phases obsolete in the study of rituals? Not

necessarily. What Werbner seems to be warning against is the urge to evaluate the

ritual process in isolation, to a point where the part becomes greater than the slim of

other aspects of the ritual. When this happens, meaning as well as the subtle

transformation inherent in the liminal phase is lost, especially as this is an important

stage during which:

... people are metaphysically and sociologically remade into "new beings with new" social
roles. Newborn infants are made into human persons. children are made into adults, men and
women are made into husbands and wives, deceased people are made into revered ancestors,
princes are made imo ltings (Benjamin.l976:91)

This suggests that the ritual process can bring about irreversible changes, and one

only gets a balanced sense of this transformation when attention is paid to the ritual

in its entirety. This is best exemplified in how initiands use and position their bodies

in relation to other bodies within any given ritual space (actor placement), how rituals

54
 ·~

are ordered; and clustered (determining stages of experience), what ritual language is

rendered (former ritual exposure determines language intensity) and finally, how and

what symbols are used (the higher rituals use more complex symbols).

On the subject of structure, Schechner (1995) important classification of rituals under

the "Ritual Tree" identified three categories of rituals namely: "social", "religious"

and "aesthetic" (229). This classification is helpful because it serves as a useful tool

that enables the creation of ritual boundaries, thereby helping in its understanding.

However, it must be pointed out that such a rigid classificatory mode does not exist

for the Igbo, as every ritual, to a certain extent, encompasses aspects of all three

categories. For instance, in the ozo title the social, religious and aesthetic are all

aspects of that one ritual. The social is evident in the announcement of the intention

to take the title, the religious during the period of isolation in the akwu ozo (ozo

nest), while the aesthetic is evident in the various dances that accompany the re-

incorporation of the performer into the family and society.

However, it is during the religious aspect of rituals that the human instinct for

sacrifice to God is fulfilled, because the lgbo perception of God is as a being

removed from their world, and there is a human need to bring him nearer by offering

him their world. So, although the Igbo realise that they are offering aspects of God's

own creation back to him, they are satisfied that they are able to offer something -

no matter how little, and albeit offering God's world back to him. In sharing what

they have with him, they overcome their feeling of inadequacy and thus share in

God's sacredness. As Grainger (1974) puts it "man's religious truth is to be located

in his hunger for the Divine"(25).

55
Furthermore, he notes that:

the purpose of religious ritual, then, is to proclaim the authenticity of human reality - the
finite world of men and women. Thus, ritual externalised those ideas and theories about the
meaning of reality which are given doctrinal form in the dogmas of creation and preservation
of men and their responsibility (25).

How then do human beings in their seeming ineptitude transcend their physical and

material limitation to achieve such complex insight as described above? The

researcher is of the opinion that built into all rites of passage are those qualities that

enable the creation of a bond between the context, content and form of the ritual.

The consequence of this bonding is the liberation of people's sublime nature. Once

liberated, it affords them a transcendental insight into their real nature and place in

the universe. According to Benjamin (1989), this bonding is created during the rites

of passage:

between man and divinity ... between temporal process and archetypal patterns in order to give
meaning to human events (93)

Achieving this bonding can be quite arduous as it demands that "the physical

exteriorization of the emotions must be canalized, and this becomes a wave of explicit

signs (Barba, 1974:34) However, he like Schechner (1995) warns against placing

processes over and above all other aspects of the ritual. The implications of allowing

debates about one part to overshadow the sum total of all parts, has already been

discussed. The power of ritual as a whole is felt and seen more when we are able,

as Grainger (1974) suggests, to see how man (or woman) is able through ritual to

weave his/her speech, gestures and rhythm within a structured ceremonial, using

his/her body as a vehicle to achieve a form of worship. Through this process, he/she

moves beyond the "impossible truths and incredible understanding" (32), to an

intelligence which defies logic, but one in which they can face their own human-ness.

This is sarori (instant awakening) which he describes as:

56
 ·,

the response which is forced from man by his awareness of divine transcendence [and which]
does not allow man to avoid the issue of its own ineptitude (32)

In summing up, it is easy to understand why what happens during rituals can never

be fully understood by the ritual outsider. This is because ritual is culture and

context specific, exclusive, sublime and above all, a personal experience. Ritual has

the power to lift both the performer and participant and afford them the courage to

talk and think of things that would normally be beyond his/her daily expression.

Without ritual, human existence may likely be a mass of chaotic and unanswered

experience, instead in ritual, human beings get an insight into their divine nature. It

is the only process that has the ability to transport men and women to a time and

space of unimaginable essence, where in guarded silence, they are able to glimpse

and further their exulted othemess. Ritual creates and solves its own challenges - it

is at one and the same time, the turbulent sea, the compass, the steadying keel and

the lighthouse. Through ritual, men and women become one with the Divine, and

the secular becomes the sacred.

57
 CHAP'FER 3

THE TRIANGLE OF LIFE: TRA.t'I"SITION AND PROGRESSION IN IGBO

WORLD

Einführung

So far. a differentiation has been attempted between structure and process in ritual.

Structure refers to the general outline or the overall form which is static in nature.

Structure does not offer much information on the content because it does not attempt

to explain the "symbols. icons and indices" that are employed within the ritual. It

also does not offer any insight into the potential or latent capabilities and scope of

the ritual in question. In a sense, the structure looks at ritual in its synchronic state.

If. however, an underslanding of ritual as a diachronic event which derails a sequence

in time and space is to be attempted, we then need to undenake a processual analysis,

which will be the focus of the next chapter.

Since rituals are culture specific, it is important in discussing the structure of lgbo

rituals to briet1y revisit aspects of culture from which these ritu.Us spring. lgbo

culture operates on two interconnected levels - the human and the spiritual. The lgbo

diligently seek to maintain links with their ancestors. chi (personal gods) and other

deities as a means of reaffirming their interconnectedness with Chukwu (God the

creator). So, through rituals such as daily libation (iwa oji ututu), seasonal festivals

(such as lfijioku!Ahajioku) and initiations (such as iba afa and ima muo). the Igbo

seek insight into their spiritual nature and invite their ancestors and all other forces

around them to panake in their activities. These forces are the different deities that

are created by Chukwu and they include Jgwe (heaven), Anyanwu (Sun) and Ala/Ana

(Earth), Orimili!Oshimili (sea) and Amadiora/Amadioha (thunder). These, together

58
with the ancestors and personal gods, are messengers ofthe supreme God, who is the

central intelligence that permeates and orders. all aspects of lgbo existence.

For the lgbo, therefore, the real nature of Chukwu is incomprehensible and can only

be glimpsed through the attributes of his complex creation. Nkala ( 1980) wr:ites

regarding the Igbo God thus:

... the supreme God concept is at the core of the lgbo world view. This concept is discernible
from:-

(a) names and invocative attributes of God;

(b) stories and folklore, especially of origin:

(c) proverbs and prayers, e.g. morning prayer with kolanuts, and

(d) religious rites (I)

From the foregoing, it can be inferred that the Igbo perceive Chukwu as an active

force whose voice is thunder, his smile is lightning and the rains are his tears of joy.

Onwejeogwu (1987:62) informs us that the essence of the Chukwu of the lgbo can be

felt in the way it orders, permeates and empowers all the forces of creation and these

include, agbala (fertility), ife (sunlight), amamife (knowledge) and chi (destiny).

Chukwu also created - alusi (deities), including lfejioku - the deity responsible for

yam yields and agwu, the deity of afa (divination). He also created obodo (towns)

to be the abode of mmadu (humans), anumanu (animals) and decreed that at death,

humans become mmuo (spirit) and shall return to live in ani mmuo (the land of the

spirits). There are also two categories of spirits - good and bad, and the type people

become at death depends on their spiritual. social, economic and political status while

alive: and upon their ability to abstain from nso ana (abomination). For instance,

marriage and procreation also play an important part in this progression. Therefore,

great achievers who die leaving wives and children become revered ancestors, while

59
women who depart leaving husbands and children become revered daughters. Both

ndichie and umuada are privileged to reincarnate.

On the contrary, those people who lived unproductive or bad lives are believed to

have lost the vital life force used for reincarnation and either become ajo

muolakaliogholi (evil spirits) or ekwensu (devils). They inhabit the evil forest (ajo

ofia), and would sometimes visit their anger for their inability to reincarnate on the

living by afflicting them with ill luck, diseases, confusion and poor farm yields.

Some are benign and can be placated, while the malevolent ones must be exorcised

with specific rituals. The ogbanje are a mischievous group ofspirits who possess the

ability to re-enter their mothers' womb to be re-born. (see Appendix D.)

Furthermore, the Igbo believe that while alive, men and women have the ability to

make conscious choices about the type of posthumous spirits they will become. This

is founded on the Igbo belief that at birth, God endows each individual child with

some personal a£tributes that enable the type of fruitful existence that is conducive to

reincarnation. Some of these anributes are: ikenga (the strength of a man's right

hand and unfailing enterprise. uho (negotiation, persuasive argument), iru (imposing

personality), ukwu na ije (the force that directs adventure especially in foreign

places}, umu oku (conservation of wealth}, ako na uche (mindfulness, wisdom,

memory, common sense). nso-na-egwu (respect and fear of God). How well these

develop depends first, on the parents and society and second, on how much an

individual is willing to do, to tap into latent abilities.

So the Igbo are aware that there must be some good reasons for all these God-given

attributes at their disposal, one is that as human beings they have an important role

to play (as the custodians of the past and present from which the future takes form)

60
 ·.

in the relationship between them, their ancestors and their gods. This is because the

lgbo hold important information about their gods, myths and symbols, and they pass

these down from one generation to another as coded information during rituals.

Turner (1977) notes the importance of symbols and myths:

These symbols, visual and auditory, operate culturally as mnemonics, or as communications

engineers would no doubt have it, as "storage bins" of information, not about pragmatic
techniques, but about cosmologies, values and cultural axioms whereby a society's deep
knowledge is transmitted from one generation to another. (239)

The Igbo have the ability to create their gods to fit into the symbols and icons that

they can relate intensively and extensively to. It is the intensity of this relationship

with the unseen that make them a spiritual people who believe that being in harmony

with the gods should ensure positive responses on the pan of the gods in the form of

abundant resources. This Igbo expectation of the ancestors and deities sometimes

leads them to become disenchanted with these unseen forces. This is because there

are occasions when despite the hard work an individual puts in, the gods would

remain unresponsive - hence human expectations are not met. At other times, the

gods may become unnecessarily demanding even after numerous sacrifices, and when

this happens, people may become defiant and would refuse to placate and sanctify the

gods. This show of dissatisfaction may sometimes lead to prolonged stand-offs

between individuals or an entire community and a deity. In extreme cases, this may

lead to the abandonment of that deity. Sometimes, an abandoned god may go quietly

without any major consequences, but at other times, it may fight back in retaliation,

inflicting ill-luck, sickness and death. To either fmd the cause of their rnisfonune or

resolve a long standing feud between them and their gods, the Igbo would always

reson to divination (igba afa) as a means of gaining insight into the 'thoughts' of the

gods. This enables them to find remedial actions needed to resolve the ominous

silence of their gods and ancestors. lgba afa is, therefore, born out of the Igbo need

61
to gaih an insight into the ways of the gods, and as Werbner (1989) notes:

Divination is the ritual with which 10 begin reflecting about rima!. Its seances stan the
reconstruction of social reality that 01her rituals complete. In divination, people:seek to obtain
their bearings, and to.prepare for the.symbolic relocation· of the person in other, later, rima!.
As a preliminary approach 10 the occult. divination is, in many pans of tbe world,
preeminently a ritual of orientation and disclosure. It creates and' is created by tbe sense of
discovery, for that reason it is typically explora10ry or variable, and remade for each
occasion, whereas other rituals. tied.to foreknowledge of the desired.outcome. unfold in fixed
coordinated sequences that rely on constant terms. What comes to be known during
divination. often through dran1atic modes of searching and fmding, is· the· hidden significance
oi events in extraordinary powers of communication; it tbus has to be seen ·and felt to· be
extraordinary. In many of the moments.of divination. little or·notbing need.acrually be said.
Instead. a silent language of objects is used for the presentation from the occult of felt
realities, for interpretation. and tor reflection (19)

This delicate power politics between an individual and his/her personal deities may

sometimes spill over to affect an entire community, and once again, different forms

of divination will be employed with a view to offering a balanced solution to the

problem. A powerful and unique perfonnance evolves as people use rituals to

negotiate a hannonious existence with the forces around them.

The place of ritual in a contiguous universe

The lgbo universe consists of the past. present and future. This statement is

predicated on an appreciation of the intricate and contiguous nature of the lgbo

universe where there is a constant coming and going berween the human world (the

present), that of the dead ancestors (the past), and of the unborn (the future). Yet in

the lgbo mind. these three separate spheres or orbs of existence are one - they are not

differentiated because these spheres co-exist in the same place, time and space. From

Figure 3 .I below, these three spheres touch each other at different points but there

is only a small commonly shared space in between the three. It is this commonly

shared boundary that rituals help to det1ne and negotiate.

62
 i
,I "' r'·---~\
! \
-pAS'f PRESEN1 I

.. . . .
• • •• • : • meeting point between past & present
• -- 0 •• / "
. '1
t, X
)J • )
Y:~A.x~
,>
.1 '11 '- t<..t.,.. ~' }
)t..Jl
,. "' • .1<
-1
meeting point between ruture & post • X.f ~ • Jo....._'<; 'l'- I
' "' 1- "x t- ~
I
~ ,.· . )'~
', :"' ,. ,,_.;!!
~ I
"" "1- ,..
~ t ' ) ,.. . y ,.. -r

~~
/
...--··
~ ogg meeting point between future & present
0
o~ o0 ·
10

....._ ___

Figure 3.1: The contiguous world of lgbo existence

It is also worth noting that this interrelation between the orbs is not as straightforward

or as simple as it sounds because at any given time, there are multiple levels of

interrelationship in operation. For instance, the diagram shows a relationship between

the present, past and future; the present and the past and vice versa; the present and

the future, the future and the past and vice versa etc. So the Igbo are acutely aware

of the influence exerted on their own world by this shared existence - an awareness

acknowledged in the names they give their children including, Tabugo (Today is

timely enough), Azuka (The past is supreme), Nkiruka (The future is supreme),

Echidimma (Tomorrow is good), Onyemaechi (Who can forecast the future/who

knows tomorrow?) and Azumdialo (My past is loaded) etc.

63
So, the Igbo use their rituals .as a means of negotiating the shared commonality

between them, the past imd future. Rituals are a unique performance whiCh enables

a fusion of the three levels of lgbo existence because in-built in the ritual structure

is that which best allows for the co-existence of the three planes in one moment and

space. It is, therefore with the ritual context (present time) that the Igbo are able to

recapture within a single space and time, the original time (past time, or time out of

time) and the future time. For example, during marriage rites in Igboland, the format

of the rite being enacted is repetitive and possibly as old as the Igbo themselves. In

the process of a man taking a wife or a woman taking a husband, this age-old action

is being replayed in the present (here and now) represented by performers and

participatory observers from both the bride and the groom's side. What is repeated

in the marriage rite is action performed in original time by the original Igbo ancestor

and so each marriage recalls and re-enacts this primordial action as a means of

validating/sanctifying the marriage act in the present. And it is the same in most

other rituals. It is, therefore, through the re-enactment of this rite, that the past and

present are brought together to co-exist in the same time and space. By the end of

the rite, this fusion of the past and present would have enabled a negotiation of the

future now embodied in the man and his new wife. This synthesis of the three levels

of existence (past, present and future) is only possible within the rite which has the

innate ability to engender a shared sense of belonging - a sense born out of the sheer

intensity generated during a performance that manages to successfully balance three

unlikely levels of existence.

During rituals, performer(s) become a conduit through whom the past is brought to

life to the participatory observer-audience. and depending on the intensity of the

performance, a deep sense of shared commonality helps this participatory observer-

audience to identify with the crisis being negotiated. For example, during burial

64
 ·.

rituals is that the participatory observer-audience come face to face with the fear of

the unknown which is safely contained within the ritual. On the contrary, a ritual

with the right intensity enables the initiated to look back on all his/her on life so far

and ro re-affirm readiness to make take on more challenges. For both the uninitiated

and the initiated, the result of this encounter with the recreated past can be quite

powerful and revitalising as Grainger (1974) writes:

... the rite prepares and enables us for the future by disanning the past. Not all past time,
but our own past in its negative aspect, the past which drains the·present of its meaning and
significance, of its life. The rites allows us to understand in the present and live in the
present. At the same time it recalls and makes present that pan of the past which allows the
present 10 be itself... (113)

This is true of the initiation into the masquerade cult, part of which happens in the

middle of dark nights. For those who have not passed through the ritual, the

predominant fear is that of dark nights and evil spirits that prowl in it. However, this

ritual is designed in such a way that an integral part of it challenges and confronts

these fears from early childhood. For the already-initiated who are either officiating

or observing the ritual, the initiation becomes a travel through time in which they

remember with pride and wonder at their resilience in challenging the power of the

unknown.

What Grainger, also, describes above can be seen when one observes people arriving

at the onset of a ritual - they come as separate individuals or in small groups.

However, at the end, they leave as a group bound together by a shared intensity

which Nkala (1982) describes when he writes that "ritual observances constitute the

pulse. the very heart beat of a village life all the year round"(!). This is because

rituals possess the inherent characteristic of creating fresh uncertainties in their bid

to resolve existing ones. The fresh uncertainties must also be negotiated. So the

successive pattern of lgbo rituals results from the ever-present positive tension

65
generated' by the three levels of existence as they attempt to balance and co-exist with

one another. For instance, the nature of this positive tension can be better

appreciated if one .understands why the Igbo seem to celebrate all· their major rituals

between mid-October and mid-March. There are two main seasons in Igboland - the

rainy season and the dry season. The rainy season is also referred to as the farming

season and lasts from March through to October. The first rain fall in the year (about

mid February to March) marks the beginning of the farming season (which includes

the whole process of preparing the farmland by burning, tilling, sowing and

weeding). During the farming season, there are no major rituals as most of the

people are busy in their farms. In some areas where arable land is scarce, people

would travel great distances to access their farmlands. In cases like this, they build

camp settlements in their farms for the duration of the season, and return to their

villages once the imensive periods of sowing and tending new crops are over.

On the contrary, the dry or harvesting season usually lasts from about mid-October

to mid-February which is a leisure time during which people rest and await the

coming of the rains. During the months of December to January, the hannanan, a

dry dusty wind from the Sahara desert crosses Igboland. At this time of the year,

grasses are tinder-dry as most vegetation would have been exposed to the intense heat

that comes at the end of the rains. This is also the time that people would burn their

dry land to get them ready for farming with .the next first rains; however, before

burning the bushes, they would have set snares to trap animals that escape from the

bush fires. So this is a also for hunting and most major communal and personal

rituals happen during the dry season for three reasons. First, it is the period when

people are relaxed and when they do not have the pressures of farming to contend

with. Second, it is a time when farm yields would have been harvested so there is

ample food for celebration. 'Third, the bush-fire season is the hunting season during

66
which people trap enough game and animals which they sometimes prepare for the

celebrations. It is no wonder that some of the early European visitors to Igboland

who understood little about the natural cycle the Igbo follow argued that the Igbo did

nothing but celebrate.

These numerous celebrations are a mark of the never-ending need the Igbo have for

rituals which enable them to negotiate progression, transition and the fear of the

changes they involve. Grainger writes about the fear of the unknown and change

thus:

Ritual is about change, and the terrors and uncenainties which surround change, but which
must somehow be 'accepted into the system'... It is about mankind's fear of novelty, of
unstructured situations and states of flux, in which the old way is over and done away with
and the new has not yet really begun: it is about life without existential guide-lines, when man
must launch himself out into the unknown; it is about the fear of the threshold, the need to
plot new areas of experience ... (115)

However, the Igbo believe that human nature limits the type of extra-sensory

perception needed to "plot these new areas of experience", hence their need for

divination to help their understanding. Divination is a process of communication

between the Igbo and the unseen. It is a tried and tested means of prising information

and knowledge from the unknown, from the spirit world. On the one hand, it belies

the Igbo fear of the unknown while on the other, it shows a people who are aware of

their connection with the unseen. Therefore, from the time a child is conceived,

through life and until after death, this dramatic form of communication is present.

Igba afa: Communication in the Igbo Universe

The Igbo believe that the human being is a spirit undergoing a human experience, so

they have a tireless yearning to understand the higher meaning of life. Being agrarian

67
also keeps them in very close contact with the forces of nature who they believe are

manifestations of Chukwu. By interpreting the manifestations of these forces (the

spirits of thunder, lightning, rain and/flood etc), Igbo people are able to know when

they are in or out of Chukwu's favour. Furthermore, because of this belief that God

is manifest through these elements, the Igbo have an overwhelming desire to ensure

a correct interpretation of the 'language' spoken by these forces of creation. Hence,

the regularity of their consultation with the oracles through the dibia (medicine man).

Divination is a primary ritual - a first among equal and without it the Igbo will not

be able to fmd answers to the numerous questions they ask of the gods. According

to Werbner (1989)

Divination is the ritual of rituals. It opens our understanding of the people's own interpretive
process, for in a sense divination is ritual that, to a great extent, operates on a ret1ective meta-
level. It is a ritual in which the people themselves give interpretations of their symbols, icons,
and indices (4)

Furthermore, and in case there were doubts about the classification of divination as

a ritual,

he continues:

I want to stress that it is ritual not merely because divination is symbolic action. but also
because it is action in which people are moved by what they feel to be their experience of the
occult. And divination. no less than other ritual. has its disparate moments as well as its
capacity to play on different levels at once ... (4)

Rituals operate on many levels. Igbo masking tradition is a typical example where

people know that behind the mask is an individual, but for them that individual's

persona is changed once he puts on the mask. He is from that moment an ancestral

spirit and from then, the dynamics of the relationship between them :md this spirit

changes to the point where it is almost reverential. Some may regard the masked

person as a total spirit while others may see him as a human conduit through whom

68
attributes of an ancestor manifest. This point can be further elaborated when we take

the scenario where a supplicant is asked to provide a chick for use in divination. The

Igbo mind would automatically think of it symbolically and would see, not just a

chick but, its symbolic anributes which include innocence, swiftness and its lease of

a new life after being used as a ritual agent. So the chick is not just a chick. but a

symbol of survival for the supplicant. It has been used in negotiating with the unseen

and as such it is a carrier.

Divination and subsequently sacrifices, are two very important aspects of lgbo life,

and are usually the first step towards the resolution of complex siruations that may

arise between people or between people and the gods. This probably explains the

sheer number of divination rites which occur on a daily basis as the Igbo seek

harmony with the forces they have to co-exist with. Beyond the need for a

harmonious co-existence is the fact that in divination people acknowledge and pay due

attention to the existence of their ancestors and gods. By making out time to divine

the mind of these ancestors and gods, the Igbo are able to tap into their own higher

spirirual essence obscured by the pressures of their daily lives. Eliade (1957) notes

that:

Since for religious man of primitive society. myths constitute his sacred history. he must not
forget them, by actualising the mytbs, he approaches his gods and panicipates in sanctity
(106)

Divination is, therefore, an effective form of communication transversing the three

levels of lgbo existence. The need the Igbo have for divination has led to a

sophisticated form of skills specialisation among the practitioners of traditional

medicine aimed at catering to people's physical and spiritual needs.

69
The term "dibia" (medicine man/woman) among the Igbo refers to a healer, seer or

priest(ess) of the gods. The people in this vocation are usually chosen by the spirit

that owns and inhabits the shrine. Once a prospective dibia has been identified, .the

individual will be informed of the wish of the spirit of that panicular shrine for their

service. Some people may refuse initially, but this. unfulfilled vocation will continue

to disrupt their lives in such significant ways, until they are forced to resort to

divination to enable them to find out what the problem is. If dibia afa finds out that

the difficulties the individual is experiencing is connected to an unanswered call to

priesthood, a series of initiation rites are performed after which the individual is

ready to engage in a long apprenticeship during which his/her eyes are symbolically

opened to the secrets of the gods. Initiation rituals into the dibia cult are ascetic and

mystic experience which includes a period of purification and sanctification, usually

a period of denial of earthly pleasures. For instance during this ritual, initiands are

made to avoid contact with water. The idea is w allow herbal incisions on their skin

a chance to settle-in without being washed off. So at some points in this panicular

ritual, water which is usually used for cleansing and purification in most rituals

becomes unacceptable. The initiation of a priest[ess] into, and subsequent

apprenticeship to, the dibia cult, is a training in the secrets of herbs and divination.

Usually, a priest[ess] can specialise in one or more areas, and the length of training

may differ from two to thiny years depending on the areas of specialisation and the

trainee's natural gift (nkaa) for healing.

There are four main categories of dibia - Dibia Afa (Diviner). Dibia Aja (Priest[ess]),

Dibia Ogwu (Herbalist) and Dibia Mmili or Ora Mmili (Rain maker). Dibia afa

specialises in divination. dibia aja in preparing and carrying out various sacrifices

recommended by the diviner and offered at different shrines and to different gods;

dibia ogwu specialises in diagnostics and treatment of different diseases with herbs

70
 while dibia mmili or ora mmili specialises in the art of rain making and prevention.

There are also other categories of dibia that specialise in circumcision, delivery of

difficult births, incision of abscesses and/or tumours and in setting fractures. Among

the lgbo all categories of dibia are equally important, but the diviner is primary

because without his intervention, neither the dibia,aja nor the herbalist would be,able

to start their sacrificial or healing processes.

This also explains the esteem in which the divination priest[ess] is held as a go-

between for the Igbo and their ancestors and gods. Their role is unique because the

process of divination offers them an insight into the thinking of the gods and this

enables them to offer suggestions about what people need to do to promote harmony

with the unseen forces around them. Arazu (1981) discusses the role of the forrune-

teller and medicine man thus:

The fortune-teller and the medicine man [and I add, woman] have powers to get in !Ouch with
the dead and other spirits. in order to find our their plans for man. and in order to secure their
good pleasure or ward off their wrath. Those who see visions or apparitions make haste to
consult these experts for an authemic interpretation oi the phenomena. The fortune-teller and
the medicine man are the experts or adept oflgbo traditional religion. (57)

The process of "lgba aja" (divination) begins when an inquirer/supplicant approaches

the dibia afa (diviner) with either a physical or spiritual problem. The diviner in turn

consults the spirits of the ancestors (see a detailed account of divination below) to

intercede in determining and interpreting the wishes of the gods. Where appropriate,

sacritices stipulated by the diviner are performed by the priest[ess] in the knowledge

that all will be well. Divination is a sophisticated, highly symbolic and essentially

theatrical process and experience of information exchange, negotiation and dialogue

which operates on two levels between four parties (supplicant, diviner, his aja or

divination seeds and the unseen). The tirst level of relationship is that between

71
·.
humans (the supplicant and the diviner), while. the second is between th,e human (the

diviner), a non-vocal but visible party (divination seeds) and the unseen (spirit[s]).

The dynamics of these two levels of relationships is that each level employs its own

language - possibly to the exclusion of the silent party. For instance, language

between the supplicant and the diviner is verbal, while that between the diviner and

the unseen is non-verbal and symbolic. On the first level (between supplicant and

diviner), the unseen seems to be excluded, while on the second level (diviner and

unseen), the supplicant is excluded.

Below is an account of a divination session which I witnessed at Mkpologu, a town

to the south of Nsukka. This account is rendered here and not together with other

rituals because of the primary position the divination ritual enjoys. Divination

employs a high level of symbolism which will be discussed within the context of the

narrative.

This process of divination began with an inquirer's visit ro !he home ofrhe "dibia" or diviner.
On arrival (there was no prior appoimment ·booked), !he visitor was made welcome by rhe
diviner and in !he process of their conversation he informed rhe diviner that he would like a
consultation done for him. The diviner rook him aside for a more private preliminary
imerview. After the imerview, the diviner rerumed with the supplicant and asked. him ro sir
at anomer location in his from room.

The location where he asked the man to sit was the place where the divination would occur.
When asked why he sar him in that particular place. !he diviner e;'lp[ained that !here was no
particular significance, but that he wanted ro remove the inquirer from !he place where we sat
to afford him some quiet before the divination proper. In the meantime. rhe diviner reached
to !he rafter (root) of his thatched hut. rook a cup and proceeded to the back of his house.
He returned with a cup of water. moved ro !he from of his house and began to wash his face
and his hands. He would rake a mourhful oi water and swished it around his mouth with a
"woshe. woshe" sounding noise: and then he spar it our. All !he while he was imoning ro
himself in a low voice.

This was his pre-divinarion cleansing ritual and he explained that while he performed this
rima!. he faced the East - source of the rising sun - symbolising rhe power of light. sight and
inspiration. During the cleansing, he also washed all !he parts 1hat would be used 10 touch,
see and ralk to the ancestors. In washing his face. he cleansed his eyes. and so with his hands
which he would use 10 later bring our and throw his divination seeds. He washed his mouth
because through it he would beckon the ancestors and deities when the rire began.

On re-entering his from room, he repeatedly greeted (he was a new man after !he cleansing
and was seeing us for 1he tirsr rime in his new capacity) everyone saying "dcji-nu" (you are
very welcome) as he reached above the rafter one more rime and brought down .a dried and
rolled-up animal hide, skinned off a black and white coloured goat and a raffia bag which was

72
his bag of afa paraphernalia -with some stuff ran ling 'inside {he later informed me that it is
the hide of a he-goat, and the he-goat is believed to be psychic). He spread it out on the
floor. sits down with his feet wide apart and his afa.bag in bctween.both legs. He invited the
supplicant to move and sat down on the floor opposite him. and made his presentation to his
(the diviner's) ·•agwlt" {the spirits inhabiting his divination paraphernalia).

The supplicant dipped his hand.into his own bag and• promptly came up with four kolanuts and
live naira (Nigerian currency) note - these were token gifts before the diviner could let his
afa ouL The token was to:clean the path of the·afa. He held the kolanut and money in the
cup of both palms held together in a gesture of someone begging tor alms and said: "Please
beg your agwu to receive·these gifts from me." The•diviner cleared his throat, collected the
gifts from the supplicant and started to mutter to himself.. Wnen he had muttered enough. he
informed the supplicant that the afa thanked him for his gift. He then put the four kolanuts
and tive naira note aside and invited the supplicant to ex'plain his mission - this time to the
aia. Still seated on the tloor, the supplicant pushed his whole body frame forward as if to
enable the diviner to hear him clearly. and he began "I have come to your oracle because for
a long time. I have not heard from my son who is trading in a distant place. and I am
worried".

T:1e distant place was Baucni r.about 100 miles awav from them. ,md his son •.vas home about
17 months ago). Meanwhile the diviner listened intently ·.vith his head bowed (as if he:lfing
rhis r"or rhe rirst :ime.,. He did nm ;peak while the supplicant stated the reason for l1is visit,
When he eventually spoK.e. it •.vas w ask some questions as if to clarify the information 1.he
suppiicant had ~iven. Then he went dead quiet for 1 coupie of minutes.

Arie~ ;his. he dipped imo his akpa aJa (divination bag) and tOok out a moulded piec~ or .,ll?.it"
(white •:haikl and used :he "nzu" eo drawl drc:1lar pattern •Jn the r1oor. :Vw is the ·;ymbol
of the gods inhabiting the seas. The circle drawn was eo iJe his ritua.i ;oace ;·or the
consultation with the orade. lt was now :;acred and when he started throwing the 'oi.:we·
seds. only chose that teil imo this derined ;pace wouid be imerprered. (The okwe tree
beiongs m the iroko fan1iiy. its roots grows deep into the ~mh ~symbolic of tie~p comae: with
Mmhe: Earth and immovability] and because me branches spread out wide. it is home for
birds of the air and >he!ter ror human beings. Its great and robust crunk which grows quite
high represents the physical link between the sky and the earth l.

He dipped again and this ti!Tle emerged with a small tortoise :;heil 1:which l1e placed ~n m
inve~ted position!. In lgbo iables. the !Ortoise is :mown tor oeing ilid. wiiy. savvy md
notoriously slow. However, :he tortoise's lack of speed has never been known m limit its
operations because where he cannot reach. he would use others to do so. So the shell of the
tortoise symbolised the manipulative will that is needed in the nesotiations with the unseen.

Another dip into his divination bag and the diviner produced his charm or divination beads
which was a :;et ol iour half vkwe seeds and some cowrie shells on a ;:ring (cowrie :;hells are
a symbol ol wisdom that comes irom the depth of the seal. his vfo ~beneiJe •.vhich is a piece
of sculptured stick carved out oi ;he ebenebe wood. with copper strings around one end. The
ofa is a symbol oi male authomy and the ebenebe tree symbolises greamess and grace because
it is one of che biggest cre~s in the forest. and above all by perching on it. che ~agles ~race
it ·.vith their presence. The rest of his ~harms were a smail bone and a smail ram'; horn.
The ram·; horn is a represemation of the ram which symbolises strength and courage (refer
to ''Ritual :\gems").

ln !Jerrormance cerms ..~·,erything that has ;o iar emerged from his bag became individual
char:~ctersin this plav md had been placed in a corner of his deiined performance space/stage
whe:-e •hey would remain until he ~ues ihem to speak.

Next. he brought out 1 pod oi alligator pepper or "ose oji". and he took a few >eeds irom :he
pod which he threw into ;he circle !for the unseen r·orces alrc;u.!y cnmained in i1is nzu .:irc!e
to ·!all. then he threw some into his mouth. The ailigator pepper poJ contains riny ;Jee'r.ery
>e~ds and these sterilise the diviner's mouth against whatever deiilemem is let! over from
;wishing the water in his mouth earlier on.

73
Taking one of the kolamm from those presented by the supplicant, the diviner consecrated it
and as he did so, he invoked all the deities and ancestors. 10 come and take their share of
kolanut. and get ready to speak. When he broke the kolanut, there were four lobes and the
diviner beamed.a.contented smile. Four lobes in ·lgbo kolanut numerology signifies the four
market days meaning that the deities were happy. Taking a lobe, he split it into many tiny
fractions using the nail of his thumb. He threw one linle fraction outside towards the door
and the rest.he· more carefully brought to ·rest in the detined circle. The dramatic movement
in the nonchalant manner in which he threw the small. piece towards the door was very
apparent- as opposed to the care with which he:placed the rest of the•pieces IO·rest within'the
circle. That piece thrown outside was for the uninvited and mostly mischievous forces who
unless they got a share of whatever was being shared. no matter how small. had the ability
10 negatively interfere with the process of divination.

He also threw a lobe of the kolanut into his mouth and started crunching and as .he did so, he
continued with his invocation. offered· one lobe to the supplicant and beckoned on my
companion and myself to take half a lobe each.

Chewing the kolanut and still ;nutter!ng his invocations. he reached one more time into his
bag, lllll wok out his :~t'a cap ·a high red ca!J (!he kind worn by lgbo ozo men.,. !I is adorned
with one large feather "abubo 11go naicheoku" (eagle's and ;ed parrot's (eathers respectively)
.:Jn each side. The eagle r'e:nher is symbolic of insight and anainment of great heights. while
<he ;ed par.ot'; ie:uher ;epresented the power or doquence. Pmting <he cap on his head. he
adjusted and cradled it •.vith both palms on <!ac:-t side or his ht:ad just above the ears ior a few
;nomems in a dasping motion lhat was intended <O ;top bmh 1he c:1p and his head t'rom
~xpanding. .\i\ :he whik he •.vas ;nunering incam:ltions \he later ~xplained eo me rhat he was
'e-o;c:ivating the Jorrnam psvc:tic qualities !n 1he .:ap"t.

Taking hold or 1he white chalk with which he .had ~ar!icr on derined his ritual space. he
ground it ·Jn ille bare rloor in a from/backward movement until :1e !Xtr:lcted ~nough powder.
With <he !ndex ting<:!r on his right hand. he wok some or' <he powder. murked a white ':irc!e
around !1is eyes. This would give him che abiiiry eo >ce clearly. His incantation 'Nas now
more audible and more t'renzied. He picked up his a[a be:Jds. threw them repeatedly within
lhe circle and as he did ;o, called on Arejio'{ba (their ancestral god) to anend. He looked as
if he was expecting the be:Jds m ;peak or move. (! am informed that the gods he !nvoiced at
any time would normally depend •Jn the purpose oi' the suppli~ant's ·1isit. He could call on
lte-ogene (god oi' procreation) or Nwakwwe (the girt bearing god that lppears at lfijioku or
the new yam :'estival).

Still .;tudying the panem •:reated by me thrown beads. the diviner used the oio ebenebe to
touch ~ach divination bead as if willing them to speak and <hen did his ;>ermutation as he
invoked the ancestors some ;nore. He tapped the mnoise shell •.vith the ofo and it produced
a hollow ;ound 'kpoom · "ktJoom" ''kpoom" and he invoked Arejiogba to speak his mind.
<alking to the ar'a 3eeds independently at each <ime.

He pronounced "the tire never lacks what it eats" and lhere was :10 interval as he looked at
the iJkwe seed 1umed upside down. "fire never ceases to find !ts feud". (Interval). "He
[referring :o God]) who has given 1he skunk to a child will give the child 'Nater with ·.vhich
to wash his hands' (lmerval). "your son tills the iand" (imervai). "he JWaits the harvest"
(intervai), ·~o home' (imerval), J!l will be well''.

The tension in betwe~a each spoken word was paipable as he waited ;'or :he next >et of
;nessages. C:ac:1 <ime he ~ot a message. he threw <he beads again o'or another ·;et or messages
to come ;h;ough and dari~; the received message. He ~ontinued 'eceiving messages md
depending on what mt:ssag:e he got. tie wouid stop to interrogate ~he ;uppl icant for further
clarification.

74
 At a• point the supplicant said to the diviner "ask them if he shall rerum?". The diviner·took
a string of cowrie shells and one string of the okwe seed and vigorously threw i1 as if to force
an answer out of the unseen presence. He waited, then smiled "he shall return when he
rerums. all will be well."

After that. he relayed all the messages he had received as if to re-confirm what the afa had
said. andrinstructed the supplicant to visit the dibia aja who.would recommend the appropriate
sacritice to enlist the protection of the ancestors and deities over his son.

Still intoning, he removed his cap. started to gather his afa parlphemalia in the order in which
he had brought them out. and carefully placed them inside:his raffia bag. The supplicant sat
patiently until he finished before he thanked the diviner and then left.

The dramatic significance of divination

The account given above shows that the action moves from outside (the supplicant

arrives from outside the diviner's house) and moves inside (as the supplicant describes

his mission). The action sequence is once again taken outside ihe diviner's house

during cie:msing :1nd on his re-emering his house. rhe :J.ction is taken w a corner of

the room where it becomes contained in a smaller but well de tined circle.

Strucrurally. the divination encounter has a fixed format. First are the pre!iminary

meeting and inquiries. both by the supplicant and by the diviner to establish the

narure of the problem. This is followed by the preparation and the ritual which

include cleansing with water, marking the eyes with nzu, defining rbe space,

cosruming and :1ssembling the props (ala paraphernalia) etc. This is then followed

by the acrual divination which can be seen as a series of dialogues, mera-dialogues

and interrogations of both the supplic:mt and the spirit forces by the diviner who is

the conducror/director of the entire encounter. The order is reversed at the end of

the divination.

The process reveals a high level of symbolism :1nd representation that does not happen

in evervday
.. life. Werbner (1984) describes the process of divination rhus:

75
 Divination· is meant to reveal occuli realities through extraordinary powers of communication;
it thus has 10 be seen and felt to be extraordinary. In many of the moments of divination.
linle or nothing need actually be said. Instead'. a silent language of objects is used for the
presentation from the occult of felt realities. for interpretation. and for retleciion. Or. if
words are at all spoken. they are cryptic, highly elusive, and perhaps in a special language
or in archaic verse. Almost never are•they unambiguous. The imagery used is paradoxical
and puzzling: it is evocative on different levels of meaning at once, At other moments,
however. interpretation becomes more explicit' verging·on direct statement, Divination takes
form as discourse through disparate moments. (20)

The divination process functions on very disconsonant levels and the dramatic tension

is unique because it is generated by the interaction of the most unlikely fields. In this

case, communication happens across three different categories of characters who are

involved in the process. namely. the human, the inanimate and the unseen ones. The

human characrers directly involved in the process were the supplicant and the diviner.

The researcher and her companion were observers. The inanimate characters were

the powerful divination symbols, for .::xample. the tortoise shell. the eagle feather. the

ofo ebenebe Jnd the cowrie shells. The unseen characters were the ancesmrs ar.d

deities whom he acknowledgd during cleansing by facing the East, and others with

whom he c0nsulted through the oracle.

The oracle was the most active in the sense that it was the medium used by the

diviner to ask for and get the required information from the ancestors and deities.

The action unfolds gradually with the diviner making all the necessary preparation eo

ensure that all goes well. Water and later on, alligator pepper. are the different form

of cleansers with which he symbolically cleanses all parts of his body that will be in

direct comact with the oracle. The stage varies from the entire from room to a

corner in the living room where the diviner uses the nzu to furrner mar!( out his

performam;;: space. The diviner directs all movements and acrions within the wider

and more circumscribed space. Aiso. he decides in which order the props from his

afa bag appear and how they are placed within his performance circle. The tortoise

76
 ·.

shell comes first because apart from its symbolism. it serves as a container in which

the diviner puts all other divination bits and pieces.

When he is done with his role as a director. he rerurns to play the actor by putting

on his cap - which is the smi1e as those won by the ozo title holders. Among Igbo

people. ozo title taking is one of the riruals of distinction taken by elders and

distinguished men in readiness for a more sublime fonn of living prior to the journey

{after death) to the land of their revered ancestors. Hence when used in the

divination context. the cap confers all the attributes of an ozo (moral asruteness and

respect) on the diviner. Funhennore, preparation for the perfonnance occurs at

different sta2es. First. the cleansing in the forecourt is his own rehearsal. The

divination bag which he ;etrieves from the rafter of his house somains all his cosrume

(red cap with te:.tthers). prop (ofo, white chalk. tortoise shell. cowrie shells ere) and

make up (the powder rrom the chalk).

By detining the space. he detennines once again where the perfonnance will take

place. Once this is done, the on stage perfonnance really srans. The interpretation

given to the half okwe seed and cowrie depends on a couple of variables. First, it

depends on the deiry or oracle that is in attendance. and second on the circumstance

warranting the divination. Different deities make different demands. hence they

would understand and interpret the inquiry by the diviner and the micro-dramatics of

the divination seeds differently. It is because of these variables that the Igbo would.

sometimes. invite more than two L~fa when they wish to ensure that my divination

reading is correct. It is also interesting to note that an object that falls outside the

defined circle is not interpreted. According co the diviner. there are no set indic::!s

for interpreting the fall of the half okwe seeds and cowrie shells, but there are broad

outlines that are learnt with the trade which every diviner must personalise through

77
repeated practice to be able to work with and interpret them successfully.

What the researcher found most interesting were the messages that the diviner relayed

from the afa. They were re-assuring enough in this circumstance, but could have

answered many other needs. "The fire never lacks what it eats" can be interpreted to

mean that the supplicant's son (like the fire) once lit. must have something cooked

in it - meaning that he is well taken care of by the cosmic, and (like the fire which

has to keep flaming so as not to rum into embers), the supplicant's son struggles to

keep alive. This is a fact of life and normal m most people. However. a more

pessimistic interpretation of the same statement could also mean that just as

misforrune never fails to strike normal people. his son was in trouble. Furthermore.

his use of the phrase "all is well" could be a philosophical resignation to the will of

God - who gives :md takes life.

So the diviner is an all-round performer - director. acmr, make-up and props

manager. script interpreter and continuity artist. Like a good director, he leaves the

supplicant a lot of creative freedom in which to interpret the messages (text) that he,

the diviner. had transmitted. The continuation of the performance and its context

largely depend on his recommendation to the supplicant.

78
Types of sacrifices

Sacrifices are usually the next stage after divination in the process of psychic and

physical redress or resolution of personal crises among the lgbo, And depending on

the outcome of the divination, the dibia afa can recommend three categories of

sacrifices - prophylactic, propitiatory and/or osadaka

Prophylactic as the names suggests, are those sacrifices offered as prophylaxis, to

ward off any evils and misfortune. Propitiatory are those sacritices performed to

placate the ancestors and gods for the sustenance of existing or the restoration of

favours where there had been improprieties. These ensure the rerum of harmony

between people and these forces. Osadaka are performed in thanksgiving for

blessings anticipated or already received. They are usually in the form of open-door

feasts in which all are welcome to partake and offer prayers for their host's intention.

The afa may specify particular groups of invitees or participants to the sacrifice/feast.

For example, in cases where a female supplicant seeks children, she may be asked

to prepare a feast to which only children are invited. As always, the sacrifice or feast

is performed in the belief that the spirits of those innocent invitees would attract

children to that homestead.

Basic concepts in ritual

The discussion of divination has now opened the way for other rituals. But because

the subject area of ritual is a vast one, it has become necessary to introduce concepts

that will enable a clearer understanding of the subject area. There are different

categories of rituals, and each category has a collection of rituals that belong to the

i9
same time and space. Igbo rituals reveal that while some are mandatory, others are

not. Furthetmore. while different rituals demand different agents, the structure and

components of most rituals belonging to the same category (space and time) appear

the same. 1his observation is revealing because it means that a model can be

developed for the study of rituals by breaking any given ritual down into various

components and using these components to determine the rirual characteristics and

purpose(s). More important is that these concepts also offer insight into rirual

sequencing which is part of the 1riangle of Life model.

Passive. controlled ;tctive and active rituals

Most rituals of passage can be classified J.s either passive. controiled active or active

and these adjectives connote the level of the initiand"s physical and emotional

involvement in the riruals being performed.

Passive rituals are those performed for the individual. So although other people may

be closely involved in the ritual. the emphasis is not on them. Examples include the

parents in relation to a new born baby during its naming ceremony or the immediate

family of a deceased person in relation to the transition rites being performed for the

ascendency of the deceased individual.

The naming ceremony is a passive ritual performed for every child born w the Igbo.

In traditional Igbo society men and their wives did not live in the same house. The

man's house was called the iba or obilobu and it was usually the main structure on

entering rhe compound. His wife or wives lived in their own smaller huts (mkpuke)

at the back of the iba. There were no hospitals or maternity homes - women were

delivered in their huts. The birth of the child is announced to his father in his iba.

80
After the ·bil'th, the mother and baby would remain in the hut for seven market weeks

(twenty eight days) before the naming ceremony which usually happens inside the

father's iba ~if there are. many people, the space before the iba would be also be

used). The naming ceremony is a passive rirual during which the child is

incorporated into the society and given a personal identity (its name). Before this

rime the child would be referred to as nne (if it is a girl) or nna meaning 'boy'.

After the naming ceremony, the mother is re-incorporated into the society and could

after this time attend public places and events.

During the naming ceremony, the child is for the first time taken beyond its mother's

mkpuke into the r'arher' s iba. Figuratively, that would be the child's and its mother'>

first time inside his father's house since birth. This expiains rhe varied names given

to this ceremony in different parts of Igboland some of which include I kubara n 'ww

-
(to be brou!!ht into t.he house'!. I kuouw
- . nwa (to brin!!- out a child). I ;;ura ife (to see
~

t.he light) and I ba nwa afa (to name a child). The tirst lhree suggest crossing a

t.hreshoid, while the last one suggests the conferment of an individual identity. All

four are suggestive of what happens within the naming ceremony which rakes place

in the iba. On the contrary. funeral rites are also passive - totally passive during

which the person is once again carried across a t.hreshold.

The importance of the strucrure and purpose of these two riruals is a strong factor

which suggests that one major characteristic of riruals in this category is crossing of

t.hresho lds.

81
'The Passive-active or controlled active rituals is ,perfonned bv the individual under

the tutelage of an elderly or more mature and initiated individual. Most of the rituals

in this category belong to what can be tenned ~ituals of adolescence, and they include

initiations like that into the masquerade cult (ima mmuo) and initiations into

womanhood (iso ebe). These rituals are passive-active because they are usually

initiated by the parents or adult guardians of the initiand, who later becomes more

involved and active as the process progresses.

!so ebe is perr"onned by young girls under the guidance of dderly women. during

which both che young girls and their mentors remain in seclusion for three months.

Each young girl is assigned her own chaperon/mentor who would see to her welfare

throughom o;edusion. When the time for this initiation comes. the mentor would

:mive to escon the girl to the venue (usually the shrine of the goddess of feniliry)

where thev will meet with orher initiands. It is there that these ne vices are taU!!ht all
' -
the secrets of womanhood. When they are through with their period of seclusion. the

women will return them to their respective families. This ritual and the initiation of

young boys into the masquerade cult are grouped under the Controlled Active group

because all the actions are pert'onned by the initiand but under the direction of a more

mature person, and because rhe initiands do not initiate it. It is often the parents or

guardian who know when the time is ripe for each girl or boy to go through the

process of initiation. They make most of the preparation. but the rite proper requires

active panicipation by the initiands themselves.

Active rituals are those rituals initiated and perfonned bv the individual. In these

rituals. the individual is the principal and makes most major decisions regarding how.

when and where the ritual takes place. Most adulthood rituals (inu nwanyi or

marriage rites) and rituals of distinction (ozoliyom) belong to this group. One

82
 ·•

interesting finding of this study is the fact that all rituals in the personal sub category

start as passive. graduate to active and return full cycle to passive in a sense

replicating the Igbo cyclic view of existence and the universe.

Using the marriage ceremony as an example. it is the man who decides when he is

ready for a wife. Where he is having difficulties with fmding one, his family may

get involved and introduce someone to him. After this, the elders carry out all the

necessary negotiations for him, but with his approval. lgbo marriages involve six

distinct srages which are lche ego (declaration of imencion by the man), iju ajuju

(inquiry into family genealogy) Iru onu aku (negotiation of bride price), ibu

egoiiwena ice (payment of bride price), igba nkwu nwanyili na be di,ndulu nwanyi

(marriage proper) and ogo malu ago (formal imrcduction of relevant in-!awsl. All

the activities take place in the girl's home except part of the marriage proper and ogo

malu ogo, and the groom is the person who makes all the decisions in conjunction

wim his direct family.

Ritual categories

Information :~bout me origin and sheer numbers of Igbo ritual can be as speculative

as the origin of the people. What. however. we cannot speculate on is the fact that

me lgbo, like most Nigerian societies possess a rich tradition of performance which

Ogunbiyi ll98l) describes thus:

... in many ~igerian societies. [there exists] a robust the:urical tradition. Tne primitive root
of that tradition must be sought in the numerous religious rituals md fesuvals :hat e.~ist in
many ~igerian communities. For. as an expression or the relationship aetween man. society
and nature, drama .1rose om of fundamemal human needs in the dawn or' :tuman civilization
and has continued 10 express those needs ~ver since ... emoodymg his rirst preoccupations. his
tirst struggles. set·oacks and all.t3)

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 ·•

So it can be safely inferred that in lgbo performance is a veritable cor'pus of

information from which we can learn a lot about the people. their gods, their

environment and entire belief system.

So far in this study. we have succeeded in establishing the following: (a) that riruals

are those actions that accompany a coinmunity's or an individual's anempts to

negotiate their way through life's crises and (b) that riruals are either passive or

active. The grouping of riruals into categories will enable a further undemanding

of the narure of these riruals. This is because once these categories have been

successfully determined, it would be possible to assign the rituals to families and as

such, it will be easier to establish the reason for each rirual and its order in relation

to other categories. With this in mind . .;•1ery ritual can be categorised into three

namely: communal. peer and personal

Communal rir..41ls deal with the sanctification of communal deities, seasons. and

shrines - usually mey involve everyone in the community. Most of these are annual

riruals that follow a pre-determined calendar. They are ail active in me sense ~hat the

communities involved perform them for their own well-being and continuity with me

priest/ess of the deiry dec:ding (in agreement with the elders) exactly when the rirual

should happen. Like most active riruals, they have a secret and public componem.

The secret componem is performed on behalf of the community by the Chief

Priest/ess and the elders away from public glare and. most probably at me shrine of

me deity, while the public componems are in the form of celebrations open to all

members of the communitv.

. The venue is usuallv
. the viilage
... sauare.
.; .

Most communal riruals are used by different communities to affirm their oneness on

both the physical and spiritual level. An example is the U:.o-lyi festival in Umuoji

84
-.

which marks the beginning of the planting season while consecrating the river

goddess, /demili. On the physical level, it is a time for the annual clearing of the

pathways to the village stream in readiness for another rainy season. In many other

communities. these communal festivals are times when the different age grades

undertake the maintenance of commonly shared places and things like shrines. The

culmination point is the celebration which people from surrounding communities are

invited to partake in. These outside in vi tees can be referred to as the ritual outsiders,

because to them, Uz.o-lyi is about a carnival of masquerades when in fact the core of

the ritual had been completed and what the invitee wimess is the incorporation stages.

The incorporation stages :1re times when the whole community come together to

demonstrate their collectiveness evident in their arts. crafts and dances.

Peer rituals They are performed because it is beholding on the peer or age grade to

do so. They are mostly initiation rites. active. and they as well possess bmh the

secret and public components. The secret panusually involves a period of seclusion

when peer members are initiated into the ethics of rhe!r peerage. while the pubiic

component takes the form of dancing and merrime:1t aimed at the re-integration of the

initiands into the society after seclusion. Such public outing is usually marki:!d by

performances to demonstrate usually the skills and team spirit that the group may

have learnt while in seclusion. An example is the production and dispiay of the

Okoroko masquerade in Nkpologu by young men. on the twelfth day after their

initiation into the masquerade cult.

Due to the fact that different peer groups are arranged according to the age grade

system (three yearly interval), it is possible tO find that within one age grade. several

peer rituals happen but with different emphasis.· As a result, there may be

celebrations from different groups happening within the community at regular

85
intervals - but· they do not interfere with the communal cycle. 'Examples of peer

riruals are different initiations for males and females into adulthood - initiation into

the masquerade cult for boys and initiation into womanhood in Agulu and Nkpologu

respectively - an initiation imo womanhood performed for girls. In traditional Igbo

society, individual families have the responsibility for ensuring that their members

perform these riruals at the appropriate time. Where the family fails ro do this, a

certain level of communal coercion is used to ensure compliance. Invitees are.usually

members of other peer groups and friends and families of the peer group members.

Personal riruals mark people's progression through lite and their attempts to negotiate

their way through life· s crises. They usually start with passive rituals and as these

individuals progress. the riruals become active and rhen finish off as passive. All

rites of passage belong to either this or the peer group. The organisation of

community and peer riruals. take precedence over these, and ro a gre:n extent

determine when, how and where personal riruals occur. Examples include the naming

ceremony, traditional marriages and the ozo title. In traditional Tgbo society there

were no mortuaries and anyone who died during the Uzo-Iyi week was buried without

any rirual and the funeral deferred until a more appropriate time.

The importance of ordering the communal and peer riruals over the personal is the

society's way of reinforcing in its members that they are never more important than

the group or community they belong to. The family unit is an important agent of

sociaL control through which this message is re:nforced and maintained. This system

of control ensures that any major clashes of interest between the personal and

communal needs are minimised. For instance, in Umuoji - one of the communities

in Idemili Local Government Area. it is unacceptable to fit in personal rites during

the U:.o-lyi week. Uzo-lyi is the testival in honour of the goddess. Idemili. Invitees

86
 ·.

friends, families and in-laws. An example· is alom chi (veneration ·of personal chi)

performed by women in honour of their personal gods.

Unfortunately because of the vast scope of the ~ituals that exist under these three

categories mentioned above. it is impossible to delve into all three at this stage.

Therefore. the researcher intends to limit this work to personal ritual category.

However. it must be noted that she intends to continue work on the remaining two

c:uegories as part of her post-doctoral work in riruals. The "communal" and the

"peer" rirual categories comain some of the richest t'orms of performance that exist

among the Igbo.

So having brietly looked at the three categories. riruals can also be further classified

depending on whether they are mandawry or non-mandarory.

\l!andamr' riruals are [hose whose omission !s believed w have negative implications

by stit1ing progression and/or excluding individuals from performing subsequent

rituals. Most rituals in this class are those used for head couming, registration and

identification within the family and society at large. Examples are iba afa (naming

ceremony). ibe ugwu (circumcision) and ifijiokulahajioku (new yam festival in

honour of Ana (Earth). Without the lfijioku being celebrated, new yam seedlings

cannot be harvested and for the lgbo for whom the yam seedling is the:r major cash

crop. rhe consequences can be dire. The rituals mentioned above are mandatory

throughout me whole of Igboland.

Non-mandarorv riruais are desirable but nor essential. For example, iclzi o;:o (except

in Onitsha where initiation into the ozo rank is compulsory for every grown man).

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 ·•

It is also only in Onitsha that the ozo ·title still maintains its traditional format in the

sense that it has not been iiiterfered with by Christianity. As a consequence, every

Onitsha male who is ready to take this title must perform an traditional rites, and

thereafter does not return to Christianity ) and inu mvanyi (taking a wife. for men).

In the researcher's opinion. these are also enhancing or embellishing rituals becallse

they he!p enhance or embellish an individual's credibility and social standing. It is

worth noting that with the advent of western education and subsequently. Christianity,

some rituals have changed from mandatory to non-mandatory, while others have

become almost e:<tinct (for instance Igbu icili - a test of courage and pain threshold).

Examples of a movement from mandatory to non-mandatory are igba agu (inquiry

regarding reinc::trnated soul) and ima muo (initiation into the masquerade cult).

The use of the mand::ttory and man-mandatory modes of classific::ttion may see:n w

sugg'!st that some rituals are more important than others. but the purp0se !s to

highlight the t1exibility inherent in Lhe Igbo social system - which offers pt!ople

ample opportunities for upward mobility. Upward mobility in this context means that

hard work is a passport that permits people to move imo social statuses olher than

lhose they were born into. This is perfectly acceptable to the Igbo. So, lhis

classification. retlec~s the dynamic nature of the Igbo society which considers its

members· need for inter-class movement, and uses lhe ordering of its rituals to

achieve this purpose. Therefore. while mandatory rituals are a sine qua non. non-

mandatOry ones are there for people who may wish tO avail themseives of their

performance to move into a different socio-religious and political mata. An example

is lhe lehie or ~he chieftaincy title raken after the o::o title. It must be noted mat oniy

in Onitsha is the ow title mandarory: in other pans of Igboland, it is desirabie. but

done only by those who c::tn afford rhe ~xpense.

88
Ritual agents

Ritual agents are either animal or plants (animate) and objects (inanimate) which are

used because they are either innarely psychic or they are psychic inducers. Every

ritual makes use of at least one of these agents. and they are facilitators that possess

inherent properties that enable the invocation, access to and negotiation with the

spiritual world. In the hands of the different categories of dibia, these normaJly

domestic animals. objects and things act as bridges between the contiguous worlds of

lgbo existence. They serve different roles depending on the type of ritual they are

employed in. For instance, in propitiarory or cleansing rituals they are carriers

(carrying people's misdeed and evils away hence facilitating absolution). while in the

prophylac:ic and osadaka rituals. they are psychic conducrors and hence cnnduits of

unseen energies i.hat facilitate rituals.

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Categories of ritual agents

RITUAL AGENTS

A.~ThlATE INAAll\'IA TE

I
I
I
organic inorganic

Figure J .2: Categories of ritual agents

The three rabies below give examples of the different rirual agents and their

symbolism.

Table 3.3 contains a list of animate rirual agems. while Table 3.4 lists some

inanimate-inorganic agents :.md Table 3.5 is a list of inanimate organic agents.

90
 Table 3.3: Animate ritual a2"ents

lgbo name English approximation classification Purposes Symbolism

akwa okul.u chicken egg animate carrier embodiment of the future
- the unknown universe -
nobody knows what an
egg would hatch into .
Sign of fert ility
nwa uyom/nwa uliom c hick animate used for sacrifices and innocence, speed
rituals
nkita/nkuta dog animate sacrifices and rituals psychic, friendly , speedy,
vigilance, alert
mkpi/ mpi he-goat animate rituals psychic, self-confident,
good runner, diplomatic,
fighter and especially
procreative
cbunu/ebune ram animate psychic, sroicism,
strength, fonitude,
stubborn, good fighter
and procreative

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 Table 3A: Jnanimate-inon;:ank l"ilual agcnls

lgbo English Classification Purposes Symboli~m

name <:tppa·oximation
1>to none !-inorganic all rituals ~yntl>u l of malt: authority, usually given by
lather!. to sons

11L.U white ~.:halk 1-tnorganic all rituals putity, sacredness, !.im:eJity

u-odo ydlow chalk 1-iuorganic all rituals anJ sacriftct:s ~y111bul uf the: uni verse - the earth

c:go ayolo wwrie shdl !-inorganic igba afa (orade The link between the living and the dead
consultation)

aba U-!.hapeJ cast iron !-inorganic tu fasten sacrifices at St:a I a~.:ceptanct:

with !.harp ends partic ular spot (common
amongst Nkpologu lgbu)

abubo or t:aglt: or red parrot !-inorganic in divination sign 1>f great Eaglc' s - power, strength, vision
ugbcne fc:athcr heights reached by an ozo Red parrots : power of elocution,
persuasion, oratory and negotiation.

nsi/ntu gun powder !-organic announces great evc:uts, :.yaubol of the sun god responsible for light.
egbc: or arouses the power of The: sun onc of the principal forces of
mkpo n ' divination faom the: sw1 Chukwu, the creator. Sun god is giver or
ani go<.l, while in separation power of vision especially in initiations and
rites used to alert funeral ritc:s
deceased about 1imc: to
proceed on the journey to
ancc:strdl land.

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 Table 3.5: lnanimate-oreanic ritual aeents

Jgho namt! English Classification Pm·poscs Symbolism

approximation
tlj l kolanut !-organic all social occas iuus, sacrifices awl 1 ituals. Principally, used Hospitality , used in
during libatiou covenants.
ose oj i alligator pepper !-organic sa~.;rifices and rituab cleanser, warmth
energises the spirit
ji yam !-organic major ~.;ash crop ~.;ultivateJ by men. From the myth of wealth earned through
origin was given to Chukwu to Eri in reward for his months of toiling under
uheJience to his will. harsh weathers. During
sacrifice stands for self-
denial in giving hack to
the gods that which they
had so freely given.

isikaralugirisi/ ogirisi leaf !-organic Especially significalll during childbirth - serves as the first anti-biotic, protection .•.
echikara contact the new bom has with the material world. Used in from contamination from
rituals of exorcism. UseJ by Egbenuoba - hunters' guild for material, human and
its psyd1ic and mcJicinal purposes. spiritual elements .
omu young palm !-organic the most tender part of the palm from) reaching out to the purity, direct Iink. with
frond sky, signifying aspiration to more arcane values . Marks rhe sky (Chukwu's
sacred pla~.;es eg shrine, ro seclude ritual sires, cordon off abode), virginity and
wntested pieces of land, used as a form of social control on sacredness. In some
promiswous men anJ women, when held between the lips cases used as a seal.
signifies need for non-cunununication with humans. Sign of
seriousness, silence and contidentiality

93
Igbo ritual agents and the notion of transferencee

Most ritual agents have four characteristics in common. First, their significance is

understood all over lgboland. Second, the animate ones possess innate psychic

attributes, while the inanimate are psychic inducers. Third, in the ritual context

transference occurs and the attributes of the ritual agent(s) are transferred to the ritual

subject. Finally, when animate agents are slaughtered for the preparation of rirual

feasts, only a select few qualify to participate in the feast.

The notion of transference is unique to lgbo rites of separation, and can be better

understood when viewed in the light of the fact that of all domestic animals the lgbo

use only four for the intrinsic qualities that they possess. These are the chick, the

dog, the he-goat and the ram. During the ritual, the animal is either killed or incised

and the blood is extracted and in some areas, dropped into the eyes of the ritual

subject. It is believed that in so doing the rirual animal is transferred onto the rirual

subject. The transferrable qualities of these ritual agents are illustrated in lgbo

proverbs which are a culrure-specific method of communication whose assumptions

are coded in such a manner that only those who are part of the culture can recognise,

understand and interpret the relevance of the symbols, icons, images and metaphors

used. The successful interpretation of any proverb depends on an individual's ability

to decode the content, and match decoded message to the context which necessitated

the use of the proverb. The evidence of the transferrable qualities of these animals

are substantiated in the proverbs used in the following discussion:

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lgbo proverb for the chick: Ochu nwa okuku we ada, nwa okuko nwelu nwenwe
oso." (He who pursues a chick has the fall, while the chick has swift tiny steps for
escape).

The chick is innocent and swift in its escape from danger, it never ventures too far
from mother-hen, hence it is, most times, protected from danger. When pursued, it
does not run a straight course and the tendency is that the person in pursuit ends up
falling over and getting hurt instead. More importantly, its longevity is most assured
of all the ritual agents because its meat is too tender for human consumption, so it is
usually left to escape. It continues its life as a carrier.

It is believed that through transference (during rituals) the performer becomes as

innocent, swift and free from harm as the chick. Its innocence assures survival.

Igbo proverb for the dog: Nkiw sili na ife ya ji eso onye ajo rolu bu o diro anyu
anyu, o na agbo agbo
(The dog said that the reason why he follows someone with indigestion is that the
individual is either defecating or being sick (hence the dog's feeding is assured). This
particular proverbs espouses the dog as a strategic planner.

The dog is friendly, loyal and playful. but it can also turn quite ferocious when it
feels threatened. It is a swift runner, observant and patient. The dog is psychic -
capable of seeing spirits and ever alert because it is a light sleeper. It has a high pain
threshold and as such does not die easily when tortured. It is dogged and has a good
sense of smell.

Igbo proverb for the he-goat: Nwa mkpi sili na mkpogha amaka, maka n 'obu na

ikwu nne ya ka nya jelu wee muta ikpokeni imi enu (mkpi, the billy-goat said that

travelling is nice because it was on its visit to its mother's kindred that it learnt how

to be proud and cocky).

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The he-goat, although smaller in size than most goat species and a lot less attractive,

is quite aggressive - its stature does not affect its self confidence. During the mating

season it would fight for supremacy using its short powerful horns on opponents until

it mates with as many she-goats as it can. It is known for very short recovery rate

between intercourse- hence the Igbo name for virility-engendering herbs is "ike agwu

nwa mkpi"; meaning the he-goat never tires. The he-goat is swift and territorial

during mating and it would jealously guard the females on its ground from violation.

even after mating. It possesses a very strong musky smell and when on heat. this

scent becomes quite pungent. This also alerts the less mature she-goat that are not

ready for mating ro flee. Also less likely to be slaughtered for food as its pungence

continues even as meat.

The he-goat is believed to possess psychic powers hence its hide and skin are used

by traditional medicine men as sitting mats during invocation. It is quite smart and

would easily negotiate its way out of confrontational situations. especially when faced

by bigger and more powerful species. It also outlives these other goat species

because the he-goat is valued for its procreational prowess which increases people's

herds and thus their wealth. For the he-goat, procreation is its mission and he

affirms this fact in the cockiest manner as it single-mindedly fulfils this mission.

Hence, the legendary visit (referred to in the proverb), which was made by the

archetypal mkpi to its mother's ldndred is a poimer to mkpi's procreational worth -

it is sometimes rented by people without a he-goat in their herd to mate the female

members of the herd. This is why the mkpi travels a lot in the course of duty.

96
 ·.

When used as a ritual agent, transference enables the subject to become swift,

territorial, virile and to attract the protection and love of female spirits who can get

quite vicious during confrontation.

lgbo proverb for the ram : "Ebune sili na orrye ga aku mpi, ekwo kaa kwa ya aka

(The ram said that one who is willingly to lock horns must ensure that he has well-

developed neck muscles)

Meaning: the ram is a renowned brave fighter with strong, well-built powerful horns.

It is a great strategist - it would engage an opponent briefly to size it up and assess

potential danger. It then withdraws and charges into a fight - a stoic and relentless

fighter who when once engaged in a fight with another ram stops only when one party

drops dead. Like the mkpi, the ram is a procreator.

Symbolism and inanimate ritual agents

The following are inanimate ritual agents. which unlike the preceding animate ones

act at a symbolic level and act as conductors of psychic energies:

Ofo is a symbol of a man's authority, the centre of lgbo culture and religious life -
symbolising mi ndi muo (the ear of the gods). It is also a symbol and medium
representing divinity- the gods and ancestors and it represents truth, character. moral
rectitude and paternal lineage. Ofo characterises and represents the owner and it is
used during divination, naming ceremonies. oath taking, settling disputes and as a seal
in making covenants. Among the lgbo, there are at least twelve structural variations
of the ofo, signifying variety in personal perception of the gods.

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 ·.

Nzu and odo (white and yellow clay) are both clay but from different sources. While
the nzu is clay from an active river bed, the yellow is taken from a dried up river
bed. Together, they are representations of the gods inhabiting the seas and farmlands
- universal unity. They are both symbols of peace and good intention for visitors,
and they are used in almost all rituals to represent Igbo duality (the wet and the dry).
During divination, one or both are rubbed around the eyes as an aid to enable human
eyes to see the secret of the gods.

Ego ayolo (cowrie shells) represent the power of the visible universe - the sea. It
symbolises vision, foresight and widespread fame which is re-echoed in the resonance
of the waves of the sea. It was a legal tender in Igboland during the late part of the
19th and early pan of this century.

Abubo/Ugbene (feather): Its significance depends on the bird it is taken from. There
are the following types of abubo in Igbo ritual:

Abubo ugo (the eagle's feather) is a symbol of power. majesty, vision, eloquence.
soaring heights/presence and beauty.

Abubo udene (the vulture's feather) symbolises the presence of spirits during
sacrifices hence the proverb: "Achu o aja ma si ajuro udene, ife mmelu be muo" (if
during a sacritice the vulture is not seen, then there is something wrong in the land
of the spirits). In real life, the vulture represents all that is repulsive in nature - a
scavenger that promptly arrives at the scene of all accidents. It possesses a powerful
vision and intuition for scenes of human disaster and sacrifices, and it is a
representative of the spirit world. Its weird sense of humour is borne out in the
saying credited to it "udene sili, na nwa ya aru na adiro nwuru anwuru, ulu! odiri
adiri, ulu! (if my sick child survives, it is my gain: if it dies it is still my gain.) The
udene would eat anything.

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 ·,

Mkpo n 'ani or nsi/ntu egbe (gun powder) is a symbol of the spirit of the sun - one
of the principal forces of the supreme God. It also symbolises light, power of vision
and divination and it is used to announce great events such as title taking ceremonies
and the death of an accomplished elder. It is used during final burial rites to facilitate
the final accent of the deceased's spirit into the ancestral realm.

Oji lgbo (kolanut) its use symbolises the sacred ritual of welcome both to spirits and
humans. It enables mediation and negotiation between the human and spirit worlds
and it has a tremendous functional role (both spiritual and economic). It is a sure key
to unlock the hearts of men and gods and as such is employed in all rituals. When
broken and shared by alL consumption signifies unity.

Ose oji (alligator pepper) is an antidote for poisons, and it is used as a mouth
cleanser/ steriliser prior to divination. It cures all throat infections and tonsillitis

Akwukwo ogirisi/ichikaralechikara is a coolant with an antiseptic/antibiotic effect.

It is an evergreen and if used during childbirth to place the new born, transference
of its evergreen qualities means health and long life. When used to place a newly
born child, it protect the child from physical and spiritual harm. It dispels evil spirits
and witches.

Omu (virgin palm frond) is a symbol of divine order, and one of the most sacred
objects in lgbo society - it announces death, war or peace. It neutralises evil forces
when used to adorn an individual. When woven into a garland, it is a means of
beautifying sacrifices to make them attractive to the gods. It is also a symbol of
purity and it has a sanctifying effect.

Ritual Clusters

One of the interesting findings of this study is that rituals are clustered, and that these
clusters follow clearly defined patterns. For instance, communal rituals follow
seasonal patterns - there are rituals that mark the beginning of the farming season and
those that occur during the harvesting season. The pattern in peer rituals is such that

99
they lake place mostly during the harvest season when it is possible to remove the
initiands to a place of seclusion without placing too much pressure on their families
where the initiands are valuable farm hands. Personal rituals follow basic human
biological development from birth through to death.

So the nature of these clusters is such that each main cluster comprises various sub-

rituals and this is very apparent in personal rituals. Personal rituals will be focused

on for two reasons: (a) rituals in this category are so varied and occur more

frequently, because they chart the course of an individual's progression from birth to

death, (b) the frequency of their occurrence offer a rich variety of texts on which to

base the study of rituals, their purpose and sequence.

The hypothesis of ritual cluster concept that is proposed here is in many parts. First,

all personal rituals can be grouped into clusters, and rituals in any particular cluster

tend to have the same attributes, hence making their study easier. Second, that if

these clusters were to be represented as either horizontal or vertical strands, they

would be of equal length and intensity, because they would represent the different

phases of human biological development (from birth to adolescence, adolescence to

adulthood and from adulthood to death). Third, that because all three strands are

supposed to be equal in length and intensity, they could be used to form a triangle.

Fourth, that because the strands are supposed to be equal, it means that no rituals on

any of the three strands are more important or more significant than the rituals on

other strands. Fifth, that because the strands are equal in length, they complement

one another. Sixth, and finally, that if depicted graphically. this triangular axis show

continuity in Igbo existence, because the tail end of one is the beginning of another.

lOO
 ·.

Furthermore, the idea of ritual clusters and consequently the ability to arrange

personal rituals on a triangular axis enables the introduction of the concept of the

triangle of life (ToL, Figure 3.6.) The term is chosen because it clearly depicts

rituals as following a basic pattern of human biological development. The ToL is a

distinctive model which enables the placement of rituals as sub-sets within each

cluster. Put together, each sub-set forms a single cluster. Using the ToL model will

enable a thorough examination of sub-sets within each cluster. Hopefully, this will

determine if rituals in the same cluster really possess identical characteristics. The

benefit of this will be that if clustered sub-sets are identical, then it would be easy to

carry out a performance analysis of selected sub-sets within each cluster; and

hopefully, from this performance analysis will emerge the characteristics of a

performance style that can be regarded as authentically lgbo. This can be better

understood through this structured approach to the study of Igbo ritual.

Three clusters are easily identifiable in Igbo rituals and they are:

infancy/childhood rituals
adolescence-adulthood and status enhancement rituals
distinction/mortuary-ascendency rituals

Infancy/childhood rituals: Rituals in this cluster are those performed from conception

through to when the child is about twelve years of age. This axis begins with inactive

and ends with controlled active rituals. They are either earth. spiritual or socially

oriented, and they exist to ensure that after birth when the child is severed from its

natural mother, it is grounded with Mother Earth because any biological link to the

mother is buried into the earth. For example the placenta, the umbilical cord and the

101
 ·.

foreskin removed during the circumcision of male children are all buried inside the

earth - these are earth rituals. Earth rituals also foster bonding because one thing

most members of the community (male and female) have in common is that the

placenta in which they lived as foetuses and their umbilical ends are all buried within

the same locality. The males in the community share the additional bonding that

comes from their foreskin being within the same earth radius.

Almost all the rituals in this category are started and concluded within the child's

father's compound. The music and dance during these rituals are usually produced

by the women either by clapping or using the ichaka (a gourd encased in beaded net)

and sometimes the ogene (a small gong).

Adolescence-adulthood and status enhancement rituals: The rituals in this category are

in two sub-clusters. The first is the adolescence-adulthood rituals and they span the

teenage years through to adulthood. They start with controlled active and gradually

move into the active category. They also exist to fulfil the lgbo need for earth,

spirirual and cultural affiliations. These include igba ogbom (initiation into manhood

in Ngwa area), iso ebe or ikpa iyi (rituals of initiation into womanhood in Agulu and

Nkpologu respectively), inu nwanyi (taking a wife) and idobe chi (the installation of

personal chi). It is important at this point to note that marriages happen not only

between men and women, but also between the gods and women (exclusive

marriages). All the music and dance perfonned in this sub-cluster are energetic and

acrobatic (for the males), while female dances are less aggressive and aimed more

towards highlighting suppleness and beaury. The men would use igba (drums of

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varying sizes), ogene (metal gong), aloo (giant metal gong) and oja (wooden whistle),

but never ichak.a. The young women would use ichaka. udu (earthen pots with

openings at the side and top) and ogene.

In the second sub-cluster are the status enhancement rituals and these are performed

when individuals invite the community to bear witness to their affluence and gradual

preparation for their journey after life. The ability of an individual to move through

the social strata, to a large extent, depends on how that individual uses the attributes

he/she was endowed with at birth. Examples include the ozo and di-ji (master

farmer) titles for men and lyom (for women). In Imilike and Nkpologu, men do not

take the ozo title but instead, they have the Ozioko and Ophiere Agho title

respectively. Only women who have reached menopause belong to this prestigious

group, and after the rite they are accorded almost the same respect as their male

counterparts.

The music and dance for both the male and female initiations and ceremonies are now

slow and prestigious. For the men, the period during their ozo title taking ceremony

when they enter the ozo nest is the frrst time that the ufie (a wooden musical

instrument with high religious significance) is used to produce music for them. At

the end of the ozo title, they will join other ozo men in dancing to the abia which is

the music produced on the ufie. On the contrary, women who are Iyom are not

called out on the ufie neither do they dance to the abia.

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 ·,

Mortuary-ascendency rituals: All mortuary-ascendency rituals are passive and are

performed at and after death and are meant to transform the deceased from an

ordinary person to the ancestral cadre. In some pre-Christian lgbo societies (Nkpor,

Umuoji, Uke and Nnobi to mention a few towns), men were buried within or

immediately outside their own ibalobi while the corpses of women were returned to

and buried with their pre-marital families in an elaborate performance referred to as

iwena ngiga (or iwena aga in Nsukka area). Ngiga is a wire mesh basket given to

all women by their family on the final day of their traditional marriage. It is used

for storing her dried tish, meat and spices for cooking. The size of a woman's ngiga

increases with the size of her family or she may even decide to have ditierent ones

for different food items. No maner the number of ngiga a woman has, they are

usually hung on the uko (kitchen rafter) which is directly above osi ire or the cooking

tripod. In this position, the smoke and heat from the firewood used in cooking

reaches the ngiga and gradually dries up whatever its contents are without necessarily

destroying the nutrients.

In Nsukka area (Nkpologu, to be specific), the woman's aga is returned with her

corpse. The aga is like a fishing net that is woven with thicker ropes and women in

this area use it to cover their market wares after packing them. In traditional

Igboland, people travelled either on foot or in their canoes or rafts. Market women

would walk miles on foot to sell their varied and oversized market wares in

neighbouring markets and used the aga to cover and hold these overloaded wares in

place so that they can carry all of them as one load on their head. The aga

symbolises a woman's spirit of enterprise it is returned to her family at her death.

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Therefore, when the woman's corpse is returned to her maiden family, her ngiga or

aga which are both symbols of her office (family cook or trade) go with her, and it

is usually buried with her. However. if her family felt that she had not been properly

catered for by either her husband and/or children, they may refuse to take her corpse

and ngiga from her married family. When this happens. a lengthy negotiation

process ensues during which gifts and money are offered to placate her birth family

for the abuse their child suffered in her marriage.

Four chings readily emerge from clustering. First, the infancy/childhood cluster is

passive, while the adolescence-adulthood and status enhancement cluster is active.

However, by the time of the mortuary-ascendency cluster, the cycle is completed and

rituals once again become passive. Second, the controlled active period begins from

about twelve years of age until the individual is past the teenage years.

Third. all the clusters have in common a mix of components which the researcher

terms the earrh, spiritual and social rituals. The eanh rituals are clearly marked

actions geared towards severing links with the natural mother and aligning or bonding

with Mother Earth (eg ini nhe or burial of the placenta, ini orubo or disposal of the

navel dropping, ibe ugwu or circumcision and ini ozu or burial of a corpse). The

spiritual rituals affirm the individual as both human and spirit and examples include

ino uwa inquiry into reincarnation, ima mmuo, iso ebe or initiation into manhood and

womanhood respectively and ichi ozo/ichi iyom or initiation into the ozo and iyom

cult); while the culrural rituals have elements that mark the individual as belonging

to a particular culture, such as iba afa or naming ceremony and inu nwanyi or

105
traditional marriage rite. Some rituals like ibe ugwu (circumcision) are both spiritual

and cultural. In the first cluster. these rituals have clearly identified boundaries and

as the individual matures biologically. these boundaries begin to merge to a point

where they become one.

Fourth, in-between each cluster are rest periods filled with social action during which,

individuals are given a chance to own and personalise the lessons learnt during each

cluster. The tables below show aspects of the different clusters. An analysis of their

performative aspects will be fully dealt with in Chapter 4.

106
 Table 3.6: Maternity/lnfancy Cluster

NAM E ENGLISH l'ERFORMEO PERFORMED TYt•E 1\llJSI ' J)ANCE SYI\1UOLISM

APPROXiMATION UY FOR

lchi Ogallti Shout of joy Father, l:hild passi vc/spiritual/ nil 11 iI A coded shout of joy announcing birth to entire village. News
mkpu nwa paternai(PG r) ..:ult ural o f birth is relayed from compound to compound until all get to
grandfather know.

lni 11l1e "Uurial" of placenta Paternal child passivt:!eanh nil ni l Chi ld acct:ptt:d into human world, first contact Mother Earth as
gnu Ill mother its pre-nat al home is buried with her bowels
(PU M ) or midwife

fgba agu Re-incaruation Oibia afa (divim:r) ch ild passive/spirit ual ni l 11 il Inquiry w find out which anceMor returned as child.
inquiry for child's father
or patt:rnal
grandparents

Iwa agada Memoring/uame- Any respectablt: On child passivdspirituall n iI uil A rt:spectablc family formally becomes physical and spiritual
saking adult cultural lllelllOr.

lbu oma itt: Formal Patemal l:hild passive/cultural ni l uil Formal announcement of birth to child's maternal kindred and
annoum:cmenl of grandfather fo r invitation 10 grandmother ro omugwo.
birth to maternal maternal
grand parents grandparents

Ine omugwo/ Extended visitation Maternal Motbt:r and Part passivt:!part nil nil Laden with choicest gifts and food stuff, grandmother visits to
ngwo graud1nother child active/cultunaJ offer respite to daughter by taking over the domestic functioning
of h~r home and baby care for minimum 3 months.

lbe ugwu Circumcision Tradi tional On child Pan passive nil nil C leausing rite for boys for making sexual contact with mother as
drcurm:ision pan active/earth/ t h ~y passed via the birth passage. The removal of the foreskin
expert aid~d by a cu ltural atont:s for this unavoidable incest, tribal identitication for all
fam il y member 1gbo male (female is later in life)
who can stand the
sight of blood

107
Ini owbo "Burial" of llropped Father/grandfatlacr child passi ve/eanh/ nil uil C hild linked with ancestors, form of head count as a cash tree in
(Obosi) navel cultural planted on the spot of burial. The yields are harvested by child
lni mu throughout life. For female children, tree is their only claim in
(lmilikc) the family once married

lba afa/i puta Naming ceremony Open invitation to on child vassivc!l.:ultural by uy Personal identity bestowed. Registration with kindred and
ife/i kuba entire conununity WOillt:ll women ad.nowkdgement of child's ex.istenc~:
n'uno

lticha ebube Volt! of thanh to hihJ 's father , child passive/cultural nil nil As maternal graudmother prepares to return home, people are
mu visiting ga and mother family and close invited LO a farewell/thank-you feast and presents are giving to
friends lleparting grandma as show of gratitude for long visit and help

lgba nkwu Wine sharing tor Child's mm~:mal child passive/cullua al by by Grandmother registers child by inviting all women married to
nwa birth of child grandmother WOlllt:ll women the same kindred as herself LO partake in the presents she was
!!.iven. Oisplays gift and white talcum powd~:r passed round - as
women apply and thus become witnesses ro the birth. "Egwu
m vu" (biath songs) are sung

lzu afia nwa Annouucemeut of Maternal child passive:/ nil ni l Unliutited announcement of grc~ndchild's birth while market is in
biath on a market day grandmothc:r cultural full session to both humans and spirits gathered in the market
place. Grandmother offer remnants of her white talcum to
women selling their wares as to enlist their goodwill for
grandd1ild. In return, everyone who accepts her talc gives her
money or presems in rectprocalion of goodwill. Unwise for
anyone to refuse as it shows ill will towards the new child.

108
NAME ENGLISII PEitFORI\I 'I) l'l.::ltFORM'I> 1'YPE MUSIC OANCE SYMBOLISM
APJ.>ROXlMA TION UY FOR

Iso c:be Initiation iuto Eldc:rly Girls Controllt:d sexually suggesrive, frreversible maturity rires during which
(Agulu) won1anhood women activdc:arth/ vigourous but girls are taught all about, sex and sexual
Ikpa iyi spiritual / dignified c:xtolling satisfaction esp. of partners, pregnancy ,
(Nkpologu) cultural female auributes birth c:tc.

lma muo lnitiution into l:ldc:rly mt:n Uoy~ 'ontrollcd pos:.ilJiy lcawt iu cllcrgetic, acrobatic lrrc:versible: boys are made: men and
(Umuoji) manhood, ic: , acti vc:/:.viritual sc:clu:.ion, produ..:cd from and rigorous extOlling taught the secrets of manhood and sworn
lba masqtt~::radc: ..:uh h :ullutul diiTc:tt:llt dlllms, gung :.ttc:ngth into secre y, their responsibi lity to
DUllatlWU (ogc:llt:) giattt goug (alov) community , sex, marriage:, and selling up
(Mkpologu) and oja own home etc.

lnu nwanyi T ak ing a wife Man I litusc:lf Activcl:.pirit ual Nu lllu:.il.: bclurc: Jiual rite: Extensive use of negotiation skills
/cullural of ina be di . Mn:.tc employed as man attc:mpts to convince the
a~.:cumpanicd by ralllc: and girl 's family to let go of their daughter
clapping providc:d as the (see analysis of marriage rite under
girl is t:scunc:d 10 Iter Chapter 4)
husband·~ homt:: by other
young girls. At some
other times, the ...
bridc:grooms matt:S make
music from llrums and
gongs .

lwu ulo/ ilu Huiluing tirst ltomc Man ll is family A..:tive/curth/ nil Man is now the head of his own
uno cultural homestead

ldobe chi htstallat ion of chi Man Himself Active/spiritual 1111 man owns his own ikenga - a symbol of
(Awka) !l:ultural the spirit of endeavour and achievement
Jkpu ifu chi
(Nsuk.k.a
south)

109
NAME ENGLISU PERFORMED TYPE MUSIC/ RITUAL SYMBOLISM
APPltOXIMATION HY & FOR DANCE AGENT
Ozo (Onitsha) No equivalt:nt but Man Active/ Ufie Mkpi (he goat}, Mark of distinction and wealth. A commitment to a more spiritual
lchi Ozioko they could be spiritual/ music nwa uyom (chick) t!Xistence in readint:ss for moving on to the next plane of existence
(lmilike) collectivdy rt:ft:rred cultural
Ophiere Agho to as status
(Mkpologu) cnhancemt!nl 1itles

lehi lyom/l.olo title Woman Active/ Title takc:n post menopause, signifying that woman has surpassed
lyom/Lolo ~pi ritual/ tilt: taboo of menstruation. She is now taken into highest
<:ultural confidence by the men and regarded as one of them.

..

110
NAME ENGLISH PERFORMED TYPE MUSIC DANCE RJTUAL AGENT SYMBOLISM
AJ>(•ROXIMATION BY THE
LIVING FOR
DECEASED
Jwu OZU aru Bathing of corpse Passive/earlh/spi None None - Last earthly bath, once again as at binh, the dead
ritual/cultural body is placed on ogirisi leaves and (see symbolism
of ogirisi leaves under ritual agents) cleansed in
readiness for journey to spiritland ..
lwa anya Person chosen None None Ram/chick/he goat or Transference from ritual agent fortifies man for
by deceased . dog journey ahead. (See Chapter 4)

lni ozu Burial Family . None None Deceased sets of on arduous journey

lkwa/lgbasu Funeral ceremony Family " lkoro or lkoro or Ram or ch ick or he goat Deceased reaches ancestral land after.
OZU Abia Abia or dog

ltu nni/lna nni Last supper. Final Eldest son and . None None Favourite dish of Pinal separation rite, performed at midnight. Food
rite of separation daughter deceased taken to a cross road and for deceased. Ensures that
the spirit does not travel hungry. In Agulu on this
night, the deceased receives the final instruction to
re-incarnate

Jgba mk.pi Period of mourning - Nuclear family passive/spiritual / None None Spouse's hair shaven A show of grief. Among the Jgbo, hair is
1 calendar year cultural clean and black clothing synonymous with a woman's physical beauty.
to ~ worn for the Shaving off the hair signifies the loss of beauty and
duration a show of mourning.

lyipu akwa ozu End of mourning Nuclear family passive/earth/spir None None Mourning cloth worn by The deceased is comfortably with the ancestors.
irual/cultural nuclear family gathered The living are now free to continue in life as pan of
and burnt by Umuada community . Younger female spouses free to
(daughters of the family) remarry

lpu afia Anending the market Spouses passive/spiriLUal/ None None None Spouses auend the community market day - re-
cultural integration. Greeting and gifts offered .

111
From the tables above, it is easy to see that all passive rituals are contained within the

infancy/childhood and mortUary-ascendency clusters. All adolescence ones are passive-active

or (controlled active), while the adulthood and status enhancement ones are active. So

biologically, the frrst set of passive and passive-active (or controlled active) rituals are over

by the time an individual is ready for marriage - this for men in traditional lgbo society is

any age from twenty years on, while for girls it is usually from the time of their frrst

menstrual period which is between twelve and fifteen years of age. The second set of

passive rituals are at death. Divination precedes both active and passive rituals, and animate

agents are predominant in the adolescence-adulthood cluster and in the status enhancement,

mortuary and ascendency sub-clusters. All passive rituals are performed on behalf of the

individual by family members. There are fewer rituals on the second cluster than on the frrst

and third. All personal mandatory rituals are performed in the first and third clusters -

suggesting that they are either passive or passive-active (or controlled active) in nature. It

is, therefore, safe to conclude from the foregoing that all personal mandatory rituals are

passive in narure. There is also a marked absence of choice and these individuals concerned

need not do anything for these rituals to take place, and neither do they have any choice in

determining when, where and how these rituals are to be performed. They are, therefore,

not performer by choice.

The Triangle of Life (ToL)

Right at the centre of all rituals is the human person whose journey through life is plotted

on the triangle below (Figure 3.9). The concept of the triangle of life was evolved to enable

a breakdown of, and better understanding of the vast subject of ritual. Among the lgbo,

112
different stages of biological and social development are marked by different rituals aimed

at negotiating different crisis points or zones. The triangle of life is an equilateral triangle -

meaning that all three sides and angles are equal and complementary. This presupposes that

life remains incomplete should any of the clusters be left unperfonned. In most cases, every

individual goes through all the passive and passive-active (or controlled active) rituals tha!

their community subscribes to before they get to a point of biological maturation. It is only

when people get to this point that they are allowed to make relative choices about which

rituals they would perform and when. The term "relative choices" is used because in as

much as the individual may seem on the exterior to be self-detennining, the community

exerts a lot of pressure through families and friends; and in most cases, the individual would

act according to the society's timing although such individuals may think that they are totally

at the helm regarding what happens and when. The marriage ceremony is a good example -
I

individuals can choose not to marry but there is a stigma attached to that choice, or some

may delay the time, but have to live with the taunts and constant reminders of relatives and

friends. It is usually expected once an individual attains a certain age - twenty years upwards

for men and fifteen years upwards for women.

There are four interesting and revealing points about the flexibility of the triangle and how

it demonstrates the lgbo belief in dualism. First, the performance can commence either from

the A-B axis (for human beings) or it can start from the C-A axis for the ancestor who is

about to reincarnate to be born on the A-B axis. It could, therefore be argued that because

of the Igbo belief in reincarnation, the performance begins on the C-A a."<is. Second, in

terms of the lgbo belief in dualism, the axis C-A can be argued to be as important as axes

A-B to B-C put together. This is because these two axes represent the human material

113
existence in its entirety. and according to lgbo belief, the will to reincarnate depends on how

effectively individuals use the attributes endowed to them by God at binh. The third point

is that because life is a continuous process. the triangle can be unwound to form a circle or

one can draw a circle which can touch the three points. This captures the cyclic/continuous

narure of the Igbo universe and view of life. The circumference of this cycle of existence

depends on how long an individual lives.

~"
~
·$'
?:>4;.
~ ~
~ ~
~
~
~
~
...~
~ ~
$ ~
~ c
A "'·-. -----------------------------------~c~
v•
-ascendency rituals 1 monuary rituals

Figure 3.9: The Triangle of Life

114
 -~

The ToL is a useful tool in this study because of the following reasons:

• it enables the placement of rituals in such a manner that permits a detailed look at the

components of each side of the triangle or cluster.

• its structure demonstrates continuity in lgbo life, because the end of one plane of

existence is the beginning of another. For instance, the beginning of the B-C axis

(adulthood rituals) is the end of A-B axis (infancy and childhood rituals).

• it highlights the structure of rituals as a movement from the known into the unknown

and back to the known

• the triangular axes enable the test of four hypotheses:

• that lgbo people generate these rituals at regular intervals because they help

them find meaning and anchor enabling them to organise and sustain

themselves as beings with spiritual needs.

• that their regularity shows the huge need the Igbo have for contact with their

ancestors, deities and God

• that all rituals are ordered according to their role, content and form;

• that symbols are an integral part of all rituals, and as such rituals have to be

interpreted on a symbolic level.

115
 ..

The Structure of Ritual

As this study has already indicated, one of the things it aims to achieve is to be able to

contribute to the understanding of lgbo rituals as performance by contributing to existing

modules in the study of ritual structure and process. Although Schechner (1995) and Turner

( 1982) have carried out researches on and propounded theories of ritual, some of their work

can sometimes be difficult to understand. This is more perplexing especially in the light of

the fact that their contributions have been vital drawing attention to performance as a genre

encompassing the drama-theatre debate. Without the immense contributions from these

scholars, this work will probably not exist in its presem form - as the researcher will have

been caught up in trying to justify rituals as either theatre or drama. The researcher is,

however, of the opinion that the difficulty sometimes encountered in understanding Schechner

and Turner is that their anthropological background sometimes interfere with in-depth

processual analysis. This is because they may be more interested in the belief on which the

ritual is founded rather than the process, however, the understanding of process is very vital

in understanding the performative aspects of rituals. Having said that, Werbner (1989)

succeeded in carrying out an in depth analysis of the ritual process and it is hoped that this

study will offer a succeed in contributing more into the performative aspects of rituals. So

this work investigates ritual as nothing other than performance.

Structure in this context should be read as arrangement in space, or the form or outline of

the ritual in question. For instance, the strUcture of the Stations of the Cross (a Roman

Catholic ritual that commemorates the passion of Jesus Christ) is that it has fourteen stations

that starts from when Jesus is condemned, to the point where Joseph of Arimathea removes

116
 ..

his body for burial. This brief description does not give details of any dialogue between

Jesus and the people be met from the Garden of Gethsarnane until he died at Golgotha,

neither does it include the size or make of the cross he carried, the description of the route

he took, details of the people left at the foot of his cross after crucifixion, what he said to

them etc. So structure is not involved with the dynamics of the theatrical relationships

between performers, dialogues/monologues/incantations, costumes and lighting design, props

and make up etc. Rather, it is interested in the frame within which the drama happens.

Structure is the repeatable and inflexible component of any ritual - as it was done at the

beginning, so it will be done now, and so will it be done in the future - in effect, it is the

skeleton around which rituals are built. It is the order of the events and it lays the

groundwork for a proper understanding of process or the content of all ritual performances.

Maternity/childhood rituals

This can be understood better if we remember that polygamy is an accepted practice among

the lgbo. A man's compound in traditional lgbo society is made up of a major hut which

is built at the centre of the compound which belongs to the man. Behind his are those of his

wives - each wife and her children shared a hut. The first son born to the man from these

wives inherited the obi at his father's death, while other sons would leave the compound to

settle on other pieces of family land, usually given by their father. The last son of each

woman owns the hut at the mother's death, and would live there until be was ready to build

his own house. He had the freedom to build where his mother's hut stood or to fmd another

piece of land. The latter is the case most times.

117
\

Ikpa iyi

The equivalent of iso ebe in Nkpologu town is performed over two weeks during which the

girls are taken every evening to the shrine of the goddess of fenility (lte-ogene), and they

return to their respective families each morning. At the end of the two weeks, each initiand

is led by her chaperon singing and dancing in the village square. After this she returns home

where the ikpa n 'enu (initiation into sex) happens under her mother's supervision. One thing

clear from these initiation rituals - ima mmuo, iso ebe and ikpa iyi is that structurally, they

all involve physical removal of the initiands from their homes to a secluded spot and they

also end with a symbolic cleansing either in the village stream or just a cold water bath at

the cult house as is the case with ima mmuo in Nkpor. Also, they all appear structured as

journeys with deliberate obstacles which the initiands have to surmount or negotiate their way

through. And it is these that provide the performative/theatrical dimension to the ritual

process.

Inu nwanyi

These rituals already mentioned were mandatory in pre-Christian Igbo society. In Umuoji,

for example, a man was not allowed to marry unless he had been initiated into the

masquerade cult. However, it must be said that this is not the case in present day lgbCI

society where initiation into manhood and womanhood are no longer a pre-betrothal

requirement. There are six major steps involved in taking a wife all through lgboland. As

always in Igboland, there may be differences in the name by which each step is known, and

this is due to the difference in regional dialects, but each marriage ritual goes through these

stages namely: lche ego (or the declaration of intention to the girl), iju ajuju (inquiry into

121
the family history of prospective groom). Usually, the man would have inquired into the

history of the girl's family before the declaration of his intention. The next step is lkpaliru

onu aku nwanyi (negotiation of bride price), lbu egoliwena ite (payment of the bride

price/frrst official visit to her new family), ndulu nwanyilina be di (taking the bride home)

and finally ogo malu ogo (getting to know your in-laws.)

The composition and number of people involved in initiation rituals such as ima muo and iso

ebe differ from those involved in the marriage rituals. In the case of initiations, only a select

few are involved and these are mostly the parents or guardians, observers who have already

been initiated and the initiation officials. As the ritual progresses the circle of people

involved grows smaller until once again it is the time for the presentation of the initiands to

the public, when it is open for all who may so wish to attend. On the contrary, during inu

nwanyi, there is an ever-widening circle of people who get involved as the action progresse~

from one stage to another. The main difference between any initiation ritual and a marriage

one can be graphically represented as shown below:

122
·.

Diagram 1: Nature of rel ationships formed in initiation ritu als

1 J , , -··-r-1
I . . . : >.C/ , I
, .I ~

~.,r
/
' >.-'
..... .,
" .... " .....

' --
/
'
-
.... ~ ...
/
'-
.......

' ... "' .....' ·

... -...
..... /
,_
....._ ., ,;...<

' -'
....
.....
.....
......... .,.
/ » .......
-
'-...
Diagram 2: ...-

Complex relationships formed through the marriage ntual

Figure 3.10: Representation of the initiation and marriage rituals

Diagr:un 1 shows mar in terms of activity and ... omposition of participam in initiation riruals,
rwo distant poims converge until they meet. The separate points A & B mark different

individuals at the onset of their initiation. The point where rhese two lines meet represent

the period in seclusion for the participants. .-\fter this point. the lines begin m diverge as the

participants gradually get re-integrated imo the society. T e children from these diverging

lines will again meet r.o diverge again. Therefore an initiation, in time. has the possibilities

of ~ominuarion . but only in a uni-directional pattern.

123
 \

On the contrary, the marriage ritual represented by Diagram 2 begins with the two points

opposite each other, representing the bride's and groom's families (A & B). Both points

begin an unrestricted divergent movement once motion (marriage contract) starts, and stop

when they converge at points C & D. At this point, a diamond shaped figure ACDB is

formed. The dots show the endless meeting points that can arise from this original diamond

shape. The broken lines signify other relationships that can arise from the original ACDB

figure, while the doned lines show the meeting points between subsequent unions that may

arise out of the original union. This diagram is complex because it shows how an axis of

one union can become a complement to another - a demonstration of how intricate aml

endless the marriage ritual among the Igbo can get. It is no wonder that the Igbo would say

"na uzo eji nwa ada echi echi" (a union that begets a child is forever.)

Status enhancement sub-cluster

Ichi ozo

From the time a man decides to take this title, he visits the head of the ozo to inform him

of his intention. Following that, he would inform the nuclear and extended family

respectively and the ozo title holders in his compound. Next is his time in isolation in the

ozo nest in the forest, and to the shrine of Mother Earth. From there he goes to the river

for cleansing and then the public presentation at the village market. The structure is

interesting as it is a combination of both the initiation and marriage - widening, seclusion

period, cleansing and public presentation.

124
It is interesting to note that not only is the circle of people involved widening, but there are

also more levels to cover as the ritual gets more active. During inu nwanyi for instance,

there are six steps to cover while ichi ozo (in Onitsha) has fifteen steps (see Chapter 4).

lchi lyom/lchi Lolo or lgbu odu

lchi Iyom is a ritual of distinction in which post-menopausal women are adorned with odu

or the elephant tusk. The first stage is the announcement of the intention to join the Iyom

society by the woman to her husband's family after which she does the same with the odu

group of women. This is followed by a period of extensive interviews. After this, she is

presented to the ozo title holders and after an agreement is reached, she is free to present her

odu to the public. After that she performs the izu afia odu which is an attendance at the

market place to display her odu. This is also her re-incorporation into the community. The

circle of participants also increases as the ceremony progresses.

Funeral-ascendency cluster

In traditional Igbo society, the nature of these rites depends on the circumstances surrounding

the death of the deceased person. For instance, death due to old age is called onwu chi

(death approved by the person's chz) while other categories of death include onwu ike/uk.e

(death by accident) and onwu ifele (shameful death due to the violation of taboos or by

suicide). Thus in traditional Igbo society, the way a corpse is treated depends on the cause

of death. In cases of death due to suicide and breaking of taboos, no rites are performed and

the corpse is quickly bundled and in the middle of the night, taken and dumped in the evil

125
 \

forest (ajo ojia) where it is left to rot. It is never buried in the ground as it is against the

natural order of things, and so is unacceptable to Mother Earth. In some places, the corpse

is tied to or balanced on tree branches, not allowed to touch the ground to avoid defiling the

Earth. This serves as a social, psychological and legal deterrent to people who in the future

may either decide to take their own lives or break a taboo.

However, in the cases of death due to age or natural causes, the corpse is cleansed and

buried after lying in state briefly. The rest of the funerary rites commence immediately

depending on the family's resources. However, if a family feels that they cannot cope with

an immediate funeral, interment rites are performed, and preparations then begin for the

actual ceremony wltich will then be arranged a year from the time of death when all the

relevant circle of family and friends would have been duly notified.

In a case where the deceased is an accomplished person advanced in age, the public would

be told that he/she is either asleep, travelled or in a hospital. This is in keeping with the

lgbo belief that some evil people may employ diabolical means to inhibit the deceased's spirit

as it travels to ancestral land. Men were buried within their compounds while the women

were returned to their birth families. The family of the deceased would fix the date for the

funeral rites to start and all the family, in-laws, friends and group networks would be

informed and from then on they would become involved in the extensive planning that would

reflect the deceased's social standing and affluence. After the funeral, the widows are

confmed within the compound until after one year when the final rites are performed at the

market square.

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From the study and analysis of rituals carried out so far, it is possible to make the following

conclusions about the nature of Igbo rituals:

• all the passive rituals are in the A-B and C-A axes.

• that all passive rituals are performed on behalf of the individual by its nuclear family

members and well-meaning friends.

• all mandatory rituals are also performed in the A-B and C-A axes - suggesting that

they are either passive or controlled-active in nature. It is, therefore, safe to say that

the attributes of mandatory rituals may be identical to those of the passive rituals.

• all adolescence rituals belong to the controlled-active category while the adulthood

ones are active rituals.

• that most key rituals are designed to coincide with human biological development, and

as such all passive and controlled active rituals are over by the time an individual is

ready for marriage. This, for men in traditional Igbo society, is any age from twenty

years on, while for the girls it is usually from the time of their frrst menstrual period

which is between the ages of twelve and fifteen years.

• divination precedes both active and passive rituals

• that animate agents are predominant in rituals on the B-C and C-A axes.

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o that there are fewer rituals on the B-C axis than on other axes because a sizeable

percentage of this axis is devoted to having, bringing up and initiating children.

o that from clustering rituals on the ToL, that most rituais can be said to possess the

following components:

o the negotiation and containment of life's challenges

o they fulfil the desire for personal, social and spiritual development

o they answer man's duality - divination and invocation (consultation between

the human and spiritual worlds)

o cleansing (at the end) is a feature of most initiation rituals

o incorporation is common to all rituals involving a period of seclusion

o hospitality for participatory audience

From the information in this chapter, it is possible to define Igbo theatre and performance.

It is a holistic theatre in which the training of performers rigorously starts from very early

in life. However, because this training is a life-long experience built into the daily living

experience (with high-lights during rituals), the trainee is almost oblivious of the level of

relentless training, inculcation and character formation that are in tandem with the acquisition

of other life skills. In its entirety, it is a training that takes into consideration the fact that

all human beings are endowed with the physical, the mental and the spiritual attributes, and

that particular attention needs to be paid to the development of all these aspects for life to

be meaningful and thus, fulfilling. Igbo performance is active and representative of a total

theatre where all performers are trained in all aspects of total theatre - costuming, prop and

128

--- ~-~ .• ~--· - - - - - - . , . . - - - 4- .... _."' .... ~- ••• _.., __ •••• -· -- -· -

·- ___ :_..:-.=.::..:.-- ""':' •- _'__:_"~-~4"~-.._ •. -.-:--:,· •. --.

stage management, instrumentation, dance, mime, solo and orchestra perfonnance. lgbo

perfonnance is spontaneous and representative of the total universe where all the creatures

and all the elements of the eanh, air, fire and water are brought together in one united and

hannonious existence. lgbo perfonnance is life in action.

The next chapter will be a detailed analysis of selected rituals within the three clusters.

From the study so far, some rituals have different names depending on which area of

Igboland they originate from. Thus, one of the aims of the comparative analysis will be to

ascertain whether there are semantic as well as processual differences. The rituals that will

be discussed for processual analysis are also those that have been used in this chapter for the

discussion on structure.

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 CHAPTER4

RITUAL PROCESS: PERFORMATIVE DIMENSIONS OF IGBO RITUALS

Rituals in lgboland are as varied as the dialects that are spoken from one locality to

another. This is why it is necessary to carry out comparative analyses of rituals from

the different areas of lgboland. These analyses will help us formulate a view of Igbo

rituals and performance. Process, in ritual, refers to the vibrant, pulsating and

dynamic aspects that make rituals come alive. When this happens, we gain a unique

insight into the true nature of rituals as events which unfold in a given time and space

with its complex network of interplay - between the participants, space(s),

symbols/ritual agents/icons, rhythm(s) etc. In a sense, the theatrical and performative

imperatives of rituals are securely contained, and blossom through processual

analyses. Werbner (1989) seems to be in agreement when he describes the "ritual

passage" as:

... a process of symbolic action focused upon the body. By means of the body, performers
of the ritual passage fmd and resiruate themselves in cosmological space. By means of !he
body, also, performers personify who they are, and what they intend to become in relation
to the forces around !hem. Sometimes !he body is simply !heir own; sometimes, it is !hat of
some olher as well, such as a domestic or wild animal. whose partS may be broken down and
recombined. There is a variation in !he presentation of !he person, from direct disclosure,
presenting !he true selves of the performer and olhers around !hem .... (I)

Through process it is easy to notice three things, for instance, about rituals in the

maternity/infancy cluster. First, that they exist to serve the same purpose -to ensure

that the earthly, spiritual and cultural needs of the baby (and the mother) are met.

From the onset of pregnancy most rituals are purificatory and they set out social,

economic, dietary and sexual abstinences for the expectant mother. This in turn aims

to facilitate safe delivery. The imposition of these restrictions is meant to protect the

mother and the unborn child against evil forces, and is founded on the Igbo belief that

130
pregnancy and labour constitute a journey during which the woman is suspended

between the land of the living and that of the spirits. Hence when people enquire

after an expectant mother they will say "0 lida go?" (meaning: has she descended?).

This need to protect the mother and child explains why some people put new born

babies on a pile of ogirisi leaves while it is being cleaned of the after-birth. This is

because these leaves are believed to have a sanitizing effect that protects the child

against evil forces.

Second, that rituals on the said cluster may be called different names, but this is

usually due to variation in regional dialects. An example is the announcement of the

birth of a child. However, in all cases studied, the celebration is begun by either the

baby's father or aunt, who are joined later by other members of the community.

And finally, that the Igbo are very economical in their organisation and management

of rituals. For examples, ine omugwo (the three months post-birth visitation from the

woman's mother) is time-tabled to ftt in at a time when the new mother needs all the

physical and psychological support her mother can offer. It is also during this

visitation that male children get circumcised, and for most mothers, this can be a very

trying time. Her re-integration into the community is also performed before her

mother leaves.

In this section, the sample of localities used covers about eighty percent of lgboland

and most of these areas are strong cultural centres. These are areas whose regional

cultures are more representative so that they are representative of lgbo South (Nkpor,

Obosi, Umuoji, Nnobi, Eziowele etc), North (Imilike, Ukpabi Nimbo and Nkpologu)

and East (Avu, Ngor Okpuala and Umuahia).

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Ritual Clusters

In the sections below, rituals are discussed in more derails under their respective

clusters and sub-clusters, starting with iwa oji.

Iwa oii (consecration of the kolanut)

lwa oji (consecration and breaking of the kolanut), like divination, is a ritual that

precedes all rituals and ceremonies (except burial and separation). The consecration

of the kolanut is an act of affirmation and thanksgiving. It is also used as morning

prayers by the head of each house"hold, and for the rest of the day, performed in

welcome to visitors. It is in recognition of the primary place of importance ftlled by

this ritual that it is discussed first before other rituals.

Oji (boranically known as carpel or kola arrophora) plays a primary role in the life

of the lgbo because it is used as a channel of communication between Chukwu-Okike.

the gods, the spirit world and humans. Not all species are used in Igbo rituals - the

only ones that are acceptable are those with three or more cotyledons - usually

referred to as oji lgbo (lgbo kolanut). By way of ritual semiotics. each of these

cotyledon is referred to as a lobe.

The origin of oji lgbo, as told in a legend, is that the Igbo founding fathers visited

the home of the gods (in those days when humans and gods interacted more closely),

and they were asked by the gods to choose a fruit from all the fruits in their orchard.

The founding fathers chose oji - hence it is regarded as the king of all fruits and it

has its own unique language used during its consecration and it is a language which

is also understood by the gods, spirits and ancestors.

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The kolanut symbolises goodwill, and when presented to a visitor, it marks a clear

mind and pure intention(s). Its heart shape is symbolic because during its

consecration, all the words uttered are deemed to come from the heart. If it is not

presented to a visitor, it means that the visitor is not welcome, and when it is offered

to a visitor it is more than just a form of delicacy. Apart from being the first thing

presented to a visitor, it is also used at the beginning of any important function like

marriage ceremonies, settlement of disputes or when drawing up contracts or

associations between people or between people and the deities.

There are variations to the method of presentation of the kolanut. In most parts, it

is presented along with a bowl of water for the visitor to wash his/her hands - a show

of welcome from the host, and implied purification and cleansing of any ills the

visitor may have unknowingly contacted on his way to the host. It is also a symbolic

washing away of tiredness and physical filth from the journey. In Aguleri and

Eziowele towns, for example, kolanut is presented with money (the amount depends

on what the host can afford), which the visitor collects to show his/her acceptance of

welcome. In some places, nzu (native chalk) is presented with the kolanut, especially

if the visitor is elderly. Nzu is a symbol of purity and a clean and welcoming heart.

When presented, the host removes it from the plate of kolanut and draws peculiar

marks on the floor to signify non-evil intentions and individual achievements. He

then rolls it on the ground to the next man on his left to make his own marks on the

floor. The marks of the floor detail and affirm each individual's achievement and any

strokes, dashes or drawings made represent aspects of the marker's accomplishment.

Usually, the very successful people deploy the most strokes on the floor signifying

their many accomplishments. The chalk continues its anti-clockwise rolling until each

individual has made their mark. Then, each person would take a bit of the powder

from the marks made to mark parts of their body - still as a show of total purity of

133
thoughts. When people share the kolanut they enter a covenant neither to think nor

do any evil to each other. One informant, Michael Akukwe (1995) describes the

kolanut in an interview:

Oji is the beginning and end of the human person. Because the kolanut features all through
the human journey· at binh, at initiations, in shon from binh through to death. lt is an ever-
occurring ritual that must be done, except at funeral when the kolanut is broken without it
being consecrated.

The consecration of the kolanut (iwa ojl) is peculiar to the Igbo and is a great

occasion, full of tension and sometimes drama. For example, an man is not allowed

to take or consecrate the kolanut in the presence of his in-laws. So while the kolanut

is being passed round, people would have silently marked out all the others who do

not qualify to either consecrate or to take kolanuts before them when sharing begins.

So different people anxiously await each other to flout this rule so that they can either

give them a lightheaned chastisement or fme. Sometimes also. defaulting in-laws are

humorously ordered to rerum their wives because they do not know their wives'

people. The drama could also be around men visiting their maternal families or

villages where they are accorded special treatment, and are allowed to cause as much

playful disruption as they may wish. So as the kolanut is shown around, one of these

"sacrosanct" nwadiana may playfully collect all of them from the plate, in a move to

pocket them. Everyone would plead, calling him pet names to coax him to change

his mind. He returns the kolanuts to the plates amidst laughter and thanks from those

present.

The oldest person in a gathering - usually the head of the household is responsible for

consecrating the kolanut. Women never consecrate the kolanut in a mixed gathering,

but they may, if it is a women-only gathering (and there is no man nearby).

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 ·~

In Umuoji, Nkpor, Obosi and Ogidi in the Idemili Local Government Area, the

kolanut is shared in order of seniority, but in Owerri in South Central lgboland, and

lmilike in the North, the youngest member of a gathering shares the kolanut under

the direction of the oldest member. In unusually large gatherings involving villages

in a town, the kolanut is shared along clan or kindred lines with the oldest

representative of the oldest clan receiving and consecrating the kolanut on behalf of

his clan or kindred. In places like Onitsha, the sharing of the kolanut also takes into

consideration the titles of those present. For instance, an elderly man without any

titles may not take a piece of kolanut before a much younger titled person. Again if

the older man is married to the younger person's sister, he may also not take kolanut

before the younger person, unless the younger person asks him to due to respect for

his age. Women also, never take kolanut before a man- except in cases where age

confers privileges on a woman. This is more applicable in among the riverine lgbo

or (lgbo Olu) where elderly /post-menopausal women are regarded as their male

peers. For instance, an lyom (a woman who wears the odu or the elephant tusk) will

take a share before untitled men or akaliogholi - an inconsequential or an

irresponsible person.

During an interview, one informant, Chukwunwike Arab (1995), summarises the

spiritual importance of the kolanut to the lgbo thus:

Just like when the Christians pray they invoke the God of Abraham and so on. so the person
venerating the kola calls on the ancestors to come and partake in human endeavour.
However, the Europeans made us believe that this was wrong and we have abandoned calling
on the God of our ancestors - God of the Arab family, of Onitshaland, of Usuma - to call
names we know nothing about.

Numerology and the kolanut:

The ritual significance of the kolanut depends on the number that is presented, and/or

the natural arrangement of the lobes within the kolanut. However, different parts of

Igboland present kolanut in different numbers depending on the occasion - in

135
 I
multiples of two and three. In community gatherings in Umuoji, four kolanuts are

formally presented - these are different from the twenty-five that each representative

of twenty-five villages are given to take back to the people they represent. As the

lgbo would say: "oji lue uno, okwuo ebe osi" (meaning that when a kolanut gets

home, it will say where it came from). In Agulu, kolanuts are presented in twos, its

multiple of four, eight - even numbers. This is representative of the four market days

of Eke, Oye, Afo and Nkwo - where Eke represents the eldest of the days, Oye is Ada

(or eldest daughter), Afo is Ulu or the child after the Ada and Nkwo is the baby of the

family. The three-lobed variety is regarded as oji Eze (king's kola), and all of its

lobes are given over to the visitor as a mark of respect.

One uniform aspect of oji lgbo is that once it is presented, it is announced and passed

round for everybody in the gathering to view, and it is then returned to the most

appropriate person in the gathering for consecration. In some cases, this appropriate

person may be someone who may be shy because he is not eloquent in using Igbo

proverbs, he will be allowed to designate the job to those who are better able to do

it. However, in most of the cases, these individuals are encouraged to do it

themselves, as it is only through practice that people begin to feel comfortable in

perfonning such rituals.

The consecration is usually couched in proverbs, prayers, praise, exultation and

respect during which the deities are implored to attend in all Agulu gatherings, and

their shrines are also respected and consecrated because Agulu people believe that

they are the messengers through whom they gain access to God.

In Agulu, a kolanut with three lobes is referred to as ikenga (symbolising wealth),

four lobes is afia ino (four market days, symbolic of the deities who established the

four market days), and five is omumu (procreation). Beyond five (provided it is not

136
six) lobes, the kolanut will have another feast to in its honour because rarely does the

kolanut have more than five lobes. When this happens, another play develops within

the play of kolanut consecration. A chicken is slaughtered and shared by all who

witnessed the five-lobed kolanut which symbolises abundant goodness. After the

meal, another kola is used in libation. Only then can the original kolanut be shared

by all present. The development of plays within plays is common to most Igbo

rituals. These plays are not guarded by any rules of time and place, and some

witnessed by the researcher, were very elaborate. However, the interesting thing in

aU cases, was that no matter how long these went on, the participants would always

return (as if on prompt), to continue at exactly the same point they left off. Below

is the significance of the lobes in Umuoji, Nkpor, Obosi, Uke, Nnobi and environs:

Number Presented

2 kolanuts to a titled man

4 kolanuts at big ceremonies eg fixing of bride price or ozo title taking
7 kolanuts at imponant ceremonies like igbu ewu ndi ichie
8 kolanuts at marriages when the bride is about to leave for her matrimonial home
oji ugo* to important personality. Symbolises royalty and purity

Significance of cotyledons

Number of cotyledons Symbolism

2 cotyledons malformed and not eaten by any titled man or woman

3 cotyledons (ikenga oji) good omen eaten by men distinguished in noble deeds
4 cotyledons (afia ino) general acceptance and approval of the gods
5 cotyledons (aku n'uba) productivity and wealth
6 cotyledons bad omen, one is thrown away and the rest eaten
7 or 8 cotyledons very rare and highly valued. Reserved for great men

* Ugo is lgbo for the eagle. The eagle symbolises beauty, great heights and
power. Used in this context as an adjective describing the oji, it signifies how
beautiful and fair the kola is.

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From the foregoing, we can see that each kolanut has a story to tell - a story that is

told by the cotyledons as silent characters, on one level. On another level, it involves

human characters who not only interact with , but interplay with themselves

depending on a number of variables. These include the number of cotyledons

presented, the mix of those participating, the occasion for the presentation and

sometimes, even the time of day when the presentation takes place. Therefore, when

the kolanut is presented, consecrated and broken the number of cotyledons it presents

naturally lead to a powerful drama of numbers with the consecrator as the

commentator, and sometimes conductor.

138
 Table 4.1: Variations in meaning

Town Name of Aim Mode of No. presented Performed Time scale Performed Consecrated Shared by
ritual presentation by during by
Agulu iwa oji prayer, kolanut is 2 and its oldest male First thing in Proceeds all As morning Any male
invocation presented with multiples unless his in- the morning rituals, prdyer must appointed by
& nzu (if laws are and during negotiations be by the the eldest-
affirmation available) present visits. Not and covenants head of the usually the
presented after household. youngest
dusk - possibly In male.
because it is a gatherings, Shared in
stimulant by oldest order of
male unless male
his in-laws seniority.
are present Women are
given last
unless they
are titled.
Eziowele " " with money and " " " " " "
nzu
Nkpor " h
usually 5 and its " " " h
"
presented with multiples
nzu presented-
acknowledging
5 Nkpor
villages
lmilike " " h
Depends on eldest males h
" " "
the occasion consecrates
and youngest
male child
nominated to
break.
h
Nkpologu " h h
" " " "

B9
 n
Aguleri " " presented with " the oldest Presented with oldest male "
money in the person in money which
same plate. gathering is taken by
Visitor takes visitor
the money
before
veneration
n n
Ngor- " " with nzu " " presented alone "
Okpala or with nzu
Onitsha " " odd numbers " " " "
cg l,3,5etc

140
From the table above, it is easy to see that the kolanut is commonly called by the

same name throughout the whole of lgboland (this is a rarity as names differ from

one locality to another), although the mode of presentation and consecrator may differ

depending on locality. However, in most places the meaning and the significance of

the lobes are the same, and they are shared out in order of seniority. The

consecration follows a broad outline of invocation and invitation to their ancestors,

deities and God to partake in their affairs. However, the consecrator is at freedom

about where to pitch his performance (and these include the manner of rendition, the

use of proverbs, and the length of time it takes). The composition of audience-

observers varies from one occasion to another.

The account presented below is the iwa oji ceremony performed by Chief Jonathan

Chukwuemeka Obi of Agulu, 52 years old and Assistant Chief Ethnographer at the

National Commission for Museums and Monuments, Enugu, on 25 November 1995.

On arrival at the Museum, the researcher was directed to Chief Obi. After the

preliminary greetings, she announced the purpose of her visit with four kolanuts. On

seeing the kolanuts, Chief Obi sent for three other members of his team

(Chukwunwike Arah, Michael Akukwe and Comfon Nwankwo) to "witness the gift

(kolanut) with him". Although the interview would take place in two days time, the

kolanut was still consecrated in keeping with lgbo tradition that once presented, it

must be eaten. The account below was audio-taped two days before the interview

proper.

Ndi be anyi unu afu go oji.

(Our people you have seen the kolanuts)

Asi na onye weta/u oji wera/u ndu

(It is said that he who brings kola brings life)

Anyi nwa ga ara oji a ga atata ndu

rwe that will eat the kolanut will partake of long life)

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Obu Chineke ka anyi n 'ayo ogonogo ndu, aru isi ike, na oganiru
(It is God, the Creator, that we implore for long life, good health and progress) -

/fe anyi n 'acho n' ndua anyi ga enweracha ha ncha

(The things we seek in this life may be ours)

Ebe ada anyi bu Chinyelu Okafor sili weta oji nkea, nyechigha kwa ya mmaji kwulu
mmaji
(Where our daughter, Chinyelu Okafor brought this kola from may it be replenished)

/fe ochobalu welu chota anyi ebea, nya ga kwalu ya n 'iru

(Whatever she is seeking that brought her to fmd us, will work well for her)

lna acho mmuta, I ga enweta ya kaliasia ndi ogbo gi

(You are in quest of knowledge, and you will acquire it more than any of your mates)

Anyi na ayo Chineke ka obia nnoyelu anyi ka anyi welu raa oji a
(We beg God to stay with us as we eat this kola)

Ani Enugu ga ata oji

(Enuguland will eat this kola)

Ani Agulu ga ata

(Agululand will eat)

Ani Eziowele, ani Ujali, ani Onitsha, Imo na Umuoji*

(The land of Eziowele will eat, Ujaliland, Onitshaland, lmo, and Umuoji) -

Ka ndu anyi disia nu mma

(May life be good for all)

Onye bia ka owelu ife anyi, anyi anwuru ebe anyi na anu ogu ya, anyi ama ekwe
(If they come to take what belongs to you, die fighting for it, do not agree)

Ndu ogonogo nu o
(Life will be abundant for us)

lfeoma ka any n 'acho, ajo ife choba anyi nya ekwudo kwana anyi
(Good things are all we seek, when ill thinks of us, let it decide where to go)

Onye si na ife oma adiro ya nma, nwunye mualu ya udene ka okulu

(He who does not like good things, may his wife give birth to a vulture for him to
cuddle as his baby)

Ka owe/u fu ka ife ojoo n 'adi

(So that he will see how bad things look)

lfe oma ka anyi n 'acho

(Good thing and events are all we seek)

* calling on the individual towns of each person present and of course, the town
where the meeting is raking place

142
Anyi bu ndi olu oyibo n 'Enugu
(We are in Enugu as civil servants)

Ka anyi nwecasia nu ulu di na olu oyibo

(May we gain from working within the civil service)

Anyi ga aluka ya nka

(Into our old age at the same age that our fellow civil servants retire)

Anyi anaghachi k:wa n 'be anyi

(And thence shall we return to develop our own villages)

Anyi ga enwe nni anyi ga eji zuu umu anyi

(May we have enough to feed our children)

Oga abu emesikwa fa nwa azuo anyi ma anyi kaa nka

(So that they will in turn feed us, and look after us in our old age)

Anyi ama bu ibu alu nyelu ndi anyi bi be fa

(May we not be a burden to the people we live in their land)

Ka mkpumkpu daa apuna anyi n 'azu

(So that when we depart, our backs may not be hunched)

Ndu ogonogo ka anyi n 'ayo nu o

(lt is longlife we pray for)

0 ga adili nu anyi nma o

(May it be well for all of us)

Apata ohu n 'abo nkututa nkututa

(May the two lobes of the bonom always touch each other)

0 bu etua ka ndi be anyi si ekwu ya

(That is how our people say it)

Ije anyi n 'ebe bu ije mmili

(Our journey here is a journey to the stream)

Ada nyi bialu mmuta na Museum. o ga adili gi nma

(Our daughter who came to gather knowledge at the museum, it will go well for you)

Mmuta ka i ga enweta
(May you learn well)

Obu ebea ka ana edebe omenani ndi Nigeria nine

(This is where all Nigerian culture and traditions are kept)

Omenani ndia ka obialu ka anyi mugosi ya

(The culture and tradition which she has come to us for)

143
I ga amutacha fa ne ha
(May she learn it well)

0 ga adili ya nma, dikwalu anyi nwa bu ndi nkuzi ya nma

(May it be good for her and us that are her teachers)

Aru isi ike na nchekwaba Olisa

(Good health and God's protection)

Ukwu a I jili si ebe telu aka bia, ka iga eji na

(The legs that brought you on this journey from such a distance will take you back
as well)
Onwero ife ga eme ya
(Nothing will happen to her)

0 ma ezu ajo mmo ma obu ajo mmadu

(She will not meet bad people neither will she meet bad spirits)

0 ga adiliya nma n 'ije ono na ya

(May it be good for her throughout her stay here)

Anyi nwa bu ndi obikwutelu, ajo mmadu na ajo mmuo ama afu anyi
(We who she is visiting, may we avoid all evil people and spirits)

0 ga adisilu nu anyi nma o

(May it be well for us)

0 noclul o ga abia kwa ozo maka na uzo a bu uzo mmili, oga abia kwa ozo
(After her stay she will come again because her path this is the path to the stream,
she will come again)

Oma abu u;:o nku

(It will not be the trip to gather firewood)

Maka na uzo nku na echi echi

(Because the road to gather frrewood is not frequented)

Odiro ka uzo mmili n 'agagide

(Unlike the way to the stream, which flows from its destined source on its destined
journey)
Dika mmili, iga anatakwa fu anyi
(Like the river you shall return and see us)

Chineke anyi na ayo gi ka itaa oji a n 'ogbe

(We implore God the Creator, to eat this kola whole)

Ka anyi bu umu gi taa n 'ibe

(So that we your children shall eat the lobes)

0 ga adilu nu anyi nma o

(May it be well for us)

144
 -~

Chineke nke'bi n'enu igwe ogodo ya n'akpu n'ani

(So Chineke who resides in the sky and whose robes sweep the. firmament of the
earth)

Ngi nwa malu obi onye obuna

(You who know the unknown, you who know the secrets of our hearts)

Nye arryi ife ndi arryi n 'ayo gi dili anyi nma

(Grant us all our hearts desires that are kindly)

Napu kwa arryi ajo ife

(And remove the evil things)

Ka I gozie oji nkea ka anyi taa ya

(May you bless this kola that we may eat it)

All: Akunnia. (saluting him by his traditional ozo title)

Akunnia: It has three lobes. It is an ikenga kola. It shows that whatever you
have embarked on will go well. You shall not falter. So all is well.
The kolanut has told our fortune. If it had been four, it would be the
four market days.
Akunnia: Ka m welu kwa nu aka oji .. (let me take my share as the consecrator)

Akunnia: (Handing whole kolanuts to the men present) Arah, you hold this so
that when you get to Onitsha the kola will tell the story of where you
have been. Same for you, Akukwe.

Chief Obi's invitation to his colleagues to witness the kolanut presented shows the

esteem in which the Igbo hold the kolanut. Although they were not ready for the

interview, they nonetheless had to consecrate and share the kolanuts, because once

kolanut(s) are presented, they must be accepted. In this case, having announced the

kolanut, there was no debate as to whom should consecrate it because first, it was

presented to Chief Obi, and hierarchically, he was the most senior. However, if he

was in anyway related to those present by marriage, he may still have consecrated but

with their permission.

His rendition was prayerful and full of proverbs and imagery as he implored the

ancestors of those present to come and partake in the kolanut. He prayed for good

life, health, wealth and children; and he paid homage to the land of Enugu where

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145
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their employment is based. At several points, he used the imagery of the stream

which represents continuity. All through, he supplicated to God (Chukwu/Chineke),

and at the end he implored him to bless the kolanut. For the lgbo, eating consecrated

kolanut nourishes both body and soul as people also imbibed the prayers and

blessings. Acknowledging him at the end was like saying "Amen", and a vote of

thanks for his priestly role in a period communication with the ancestors.

A variation in the consecration of the kolanut noted by the researcher is that Chief

Obi consecrated all four kolanuts before he invited Arah and Akukwe to remove one

each. He, then, took one himself and broke the only kolanut left for all to eat. This

is in contrast to some areas of lgboland, where before the kolanut is consecrated,

representatives of different families, villages or towns would be invited to remove

their 'take-home' share before the consecration starts.

l\IIATERNITY /INFANCY CLUSTER

The maternity/infancy cluster is one extended ritual with many sub-sets which are

independent of one another, but add up to a whole. For example, re-incarnation

divination, ini orubo (disposal of the navel ending). ibe ugwu (circumcision) etc, are

all independent performances that follow closely, one after another and have one

overall aim - they are performances done in preparation for the main rite during the

naming ceremony, in which the child is given his own identity by the collective

(family, kindred and friends) who attend as participant-wimesses.

The birth of a child is treasured in Igboland as a special blessing from God. In return

for this unique blessing, the lgbo express their thankfulness and appreciation in the

collective manner in which they nurture and care for all children entrusted unto their

146
care by God. Hence, the whole community is responsible for the children's physical,

emotional and spiritual well-being. Before the introduction of a western-type baby

fonnula, when a woman died in childbirth and the child survived, the child was taken

to any nursing mother within the community who would willingly breast feed both

her biological and fostered children. In most cases, the fostered child ended up not

only in her care, but as her own child. Hence, the lgbo would give names such as

Nwora (everyone's child), Jfeora (that which belongs to the community) Obiora (the

will of the community), Adaara (the people's daughter), etc.

Many lgbo areas are intolerant of pre-marital sex and pregnancy. However, in cases

where there had been ime mkpuke/ime nkita or pregnancies before marriage, which

literarily means pregnancy in the mkpuke because unmarried girls live in their

mother's mk.puke or huts. !me nkita (dog pregnancy) is also used in some parts of lmo

State to signify promiscuity as the dog does not have only one mate. The pregnant

person is usually seriously reprimanded for bringing shame to her family. But, once

the child is born, it is fully welcomed with all appropriate rituals, accepted and

absorbed into its mother's family. She/he is never treated differently from other

children in the family. It is interesting to note that the words "bastard" or

"illegitimate" do not exist in the lgbo language. This is because every child has a

father and mother who are known by the community, albeit those children are

conceived outside of marriages. The birth of any child, therefore, is a blessing and

that child increases the every-growing circle of family. friends, future in-laws and

other relations. Hence ichi oga (in Nkpologu), iti mkpu nwa (in Umuoji). owoo

owolo anyi (in Umuahia) and ibi oro onu (in Avu) all mean the same thing- a joyous

announcement welcoming the extra-ordinary gift of life from God, and an invitation

to the entire community to join in the commencement of numerous and unique

celebrations that will mark the journey of a unique individual through life.

147
lchi oga fin Nkpologu)

In Nkpologu, the ichi oga announces the birth of all children, but when it is a male

child, another variation called ikpoo oroo is added to inform the community that it

is a male child. This extra ritual performed for the boys is probably because male

children to the patrilineal Igbo symbolise continuity, motivation and development

within families. So, the binh of a boy is celebrated more than that of a baby girl,

who will eventually marry and join another family. Ichi oga is performed once the

binh of the child is announced to its father in his iba/obulobi. He will then authorise

either his sister or a well-meaning female member of the nuclear family to announce

the birth to the community. The authorised individual ululates "anyi erite oke n'aka

Eze Churu Oke Obiama (we are in receipt of blessing from God of creation). This

signal is relayed by neighbours who are around. Before long, this ululation is re-

echoed across the entire communiry. Usually, the person who performs the ululation

also carries the news to the in-laws (the new mother's kindred). On gening there, she

commences ululating, and this is also picked up and relayed from one household to

another. She will then proceed to the home of the baby's maternal grandmother to

inform her with a gift - the nature of this gift depends on how affluent the new father

is. It may include some tubers of yam, ben(s), money, etc and these are given

irrespective of the child's sex. The maternal grandmother, who would have been

preparing for this moment, continns when she will attend her daughter's omugwo.

This is because, while her daughter was still pregnant. she would have prepared for

this visit to her daughter and new baby and would have packed all the special herbs

(utazi and uziza) and choicest condiments with which to cook: for her daughter on her

arrival to her son-in-law's home.

Owoo owolo anyi (in Umuahia}

In Umuahia in Abia State, this same ritual is more elaborate and it is known as owo

owolo anyi. It starts when people hear the ululating announcing a birth, and women

living and passing nearby recognise this for what it is and would congregate from all

parts of the immediate vicinity. A song and dance sequence begins which can include

re-enacnnent of the sexual act of making a baby, the pregnancy, the birth and the

cuddling of the baby from one participant's hand to another in a rocking/dancing

movement. Meanwhile, the new father provides talcum powder to which every one

present, including the men and children, help themselves to. They would rub the

powder around their necks, this is an indication to anyone who meets the participants

that there has been a birth.

This impromptu performance is what Werbner (1989) describes as anti-rite in his

description of Kalanga healing rituals:

... the anti-rite which, in image and experience, regenerates what the rite cannot regenerate.
The essentials that it provides are sociability without regard for the authority of elders; and
informality and unofficial values (136)

Furthermore he continues:

... satire, joking, and fun, though essential for the healing reconstruction, have no proper pan.
They are not recognized as obligatory rites or strictly ritual events. Instead, they belong to
the anti-rites of play. Occurring as interludes between obligatory rites, these anti-rites,
seemingly spontaneous yet always performed in the same style, suspend realities otherwise
upheld in the ritual (1 09-11 0)

From the foregoing description, owoo owolo anyi qualifies as an anti-rite because its

imagery of the sexual act involved in the making of a baby, the pregnancy and the

rocking of the baby are the things that the earlier announcement made with shouts of

joy had not been able to reconstruct. In most parts of lgboland, children, women and

men rarely dance together, and above all, children and women are not given to

149
 ,~

lewdness in public. So, to be involved in this song and dance sequence with explicit

sexual details marks the suspension of communal moral code. This happens

irrespective of the presence of the village elders, who may not join in, but will

usually watch with amusement/amused tolerance. Furthermore, hardly is anyone

ever censured for a breach in societal morality during this performance.

Normally, such vulgarity which would be looked on as disrespectful. does not happen

before the village elders. Furthermore, lgbo men tend not to put on any form of

make-up because it is looked on as effeminate, but on this occasion in Umuahia, men

would set aside their reserves to do that which would have normally brought derision,

or at worst a jocular comment. This dance celebrating a baby's arrival goes ahead

irrespective of who is present. This ritual is also in agreement with Werbner's view

of the spontaneity of anti-rites. Some may argue that the performance of owoo owolo

anyi is deceptively spontaneous, because the new father was promptly on cue with

talcum powder. Why would the father keep this if be did not know what was

coming, and what role he was expected to play once his child was born? The same

argument could be extended to the performers who it seems waited until they had

enough willing performers before commencing their show. And with no one directing

the action, how come the performers know the exact action and song sequence? The

researcher's stand is that the performance is spontaneous by all standards of

spontaneity because first, the new father merely provides the context and some of the

props and make up. Also, although the women may have been expecting the birth,

the actual time of the baby's arrival usually catches many unawares. Furthermore,

the performers' ability to follow an action and song sequence stem from the fact that

these have been done before and were merely being repeated with modifications

depending on the state of mind and physical health of those dancing.

 ·.
This perfonnance also buttresses a point made earlier that rituals are culture-specific

because an outsider to this community would never have interpreted the ululation as

a call to celebration. And, let us suppose that this outsider was able to interpret the

shouts of joy correctly, would he/she have been able to join in the song and dance

sequence correctly? That is hardly probable.

151
 Town Name of Aim Perfonned for Time scale Pea·formed hy Setting Others
ritual

Nkpologu lchi oga A public all children with lnunediatdy a live Either father, Emanates from The action finally
announcement of variation for child is delivered baby's aunty or the father's ends at the in-law's
the birth of a males called family member compound and place with n izi ozi
child - blessing "lkpo oroo" and joined by spreads to the omugwo"
from C/mkwu t:nlire wmmunily whole village.
Okike

A vu lbi oro onu .. ewry child . .. . Two shouts

announces the birth
of a female child
while three or more
is for boys

lmilike Gurube okodo . " " " " The same for both
sexes

Umuahia Owoo owolo .. every child . anyone who usually in front of the same for both
anyi cares to join the the father's boys and girls
sharing of talcum compound
powder, and in
the song and
dauce sequence
n
Umuuji lti mkpu uwa same all children same Any member of Same
inunediate family

Table 4.2 shows how some areas in lgboland announce births. In some localities, the

matmer of this announcement differs for boys and girls.

152
 \

lnwa uwa in Nkpologu: <Re-incarnation divination)

The concept of re-incarnation among the lgbo is not an easy one to describe because

in practice, it does not happen in the same sense as re-incarnation in the Christian

sense where it is explained in terms of one body and one soul. Igbo duality expresses

the human and spirit elements, but it does not specify if a single human translates into

a single spirit after death. This is because the lgbo believe that people can re-

incarnate many times in different places and generations. Sometimes also, a person

who is still alive may re-incarnate and the lgbo would take all precautions to ensure

that the 'new' and the 'old' persons do not come in contact with one another. This

is because the lgbo believe that their meeting would lead to the death of the 'old'

person. In discussing the challenge involved in attempting an understanding of the

lgbo notion of re-incarnation, Arazu (Appendix D) argued that the term "re-

incarnation is a misnonner", which stems from a wrong and faulty type of education

that stresses the one body and one spirit element. According to him, the fact that it

has been scientifically proven that all the cells of the human body are shed off and

replaced at a seven yearly interval makes the term re-incarnation all the more difficult

to accept as one grapples with and attempts to give a name to what the lgbo believe

to happen to the soul after death. For example, he argued that if an individual died

at the age of forty-nine, he/she would have shed his cells seven times over, and

Arazu rhetorically wonders which of the seven bodies re-incarnates with the soul.

He is of the opinion that the lgbo re-incarnation is better explained through the far-

Eastern philosophy where every human being has a total of four bodies (the physical,

the subtle, rhe causal and the super causal bodies) plus the spirit-soul. Part of what

Arazu also highlights is the problems encountered when attempts are made to explain

an ethnic and culturally-specific belief using a foreign language which does not share

the ideology which the belief is based on. Hence, the term re-incarnation is used

here for want of a better word.

153
Inwa uwa, ino uwa, ibia uwa are the different names by which the lgbo describe .the

positive spirit-souls that return after death. The word "positive" is used because there

are different groups of not so pleasant spirit-souls who keep being born and dying,

thereby causing a lot of pain to their respective families. Ogbanje is a phenomenon

used to describe a group of mischievous spirit-souls that come, die early and return

as many times as they wish just to be a source of anguish to their parents. They are

believed to only stop when a specialist ritual (ibo iyi uwaliji ogbanje) is performed

to sever them from their kindred spirit. However, the divination process through

which the identity of the re-incarnated spirit becomes known is called igba agu. In

Nkpologu, this rite is normally performed after the binh of the child, either by the

child's father or a well-meaning family member, and where it is not performed, the

child invariably falls ill. Most times, the time lapse between the birth and igba agu

is due to the fact that there are no strict time limits regarding its performance.

Hence, some families would procrastinate until such a time that the child falls ill.

The origin of the re-incarnated soul can be traced either to the child's paternal or

maternal ancestry. Time is, also, immaterial in re-incarnation in the sense that the

re-incarnated spirit-soul need not have been dead for a stipulated number of years

before coming again. Most times also, the child would present with the physical and

behavioral traits of the re-incarnated person.

Among the lgbo, any form of illness would necessitate a visit to the diviner who

would consult with the ancestors and gods through divination to fmd out the cause{s)

of illness. Thus, when a child falls ill, the parents would consult the medicine

man/woman who would inform them that the spirit-soul which has re-incarnated as

a child is angry because it has not been recognised and welcomed. In Nkpologu, the

deity that is consulted during this particular type of divination is ltogene, the deity of

procreation. The consultation would also provide information on the person who has

154
returned and what type of sacrifice that he/she demands tq enable him/her to live a

fruitful life on this particular journey. The gift(s) given to the diviner's oracle is

usually as stipulated by the diviner, and it is usually a token. The inquirer, as is

usual during divination, would state his mission saying: "we have a child and we

would want to know who has returned". In cases where the re-incarnated spirit-soul

was mistreated in his/her former life by a particular family, a type of propitiatory

sacrifice called igbo ota is recommended to placate him/her from wreaking havoc

(sickness and even death on the family). However, it is worthy of note that igba agu

was the nonn in traditional lgbo communities where people believed that every child

is a re-incarnated soul, but with the adoption of Christianity, a lot of families no

longer believe that and as such do not perfonn this ritual for their children because

of its "fetish" implications.

The parent would return home after the divination with the information and on

arrival, would invite his family, friends and neighbours to announce the identity of

the child. Elaborate welcome and stories regarding the re-incarnated's former

existence would be recalled to praise and adulation. Plans would be made as soon

as possible for any stipulated sacrifices to be perfonned. Usually. it is a cooked feast

that will be taken to the village shrine and shared between selected male members of

the child's paternal family and the spirits. This meal which is cooked with the

choicest fish (azu akpakpa or azu eshu), is a covenant between the family and the

guardian spirits to ensure that the child is looked after. If the re-incarnated was a

male, a cock is additionally used in preparing the food and if it is a woman, a hen is

used.

At the shrine, the food is consecrated by the priest, and the people in attendance will

eat together. Other forms of sacrifices that may be stipulated by the initial divination

155
may be the presentation of the cooked food at any major road junction either near the

family home or farther away in a farm, but as advised by the diviner. Road junctions

are popular meeting places of spirits, and by placing the feast there, it is ensured that

all the spirits get their share. This form of sacrifice is usually covered by awu

icheokulugo (the parrot's or eagle's feather), and nzu/odo (white or yellow chalk) and

human beings do not partake in this, because it is left strictly to the spirits. At other

times also, osadaka (a feast for children) may be stipulated. The type of sacrifice,

who partakes and where it is performed depend on the attributes the family wishes

for the re-incarnated. Once the process is completed, the sick child is expected to

recover instantaneously.

The importance of divining and recognising the re-incarnated ancestor is that it gives

the necessary information for insuring that a cohesive care plan is drawn up for the

individual, taking into consideration, factors that he/she may have re-incarnated to

achieve.

The location for the performance is not fixed- moving from the family home, to the

diviner's home and back to the family. From there, it moves to the village shrine

where it ends. The circle of performers increases as the action moves from one

location to another. First, are the sick child and its parents. The second stage

involves the diviner, the deity lte-ogene and other ancestors, and at the third stage,

when the parent returns home with the information about the child's identity, a small

crowd of family and friends who gather to welcome the re-incarnated spirit-soul are

included. Finally, the male members of the family plus an unknown number of

additional spirits with whom they share the meal at the shrine. The ritual agents are

eagle and parrot feathers and a cock or hen, depending on the sex of the child. The

only costumes and props are those that are used by the diviner during divination, and

156
 '
, they and their significance have been discussed. There is no music or dance

throughout the performance, only invocation and incantations by the diviner (dibia

afa) and the priest (dibia aja).

157
 Table 4.3: Variations in lf:ba ag:u

Town Name of Aim Performed Time scale Performed ritual agents Others If not
ritual for by performed
Agulu Igba agu Reincarnation new born anytime dibia afa nzu, hen, the child falls
inquiry preferably (divination money (token instruction to very ill
immediately priest), the fee) plus reincarnate to
after birth parents and other items as members of
the dibia aja specified by the family
who may be the dibia afa who need
approached to children is
offer the given to the
sacrifices dead on the
...-
night before
the burial
n n n
Eziowele lgba agu " " "
n n n
Nkpor Igba agu " " "
Umuoji lgba agu " " " " " "
n
lmilike lgba agu " " " " "
n n n n
Nkpologu lnwa uwa " "
n n n
A vu lgba afaa " " "

Table 4.3 shows what tllis ritual is called in various areas of lgboland, and it demonstrates the reason for being and characteristics of
the same throughout.

158
lba nwa afa/iputa ifelikubata n 'uno (naming ceremony)

In traditional lgbo society, women had their children behind their mkpuke (hut)

situated behind their husband's iba/obu. From the time the baby is delivered, both

mother and child remain in confmement for at least seven market weeks before they

are allowed near and inside their husband's hut on the day of the naming ceremony.

They are put into confmement for two reasons. First, a woman was regarded as

unclean after birth until she performs the ritual cleansing, and secondly, because she

needed to recuperate after the ordeals of pregnancy and labour. In confmement, she

is not allowed to anend public places, like, the village market, stream, woodland, etc.

With her mother visiting and staying with her for at least three months post delivery,

she has enough help around her home to enable her to finish her period of

confinement without a break.

The subsequent ritual is the iputa ife (to come out into the light of day) or ikubata

n 'uno (to be brought into the home), appropriately named to signify the purpose of

the ritual. Before this time, both mother and child remain un-incorporated into their

family and community circle. As such they are assumed to be "outside", not only of

the family home represented by the man's hut, but also "outside" the village life. It

is during iba afa that the child is incorporated by his folks, while its mother is re-

incorporated. In between igba agu and iba aja, males would have been circumcised

on the eighth day.

While in confinement, she will be busy preparing for the naming of the child who up

until now is still referred to as nwa (baby). The naming ceremony is an occasion

during which the society takes over the ownership of the child, and as the child grows

every member of the community is on hand to ensure both his physical and spiritual

159
well being. The naming ceremony is also a head-counting opportunity during which
•
the community come together to bear witness and take responsibility for the

upbringing of the child. Hence, as the child grows up, the mother may not be

around, but someone else in their neighbourhood will feed, bathe and shelter him/her

if there is the need to do so.

So, on the morning of the naming ceremony, the child's father will be busy buying

palmwine for visitors. Prior to this time, he would have sent word around to invite

everyone who would wish to come. His mother in-law would also have invited

anyone she wishes to invite. Depending on how financially resourceful he is, he may

cook some food to entertain people who would come. If not, it would be just drinks

and light refreshment.

The ceremony takes place in the man's compound - usually in the evening so that

people who had gone to either their farms or market would have returned. When

enough people have gathered, the oldest male in the family will welcome the visitors

and break the kolanut. After that the child and the mother are brought out and she

moves around to greet their invitees. She will give the child to the eldest male of the

family who holds the child in both hands and raises the child skywards as if showing

him to the gods, facing the East. On bringing him down, he begins a special prayer

of thanksgiving to Chukwu for the gift of another child and prays for the well-being

of the baby and its parents. After that, he announces the name given by the baby's

parents, and he either supports them or he gives the baby another name. Either way,

he puts money in a container that would be placed in front of him, as he invites

others to name the baby as he did. They also will offer money and/or other gifts.

In Nkpologu and Ukpabi Nimbo, a cl?-ild is named after a dead or living relative. If

the namesake is alive, he/she presents a cockerel (if the child is a boy) and a hen (if

160
·,

it is a girl) as the naming token. In cases where the namesake is alive, a special kind

of relationship develops between the adult and the baby in which the older of the two

is more proactive in caring and supporting the child and his family. Namesakes are

usually role models. While this is happening, people drink their palmwine and make

merry. All the money collected is for the mother and the baby. The father takes no

share.

The naming ceremony is significant because during it, the child is given his own

independent identity and the community marks the child as its own. Before then, he

is regarded as a person with no identity. By participating in naming the child,

everyone present partakes in a social ritual of joint responsibility and thus. a stake in

ensuring that the child grows up with adequate supervision. It is also the occasion

for the mother's re-incorporation into the community after which she is free to attend

public gatherings and places.

The naming ceremonv as theatre

The naming ceremony is a passive ritual because the child for whom it is performed

does not in any way contribute to the dialogue and/or action. It is one of those

perfonnances in which the panicipative audience/observers know exactly what is

expected of them because they have participated before. For this reason, no rehearsal

is needed (nor for lack of time) since the event would have been planned since the

birth of the child. The sitting arrangement is usually circular and the space used is

in from of the man's hut (unless it is raining, then the scene would be moved into the

hut).

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When the people have gathered, the woman emerges from her hut followed by other

women (including her mother who would have been on omugwo and other wives of

the family). llhis would be the first time since the birth of the child that she and her

baby would venture beyond the threshold of her husband's hut, ·into the open space

where the visitors are seated. The woman would tour the circular seating

arrangement to greet people, starting with the oldest members of her family.

Following immediately behind her is a woman carrying the baby which, in both the

theatrical and the rirual sense, signifies that though one woman bore the child, its

nurturing and integration is also the duty of others. In most cases, this role is

performed by a woman who has had children of her own. With the tour of the circle

completed, the baby would be given to the eldest member of its father's family.

Meanwhile, the mmher and these other women would either move from the crowd

into her husband's iba from where they would watch the proceeding or rerum w her

own living quarters. From being centre-stage performers. they now assume the role

of spectator-participants. This is one unique trait of Igbo performance - the ease with

which centre-stage character/individuals and active participants can, having finished

their specified roles, intermingle with and become part of the spectator-audience

(most times still wearing their costume).

Once the women leave the arena, the man holding the baby stands up (and as if on

cue), most if not all side conversations would stop. However, should a pocket of

people continue talking, the man with the baby (by now the main actor) will loudly

clear his throat and all else will be silent. He would reiterate (in a loud monologue)

their reason for gathering, and still holding the baby wwards the sky, he would thank

God, the Creator for bestowing the great gift of life on them. He prays for a good

and long life for the child, his parents and siblings; where there are no siblings, he

would mandate the child to ensure that only the best come after hirnlher. He would

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pray for their health, food to feed the child with and other children within the

community. He would also pray that the child may grow to be a child his entire

community will be proud of in future. The beauty and length of his oratory would

depend on his dexterity with words, and on how he is able to use lgbo proverbs.

Although the child is passive, it is the focus and contact that draws the larger

collective imo re-affinning their unity. It is the reason why the family and its

community have come together to enhance their survival and prosperity through the

single act of naming a child, but through which they thank, supplicate and invoke the

blessings of their ancestors and deities.

At che :!nd of me <!lder's prayers. he would call on me mother to kneel before him

LJnd with the chiid on one hand ,md a cup of palmwine in the other, he would vffer

spe~:al prayers :u the end of which he drops some of me palmwine on the ground in

lib:uion. He then passes me cup w me mother to drink from. She is obliged to taste

me wine before handing it back w the man. Only then would she stand up and leave.

Sometimes. Jn interesting imerplay involving the sip of me paimwine has been a way

of extending rhe playfulness of the perfonnance. While social modesty requires that

the mother takes only a little sip of the wine offered. a woman's position in her

husband's house could embolden her to break with this tradition. Women are

supposed to kneel when offered drinks by their husbands, but older women would

usually pretend ro suffer from waist pain and thus, allow themselves to only bow

forward inste:J.d of kneeling down. Sometimes. a younger woman may pretend that

she does not drink at all, so she may take just a sip and make faces as if the wine

tastes sour. When this happens, the spectators will call out in mock encouragement,

asking her to try some more in spite of this ''sour" taste. After a few sips and

further cheers from those present, she will gulp everything down in one go, to

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raprurous applause and laughter, and such appellations as "oli nkwu" (palm-wine

bibber). At other times women have used this occasion to register resenunent and/or

defiance towards their marital families or community by totally refusing the drink in

spite of all encouragements.

Most times these displays elicit laughter and healthy bantering between the women

and the men. The main significance of such performance is that they stop riruals

from becoming too serious. heavy thus emphasising more of their social aspect.

Riruals have the capacity to quickly become sombre even when this is nm their

imemion. This is because riruals exist to achieve set objectives. and sometimes. the

participants may in their bid to achieve these objectives, without consciously doing

so. become too serious. And in the rirual interaction Jetween ;:>erformers. space etc.

such seriousness may become apparent unless there are conscious attempts (as me

ones described above) to infuse and sustain some humour.

The theatrical implication of such humorous imerplay is that they possess the ability

to prolong riruals by bringing in spontaneous aspects of a play within a play - music,

dance, song and recitation. For example, the researcher witnessed a naming

ceremony in Ckpabi Nimbo (a town in Igboda Local Government .!\rea of NsukkaJ

during which a very popular and well liked woman in the community contributed to

a humorous interplay. She was the grandmother of the baby being named. and she

was called ro have a drink. She accepted the cup of wine from rhe man , who was her

real-iife husband), went on to hand it over to a •1ery old man who sat unnoticed in rhe

crowd. She knelt down before him and offering her cup to him. told him to drink

tirst before she does - w the spectator's cheers and fond appellation. Ber'ore the old

man could take her cup of paimwine, another much younger man got up and c:.une

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imploringly to the old man asking him not to be deceived by her ageing sweetness.

He playfully chastised her to leave the men of the family to the younger wives who

are not as wily as herself. The old man admonished the intruder to go about his

business and leave him alone with his "one and only". Both men involved in this

interplay were members of her married family, and the woman was the favourite wife

because of her peaceful and loving disposition. While some of her admirers cheered

her on, another gentleman who was sitting in the crowd made a bellowing sound for

her on his ozara (elephant rusk). On hearing her praise being produced from the

owra. she collected her wine from the older man, drank up quickly (all the time to

applause), thrusts the cup to the unwilling younger man :md >tarts to dance, as the

spectators cheered. She was now dancing in the cemre of a circular sitting

arrangement. At !:his point. the old man whom she had taken me wine to stood up

and crouching vver his walking stick, starred to walk over w her. T!1e applause from

the spect:.uors when they saw this was delfening. The ozara player now got up and

followed directly behind the old man - the musician·s face comoned by ::he spirit .Jf

the music he played. On seeing her ageing sweetheart approach ':ler, the woman

stopped her more vigorous dance steps, made some suggestive and coy moves while

moving towards the old man. She stopped right in from of him. knelt on both knees

with her head bent forward as if waiting for his blessing. Meanwhile the whole

crowd went quiet, except for the music from the o<.ara. Gingerly, he stretched his

withered shaking hands, placed it on her shoulder and said "'bunyiftt, Oyoo", meaning

"Get up my beloved". This drew ecstatic laughter and comments as some people

mcc!<ingly called out to the old man to dance. She gm up, put her ar.n gemly around

the old man· s bent frame and starred to rerum him to his seat saying to the crowd

"'this is my main husband". In real-life, the old man is her husband's uncle who was

at the head of the delegation that performed her marriage rites. and ro whom her

family handed her over to so many years ago.

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The role the ~Id man played by getting up and moving towards the dancing woman

was that he used his graceful presence to bring this side performance under control.

By so doing, he was able to shorten the time the side play could have taken and thus

enabled the continuation of the ritual proper.

The ceremony progressed from where it left off with those present being invited to

name lhe child. They would either support lhe name the parents or someone else had

given, or they would give whatever name lhey wish. As lhey did lhis, they would

use money and other gifts to support the name given. The act of taking the child imo

lheir hands. giving it a name or :>upporting one previously given name signified their

acceptance of responsibility for this child. By allowing anyone who wished to

perform this :>eemingly simple act of naming lhe child, lhey bec:une custodians of and

providers for the child.

The t1exibility demonstrated lhroughom lhis ritual. and the fact that its duration

depends solely on lhe oratory. the dramatic moments and willingness of the spectators

to participate in all side shows is a reflection on lhe Igbo propensity for using every

available occasion to celebrate life. This is especially so as the performer-namers do

not only celebrate the gift of a new life, they also celebrate and re-enact aspects of

their own life and being.

After being named, the child is returned to its mother. The visitors are entertained

wilh food and drinks. and there are no limits to how long people can stay. The

women would gather in their own crowd in the space between lhe mkpuke and the

man·s iba to entertain lhemselves wilh songs and dances - some of which are quite

lewd and obscene. This occasion is one of the rare times that women can make r"un

of their men· s sexual organs and sexual prowess. Naming ceremonies are also times

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when women are at freedom to consume considerable quantities of alcohol without

being socially censured, and they return home late without upsetting accepted norms.

Occasions like this mark the relaxation of social expectations on both men and

women. There are no special cosrumes except that the baby's mother wears a new

attire - a present from her husband at the birth of their child.

ADOLESCENT/ADl'LTHOOD RITUALS

Background to initiation into womanhood

Young ·.vomen were initi:ued during the moonlit nighrs of the harvesting period. This

was bec:mse in traditional Igboland, the moon was the only source of light at night.

and riruals were scheduled :o take place on those nighrs of full moon so that people

could :1vail themselves of the narural lighting. Ikpa iyi tin :--lkpologul iso ebe (in

Agulu1 and i::u ufia ltlllara (in Abakiliki), mean the same thing and they are riruals

during which young virgins are taught the secrers of womanhood in readiness for

marriage. It is only aiter this rite that they are qualified for marriage. The harvest

season is a period or relax:uion from intensive fanning which usually happens during

the rainy season. These riruals are also specifically designed w take place during this

period so that the initiands' families would not be deprived of these much needed

farm ~mods.

In traditional Igbo society. this was the only form of formal sex education which

rhese young virgins would ger that was approved by their communities. Community

approval was important because. e·1en today in most parts of Igboland. adults tind the

open discussion of sex with younger people very embarrassing. It must be

remembered that during the time in question, sex was for the sole purpose of

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procreation and it only happened in privacy and at night. In Umuoji, it is actually

believed that albinism results from pregnancies conceived through sexual intercourse

in daylight. Most traditional Igbo societies frowned on sex before marriage, and

some families have been said to re-enter into negotiations with the bride's family to

have part of the bride price returned if the bride was not a virgin. In extreme cases,

the girl was returned to her family and the entire marriage agreement was nullified.

This was a source of shame to the bride's family, especially for her mother as her

daughter(s) was a reflection of her own morality and child-rearing practices. So nm

only was the non-virgin bride stigmatised, but her mother's own chastity as a married

woman was also brought into question. In some traditional Igbo communities. the

re•Jelation of this type of incident would be widely felt and the unfonunate bride have

been :mown to remain unmarried or made to mke an oath to prove her chastity.

Female circumcision. in Abikiliki and environs. was a highlight of :his initiation into

womanhood. During circumcision. incisions are made md parr of the clitoris

removed. Some communities did this to ensure that promiscuity due :o high libido

is controlled. This aspect of Igbo culture is now being discouraged in many areas

because it is considered brutal, and sometimes. excessive bleeding and poor hygiene

have led to death.

/f.,:va ivi (in NkpologuJ :md iso ebe (in Agu[u)

In traditional ~kpologu and Agulu communities. lkpa iyi and iso ebe respectively,

marked the initiation of young girls into womanhood. This rite, like ima muo

(initiation of young boys into the masquerade cult), was shrouded in secrecy. It was

during this time that young women are given a code of adult conduct. mught about

the different guardian deities and the role they play in enabling women to build up

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successful marriages and homes. It was also a time for sex education during which

these young women were taught by experienced mothers all about pregnancy,

midwifery. childbirth, motherhood and general family practices. The importance of

this type of training cannot be over-emphasised especially when there were no

hospimls.

As in most rituals of initiation, there was a marked period in seclusion during which

the initiand received instructions in isolation. At the end of this period of seclusion,

they rerumed to their families having taken their cleansing bath. In Nkpologu, this

rirual iasts for three native weeks (twelve days). and takes place :u the shrine of the

goddess, lte-ogene. Each initiand was assigned an elderly matron who was. The

duty of a mentor was to collect her ward from her home, escorted her to the initiation

venue and ensured that she fully understood and made use of the lessons of me

initimion. Thus every night, for those twelve days, me girls were summond wim

a song by meir mentors and together, they went and remained in the sedusion of the

shrine until dawn. Part of the lesson in staying awake all night, is to introduce the

girls into the sleepless nights that come with motherhood. The songs ·.vith which the

girls were summoned seems to be designed to motivate them to go through the pains

of initiation (and perhaps, in particular, the pain of circumcision) by reminding them

that no one in their family has ever failed to withstand the experience. The song goes

like this:

dwa nne gi obe (Your :nother survived the incision)

Awa nna Ji obe (Your father survived the incision)
Kuwara Ajidigbo (As Agidigbo was incised)
Agidigbo ukwunne (Agidigbo your mother's brother)
Oyoo Ogerewu (the beloved one who is very wealthy and healthy)

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Once in the privacy of.the shrine, the girls and their mentors remained naked, while

the girls learnt about comportment in marriage, sex, pregnancy, child birth, delivery

and acceptable child-rearing practices. Both the elderly women and the young girls

going naked together helped to expose the girls to the transformation that their bodies

would go through in due course. In this manner, the girls were also encouraged ro

be at ease in the presence of their fellow women who would eventually be their

midwives and confidants. These lessons were very important in traditional lgbo

society where women acted as midwives to each other.

The ~nd of the ceremony was marked by a public outing either to the market or to

the village square. Virgins from the northern pan of ~kpologu performed this

outing. naked. This was a means of showing off their physical attributes and

signifying availability for marriage. Their bodies were adorned with uti (indigo) and

ufie (c:unwood). In other parts of Nkpologu. girls performed their outing dressed

only injigida ta multiple line of native waist beads which fails to .;over pubic area).

They would dance to the accompaniment of songs rendered by their memors, and the

music was referred to as Nene aye oma oyoko (nene = mother. while oye oma

oyoko = kind and beautiful) - referring to the goddess at whose shrine they

underwent their initiation.

The outing marked the re-integration of the initiands into their society and their dance

marked their exaltation into the starus of women who now understOod the basis of

marriage and motherhood; and who enjoy the privileged protection of lte-ogene - the

goddess of procreation.

Meanwhile, the efficacy of the rirual would be lested in the ability of the girls to

marry and make use of the lessons they had learnt during their initiation. It seems

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that through these initiations, traditional lgbo societies ensured the quality,

transference and continuity of societal nonns; as the initiands carried the lessons of

their initiation which would be felt from one generation to another.

The period after the initiation was unique in Nkpologu and some other areas around

Nsukka because the girls were then allowed to have a lover chosen by their mother -

usually a well-behaved man who would disvirgin and lead her in exploring the adult

world of sex. This type of sexual mentoring was referred to as ikpa n 'enu and, it

served two purposes. First, all sex acts were carried out in modesty, under the close

scrutiny of the girl's mother, who ensured that her daughter understood sexual

etiquenes, especially the noiseless decorum that went with it. The lgbo would scorn

a woman who is usually heard during intercourse. Secondly, the mother's

involvement in her daughter's practical sex education helped to control the frequency

of sexual contact and over-excitement as the mentor's visits depended on her mother's

judgement. That control was important as it helped instill a sense of restraint in the

girls, especially at a time when female contraception was down to the ability of the

woman to avoid copulation during ovulation, and in her ability to ward off advances

from her partner. The aim of ikpa n 'enu was to monitor, limit and contain sexual

contact to a socially acceptable level, thereby reducing the degree of sexual

promiscuity for both sexes. Table 4.4 below shows the names by which this initiation

were called in different localities, and what variations there were. In some areas of

lgboland. this rirual has been overtaken by Christianity and westernisation.

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 Table 4.4: Variations in initiation into womanhood

Town Name of Aim Pea·formetl by s~uiug l'ea-fonn~d for 1\"lusic/Daoce Duration &
ritual additional ..
comments
Agulu lso c:l>e Initiation into Elderly Shrine of Young women in Songs sung by 12 market weeks
womanhood women conuuuni1y n:adiness for ddt:rly mentor and (48 days)
goddess of 111arr iagc::. In llanct: lc:arnt while
ti:rtilily somt: placc:s time in seclusion. This Secret initiation
fur ti:male i111.:orporation takes during which
dn:umcision place in the market young women bond
SlJUarc:. with the goddess of
fertility and are
taught the secrets
of childbirth, etc.
Abakiliki l.£u alia " " Shrine:: by the " " 12 market weeks
itutara village: river. Circumcision is
Tht: young carrit:d out and the
womt:n gu there lessons learnt are
at nigh1 and the same as in
relllrn ro tht:ir Agulu.
families by day
Nkpnlogu lkpa iyi " .. Shrint: by the " " 3 market weeks or
village: river. twelve days.
YliU ng Wlllllt:ll
lcavt: h•llllt: at Lessons learnt is
dusk and return the same.
at dawn over an
agrt:c:d pc:riod

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Ima muo {initiation into the ma·sguerade cult}

lma muo is the initiation of young boys into the masquerade cult. Among the lgbo,

the masquerade is the representative of the ancestors, and in this patrilineal society,

it is predominantly a male cult. All initiated men are sworn to secrecy during this

rirual. and from a very early age, young boys learn the secrets and mysteries that

transfonn them into mature and fully integrated lgbo men. In an interview with J.C.

Obi (1995), he described the precepts on which this initiation is founded thus:

Omenani lgbo [lgbo tradilion] is not a play thing. Any true lgbo child must always rerum to
learn the omenani 1.1f his people - his genealogy. Only after this does the individual fit into
the society irrespective of how far he had travelled

In most parts of Igboland, boys are initiated from as early as when they are eight

years of age. In Nkpologu, the initiation lasts approximately two full days, and it is

usually sponsored by the Idi n · Ikolobia (Idi and lkolobia> or the militant age grade

made up of people whose ages range between twenty-five and forty-five years, and

who are at the beginning of their career as ambassadors used as representatives and

negotiators by their communities. Qualification into this broad-based age grade is not

just by age but by achievemem. People in it possess good leadership skills, and are

seen as role models worthy of emulation by the younger initiands. Hence the reason

why they are chosen as initiators and sponsors.

In most of Igboland (except in Imo and Abia States where people get initiated into the

masquerade cult as full grown men), the ima muo rirual involves a series of over-

night activities starting with the congregation of the young men at the cult house in

the village square. From there, they are taken to the forest, and it is there that the

initiand' s survival skills and ability to persevere under strain and stress are put to the

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test. The perfonnance, usually in most cases, has a graded structure based on

confrontations and dangerous encounters between the initiands and the initiating

masquerades. In Nkpor, these initiating masquerades are individually or collectively

called the nwakpuluke, and they are characters designed to arouse terror in the

uninitiated. The size, physical strength and number of initiating masquerades usually

depend on the size and number of the young boys being initiated. The purpose is to

make sure that each boy receives maximum anemion and harassment during the

vigorous but playful contests which make up the structure of the initiation. These

contests include wrestling with the nwakpuluke, climbing the 'hill of thorns' and

broken bottles, a lie detector test, a shouting contest, a series of dilemma situations

that require very unattractive choices such as the choice of which family members to

offer to the masquerade in exchange for the resurrection of any nwakpuluke that may

have been 'killed' during the contests, etc. All these tests are geared towards testing

the young initiand's endurance, intellectual acumen and moral probity.

The nwakpuluke 's job is to terrorise the boys into wanting to run away from the

arena, thus disqualifying themselves from continuing with the process. As a result

of the psychological conditioning and support from their families and friends present,

the boys usually manage to last the initiation, especially with the mi-<ture of taunts

and encouragement which they receive from the spectators/participants made up of

other young boys and the adult males of the village. The initiation is structured in

such a way that the initiand moves from one stage to the other only after he has

proved himself worthy of scanding his grounds against the menacing initiating

masquerades. Thus, throughout the course of the night, they are exposed to different

masquerades - the good and the bad, the grotesque and the beautiful, the kindly and

capricious etc.

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 For a lot ofthem, this is the first time that they would be coming in contact with the

greatest of all masquerades - ayakalmuo abani or the night masquerade." Ayaka is

different from the day-time masquerades because the ayaka appears only at night

when human beings have retired, and it is legendary for its intolerance of any signs

of human presence and light. When the ayaka is out and about, its eerie music and

inhuman sounds are the only things that can be heard from miles away. The ayaka

season is the harvesting season when the community has enough time for relaxation.

The ayaka is the fmal arbiter in any disagreement between people, and they are the

most effective force for social control. For example, the role of a mother in

achieving and sustaining a stable and loving home is highly regarded among the Igbo,

and part of that stability results from the woman's ability to cater for her family. No

maner where she is, the expectation is that she must rerum home to prepare the

family's supper and to feed her family before it becomes too dark. However, there

are some women who do not uphold or share this sense of time and would still be

preparing the family meals when everyone else in the neighbourhood would have

retired for the night. Most times, their children who would have waited too long for

the meal would fall asleep wirhout eating. A woman like this is a social deviant and

the lgbo would classify or call her, ajo nwayi n 'esi ite abani (the bad woman that

cooks late at night). If, however, she proves incapable of changing her late night

cooking habit, the ayaka onyeku/ufa [Umuoji], onyekurilabare [Imilike] which is the

ayaka that satirizes people with unacceptable social tendencies would be drafted in to

sort her out. A group of these night masquerade will sing with her name, run

satirical comments about her bad habit as they travel throughout the entire

~------~Cl.l!Omml!.ill.!!:U!flli!!!·ty. It is a shameful thing to be talked about in this way, especially with all

the evil spirits out and about at night. During an interview with Mazi Chime

Emeoha, the role of onyekuri in Imilike was described thus:

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In Imilike, there are different sorts of masquerades. The night variety is the one that women
are not allowed to see. The daylight ones eg egwugwu, are the ones that women may see but
not stand and stare at. As these come, they will be saying "umunwanyi gba, ono n 'uzo gba"
(women run, anyone on the way, run}. However, the night variety in Imilike is called
"Abare". This is an alusi and is not seen. It is an agent of social control. lt satirizes women
who are into prostitution. ln Orba (an adjoining town], they call this same night masquerade
"onyekuri •. They satirise and advice. Also when they are out at night, they act as night
watchmen.

They also satirize women who specialise in late cooking. Such women like you know in
lgboland are bad women. They have no sense of time - so at about this time of the night (it
was 8.30 pm}, she is still planning on how to get her cooking fire started. Sometimes before
the cooking is done the children would have been so hungry and gone to sleep on empty
stomach. These are the women abare will sing about. They will also satirize mean men and
the women who get pregnant while their most recent child is still suckling (November 1995}.

In Umuoji, the onyekulufa is famous for satirising social miscreants and sexual

impropriety, thereby forcing the people in question to change. It is a unique type of

auditory theatre in which the performers are unseen and unconstrained by time of day

and/or space, yet these factors do not interfere with people's involvement and

response. The song below satirizes two men, the first is Willie Ji who gets a regular

beating from his wife and the second, is Okolafo the loafer, who prefers baby-sitting

to farming so that he can eat the food left for the baby because according to him, the

baby would not eat. In Umuoji, both cases are laughable because, a man who is

beaten up by his wife is not worthy of being called a man, neither are men who baby

sit - real men work hard all day in their farms:

Okwu obu be okwu na nne (twice)

This talk is beyond all talks (twice)

Na OIIU n 'ekwulu ira abia ahe eh eh

The mouthpiece of the people has arrived ahe eh eh

Willie Ji amutakwa ube ku be (twice)

Willie, the master yam farmer has learnt the urunentionable (twice)

Na mgbe chijili Ojiesili egbu muo

Once it is dark he would stan to cry that Ojiesili"' has killed him

Otie ya obee nna eh

When he is beaten and he cries, Father!

• Ojiesili is Willie 's wife

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Obe nna eh, nna eh ahe he he
He cries, Father! Father! eh.ahe he he

Jna malugo muo na agu?

Do you now know the m:l!iquerade singing?

Muo Mmuloji 11 'agu eh, ahe eh eh

The masquerade from Umuoji is singing eh. ahe eh eh

Okoloafo 11yem n11i kam nye mva

Okolafo give me the food for the child

Nyem 1111i kam nye mva Okoloafo

Give me the food for the child, Okoloafo

Na nwa elili kam lie muo

So that if the child does not eat, I eat

Ima nwa dike na ere nwa

Do you know that the child of an illustrious man is a child-minder

lmalugo mmuo n 'ag11 egwu

Do you know the masquerade singing?

t'vlmo t'vlmuloji 11 'agu egwu

The Umuoji masquerade is singing this song

Muo Mmuloji n 'agu eh eh eh eh

The Umuoji masquerade sings this song, eh eh eh eh

The effect of this perfonnance that the masquerades set off in the course of the night

becomes more palpable the next day with people bantering and making fun, not only

of the two men but, of their relations. This is an example of the Igbo using every

opportunity to celebrate life - even in the darkest of nights. This masquerade's

rendition is also typical of oral tradition in Igboland, where story-telling commences

only after the story-teller infonns his or her listeners that there is a great story to be

told. This is a way of readying people and getting those who otherwise would not

have listened to become interested. In this way, no details are missed by the

listeners. There is also the repetitive style used by the masquerade when he gets to

how Willie cries when he is beaten, he repeats it so that anyone who had missed out

on the first one will hear the subsequent infonnation.

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.. _ ··- ---
 -~

In essence, during the initiation into the masquerade cult, these young initiands are

brought face to face with the real essence of lgbo dualism and manhood symbolised

·in the different forms of masquerades that.appear at different times. Above all, they

are exposed for the first time to the powerful role of the masquerade in maintaining

law and order within the community. An Igbo saying sums up the lessons learn about

Igbo manhood on the initiation night thus: obu otu eze nwoke ji achi ka ona eji ataa

(it is the same teeth that a man smiles with that he bites with). In effect, the

exposure of these young men to the varying strengths of the initiating masquerades

(the kind and the callous, the beautiful and the grotesque, the riotous and the serene,

the dancer and the fighter, etc) is an exposure to the level of complicated restraint and

balance needed to be a marure lgbo man. This is the core lesson of ima muo, an

education into manhood - gentle and flexible, but firm and persevering.

Furthermore, the initiation night is one of dread for the young initiands during which

time they come face to face with pure darkness, its terrors and all its fearful

ambience. The part of the initiation that takes part in the forest can be really scary,

because the lgbo believe that the forest is the home for all homeless spirits, and that

while the spirits who have a place to rerum to do so, the homeless ones return to the

forest at dusk. These homeless spirits are usually the most vicious. and no sane Igbo

person allows him/herself to be in the forest at dusk. So in bringing the initiands to

the forest, and especially at night, they are made to face some of their unfounded

fears learnt from childhood fables. What the trip to the forest does is that it forces

rwo levels of bonding to happen on the night of the initiation. The first bonding is

berween the initiands and their mentors - on this night of reality. a great bond of trust

and respect is formed as the initiands just have to believe that their mentors would

not let them come to any harm in the dark. The second is the bond between the

initiands themselves. The initiation night marks the start of a comradeship born out

178
··,-:··· -··:··· ....
' :.~-----~--
of surviving the same ordeal, and a lasting knowledge that as a team, nothing will

ever be too big to be dealt with. On this night also, the young men take the oath of

secrecy which forbids disclosing their experience to the uninitiated. These young men

learn from such early stages that the real mark of an lgbo man is that he does not

speak unless he must - this fact has not changed in spite of the lgbo exposure to

western intluence.

The initiands remain in the forest until the very early hours of the morning when they

will be the first to visit the village stream for their initiation bath which in Nkpor is

called iwucha aru ogbodu (or washing away me uninitiated skin). In Nkpologu, as

the initiands arrive at the village stream, an interesting perfonnance called iku ene/iku

iyi or iku mmili (control calling of the river goddess) in most of lgboland takes place.

Iku mmili is another manifestation of Igbo duality - the belief that all public spaces

are shared by human beings and spirits, and that each group has use of these places

at specitied times. These public places include the market square, the village stream

or river. village shrines and woodlands etc. As a result. human beings have use of

these shared facilities from dawn to dusk (except at noon when it is believed that

some capricious spirits with no sense of time and boundaries appear), while the spirits

people want to use the village stream, they must stop at a distance to alen the

children of me night that the children of me day are approaching. They will men

give them about tifteen to twenty minutes before they announce final approach.

Michael Al<ukwe 's recollection (1995) of calling me goddess ldemili in Eziowele goes

like this:

!Jemili kpolukwa umu gi anyasi na ndi nke ejijie abiaba go

(ldernili please take your children of the night, your children of daylight are
approaching).

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Iku iyi is an art and those people who perfonn it are respected because they are

believed to have daily contacts with the spirits. If for any reason this individual is

indisposed to lead the way to the stream and perform this daily ritual, villagers will

be warned to stay away from the stream until the sun has fully risen. Even then, the

villagers also talk loudly on their approach as a further warning to any malingering

spirit(s) that may be left behind in spite of the light of day simply because they have

not beard the daily call to the goddess. In the past, this ritualised call was an

important daily occurrence as the village streams and rivers were the only source of

water supply, and some people would want to feteh the water they would need for the

day before going to their farms or to the market.

The morning of the bath at the stream is an exciting morning for the young initiands

as this would be for most of them. the first they would wimess iku iyi. Before now,

they would have been too young to attend the stream during the early hours. In

addition, following directly after their experience of successfully confronting the

initiating masquerade the previous night, the moment of iku iyi is a magical one

which opens up a world previously unknown to the young men - a world in which

within boundaries, the human being can command even the spirits.

Once in the stream, they would have their first post-initiation bath which is symbolic

of a new and more mature beginning, and their leaving is timed in such a way that

they do not meet even the ftrst set of people from the village as they arrive to feteh

water for their daily use. From there. the initiands are taken to the cult house, which

in Nkpologu. is located in the village square where for the rest of the day, they are

taught about corporate identity and team spirit, and about other cult secrets that were

not covered during the night spent in the forest. After that, they rerum to their

various homes on their own because they are now regarded as men who can take care

180
 ·.

of themselves. Furthermore in Nkpologu, those of them who before the initiation

slept on the same beds with their mother, sisters and other female relatives, are

forbidden to do so from now on. It is from this early stage that these young men are

made aware of the onset of biological changes, and their curiosity to experiment with

bodies different from their own. Thus this community begins to instill in these newly

initiated 'little men' that sense of moral propriety and decorum which forbids

incestuous relationships.

The practice also, in Nkpologu, is that before they leave the cult house to rejoin their

various families, the initiands are given their first mandate as men - to "call up" an

okotoko masquerade from the land of the spirits within twelve days. The okotoko

masquerade is a one-off design and its production and performance exercise is carried

out by each group of initiands, and it is usually their first team work. So the okotoko

is as unique :md as distinct as the group that ''called" it up. On their rerum to their

respective homes, the initiands will continue to meet at an agreed time and place

(without restrictions from their families) to practice the various techniques which

James Eneje (1997) describes as ''calling up their otokoto from the land of the dead".

The lgbo believe that masquerades are usually summoned via appropriate rites which

include libation, invocation and verbal undertakings for appropriate respectful

behaviour and treatment of the visiting masquerades. On the twelfth day, post-

initiation night, the initiands take their display to the village square. The highlight

for them is that for the ftrst time, they would have a chance to scare the girls with

the whips they carry - those girls who are too big will be pelted with stones from a

distance until they run. The picture painted here is hilarious, and it marks the

beginning of Igbo male domination, and the supremacy of the masquerade cult.

181
 ·.

The foregoing accounts are two different examples of ima muo, and both accounts are

in agreement about the age of the initiands and the aims of the initiation. However,

the names of the rituals differ. In Nkpor, the post-initiation bath is either at the cult

house or at the home of the initiating elder, while in Nkpologu it takes place at the

village stream. The Nkpor account is more specific about the narure of the initiating

masquerade, the activities they engage in during initiation, but the Nkpologu example

takes us beyond the initiation of the young men to their first design and performance

exercise.

182
 Town Numc of Aim l'ct•fonuctl r.... Selling l'cl"l"unuctl lly Music & Uauce Comments
a·itual
Nkpulogu lba initiation into the s.:crets of lgbo Controlled - Varied - yow1g men guideline for from experience, this is a dead
mmanwu masking traditions - a.:tive frum under close presentation given end for any woman researching
confrontation of childhood fears iuitialion f••r.:st, to supervision of Juring initiation. into lgho rituals as only sketchy
embodied in initiating p.:rfonned fut cull dderly men information is offered if one is
masquerade, venues aud time. and by boys huust:, to Music a.ud dance steps lucky. In most cases,
Foundation training in lgbo agetl bet wcen village are energetic and information dries up. This cult
,.
manhood - diplonlli~J', M-12 years of stream formulated by young is still in present day lgboland
leadership and team skills, age and back iuitia.uds with the as it was in traditional times.
family and cunununity values lll village initiators in l11e uninitiated are still regarded
through healthy peer SIJUare fur .:ousultative roles as ogbodu (an uninitiated that is
competitions ctc im:orporat worse than an infidel)
ion rites.

Nkpor lkpu ani* does not involve goiug to the "

.. . there is music and
village stream, begins ami ends datJce all through
in the cull leader's compound including a comes! in
singing and dancing

* ikpu ani mt:ans enlt:ring the ground because it is bt:lieved that tht: masqut:rades live underground, and that they emerge from ant holes
after appropriatt: libation and invocation havt: been carried out/pt:rformed.

183
lnu nwanyi (traditional marriage rite)

/nu nwanyi is an example of an adulthood ritual. In Umuoji, a man was not allowed

to get married unless he was initiated into the masquerade cult. This makes ima muo

a mandatory and passive-active ritual because it must be performed for advancement

and for other stages in life to take place. It is after ima muo that young men were

given their ftrst yam seedlings (by their fathers) to enable them to start the process

of establishing themselves, and accumulating some of the extensive wealth needed in

the marriage negotiations. Among the Igbo, a marriage contract is a drawn-out

process in which the circle of panicipants increases at every new negotiation point.

There are two types of marriages - one between people and deities and the other

between people.

The former type of marriage involves a process whereby young men and women were

made spouses of deities and was quite prevalent in Ala Uno and Ukehe until recently,

and was termed adoro and ehuru respectively. These marriages were contracted for

three reasons. First, the young people were chosen because they were either very

beautiful or handsome. Second, some prosperous families would dedicate their

daughters (rarely sons) to a particular god in a covenant in which the deity's role is

to enable continued prosperity and posterity. Third, some young men and women are

used as ransom for covenants made with panicular deities where the terms of that

contract may have been broken by the people involved. These spouses were

consecrated to and lived a secluded life at the shrines of their different deity-

husbands. The brides' children were fathered either by their male counterparts or the

chief priests of the deities, if they fancied the brides. Their offsprings automatically

belonged to the deities, and like their parents, would spend the rest of their lives at

the shrines.

184
 ·.

With respect to marriage between humans, negotiations start with iche ego

(presentation of money). This is a token amount - a declaration of intention by the

man and the money is either given to the girl directly or is given to the girl by

someone acting as a go-between. If the money was given to her outside her home,

she must return immediately to show it to her parents. There is a period of one to

two market weeks or eight days, depending on the locality, during which if the money

is not returned to the man, it would signal acceptance of his declared intention to

marry the girl. Up until this time, the drama is mute.

The duration of marriage negotiations can vary depending on how immediate the

man's need to settle down is, and the level of his affluence. It may be up to a year

before the girl tinally goes to live with her husband after the ndulu nwanyi ceremony

during which the girl is escorted to her marital home. The interesting aspect of Igbo

marriage rites from a performative point of view is that the action changes from one

scene to another, involving an-ever widening circle of performers. The process

involved in traditional marriages differ from place to place. and as such, the examples

from Imilike (in the North) and Onitsha (in the South) would suffice.

lnu nwanvi in lmilike

In lmilike marriages can be contracted either between a child-bride and a grown man,

or between two consenting adults. In the case of a child-bride, agreements are entered

into as soon as the baby is born in a ceremony known as "itanyelu ha mmanya n 'eju"

(which means to pour some wine into an earthen ware). This ritual is performed

signifying that this child now belongs to someone else by marriage. This is a simple

ceremony which happens after the birth of a baby girl, and the parents of the future

husband would visit the parents of the new baby with some money and gifts to inform

185
them that their son would want to marry their daughter when 'they are both of age.

If the parents of the girl accept, the welfare and good upbringing of the child becomes

the joint responsibility of both families. The girl is allowed to visit her prospective

husband's family from time to time. When both young people are old enough to

marry, the rest of the marriage rites would begin, but before then, her family is

bound by the terms of the contract between them and the boy's parents. As such,

they will not accept any other offers of marriage from anyone else. Most times,

families contract this type of marriage as a testament to a long standing friendship,

and the rest of the marriage rites are completed when the children are old enough to

get married, At other times, families enter into this form of agreement with men who

are old enough to be the child-bride· s parent because they (her parents) may be too

poor to ensure that she is fed and clothed as she grows up. By giving out their

daughter in marriage once she is born, they enlist the help of a grown and sometimes,

prosperous man in bringing up their daughter. The down side of this kind of contract

between the baby· s parents and a full grown man is that probably, by the time the

baby grows into a marriageable adult, the man would have become so old that the age

difference becomes alarming. There have been cases where the girls grew up and

refused to oblige such marriage contracts. and they were forcefully taken while

screaming to a husband who may sometimes be older than their father.

However, in the case of a marriage being contracted between a grown man and

woman, usually it is not the man that finds his bride (but his mother as in some other

parts of Igboland), or where not successful, he will inform his family to start

searching for any candidate that would make a good wife. Sometimes the man does

not have the privilege of deciding that he is ripe for marriage before his family and

friends begin to search for a suitable wife.

186
 ·.
The first stage after the iche ego (presentation of money to declare intention) is "iju

ajuju" - genealogical enquiry. Marriage negotiations do not commence without both

families, first, finding out each other's dispositions or tendencies towards any form

of illness. It is generally acceptable for families who had found any negative traits

to call off the negotiations. If, however, the fmdings are agreeable, a date is set for

the man and his family to formally request the girl's hands in marriage, and they

would present her family with kolanuts and drinks. The next stage is the visit to the

oracle aimed at ascenaining if the ancestors and gods are happy with the contract both

families are about to set up. If divination shows that all is well. the negotiations will

continue with the appointment of onye uku [Umuoji, Obosi, Nkpor and environs] or

ama ona [Imilike and some areas in Nsukka] -a negotiator/intermediary appointed and

accepted by both sides. This person has certain qualifications which make him

acceptable to both families. Usually, he is directly or indirectly related to both

parties - as nwadiana [a person with maternal links to a particular viiiage], a friend

or relative. These qualities help ensure his neutrality during the protracted

negotiation process ahead. These negotiators are responsible for liaising and agreeing

all dares, ironing out all ditferences and informing the other party through their own

negotiators of any changes in agreement. In Imilike. the ama ona is also responsible

for bringing the girl and the already agreed bride price back to her parents after her

first official visit to her future husband. If, however, after divination no form of

sacrifice could placate the ancestors and the gods, all negotiations would also be

called off.

This next visit to the bride's family is iku aka (which means to knock on the door),

and it is a formal introduction of the future groom to the girl's parents, grand parents,

aunts and uncles from both the paternal and maternal sides. The drama at this stage

develops out of playfulness. During this visit, the suitor - although a grown man -

187
does not speak much, the eldest member of· his entourage introduces the reason for

their visit. They do not mention the girl by name, instead she is described as some

delicious fruit that has become ripe and which they have come to pluck. The family,

who would have had fore-knowledge about this visit would have invited some other

young girls from their extended family, and at the mention of this ripe fruit, they

would ask all the girls to come out and greet the visitors to enable them point out

which of the girls they had come for. When the girls have gone away, the visitors

will now say which one it is and for the first time, her father will call her by her

name and ask that she should be brought back to greet his visitors again.

When she re-appears, she will be acting all shy although in most cases she would

have known the suitor and given her consent for him to approach her parents. In

Imilike, it is during this visit that the bride price "afia nwanyi", is negotiated. It is

a lengmy negotiation process and it takes place inside the obi of me girl's father. The

negotiation of the bride price is usually a non-verbal performance. This is because

the Igbo believe that negotiating a bride price is different from buying a commodity.

So although mere is extensive haggling, it is non-verbal. Pieces of stick wim

different lengms are collected and both families would agree the exact value of each

piece of stick, and each side would add to or subtract from their pile during this non-

verbal haggling. This continues until both parties are equally happy wim an agreed

number of sticks. At mis point, the negotiators would stan to refer to themselves as

ogo (in-law). The in-laws are entertained with food and drink, and before they leave,

the bride's family will request for "nne-ewu nwa okpara (a she goat presented to the

eldest brother of the girl in question by the suitor's family).

188
This will be brought during the next agreed visit and involves a lot of miming. This

is because most families find it easier to pay money instead of bringing a goat on

what may sometimes be a distant journey. The action of bringing a goat can be

mimed, and money given in exchange. This miming brings a lot of laughter as

someone from the suitor's side begins to imitate the bleating of a goat. All the

negotiations at this stage are rigorous, but once concluded, the girl then performs the

"ipanata ego " rite - meaning that she returns the palm wine container that was used

to bring the wine for "afia nwanyi" ceremony back to her future husband's family.

On this tirst official visit to her future husband's place, people who come to visit her

will pass open comments about their new wife's beauty and other physical attributes

and this usually leads to an open banter and light-heaned side plays. This visit

usually lasts two market weeks, and it is during this time that she scrutinises her new

family and they in rum do the same. She is free on her return to her family to decide

and give reasons why she does not want to marry into that family. The suitor's on

the other hand study her behaviour, comportment, her ability to keep a home, etc.

She is also invited to feasts during which she gets to know the family and vice versa.

Her new family also reserves the right to call off any agreement so far made.

When she completes her stay, her prospective husband will invite the negotiator and

hand him over both the girl and the bride-price that had been agreed earlier on the

day of i::u afia. This means that the girl goes home with the approximate amount

agreed for her bride price, because in Imilike, like other parts of lgboland, marriage

ceremonies are a continuous affair and most families will demonstrate this by not

paying the full amount agreed as bride price. The girl is made ready for the rerum

journey to her father's compound as she is decked out in presents "ukoro, akwa and

ncha (trinket, clmh and soap). She is also presented with monies for her good

189
behaviour and hard work during the duration ofher visit. All the money she is given

during this ceremony belongs to her mother. This is a form .of thanks to her for

bringing up such an adorable and hard-working girl - her father does not share in this

money.

On her return to her father's compound after two market weeks, a jubilant crowd

awaits her, and the amount given for the bride price is also announced. It is an open

ceremony to which everyone in the village is invited, and they bring presents for the

"idu uno" (assisting the bride to set up home) ceremony. After the merriment, the

bride's family will now consecrate kolanuts to mark the covenant between the two

families. Merrimem continues until about midnight when the girl is finally handed

over to the "am a on a" for the last time to be taken to her husband's family.

Sometimes, the girl will disappear and a search party will be organised to find her.

She can disappear as many times as she wants if the people are not vigilant. This

disappearing act is aided by her siblings and relations and what initially is playful

turns into a serious and tearful affair as she is repeatedly hidden and found. This is

a show of her reluctance to leave her birth family, and most times by the time she is

found she has to be virtually dragged to be tinally handed to the negotiator. At this

point, the bride, her mother, her siblings and some other members of her family will

be weeping in earnest. Her mother-in-law will be coaxing her to go, and she in rum

will be clinging to her mother who would also be crying and half-heartedly asking her

to go on. Amidst tears from loved ones; she is reluctantly led away by her husband's

people. From the researcher's experience, this is a moment of reality that wipes

away the excitement of the fanfare that had been happening all along, as it finally

dawns on the bride that, that is really it. At this stage. the husband's family would

jubilantly sing and dance about the trophy they had won in "call and response" songs

one of which goes:

190
Call: Ka anyi je zigara ha ozi, ka anyi je gwa ha na ugbo arcyi anata
(Let us go and send them a message, let us go and tell them that our
ship laden with goods has returned)

Response: Ka anyi je zigara ha ozi, ka arcyi je gwa ha na ugbo arcyi anata

(let us go and send them a message, let us go and tell them that our
ship laden with goods has returned)

And if their new bride is still weeping, the singers would add variations such as:

Call: Ka arcyi je zigara ha ozi, ka arcyi je gwa ha n 'obe akwa anata

(Let us go and send them a message, let us go and tell them that the
cry-baby has returned)

Response: Ka anyi je :::igara ha ozi. ka anyi je gwa ha n 'obe akwa anata

(Let us go and send them a message, let us go and tell them that the
cry-baby has returned)

While still dancing, the bridegroom's pany would leave her father's compound,

taking with them the wife and all the home-making goods donated by the participants.

The "itu a!..>va" rite is performed the first thing the following morning as she

performs her early morning chore of sweeping the compound. The most agile young

man in the family is chosen to ensure that he is not caught when the girl gives chase.

If he is ever caught, the rite is nullified. On reaching her, the performer will hide

and call out the girl's name and say the following words: "if you should ever relate

to any other man while you are still married to this particular person, may this rag

exterminate you". Having said that, he throws the rag to land at the girl's back and

he runs off. The girl will begin to chase him and when she does not catch up will

begin to cry and lament the loss of her birth family. After that, she is ready to settle

into married life.

The next ceremony is called "ogo malu ogo". This is the first formal visit of the

bride's family to her husband's compound. A later date is agreed during which the

man's family will also make their first formalised post-marriage visit to the girl's

family to meet all their in-laws.

191
lnu nwanyi in Onitsha

Marriage negotiations in Onitsha are more elaborate and highlight the playful and

dramatic elements .that happen during this ritual. They also contains good examples

of plays within plays and how these can extend the duration:of a single performance.

It is also unique· because Onitsha is one place in the whole of lgboland where the

amount paid as bride price is not negotiated and has been pegged irrespective ofthe

economics at any time. Marriage negotiations go through the following stages:

lju ajuju is the tirst step and it stans when the man is ready to marry. The man· s

father and uncle take a bortle of alcoholic beverage to the bride-to-be's father to

announce that they have cited a "ripe fruit" growing in his compound and they would

like to pluck it. An extended conversation takes place before the "fruit" is called by

name. At this stage, other girls who are not the "fruit" will be brought out and each

time the visitors will refuse saying that this is not the fruit they had seen. This will

continue until the girl is brought out and after greeting her parents' visitors, she will

disappear and will not be seen again. She will be acting shy of this "unknown"

individual who is visiting her parents for "undisclosed" reasons. Her acceptance to

greet the visitors is a sign to her parents that she may be in agreement at this point,

her father will accept the drink the visitors will present.

When the visitors leave, the girl will formally be informed of the suitor's intention.

If she formally agrees, then the second stage is set in motion by her father and uncles

who would invite the man·s family back for the "inu nwanyi" or ikwa nhvu which is

the engagement ceremony. It is during this visit that the bride prices will be

negotiated and paid. The man's family will bring:

192
 ·.
forty naira (N40.00 the local currency)
seven bottles of alcoholic beverage
sixteen gallons of palm-wine.

The items are shared as follows: the girl's father takes fourteen naira, one bottle of

alcoholic drink and four gallons or one jar of palm wine. Her mother receives ten

naira and one bottle of alcoholic drink. The collective of uncles called the umunna

get five naira, while the bride-to-be gets three naira - and her share is called ife aru.

Once the girl accepts the money, she now belongs wholly to the man, from her toe

nails m the last strand of hair on her head. All the wives in her family get eight naira

shared out amongst them. They will in turn give presents to her when she is about

to leave finally for her married home.

The highlight of this occasion is the ina nkwu during which the bride's father or

senior uncle says the final prayers for the new couple. The couple are invited to

kneel before her father and after the prayer, a cup of palm-wine is banded over to the

girl to sip from and then to pass on to her husband. Kneeling on both knees, she will

drink, and in the same position she will give her husband. The act of kneeling is a

show of submission to her husband's will. In some places, the bride will be

summoned alone for this prayer and after that she has to search for her husband who

may be hidden by his peers in the crowd. While she is searching, some young men

will be coaxing her to offer them the wine, but she will continue, and on fmding him,

she will kneel and offer him the cup of palm-wine. The spectators will respond with

rapturous applause and singing. After this, the bride and groom will dance together

for the frrst time in public, while those present will offer them money. All money

collected belongs to the bride's mother.

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·.
Funhermore, all the people who have a share in the money are witnesses to the fact

that the girl has agreed to marry into her husband's family. The next step is ije n 'ani

which is a visit to the shrine of the Eanh Goddess who is also the goddess of

procreation. The visit is a mark of respect and a plea to the Earth Goddess and their

ancestors to bless the union with children. The new couple will take gifts of kolanut

and palmwine to the shrine. After this, a date is set for her to fmally depart to her

new home, and this is called ina be di. On the day of her departure, family members

and friends will visit the bride for the last time at her father's home bringing with

them different kinds of home-making gifts. This is called idu uno (to help the bride

build a home as the items given help the new couple to set up their own home), and

the gifts received are publicly displayed for all to see. What gifts she is given

depends on how affluent and how well-networked her parents are.

On the same day, she is accompanied by the young girls from her village who would

carry all the gifts she had been given to her husband's home. Her companions would

be singing to announce their presence and these songs are called bridal songs, and

they are mostly call-and-response style. One song goes like this:

Call: Gwakwa ndi nwe uno na anyi na abia

(tell the owners of the household that we are coming)

Response: Gwakwa ndi nwe uno na anyi na abia

(tell the owners of the household that we are coming)

They will continue singing and on reaching the groom's compound, the groom's

family will respond to their call singing:

Groom's family response: Ndi ogo anyi nno nuo

(our in-laws we welcome you)

Call: Oche
(seats please!)

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·.
Seats are offered and after they have all been seated, exchanged pleasanteries and the

kolanut is consecrated and shared, the groom's father will invite his nuclear and

extended family to wimess the girl's acceptance of his son. He does this by giving

a lobe of kolanut to his son, who takes a bite and offers to the bride. If she accepts

this, then either the groom's paternal grandfather or the oldest surviving male in his

family will order the girl to kneel. She is offered a glass of palm-wine and if she

accepts, takes a sip and offers it to her husband, it means that she accepts him as her

husband. This process is repeated two more times and if the action is in the

affinnative, the girl in now the bridegroom's family's wife.

She is now led into the family home for the first time on that day and

her family will re-commence singing:

Call: Gwakwa ndi nwe uno na anyi ga ana

(tell the owners of the household that we are about to leave)

Before leaving, they will stan a song in praise of their beautiful daughter now

married to the "ugliest" man around town. This is a playful yet serious way of telling

the groom's family that their daughter is a priceless trophy, whom they are blessed

and honoured to have.

Call: Ada anyi i puta go?

(our daughter have you emerged'?)

Response: Ewenje
(Ewenje)

Call: Kilibe ada anyi

(behold our beautiful daughter)

Response: Kilibe
(behold)

Call: Kilibe oyoyo

(behold the most beautiful)

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 ..
Response: Kilibe
(behold)

Call: Kilibe ada anyi

(behold our beautiful daughter)

Response: Kilibe
(behold)

Call: Kilibe akpa njo di ya

(behold her husband, the very ugly one)

Response: Kilibe
(behold)

They will cominue singing this song as they depart from the man's compound.

Marriage in Igboland exemplities intensive play and performance. From the time the

negotiations start. the girl is not called by her name, until she accepts that she is

willing to marry. With the constant comings and goings, the circle of participants

increases. There are also a lot of similarities in Igbo marriage rites smning with the

negotiator known in different places as either orrye uku or ama ona. In some areas,

both the bride's and the groom's families appoint one each, while in other places they

may agree to have a common one. Whether there is one or are two negotiators,

his/their role is to ensure that details are fully negotiated and that negotiations are not

stalled by minor disagreements. For instance, if the groom's side wants to arrange

a mutual date and time for any ceremony, they will send the orrye uku from their side

to contact the bride's side through their own negotiator. Usually, through regular

consultation, they will arrive at a mutually agreeable date and time. After the

marriage, these negmiators are fondly respected by the couple and their children and

this is usually another network of relationships established.

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 ·.
Ther.e is also a lot of play, miming and flexibility in lgbo traditional marriages. For

instance in Imilike, the gift of a she-goat to the first brother of the bride is mimed,

after which the money is presented to enable the girl's family to either buy a goat,

if it is needed. or use for other purposes that facilitate the marriage ceremony. In

Umuoji, money is never mentioned throughout the bride price negotiations. Instead,

at the beginning of the process, both sides would collect sticks of varying sizes and

would agree what amount they each represent. For instance, the longest stick which

may be about six inches may stand for a thousand naira, while the medium sized one

may be five hundred naira etc. When this silent haggling starts, the bride's side

would sometimes collect all the pieces available which added together may come out

to thousands of naira. They would place these in front of the groom's representatives

and they in rum would remove almost all of them leaving just a few. Through this

speechless negotiation, they would eventually arrive at a mutually agreed price.

The characters involved in the negotiations shift from the nuclear to the more

extended family as it progresses. For instance, when the man declares his intention,

it is most times between him and the girl. By the time he visits the girl's family for

the negotiation of the bride price, his father, uncles and close friends go with him.

The circle of participants continues to grow on both sides until the final rite, when

almost both villages are invited.

There are no ritual agents except in those towns (lmilike and Onitsha) where

divination and veneration of the Earth Goddess happen and the bride and the groom

would take kolanuts and palm-wine. !tu akwa - the throwing a ball of rags is unique

to Imilike and it symbolises the worn and tired. It is a reminder to the girl that her

period of honeymoon is over and that marriages are more often than not a tiresome

affair. She knows this fact, but the rags are meant to bring the truth home to her.

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What is apparent in marriages in Onitsha is the playfulness, especially towards the.

end. The aim is to create a light atmosphere so that the girl will not feel abandoned

and alone in her new home. This final trip to her husband's home is the most

difficult for most new brides and they would break down in tears when she is about

to be taken to their husband's home, or when their people begin to depart. These

light- hearted songs are designed to neutralise some of the tension for the new bride.

From the table belo~. there are some variations to the marriage rites in lgboland, but

they all have the following stages in common:

• money is presented to declare intention in both childhood betrothal and grown

up marriages

• inquiry into both the prospective bride's and groom's family (iju ajuju)

• bride price negotiations (izu ajia nwanyiliru onu akulif..:pa onu aku)

• payment of the bride price

• first formal visit of the bride to the prospective husband's house

• the marriage proper (igba or ikwa nkwu)

• taking the bride home (ina be di!ndulu nwanyl)

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 Tahle 4 6· Variation in lnu nwanvi

Town Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 Step 7 Step 11 Step 9 Step 10 Step 11

lmilike l!anyclu lju ajuju Afa Afia lpanala ldu uno Ogo llu . . .
mmanya nwanyi ego 111alu akwa
n' ogu
cju/khc
..• ·
ego

Onitsha khc .:go lju ajuju - lru onu lkwa ljc u';Uii lna !le Ogu . - -
aku nk wu · <li In a In
ugo

Nkpur
.. .. .. lkpa onu lgba lwcna ilc Ndulu Ogo - - -
and aku nkwu nwanyi 111alu
Umuoji IIWiUlyi ogo

Obosi lju csc lka aka . hnalu lbuua Us hi Nkwu Nkwu EdiCIII Ogo
uno o:gu lllllll IUIC lllllU oji walu
IUla ogo

Table 4.6 shows that iche ego (declaration of intention to marry) is the first stage, except in Ohosi where iju ese (enquiry into the family

hismry) takes place before the iku aka which is Ohnsi's declaralion of inlention. Uu a}t!iu in Imilike and Onitsha is the same as iju ese

in Ohosi. /w ajianwa11yilikpa 01111 nwanyi (hridt: price nt:goliations) is also common to all lgl>oland. However, ipanata ego or ibunata

ego is a 1enn used in Ohosi and lmilike n:spe~.:tivt:ly 10 denote igba nkwu or tht: final marriage rite. Ogo malu ogo (formal introduction

of all in-laws) is wmmon to all. Afa and ije n'ani (divinalion) is mmmon only 10 lmilike and Onitsha, but at different poinLS in the

pro~.:ess. l!shi (physical scrutiny of intended bride) and Ec:hem oji (<>C~.:asion during whidt gifts are given to all bride's aunts and uncles)

are particular to Ohosi.

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STATUS ENHANCEMENT RITUALS

lclli ozo

Ozo is the ultimate title for men in Igboland, and it operates at both the physical and

spirirual level. On the physical level, it is a mark of affluence, while on the spiritual

level it is a mark of an individual's commitment to prepare for the journey after death

into the land of the ancestors. He does this by avoiding certain things, places and

people that may detile his exalted state. A description of the ozo title in Umuawulu,

Agulu and Onitsha will provide a fuller illustration of this very important socio-

spiritual rirual.

Ozo in l'muawulu and Agulu

In Umuawulu there are various stages of the ozo ceremony and these are o:w efifie,

ozo alo, and ozo owulu. Ozo owulu is the final stage, and after it there is no other

title a man can take before death. It involves a period in confinement for seven

market weeks. This period and the processes involved differ from one locality to

another, and it is one of the highlights of the ozo title when the aspirant is confined

to the akwu ozo or the ozo nest. His wife is the only human contact that he has while

in the ozo nest, and it is also her responsibility to cover his body with n:u.

On the night preceding this period in confinement, the aspirant would visit the shrine

of Ana (Earth) belonging to his kindred - each extended family has their own shrine

dedicated to the Earth Goddess. This visit is made in the middle of the night, and the

aspirant is accompanied by nwa Nshi (someone from Nri - the spirirual centre of the

Igbo). If the aspirant is from Umuawulu, the initiator has to come from Oraeri which

200
is the particular spiritual centre for Umuawulu people. The significance of midnight

is that it is a time when only spirits are about, and this part of his initiation marks his

pact with the spirits. On getting to the shrine, the nwa Nshi will remind the aspirant

of all the nso (taboos) to observe. As he goes through the list, the aspirant is allowed

to negotiate with the spirits through the nwa Nshi, if his source of livelihood is

included in the list of prohibited activities. So when an activity which the aspirant

c:.mnot observe is mentioned, he will invoke his negotiation rites by saying "ogu

mafu" (may it not bind). If after due consideration that particular activity can be

w:~ived, the aspir:mt is free, but he is not allowed to negotiate the more critical rules.

For <!xample, an u:.o is prohibited from climbing. However. if the individual earns

his living as a palm wine-rapper which entails climbing the palm rree. he would say

"o<Ju maju. for if I do not rap. I would not have a source of :ivelihood ·•. He will

repeat this ;JhrJse whenever the initiaror gives him an unworkabie option. Each time

the prospec:ive aspirant asks for an exemption. the initiator would go into a series vf

incantations after which he would inform the aspirant if his request has been ac::epted.

This is 1 unique covenant between the individual and Mother Earth, and it must mke

into consideration the individual's limitations. This is because the implications of

bre:J.king any term of the pact with Mother Earth can be quite disastrous. The

bre:J.king of a pact with :VIother Earth is what the Igbo refer to as imelu ana or alu

(defilement of :V!other Earth!. The aspirant cannot ask for a waiver from murder

because it will be contrary to the aim of ozo which is the upholding of absolute truth

and purity of life. In effect, each ozo title holder has a different and personalised

contractual oblig:Hion with :Vfother E:.1rth - that is apart from the general rules binding

all the members vf the group.

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After this ceremony, the initiator will lead the aspirant to the village stream to have

a bath, and from there. he will return to his home and enter the ozo nesL Staying

in seclusion in the ozo nest is an incubation ·period during which he has time to

contemplate. the rest of his journey through life, and how to uphold his pact with

Mother Earth \Vho is a goddess well-known for her swift retributive justice, when

offended. It is a soul-searching time during which he is fed and prepared for the

lengthy ozo process ahead.

The process '.vhereby his wife covers him with n:.u is cailed ire/..".va na1 (re-rubbing

the nzu). The use uf n::u for body painting has two meanings. First. it keeps the

body dry and cool throughout the period in the nest and <his is very imponam

considering that he is not allowed a bath throughout this nesting oeriod. Se:::JOdly.

it symboiises his ye:.~rning for spiritual puriry (n::u symbolis~s the pure/c!e:.msing

attributes from che depth of rhe se:.~i. While in the nest, he is fe:l with deiic:1cies. :1nd

an Ufie musician is in anendance from dawn to dusk. Ufie is an dongate:.i wooden

musicai instrument which produces a unique kind of sound that '~an cnly be

imerpre:ed by those who understand its language. The hollow sound which it makes

can only be danced to by titled men. It is also used during the funeral rites of an ozo

to re-tell his life 01nd gre:uness. The Ujie will continually ·call out' the as!JirJnt's new

name (seven repetitions each time). This is the name that he will be known by after

his installation. and by repeating it severally. the aspirant becomes accustomed to

hearing his n:1me on the U]ie. On completing his seclusion in me nest. he then has

a bath and prepares for the cdebrations ahe:1d when his feilow m:o men will formaily

welcome him imo rheir fold.

In Agulu (:1 neighbouring town to Umuawulu). the declaration of imemion to take the

o:o title srarrs when the prospective aspir:1nt presents a token amount, a c:1rton of

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 -.

lager. a bottle of brandy, whi~ky or gin to the head of ozo. The leader of the ozo

society will then inform "ndi otu ozo" (members of the ozo society) about the

individual's intentions. There is a long process of screening, in which members of

o::.o socil!ty digest and discuss all information available on the individual. If it rurns

out that the individual has a questionable character (rogue, liar, adulterer or an

alcoholic. etc.) his application is declined without reasons. The lgbo are very

sceptical about alcoholics because they believe that under the influence of alcohol, the

individual. may unknowingly reve:tl secrets. Having said that. a lot of this has

•:hanged. 1nd :here are some people who would negotiate such ::>bstacies with huge

sums of money. Thus, some of the screening practices have become corrupt.

If the c:mdidate :s accepted after screening, a life goat, one jar of palmwine. eight

rube~s of yam, eight jars of "ngwo" (raffia palmwine) and l bonle of schnapps are

presented to the group. The leader of the ozo now invites the initiand's family to

partake in the feJ.st which is also an acknowledgement of his acceptance, and the

leader would present the im.lividual at the village shrine.

The circle of participams during an ozv ceremony follows the same pattern J.S in lgbo

traditional marriage ceremony. where the circle grows wider as the performance

progresses. For example. the tirst stage during the ozo title in Agulu is Olulu ani.

Here, the aspiram declares his imemion to the nuclear family. This is followed by

Uke which is the announcement of the imemion to the umunna !extended family), who

he entertains lavishly. Once performed, this rite establishes seniority of the aspirant

over subsequent aspirants. The third stage is ifejioku, and this establishes the aspirant

as a full fledged ozo, who now has the capability to develop his spiriruality in

readiness for life after death. At this point the initiand re-at1'irms his willingness to

uphold the v-:.o precepts before the mher members of the ozo society. The initiand

203
swears to tell the truth, especially in cases of land disputes, to protect any plant,

animal or person that is in the process of reproduction, never to get involved in

sexual promiscuity, adultery or the defilement of virgins. If, however, the ozo craves

a particular woman. he is allowed to marry as many women as he wishes, provided

he can cater for their material and spiritual needs. He is not allowed to eat any food

prepared by a woman who is menstruating and he can only eat outside his house if

he is far away from home. The members present signify the ever-widening circle of

witnesses. At this stage the individual is a full-tledged nze and can now wear the

special red cap which only the nze and ozo are entitled to.

Oruru ofo is •he fourth stage in the oz;o initiation. and marks the endowment of the ofo

(staff of Jr"fice) on ::he ae•.v nze. This beswws some powers to pen·onn certain rites

on the n-:.e. At :his leveL the ozo privileges become hereditary. and at death his

ddest son may inherit his father's title. He does this by performing some transr·er

rites for his father's colleagues.

Ozo or ibu n 'isi is the r"inal presentation of the new ozo to the ozo society. The new

ozo presents two tubers of yam and a live hen to his peers. The commandments of

the ozo society are read to him again, and he recites them to the hearing of all

present. He swears to uphold the rules and failing which he readily accepts

retribution from ::'vlother Earth. In traditional Igbo society "ika mma n 'ile or isa ile"

(carving the tongue with a razor blade or washing of the tongue. respectively) was

not only a show of bravery because the tongue was physicaily incised and :mme herbs

rubbed imo the incision, the herbs perform the task of pulling out the tongue of any

ozo that told a lie. According to udenkwo-Ngo Okeke of Ogidi (1995). the effect can

be quite swift and dramatic. However. these incisions are no longer performed in

present day Igboland. instead the action is mimed while the rules are recited. In an

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interview with J.C. Obi of Agulu (November 1995) he stated that the commandments

of the ozo society are quite stringent and that people may be denied membership to

the o::o society if members of their family feel that these individuals may be unable

to uphold the rules which are read out thus:

Thou shall nor profane the eanh. thou shall not commit murder or be pany to any discussion
in which a decision to harm anyone is taken. thou must nor incite hatred. always. thou shalt
say the truth in all matters. especially in land disputes. even if in telling the truth you exposed
people whom you love.

The l!nd of this stage is marked by a twenty-one gun salute, and the ozo now

performs the igba ujie (dancing to the ufie music). Having acrained this le•tel Jt

membership. the o::o now has a sacred starus and he must consider all his [houghrs.

words :md acrion to l!nsure that he does not violate his pact with :Vlother Earth. For

~xample, if :1e is invited to a public function, the host must tirst of all pe:-r·orm a

rirual honourmg the oath taken by the ow, and ro placate the gods for the food he is

about to offer the ozo. He would take the ozo into a private ;>lace and perform the

"lna nni''. to enable him to eat outside his home. This involves either giving him

a raw ruber vf yam. or in some cases money is placed in a bowl of water into which

he washes his hands. before removing the money. In the event of death. all these

routines are ievoked in 1 reverse order. with a cow and some money presented to the

living members of the or.o society. This is the tinal ~epararion rite from the living.

Ichi ozo in Onitsha

Onirsha is me only town in Igboland where the ozo title has nor been affected by

Christianity. In many parrs of lgboland. the int1uence of Christianity had led to <.he

abandoning of those aspects of this rirual that they regard as "fetish". The

implication is that most binding parts of the rituaL like the contract with :\-{other

205
Earth have been removed, and as a result some ozo members sometimes do those

things unexpected of men with this title. Such things include subverting the course

of justice in land cases, meddling with virgins and married women etc. In Onitsha,

this title is mandatory for all men, but it is optional in the other towns. The

implication of sustaining those so called fetish aspects is that by the time an Onitsha

man takes the title, he has effectively departed from Christianity.

The duration of ozo taking in Onitsba varies. depending on how affluent the

individual is. The ceremony is in rwo parts- the private and the public. The pri"ate

phase begins with the declaration of intention by the aspirant m his nuclear family.

This is .:alled igba ako mi (itching the tympanic membrane). during wluch he presents

his immediate family with kolanuts and palm-wine. After this. the :.mnouncement of

the intention is in rum made to the extended family in a ceremony called igwa

umunna (informing the extended family). Both his nuclear and extended families

know him best and would decide if he has the moral astuteness to take the title. If

they are in :~gree:nem. the next step is inyedo muo during which an image of his

personal god is carved and conse::rated. This is born out of the Igbo belief that .!very

individual has a personal chi. who is a mediator between the individual :md Cllukwu-

Okike (God the Creator). The aspirant's cfli also acts as the person's guardian spirit.

During the inyedo muo rirual, members of the ozo society from his extended family

will gather w perf01m specific incantations and sacritices aimed at ai.:~ivating a more

dynamic relationship between the aspirant :.md his chi. After this. the aspirant is now

in possession of his own okpulukpu or clii or ikenga - a symbol of his spirit of

endeavour and symbol of his manhood.

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lbu ego ozo is the payment of the enrolment fee which is shared in a pre-detennined

ratio among the existing members of the ozo society, the uninitiated men called the

agbala n 'iru egwu and the umuada (daughters of the family). The ratio is such that

the titled men get the higher share. The aim of giving the umitled men a token. is

a way of spurring them into taking the ozo title which will qualify them to have equal

share as other titled men. As in marriage rirual, anyone who shares of this money

becomes a wimess to the fact that the aspirant went through this particular vetting

stage.

The next step is mmacha uzo, and the ceremony starts at night and lasts until Jay

break. The night time parr of the ceremony is called ina obibi during which :he

initiand is taken into the forest ro agree his personal contract with ;\-.!other Ean:h 1nd.

to perfonn those rites that ensure the protection of his ::mcesrors. This is necessary

because :he Igbo believe that chere are diabolical people and spirits who do nm wish

to see human progress and as such, would do all in their power to hann the aspirant.

This is followed by the presentation of the aspirant at the shrine of ani (.Yforher

Earth), at which stage he makes a pact with Mother Eanh and pledges to keep the ozo
code of practice. Three goats are slaughtered in the presence of ndi ichie - the

custodians of shrines and forests. The meat is cooked immediately. bur nor eaten

until day break after the aspirant has performed the ima n~u (decoration with white

chalk). After this, he is presented with osisi (staff of office) in a ceremony called

ikpo ifejioku iru. (one-to-one meeting with the god responsible for the yam yields)

during which the staff is consecrated. Another goat is slaughtered and the biood

collected is used ro polish and preserve the sraff I blood is a wood preservative). In

the event of the death of an ozo, all the living ozo will re-present their sraff to be

polished with the blood used for the tinal separation rite. Every ozo has r.vo different

207
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types of staff. The one which he is given at this stage of his title taking is bare and

is referred to as osisi ajulu (bare-bodied staff of office) and when he eventually dies,

this panicular one will be cut up and placed inside the coffin with the corpse. The

motion of cutting the bare staff of office symbolises the severance of all links that the

deceased shared with all the other members. The other staff is referred to as osisi

gba ona (the staff of office with copper band) and can be inherited by the aspirant's

son when his father passes on and he too becomes an ozo. The presentation of the

osisi .:zfulu to the aspirant marks the end of the private ceremonies. Once the private

stage of the initiation is completed successfully, the individual is painted with n:::u.

This process is c:tlled ima n:::u (slapping on the white chalk, and it symbolises that the

individual is in a sacred and pure ;;rate). The ozo is now led through a responsorial

ceremony where he renounces lies. plotting to hann others, adultery. incest. e:c.

This rite is perfor.ned in the middle of the night. and in the morning the person takes

a new name - his o:o title name. symbolising re-binh or aew life. The three goms

cooked the previous night are now served. This is the first me:tl that the initiand eats

with the other members of the society. and it signifies acceptance by the rest of the

group.

Later on in the afternoon. the ceremony continues and the initiand. who up until now

has been in isolation. is presented to the public. This is his re-integration into the

community, and as he dances. people will offer him money in recognition of his

achievement.

Having been successfully accepted into this privileged rank. the next stage is isekpulu

ani (veneration of Eanh Goddess). This symbolises the rerum of the initiand to thank

the E:mh Goddess for her protection throughout the numerous contacts he had with

both men and spirits. If for any reason an individual decides not to do this, he is not

208
 ·.

recognized as an ozo. This is followed by afia ozo which takes place the next day

still at the shrine of ani. While the individual is dancing. people will also offer him

money. An important landmark at this stage is iri obi (the embrace) performed by

the first wife. This is a strict means of social control, especially in polygamous

families. where sometimes. the first wife is not as favoured as subsequent wives. The

embrace is a unique form of recognition for the initiand's first wife, and is aimed at

putting both the man and his more favoured wife in their place. This is because no

other woman is allowed to embrace the new initiand as he dances in full view of

e•1eryone except his tirst wife. If. however. the first wife is separated and the ngo

or bride-~ rice has not been paid bac!c by the woman's family, he goes without an

embrace as none of his other wives is permitted to perform this role for him. In

Igboiand. a divorce is nOt :omplere unless the bride-price has been returned ro him.

Afrer :he Jancing, he shares "Nhateve:: money he has been given while dancing with

the other members of the o:::o 3ociery. This sharing is called igha uklva (circulation

of wealth). The initiation ends with i;;onye ukwu n 'orimili (stepping into the river,

which is a visit to the River Niger [orimili Onitsha]). This visit to the River Nige::

serves two purposes. First. the new ozo steps into the embankment of the river and
venerates the river goddess whom the people of Onitsha regard as their mother and

prOtector. Second, he offers gifts in thanlcsgiving to the goddess for prOtecting him

throughout the duration of the ceremony and not letting him fall prey to evil forces.

A performance analvsis of the o:zo ritual

lchi o:::o. like other riruals that belong to the srarus enhancement sub-duster. is full

Igbo theatre in action making use of a high level of symbolic action w achieve its

goal. Throughout this rirual. there are many visits made to the forest in the middle

of the nighc. This symbolises a recognition of the dual narure of the aspirantlinitiand

209
·.
as possessing both the physical and the spiritual dimension, and these visits are made

to negotiate and harmonise both components. So from the moment the individual

decides to take this title and announces his intention to his family, these negotiations

become relentless. In Umuawulu, he is secluded from the rest of the public for

twenty eight days. while in Onirsha, it is overnight. In both cases, the aspirant has

his first contact with the goddess Earth as he takes the oath to keep the ozo precepts.

His body being painted with nzu signifies a yearning for higher spirirual ideals and

purity of thoughts, words and action. lchi ozo is a drama in which there are other

micro-dramatic happening. An example is the personalised negotiations between tl-te

aspirant and the nwa .Vshi on one side, and the aspirant and the goddess ani on the

other. Where the initiand cannot uphold a precept, he indicates his inability by

saying O!fll mafu. and gives reasons why that particular precept should nor bind. The

nwa .Vshi then >tarts a series of incantations persuading .Mother Earth for a waiver -

thus marking the start of another play within the negotiating play. The negotiation

is already a play within the entire ozo process. So the ozo process is a series of plays

within one main pe:'formance. This exemplifies the dramatic tlexibility for side

performances, and care involved in negotiating the intricate strucrure of an azo

covenant. In performance tenns. each covenant drawn up ro suit specific aspirant

involves a different language (incantation), set of action, props. characters (depending

on which waiver is being negotiated and with which god) ere. From a theatrical

perspective, there are three known characters at the shrine of the :Vlother Earth - the

goddess, the initiator and the aspirant. However, at every stage where a waiver is

sought, numerous other unseen deities are involved whom the initiator relates to

through the Earth Goddess. So the possibility for characterisation is endless. and the

dramatic representation of their presence and effect poses a challenge should anyone

wish to re::reate this interaction on stage.

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lchi ozo is also rich in symbols. The first is nzu, which is a representation of the

deities of the rivers and seas. Its cooling characteristic is also representative of it

source. The second is the symbol of the forest at midnight. The forest is the home

of spirits and the action of entering it at midnight is a sign of bravery, determination

to take up challenges and the beginning of another level of interaction with the spirit

world. It is interesting to note that this is the second time in a man's life that he

enters the forest at this time of the night, the first being at ima muo. Third, the

slaughtering of three goats in the forest, and the use of the blood which is used as a

preservative for the initiand's chi and osisi symbolises blood as the life force. With

each new aspirant, every eligible staff is painted over again. This action perpetuates

the bond between the holder and other members, thereby protecting through a

collective will. Even when the holder dies, the chi that represented his personal god

would remain, and its physical attributes will continue to tell, in silent terms, of the

attributes of its former owner. The goats slaughtered at the shrine in the forest at

midnight in the presence of the custodians of the forest, demonstrates man's

awareness that through sacrifices he comes into contact with the spirits ordering his

seen and unseen universe. Subsequently, the meal is a communion between the

existing ozo. the new initiand and the gods. No wonder it is shared only after the

initiand becomes a full-fledged member. Interestingly, the dramatic implication of

the unseen actor(s) is once more highlighted, and with it, the implications should one

decide to stage such an inter-action.

In Onitsha, the re-incorporation of the ozo into the community brings about a mini

carnival atmosphere and clearly demonstrates the anistry involved in the carving of

the different headgear and the colourful and intricate costumes. The gifts and money

which he shares with the other members symbolise the communal nature of the wider

society which the ozo is a part of, but also demonstrate the beginning of a shared

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intensity not yet seen in other rituals. The powerful but silent role is demonstrated

in Umuawulu where the man in the ozo nest is offered the moral and emotional

support he needs to enable him to complete his soul search. In Umuawulu and

Onitsha, the role of the wives demonstrates the importance of sustaining and re-

instating his human attributes during and after an extended contact with the spirits.

Symbolism and numerology in Igbo life is also demonstrated in the number of market

weeks that the aspirant spends in the ozo nest - seven market weeks. This is exactly

the length of time it takes an egg to incubate before the chick emerges. This

symbolises the transformation that happens to the aspirant while in the nest, where

he is protected against distractions and general mishap, and consequently, he emerges

a new being and takes on a new name and an exalted role. In Onitsha, the post-

initiation visit to the River Niger represents the in.itiand's final cleansing, and a visit

to the domain of the unseen forces inhabiting the river. This demonstrates an

attribute common to the Igbo - acknowledgement of duality, appreciation and

gratitude to the unseen forces with whom they share aspects of their universe.

The ozo title marks the attainment of higher spiritual ideals and the peak in self-

fulfLlment. It sets aside resourceful men of very high integrity who are the custodians

of the culture of their people. It demonstrates the investment of time and resource

by the Igbo (the present) in ensuring a gradual integration with their ancestors (the

past) in preparation for the journey ahead (the future).

In performance terms, this is a total performance in which there is a unification of

all the elements of drama and theatre - seen and unseen characters at play, speech,

dance and music, make up, props and multiple staging along with a high level of

symbolism, representation etc.

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Mortuary-Ascension Rituals

In traditional lgbo communities, the type of funeral accorded an individual depended

on first, the cause of death and second, the individual's contributions to the

community. Chapter 3 discussed one of the various types of death - onwu chi - which

is death due to natural causes. Others which are abnormal include death by accidents

and suicide, death by violation of taboo and/or committing an abomination and violent

deaths. In abnormal deaths, the emphasis is on the performance of cleansing rituals

to protect the living and also to ensure that natural rhythms are not upset. Such

funerals are not elaborate as all attempts are geared towards achieving the burial of

the corpse. Should the deities not be appeased, the corpse is disposed of in the evil

forest. However, the funeral of an established person who died a natural death is an

extended affair that could last up to two years. Funeral rites for women differ from

those given to men, because women are returned to their birth families for burial.

Two type of burial rites are: the immediate and the second burial rites.

The immediate burial rites: The usual rite for an immediate funeral involves first

informing all the relevant family members of the person's death, and iwu ozu aru or

the fmal cleansing in preparation for burial. If the established person is a woman,

she is buried immediately her birth family members arrive and agree that the corpse

should be sent to them. In some cases where the woman had not been looked after

while alive, her family may reject the corpse and protracted negotiations will follow

during which her family is compensated for any ill treatment she may have suffered.

After that, she is buried. However, where a man dies, the third phase of his

immediate burial rite is iwa anyaliwanye ebunu n 'anya (eye incision/dropping the

blood of the ram into the eye, respectively). This is a separation rite which

empowers the dead to 'see' and ward off obstacles on his way to the ancestral land.

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The Igbo believe that the way to the ancestral land is hazardous, because there are

disgruntled and evil spirits that would attempt to deter the dead from ascending into

the ancestral ranks. This ritual is performed by slaughtering an appropriate animal

(ram, chick, he-goat, dog, etc depending on locality), and dropping the blood into the

eyes of the deceased, who through transference, gains the attributes of the animal.

In Agulu, this rite is performed early in the morning by a nwa Nshi (somebody from

Nri), using an mkpi (he-goat) aged between six and twelve months, and presented by

the deceased's eldest son. After a lengthy incantation, the nwa Nshi immobilises the

he-goat and makes an incision on its jaw. The blood is collected in an ogirisi leaf

(see Chapter 3 for ritual agents) and dropped into the eyes of the dead person. This

is a rite of guidance, encouragement, revitalisation to ensure he reaches his

destination. Irrunediately after this performance, the nwa Nshi would place an omu

(young palm-leaf) between his lips, and leave with the incised he-goat. The omu is

believed to protect him against evil spirits that may be in pursuit and signifies to those

who meet him on his way home that he must not be spoken to. He does not look

back until he is safely home. The significance of not looking back is not to wimess

any spirits that may be in pursuit. At this point the corpse is buried, but it must be

noted that there are variations to this from one locality to another.

Iwa anya in most cases is a performance with little or no verbalisation and it involves

and is wimessed by only the deceased's peers and sons behind closed doors. Once

the final goodbye have been said by the deceased's wife/wives and children, the

ceremony begins with the dead in a sitting position inside a special form of coffin

called akpati nsukwu [Nnewi and environs], while the rest of the wimesses stand

around his corpse. His eldest son or a peer that the dead may have appointed while

alive (in Agulu, the nwa Nshi perfonns) takes a machete and with one clean blow,

214
severs the head of the ram. While the blood is collected, the machete is now handed

to the dead man. This will be his weapon of protection as he travels to the land of

the ancestors. Meanwhile, his eyes are pried open and a few drops of blood are

dropped into his eyes, and with very few incantations, he is mandated to fight all

obstacles on the way, and to return and avenge his death, if it was brought about by

any living person. The corpse is then tidied and buried in a sitting position. The

corpse can be buried either in the deceased's sleeping room, immediately outside his

obi or in communal burial places. Where a corpse is buried depends on what the

deceased requested while still alive. Meanwhile, the ram is cleaned and cooked but

the feast will not be shared by his peers until midnight.

In Mkpologu, the immediate burial rites include first, divination to establish the type

and causes of death, and to find out the type of cleansing sacrifices (if any) that need

to be performed. Second is the bathing of the corpse followed by the iwa anya.

After the iwa anya, the animal used in the process is handed over to the umuada

(daughters of the family) to prepare ihe uchu or the fmal breakfast. The feasting is

called ikpa uchu during which his family members and associates (age grade or

members of different societies) share the meal with the dead. Thereafter, his female

relatives will pay homage to him by performing ikpu akwa (to cover with cloth)

ceremony by donating a six-yard piece of cloth. His closest male associates will also

donate special pieces of black home-woven cloth called okpe. This okpe is a mark

of royalty and will be put into his coffm for him to use when he gets to the ancestral

land. If the person died a death that should be avenged (which would have been

revealed through divination) an appropriate weapon would be placed in his right hand

by his son with an injunction to avenge his death.

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After these home-based rituals, the coffm is decorated with some of the cloth donated

and carried by two men with pads on their head. These pads would have been made

by folding some of the donated cloth and the men bearing the coffm would move in

a synchronised and dignified manner to the village square where the corpse

accompanied by a masquerade which is greeted with gun shots. The grade of the

masquerade in attendance depends on the status of the deceased and it represents the

spirit of the ancestors. The gun powder is symbolic of the fiery attribute of the sun

god and sound of the shots serves to propel the deceased's spirit into a higher realm

and to warn the ancestors of his arrival. On getting to the village square where

people would be gathered by now, a donation of money starts, and the monies

collected would be shared later using a seniority ratio by the umunna (male members

of the extended family). From there, the body is moved to the ukpogwu or communal

burial site. However, sometimes very affluent and powerful men are buried in the

ime oma (inner room) of their nkoro (house). Before the corpse is finally laid to

rest, the son will perform the iti o'ku ekwentshu (Nkpologu dialect for ekwensu or the

devil). As the name of this rite suggests, it is a sacrifice of a cock to the devil to

ensure that no further temptation from all diabolical forces is encountered by the

deceased on his way to the ancestral land. It is performed only for married men who

at death were still living with their wife/wives, and it involves a prayer and praise

oration extolling the deceased's virtues. After that, holding up a cock on his right

hand and stretching out his left hand before him, his son would snap off the cock's

head by hitting its neck forcefully against the outstretched hand. Once this action

is successfully completed. the people around will perform the ic/zi oga (shouts of joy).

This is the fmal oga, the first having been for the deceased at birth. When the coffin

is placed in the earth, the next ceremony is called ichi eja n 'inyi (collecting a handful

of earth and throwing into the grave). This is performed by only very close relations

to wish him well, or his rivals who may wish to prove to the public that they were

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 ..

fair and even-handed with him in spite of their differences.

In the evening of the same day of the burial, the itu uzu akwa (the weeping

ceremony) is performed, announced by gun shots which are followed by the wailing

of all the women gathered, especially the umuada. After that the umuada will move

into the man's obi for a seven-day period of grieving. Within the duration of this

mourning period, the children will announce the date for the second burial of their

father. With this ends the immediate burial ceremony in Nkpologu.

The second burial ceremony

In Umuoji, the second burial ceremony is performed usually about one year or more

from the time of the death. It is performed for those well-advanced in age and the

accomplished whose funerals need elaborate planning because of their extensive

network, or for those people whose families need some more time to acquire the

material resources needed for a fitting burial. In Umuoji, the initial burial is not as

elaborate as that in Mkpologu. However, from the time the corpse is buried, the

planning of ikwa ozu (funeral) commences, with all the relevant members of the

family. relations and friends notified of this forthcoming occasion - in the appropriate

manner with kolanuts and palm-wine. This formal announcement also serves to enlist

the material, emotional and spiritual support of all concerned.

In pre-Christian Umuoji society, the agreed funeral day is a flurry of activities with

the deceased's sleeping bamboo bed brought out into the reception area of his iba

(hut) and decorated with all the traditional cloth or wrappers belonging to his wife or

wives. Most times, by the end of the funeral, there would be many different types

of cloth donated by his friends and in-laws when they arrive to pay their last homage

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 ..

during ikpu ozu akwa. The quality and quantity of cloth donated depends on how net-

worked and affluent the man was in his life time. This will eventually be shared by

the eldest daughters by the various wives. When the bed has been decorated, the

funeral proper begins with iti mkpu ozu (the funeral alert) or itikpo ozu (unveiling the

corpse) which is performed by the oldest man around. This, unlike the shout of joy

that announces the birth of a child, is not re-echoed from one household to another.

Once the mkpu ozu is performed, the widows, children and relations begin to weep

as if the deceased had just died. Meanwhile, the mkpo n 'ani (which are short hollow

barrels filled with gun powder and buried beneath the surface of the earth where they

are ignited from a distance in a synchronised manner) announces the beginning of the

funeral. It is supposed to awaken the deceased to make his final approach to the

ancestors, as well as announce to the world the passing of someone.

Throughout the night, the man's compound is a beehive of activities with the cooking

that will be used for entertainment the next day, and if the man is an ozo, the u.fie

(which 'called' out to him while he was in the ozo nest) will continue to summon and

to tell of his achievement. At dawn, the widows will begin to cry again and this

declares the funeral open for that day. While the visitors are awaited, the ozo

members would arrive first thing in the morning to dance to the ufie music as it

salutes their depaned colleague. In most places, this is the time that the guild, cult

and society members arrive to pay their peculiar homage to their member. For

instance, if the deceased was a great hunter, the members of the egbenuoba guild

would arrive to re-create his exploits as a great hunter in mime perfonned to the

accompaniment of their own specialist hunters' guild music. If he was an ozo. music

will be provided from the ujie and abia ike will be danced. The abia is an energetic

music produced on the abia drum, which like the ufie 'talks' of the exploits of a dike

(hero). Only a select few can dance and interpret the music of the ufie and/or abia.

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The entertainment area is usually in front of the man's house and the women will

remain in their mkpuke with other mourners. The funeral arrangements would have

decided on which day the masquerades would appear and these are usually the

fiercest, ugliest and the most destructive and they must be stopped with gifts in a

ceremony called igbo ora. If this does not happen these masquerades will

demonstrate their anger at the death of such a person by destroying the structures set

up for sheltering the visitors. Most times, these masquerades are offered live animals

(hen, cock, rams or goats) depending on how affluent the family is, and if the gift to

the masquerade is a fowl, it is tied, hanging head downward on either its waist or

head. If it is a bigger animal like a goat or a ram, it is carried on the shoulder of one

of the masquerade's attendants.

At midnight on the last day of the funeral, the man"s first son and first daughter

would take his favourite food prepared by his eldest daughter, to a road junction

nearest to their family home to perform the itu nni ritual. There the food is left for

him to come and eat after they have bid him farewell, and this would be his last

earthly meal. It is a separation rite which ensures that he does not embark on the

journey hungry because the Igbo believe that a hungry man or spirit is an angry man

or spirit. The food is also supposed to provide him with the physical energy that he

needs to finish the journey successfully. Usually, by morning the food would have

been eaten, leaving just the plate in which it was brought.

By the eighth day, the wife's hair is shaved clean by the most senior member of the

umuada. If the widows had not cared for the man while he was alive, the umuada

will refuse to shave her hair. This symbolises their refusal of the woman, and a

series of negotiations would stan headed by the rejected widow's family, to seek

ways of redressing the grievances. The widows are not allowed out until after seven

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market weeks, and they are said to be in mourning and for the next one year, they

must dress in pure black cloth called akwa mkpilmkpe (mourning cloth) and are not

allowed to re-marry until their period of mourning is over. Life in the family is

generally very low-key throughout this period of mourning.

After one year in mourning, the umuada would arrive to thank the wives for their

decorum and respect with which they treated their dead brother, and they would ask

them to remove their mourning cloth and to have a cleansing bath. All the mourning

clothes are collected by the head of the umuada and burnt. This is the ftrst time in

lgbo rituals that we have seen the use of fire to mark a new beginning. This is a

low-keyed family ritual. However, on the frrst market day following the end of

mourning, the wives would attend the market in a ceremony called ipu afia (coming

out into the market), which is their re-incorporation into the society after their period

of mourning. Usually a lot of people in the market would notice that a woman has

removed the black mourning cloth, and she is usually showered with greeting, money

and gifts.

However, in Nkpologu the second burial ceremony is not as elaborate as the frrst.

On this occasion, every adult male and female member of the umunna (extended

family) is expected to kill a live animal depending on what they can afford. These

animals are slaughtered on the eve of the second burial in the man's compound as this

ritual is called anyasi igbu anu (the night when animals are slaughtered). The next

day is for entertaining the friends invited from other towns and villages. Later on the

same day, the male leader of each family unit that slaughtered animals will parade the

village square carrying the head of the slaughtered animals. This carnival is led by

an entertaining masquerade (lkorodo) or the atiliogwu dancers. This is a collective

and ftnal send off to the departed.

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The perfonnance elements in the lgbo first and second funeral rites are quite

elaborate. From the time of death, the perfonnance moves from the man's house to

the village square (only in Nkpologu) before he is buried in the communal burial

space. In Umuoji, where the man is buried without any fanfare, the second burial

starts and is mostly contained within his and other neighbouring compounds. One

year later, during the outing ceremony, the venue is the village market square.

The perfonners involved are both human and spirits - where the spirits are

represented by the masquerades. On the human level, the core organisers are the

family, in-laws and members of any societies he may belong to, and their costumes

comprise a strip of three yards wrapper tied over their nonnal clothes across their

waists and knoned behind. There is also the ijele which is worn by women around

their ankles and it comprises tiny and hollow spherical metal balls which are clumped

to produce a jangling sound.

On the spirit level, the masquerades that appear are either those brought along by the

man's peers, various in-laws and children. Their costumes and images depend

mainly on the kind of spirit depicted. They range from the very beautifully carved

to the grotesque, the benign to the violent, the dancing to the fighting etc. The more

violent ones have mean and grotesque-looking dark faces, thick over-protruding and

garishly painted red lips, out-sized yellowish teeth hanging menacingly over the lower

lip, bulging eyes and menacingly twisted horns on their heads. The fiercest ones

have bells attached to their waistS to announce their whereabout so that unsuspecting

people are offered a chance for escape. Usually, they are summoned and directed by

an okwa oja (a traditional t1utist). Most times they do not enter the funeral venue

through the regular route, but will scale very high walls and land amidst people

unannounced, displaying fierce acrobatic feats, wielding axes which they do not

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Performance overview of burial rites

The circle of performers, scenery, props (including ritual agents), costumes and

length of play in burial/ascendency rituals depends on locality, and on whether it is

the first or second burial. Burials are either performed immediately or deferred

depending on bow resourceful the family is to accord the deceased the total burial

rites. However, once a person dies, the most imponant thing is bow to contain the

crisis at band. If the family decides on immediate burial, the performers involved at

this stage would be the deceased's peers and grown up children. In all areas of

Igboland, the final cleansing of the corpse in preparation for the burial is performed

with his sons and peers present. In Agulu, the nwa nshi is invited to perform the

final separation rite using the be-goat, while in Umuoji, the machete with which the

bead of the ram is severed is also the prop that goes into the coffm with the corpse.

However, in Nkpologu, the first burial is more elaborate and the performance starts

from the man's house and moves on to the village square involving a wider range of

performers. Once the corpse is buried, parallel staging becomes more apparent as

different relatives entertain both the masquerades and human beings that have come

to pay condolence. The intensity of the action depends on how well networked each

parallel performer is, and his/her ability to cater for his/her visitors. There is no

time limit and once darkness falls, the human activity and involvement is overtaken

by the night masquerade.

Second burials demonstrate a higher propensity for planning. Usually, there is a

time-table for all performing human and masquerade groups. Sometimes, the more

intransigent masquerades would exceed their performance time and will refuse to

clear the main arena for other waiting groups. This action is meant to irk the next

group of performing masquerades and a fight may ensue. When this happens, a

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pandemonium is ' caused by the disturbance of the natural balance as these

masquerades use their diabolical powers in an attempt to subdue each other. This

performance within a performance usually takes some time to quell before the main

funeral resumes. Parallel staging also happnens with various groups entertaining and

being entertained in neighbouring compounds.

Costumes are as varied as the entertainers, but they distinguish the chief mourners

from the visitors. This is because of the length of wrapper the family members tie

around their mid-section and the ijele around their ankles. The vogue in most cases

is that families will purchase bales of cloth which are then distributed to every

member of both the nuclear and extended family and very close friends. This

distinguishes those wearing the cloth as what the Igbo have come to describe these

days as "chief mourners" and/or "circle of friends".

The music is also differentiated depending on whether the deceased is male or female.

In the case of a man, the ufielikoro musicians play incessantly, re-telling the prowess

of the deceased. This is a specialised form of music which only his titled peers

dance to. In the case of women, masquerades never perform although in ldemili

Local Government Area, the masquerade's music and musicians collectively called

igba mmanwu (the masquerade's drummers) can attend and perform. Other dance

groups are mainly women's groups.

Once the funeral rites have been completed, the action once again returns to the

deceased's nuclear family. The shaving of the hair which signifies the loss of beaury

is only carried out on the wives/husband and children. The person responsible for

shaving the hair is the isi ada who is the oldest of all the daughters in the extended

family. She either uses a pair of scissors or a razor blade to take off a turf of hair

224
 \

at hair line right on top of the forehead. How low she goes demonstrates how she

wants the hair cut - usually the person who would cut the hair after this would try as

much as possible to keep to this guideline.

After the shaving of the hair, the umuada remain for the next seven market weeks,

keeping vigil in the room where the deceased had been laid in state. Their departure

leaves the spouses and children of the deceased to get on with the task of mourning

for the next one year.

Structurally, there are many rituals within each other and these are brought about by

the single act of dying. At different stages, there is an active interplay of characters,

ritual agents, music and song within a flexible staging arrangement. lgbo rituals

demonstrate that there can exist a performance style that is all-involving, which

constitutes a theatre not restricted by space and time, one which takes into account

the make-up of humans as both matter and spirit in natural characterisation, speech,

staging, costuming, art and music etc.

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 CONCI.:USION

The lgbo propensity to perform life is clearly demonstrated in their rituals. It is also

clear that these rituals do not happen by accident; lgbo people have found it

meaningful to have them in the forms and positions at which they occur.

This work is an attempt to understand how the lgbo accomplish their ritual

performances and what forms they take. To do this, our approach has been a direct

analysis of the functions and structure of lgbo rituals which are rich and varied. The

textural richness of these rituals can be attributed to the fact that the Igbo live in a

complex and contiguous world of the past, present and future in which they always

strive to maintain a harmonious balance through rituals. So they have evolved their

rituals to celebrate their relationship with the seen and unseen forces they co-exist

with, and also to mark their biological and occupational progression in time and

space. Furthermore, the Igbo believe that life is a gift from God; hence they use

their rituals to thank God for the unique gift of life, to enlist the support of the visible

and invisible forces for a fruitful life, to consecrate and venerate their deities and

ancestors, and to celebrate their own biological and occupational changes.

Progress into this complex world of Igbo rituals was difficult at the beginning and so

it became necessary in the course of this work to group them into three categories,

namely, communal, peer and personal rituals. Communal rituals are the rituals of

rhythm which the Igbo use as a calendar to mark one season from another and to

venerate and celebrate their deities and ancestors. Peer rituals, as the name suggests,

are those rituals used by people who belong to either the same age grade and other

social groups to mark or celebrate their shared cornmonalities. Personal rituals mark

individual, biological and occupational progression.

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 ..

Once this area of srudy was is sufficiently defmed it becomes imperative to fully

explain the function, strucrure and process of these riNals and this requires a

taxonomy for clarification to aid the readers' comprehension. In the course of the

srudy it also becomes necessary to limit the scope of the work so that a thorough

analysis can be achieved, hence the decision to srudy rituals in the personal category.

There is a rich field of untouched lgbo rirual performance that is yet to be mined,

such as the peer, communal and numerous other lgbo riruals that do not fit into our

three categories. This tax.onomical approach has two major limitations (a) the rituals

that belong, especially, to the communal group are completely left out and (b) the

work's inability to contribute to a nearly thirty year-old debate (see Chapter 2) among

some lgbo scholars (Echeruo, Amankulor, Enekwe, Obiecbina and Nzewi to mention

a few) in response to particularly Horton and Finnegan concerning their euro-centric

views about "certain dramatic and quasi-dramatic phenomena to be found" in African

traditional festivals; and again between these lgbo scholars and Echeruo for

suggesting that lgbo theatre needs to free itself from its submergence in lgbo riruals.

These scholarly debates are not directly relevant to this work, although it must be

pointed out that they help to inform the researcher's opinion about lgbo riruals as

performance. And this is where the work of such scholars as Schechner, Turner and

Werbner become relevant as they provide the study with the appropriate concept and

terminology for a discourse of performance theory and practice.

Having pointed out the disadvantages in studying only personal rituals, it must

also be said that defming the limits of the work creates room for an exhaustive srudy

using the classificatory methods and terminologies that immediately offer more insight

into lgbo riruals. Under this model of classification, riruals in the personal category

are divided into clusters and sub-clusters and consequently, their hidden

characteristics start to yield themselves to further investigation and understanding.

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Furthermore, all personal rituals can be classified into the passive, controlled active

and active category, depending on the level of the main performer's involvement in

any on-going ritual. It also becomes apparent that all rituals of childhood are

mandatory and passive until the child reaches about twelve years of age and then,

they change into controlled active - referring to the performer's increased

participation in the ritual. However, after puberty young men and women initiate

their own rituals in agreement with their families. This adulthood rituals belong to

the active ritual cluster. Here is in control of what rituals, where and when they are

performed. At death the cycle returns in full to passive and mandatory rituals. This

form of clustering is a reflection of the Igbo belief in the cyclic nature of their

existence.

Furthermore, the introduction of the "triangle of life" facilitates the placement of the

rituals on a triangular continuum which also reflects continuity in lgbo existence.

The equilateral nature of this triangle helps demonstrate that although different rituals

form the different sides of the triangle, all sides are equal and therefore, all rituals

are equally important. The effect is that rituals can be placed along the three axes

depending on why lgbo rituals exist, and where they feature in the lives of the

individuals that are involved in them. This placement also demonstrate that rituals

exist because they fulfil the Earth, Religious and/or Cultural (Chapter 3) needs of the

people.

As a result of these clustering and categorisation, ritual agents are shown to be as

varied and as symbolic as the rituals in which they are used. Thus, ritual agents can

be classified into the animate and the inanimate while the latter can be further be

further broken down into the organic and the inorganic categories. For example,

divination rituals make use of mostly inanimate inorganic ritual agents while burial

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and ascendency rites use mostly animate agents. However, these agents are used

because they are either psychic inducers or conductors, and because they enhance

communication between the human and the spirit worlds.

The completion of this work makes possible the comparative and performance

analyses of rituals from different parts of Igboland. A couple of things become clear

(a) that rituals may sometimes have different names (depending on the region or

locality), and (b) that the structure of any two given rituals from different areas of

Igboland will be the same, but the process invariably differs.

The implications of this study are that it may encourage many others who, until now,

may have been ambivalent about the worth of works such as this to come forward

with their own contributions. It is hoped that this study (or the ideas it present) will

rouse an interest in further researches relating to particular regions/localities. Most

important is the possibility that performance artists and playwrights may fmd the

modes of classification employed in this work useful in their translations of the

symbols, icons and indices that they may come across their own work.

This work is useful because it enables graphic representations to be made at various

points to help illustrate some complex ideas that may otherwise prove too elusive.

It also enables us to draw up a list of some of the parameters common to most Igbo

rituals, and they are as follows:

First, the diviners are most times instrumental to the nature of the rituals that ensue

and the role and intensity of performers depend on whether the rituals are passive,

controlled active or passive.

Second, the audience/spectamrs are panicipative and would often get actively

involved in the on-going action and their level of involvement depend on their

disposition and on the ability of the main performer to get them involved in his/her

229
experience. Their involvement has the effect of prolonging the entire performance
and giving a flavour mostly derive from the spontaneity of play within plays. The
study has raises the question about whether lgbo performance will be the same, or
even be in existence without its participative audience/observer.

Third, the performance space or arena can be as diverse as the rituals- moving from
the home to the village squares, shrines, forests, streams, etc. Hence, lgbo
performance is a proof that space was made for performance, and not performance
for space. lgbo performance is flexible and as such they can be experienced
anywhere with maximum results - even if it is in the middle of the night.
Fourth, text in lgbo performance is learnt over the years as the individuals go through
the various rites of passage. It is an active text and how effectively it is understood
depends on the physical and mental disposition of the performer at the time, level of
exposition and experience, participative audience-spectator response, time of day,
space, occasion being celebrated etc. Ritual scripts are varied and are in the form of
incantations, songs, libations, proverbs, chants and invocations etc.

The following are areas of further work stemming from the completion of this study:

More investigation needs to be carried out into the nature of peer and community
rituals as well as the marriage ritual between deities and humans, as in the cases of
Ukehe and Ala Uno communities.

There is also a need for further investigation into lgbo healing rituals, and exactly
where they fit on the "triangle of life" - if at all they do. If not, can another model
be used for the study of other yet unclassified lgbo rituals?

Further research work can be carried out into cult, craft and guild rituals, for
example. initiation into the egbenuoba (hunters' guild) and dibia (traditional medicine
cult), and the possibility of adopting another classificatory method

Finally, it is hoped that this work on lgbo rituals inspires an understanding and thus
fulfils the yearning for rituals that may lie latent in every human being, especially,
all those who may chance across this work.

230
 ·~

APPENDIX A: J.\IIAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING IGBOLAND

231
 -.

MAP OF NIGERIA
30 States and the
Federal Capital Territory.

Bight of

S.nin

Nigeria
50 100 150
--
- o
--..
,..,..., .... - -~
 APPENDIX B: MYTH OF ORIGIN
(Translated by M.Angulu Onwuejeugwo)

Chu/.,:wu, !he creator,

Sem Eri down.
Eri came down from !he sky.
He sailed down the river Anambra,
And established at Aguleri.
Mystical powers, he bad,
Which won !he people over to him.
They bad no king and
There was no food.
Chukwu fed !hem o n flfiDament.
Chukwu said: "Sacrifice "your first son•
Eri sacrificed his first son,
And Chukwu gave Eri yam.
Chukwu said: "Sacrifice your first daughter"
Eri sacrificed his first daughter,
And Clzukwu gave Eri cocoyam
Eri became king;
Grear king he was.
He bore Agulu, Nri, /gbariam. Nando and /guedo by a woman,
And bore Onoja by anolher woman called Oboli.
lguedo was a woman:
A famous daughter she was.
Onoja migrated to /gala country ...
Agulu stayed at Aguleri ...
N ri migrated to the forest soulh.
Througbt Amanuke he sojourned,
To found Enugu-Ukwu and senled at Agukwu.
He took the Nri title and became Nri ljikuanim.
He established !he Ozo title,
And Clrukwu was delighted.
He sem four Alusi to Eze Nri.
They came four strangers wilh fish baskets.
They refused to disclose !heir names.
In !he night Eze Nri discovered !heir names lhus:
He sent ratS into Eke 's basket,
The rar went into Eke's basket.
Oye called out Eke! Eke!
Rats are in your basket.
The Eze Nri heard it ...
He discovered their secret names: Eke, Oye, Afo, Nkwo.
Eke is Nne
Oye is Diokpala
Afor is Osuzu Okpala
Nkwo is Odudu Mva
In !he morning, Eze called !hem
Eke! Oye! Afo! Nkwo!
Eze's wisdom was extolled.
The four Alusi established !he four market days
And !he new occupation of trading and sojourning.
The supernatural said to Eze Nri:
Go and establish the markets,
Call them Eke, Oye, Afo. Nkwo.
Nri began to sojourn, establishing markets, Ozo and Nso ana.
This they did all over lgbo land
The four market days are from Clzukwu

232
APPENDIX C: SA.\VIPLES AND INTERPRETATION OF NSffiiDI

233
 ~UME N~JlJIJJI ~J(;N~ KEY
I, 2 ~lnrrircl luvr (2. with pillow)
.1 ~fnrr ird le~vr with pille~w!l lnr hr1ul and frr i-R 11i~rwf wr:~lth
~ "I
nrr kcllm•r with flillnw
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'"""'
6 Vinlrnl 'llllUrrl ltrtwrrn hu~lmrul anrl wifr
7 C)n,. whu nmsc1111 di:.tmltnrH rltrtwrrn hullhnrul nurl wifr
R A womAn with 11hc drilclrrn nnrl hrr lur!lhRrul; A Jlillnw ill hrhv,.rnlhrm
9 Tw11 wh•rll with tlrrir drilllr rn (n), nl mw mAll (ht. with tlrr ""'f-Ir,.,. nf I h,.
hcHr!ll' in whirh thry livr (r)
IU A hnu11r (n) in wlrir h Arrtlurf' womrn Rncl A rmm. 'llrr clut~ hnvr nn mr:'lll-
in~
I I Twn wornrn with rrrnny rlrilclrrn in tlrr hotl!lf' with thrir lnrotlmml
I 2 Two Wclttlf'll on tAc·h 11iclr nl" hnii!IC. (}ne Oil rRdrlli\lr hn11 Arhilcl
1-----·~ C 11 A wmmm with rhilcl (l{rnrrAI lliRnt
I~ Thrllrtnlf'; if 11 lliRII wrilu I hill 11i~n on thr ~r1111111l, it mr:rn!lth.,l hi~ nwn
9~10 wifr Ill with c·hild
~a.. I 'i l':~l:r,•rr,lhr ~trnrr·AIIrtm. hy no mrnn!l rnnfinrrltnur:rtr inRr 1ml:r,·rr!1
I 6 1\ WOIIIAil wh11 clclf'lllllll WIUII ltrr hullhRtlll Rllf 1111111'
t--- - -1b. I T A wnmnn whn wi!drrll Input nw11y llf'r lllt!lhnncl
I 111 EmhrncinR1 (UtK·unlittnrcl intrqnriAtion)
I R A lrnrlnt
I Y Tw11 wumrn who livr in thr llnmrluHI!II' h11ve pnl:rvrr rvrry timr lhry nrrrt .
A I hh cl woman Ill r.ntrrln~t hy I hr rlc10r
211 A IIIAil (n) who c·omr.111o a wmmtn whn hnll" lmllhncul nncl :rllkll hrr 111 llvr
with him
21 (n), (ltt, anrl (r) 1nr thrrf' mcon whollctURhlthr !IAIIIf' mnnircl wmnAn. Arul
•1uarrrllrd bton1111C' of hc:-r
22 (n) i11 n m11n who rommillrcl11dultcry with a wc>mAn (h). whn nnw li\'r!l
....., npnrl fmm hu hudt11ml (r). '1114' Rlllhy man hu '"I'"Y rcmtiiC'Il!IAtinn to
tlrco wnm;m'~ family 111111 hu hul'llumcl. (J) i!l thr "'"""Y flAicl. (r) nrr thr
I pnrtlrll to whnm thr mm try Wl'lll Jll'llrl
·i. ·. 2:1 A num a mill womAn wrrr 'ft irtrcl~ ' . 'llrr mnn wiothnltn lrn\'f' ltrr. I 1111 ~~~"
wnultl nnll'l~tr~f' . I hiC' clny hr wmfr thi!l ~~~~~ Rlluvrr hrr llfMt!lr. nml ltMtk
..·'
hill rlrt•arlurr . (n} ttlf'an!l thRI hf' rurllf'll hrr, !lnyiu~ thnl llhr hn:t 'rr:.w-
rrRw'. (lt) Ulf'IUI~ lhl'll lrr h~tl'l ~nnf' fnl'lnothrr tnwn
2~ lo~wr witlrnut RIU I'I"IIM"nl
., I
2'i llrnrt with trnr lnvr
2(, llr:~tl wh hnut lntr.lcwc
21 ftiiiiii!'IAIII hrArf
2R 'I wn llf'f!IIUI!I "ll'"" inlo\'r
29 (1JI iot" \YIIIlll'ln who lltllf''tlll ltnlltr inthr th•rr RI n rmcl (h). wltilr hrt· ln•~-
"""'' (r) wntdrr~ In !lrr thnttH•IIIIC' I'IIICiflll'l hrr
:lfl Juju lum~ o\lf'r R cln11r or nuthr ro11cltn R llltllotr tnlcrrp cl:utP.rr · r~prt inlly
r\·il "l'i' lfll- from the huu!lr. Snc-rifirc11 nf fowl!! and ~u:tlll :ur nllrt rei 111 it
.11 I· h ~wnod
.U , :ll , .nukin~~t ~~tiR!I!Ir• (Aillllll~c·rl fur R mnn with n ltHrkir•~~t ~l:1ot~)
1' .H A nallvr mnl, U!IC'cl R!t 111 IIf'cl
J'i A ~tnurrl fnr a drink ins nrp
L
l .
.llr N;uivcromb
:17 TniltllloRp
t;
1
JR lln~i1111111l wntrr
39 t~lnhR'h with .. CIO,Aill•m• iu~ticlr it. A rlt;lltm 1~ R rc•pprr witr '''CIIIIrnttr-
.! twrnliC'th of a rod. Sue h ulnbathe• havr hin~~tr!l nf llurco 1111 illllt!l
1 ..., Slavca
• I r.:.-
·~

APPENDIX D: EXCERPTS FROM INTERVIEW WITH ARAZU

(RE-INCARNATION)

234
 APPENDIX D

(Excerpts from interview with Rev. Dr. Raymond Arazu (FRA) in November
1995. Interviewed by M-B Chinyelum Okafor (MB). This is a verbatim
transcription of an audio interview, and the only inclusions are indicate with [
] mark, added by the researcher to make some sections of the interview clearer.

FRA: ... the old man/woman will usually say "uwam ga ano, agam abu orrye di
otua (when I come to the world again, I will be that kind of person). He
or she is very conscious of rebirth and is doing what is called obibi uwa -
in other words declaring what he or she would want to be when he/she
comes again. Because in these kind of assenions/afflTOlations about
"when I come I will be ... " he is trying to influence his nature by these
assenions. We also hear that the old woman that commits crimes will
have to suffer for those crimes when she comes again "Nwa agadi nwarryi
mesia alu, onokwa uwa o kpuchaa yal" (when an old woman commits an
abomination, when she re-incarnates, she will undo it). So that embedded
in the tradition itself is this idea that people are born, people come back
to the world again. Usually you come back in your own ancestral home.
The ancestors are always coming back, but those who earn the title of
ancestor when they come back, they are still over here.

This is the only mystery we have in the lgbo type of re-incarnation. That
the person who has re-incarnated, can reincarnate in more than one
person and at the same time. When you are breaking the kolanut, or
when you are drinking the wine - doing the libation, you are still
referring to him as "Nna ha taa oji" (my fathers eat the kolanut). Even
though you may be calling your son your father, believing that your
father has reincarnated in your son, you are still praying to your [dead]
father when you are pouring out the wine or when you are breaking the
kolanut. So that we want to be faithful to the tradition itself - the
tradition is not as simple as some people want us to believe. Not just a
question of a person coming and being incarnated in the son, No! We
believe that the person can incarnate in the son of this daughter, in the
son of that son, in the son of that daughter. The same person can
reincarnate more than once at the same time. The same person is still

235
over there in the spiritland, even after reincarnation.

It is only in the ogbanje issue - Dr (Mrs) Achebe has written a fantastic

book on ogbanje - where she went through all the nuances, all the
ceremonies, all the fortune-telling that go into the ogbanje issue. It is a
fantastic book she has written.

The ogbanje is a group soul. They are souls that come in groups, they
are born, they die young, they go back and they are born again. These
are the only group that come completely. The same individual is reborn
and stays, does not get to adulthood, goes back and comes back again-
play this prank, breaking the hearts of the parents as a kind of enjoyment
for their group. That is why they are regarded as evil and that is why
you have to get ogbanje dibia to see whether you can stop them from
playing this kind of pranks that is very disturbing for the family. These
are the only group ... you fmd this ... the Yorubas call it Abiku. You
have this phenomenon all through West Africa- this ogbanje issue. Now
these are the two types - if you call it reincarnation then that's what we
have. But I don't think it does correspond to ....

In fact if you read my article in the magazine of the Claratian Fathers -

I'll look for it- where I spoke about reincarnation although they muddled
up my... because I gave an oral interview and they taped it and they
muddled it up. It was there that I wanted to point out ... you see they are
trying to catch me out, to catch you out - you believe in reincarnation
since you are Roman Catholic Priest, but I was trying to point out to
them that the word re-incarnation when correctly interpreted, is a
misnormer. Camis. Carnis is a Latin for flesh, [£ is again and by
implication it means taking the flesh again. That is re-incarnation. The
problem is: you endorse Aristotelian philosophy which defines man as
body, soul, entity - matter and form. The body is a matter, the soul is
a form and strangely, the whole western system, western thoughts has
endorsed this idea of body and soul.

236
 ·,

Now, Oriental"p)lilosophy laughs at this because it is too simplistic, it's

too elementary, it's childish. In Oriental thinking, they have made use
of the sages who under clairvoyance have been able to discover that man
has four different bodies- each within the other. You have
the physical body
the subtle body
the causal body
super-causal body before you come to the spirit-soul.

So when you talk about reincarnation, which body are you talking about?
So that is the problem. Which body? Because when you slug off the
physical body, you still have three bodies. Somebody who has shoved off
the physical body has still three bodies. That is why atimes you can see
somebody who has died.

I know a case that happened last year. One of my neighbours, he went

to Lagos, his brother died when while he was in Lagos. He took the
brother to a mortuary in Lagos - on Friday evening. He stayed Saturday
in Lagos, came back on Sunday. [On his return] The son, 18 year old
son, [who did not know about his uncle's death] told him "Daddy, your
brother came here yesterday". Yesterday was Saturday - the day after he
was taken to the mortuary. He said: "which brother?", called the name,
it was the same brother who died on Friday, whose body he took to the
mortuary that Friday. The son continued: "He came here at Abakpa
[meaning the area where they reside] on Saturday, he said "he asked me
where you are and I told him you went to Lagos, and he asked me to tell
you that he is gone to Owerri". Now he [the man] was confused. But
unfortunately for him again, around midnight, the phone rang and it was
his nephew in America. He [the man whose brother died] had sent fax
message to the nephew in America that his uncle had died in Lagos. And
the nephew rang and said "what nonsense are you people talking there in
Nigeria. But I got a message that my uncle is dead, behold my uncle
arrived here today, Sunday. And he is sleeping in the room there now".

237
 ·~

OK, at that stage I stopped him - this happened, I can call the witnesses.
In this case, the son - independent witness saw the man - the son saw him
here. The nephew in America saw him in America - within a space of
twelve hours. The problems is that after the phone call when be goes to
the room, he won't fmd him. (Laughs)

I have bad some ... I have investigated some cases like this and it is very
common. Why I used this is that this one I know about. Because the
man took the son to me and sat him down and said "tell Father what
happened", and when we ftnished, be was completely confused.

I told him not to worry that the problem is that we got the wrong kind of
training as we were told just body and soul, That was all. There are
other bodies. When you lose the physical body, you still have three other
bodies. So you can still move around with them.

1\<IB: On this earth plane?

FRA: Sure! You can move around with all your bodies, it takes
sometime. In fact, because there are some desires the person has,
that is why he continues visiting - because of their relations and
so on, because of attachment That is why we are usually warned
about attachments.

But these are ... I am glad parapsychology is now moving into these areas
even at the University level - the area of clairvoyance, the area of being
able to get information from the dead- but the Orientals, they knew these
things for so long.

Now when you talk about re-incarnation, now which body are you talking
about that the person is taking on because the Orientals have again told
us which science is now realising that you have a brand new body every
seven years. They have known that for over ftve thousand years ago.
We are only recognising it now- the cells in the body are multiplying and

238
 they are being replaced by new cells, so that over a period of seven
years, most of the cells in the body are brand new. Now that means, re-
incarnation is already taking place in one life time. Every seven years
you have reincarnated, you have a new body. This is not the body with
which you came out of your mother's womb. And in the next seven
years, you won't have this body.
MB: Regeneration and reincarnation ...

FRA: You don't generate a new body except through regeneration. To generate
is by birth. You don't regenerate yourself. It is in-built in the system -
that the system shrugs the old when the new is always coming, so that the
body with which I came inw this earth is no longer there.

So I was asking them when they talk about reincarnation, the final
resurrection isn't that reincarnation? To say there is not reincarnation
why should we take on the body again at your fmal resurrection - that is
reincarnation. And moreover, the reincarnation, if you live up to 70
years, you have used 7 brand new bodies or 10 brand new bodies- every
seven years you change. Now when you are going to rise again, which
of them are you going to rise in? If you lived to 70, you have 10 brand
new bodies you've made use of and which one are you going you use
when you rise up?

What is actually happening is that the theological questions were put there
where the philosophical thinking was crude. Now that you have refined
the philosophical thinking a bit, you may have to get rid of some of those
theological questions. They are no longer valid - like reincarnation, I
don't know what it means any more. What people have in their minds is
their physical body, I don't know which physical body you are talking
about, I've had so many of them. So that what you are saying doesn't
make sense to me

239
MB: Father, let me say it in lgbo, 'probably you will shed more light. What
does this mean: na mmadu nolu mmadu uwa? (that someone has re-
incarnated [that is speaking re-incarnation the lgbo way])?

FRA: Na mmadu nolu mmadu uwa (pause), your father may say to you that
nagam anolu gi uwa n[I will come back to you] and then one of your
children is born and may have his characteristics. If you disbelieve, and
go to afa usually to perform the igba agu ceremony. Every child born
must have this done. When afa starts igba agu, he will ask questions
until he declare the person who the child is. This is done before the
naming of the child. Sometimes after igba agu, problems may develop
due to misunderstanding. To avoid this situation, three different afa
would perform igba agu simultaneously. If they all agree who it is that
is revisiting, then it becomes final. So that to say na mmadu nolu mmadu
uwa in the lgbo system, the person is still over there.

But in the Hindu system, the person can always take on a new body, in
fact, it is the Jaw of karma that dictates reincarnation. You failed a class,
you come and repeat it - you did not arrive at God realisation, so you
have to continue coming, and if you Jive like an animal you will come
back as an animal. Because all the animal kingdom are on their way to
becoming man, anyway. Because there is only one ATMAJV- the spirit-
soul, it is in the plant, in the tree, in fish, in man and so on. It's a
question of the kind of awareness it develops, it becomes this or that, but
it is one.

MB: Father let me take you back to the ogbanje, so instead of looking at them
as evil spirits, they should be pitied.

FRA: They are shame selfishness, absolute selfishness. That is what they are.
They are enjoying themselves at the expense of other people, and that is
sin.
MB: But do they understand what they are doing, because that soul does not
understand it is in static motion.

240
FRA: They are very near the animal kingdom.
MB: Can a living person reincarnate (for want of a better English word)

FRA: We have some cases, very old people. I know one of my landlords who
had a son: the ring on the man's father's head is on the child's.
Immediately he was born, the child's grandfather sent a message that no
one should bring this child to him. So the grandfather never saw the
baby.
IVIB: Why?
FRA: I don't know
IviB: He didn't want to see himself
FRA: No!

241
 ..

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 ..

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Arazu, R.C. (1981) Visions and Apparitions: lgbo Traditional Religion,

Academic Star, (August/September)

Annstrong, A. (1962) "Giottochronology and African Languages" Journal of

African History, ill,2.

Cookey, S.J.S. (1982) An lgbo Slave Story of the Late Nineteenth Century and
its implications, Ikenga: Journal of African Studies, Vol. I, No
2.

Nkala, N.O. (1980) The God Concept in lgbo: Apres Father Arazu, Letter to the
Producer, Patterns of our life, Anambra Broadcasting Service, 25
November.

Okafor, Maudline N. (1973) Age Grade in Umuoji: A Study in Continuity and

Change, Unpublished B.A Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.

Okafor, MB.C. (1995) Rituals: A Theatre of Therapy and Affirmation, presented

at the ALA Conference, Ohio.

Okagbue, 0. (1993) Invisible Presences: Masks and Spirits in lgbo Society,

Assaph C.No9.

_ _ _ (1987) "Theatre on the Street: Two Nigerian Samples", in

JAHRGANG, Pp. 159 - 164.

_ _ _ (1989) "Reaching for the Ancestors: Religion in lgbo Traditional

Theatre, Conference Paper, Barcelona.

(1991) "Festival, Carnival and Popular Theatre: From Collective

Affirmation to Group Assenion", Conference Paper, Barcelona.

(1992) "When the Dead Return: Play and Seriousness in African

Masked Performances", Conference/Workshop Paper, Dublin

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Review., Vol. 32. No.2 (T118).

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Tabwa, The Drama Review, Vol. 32, No. 2 (Tll8).

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Theatre, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Plymouth.

244
Interviews:

Personal interviews(in chronological order)

Nkala, Okonkwo Nathan, 25 November 1995

Emeoha, Chime, Nigeria, 27 November 1995.

Emeoha, Patti, 27 November 1995.

Okeke, Nne Udenkwo-Ngor, 28 November 1995.

Okafor, Oyegbo lames, 29 November 1995

Okafor, Anna, 29 November 1995

Okafor, Pius, 29 November 1995

Udeagbala, Okibie Peter, 30 November 1995

Museums and Monument Panel. moderated bv Maudline O!q>ara and interviewed

bv M-B Okafor on 25. 26 & 27 November 1995

Akukwe, Michael

Arab, Emmnuel Chukwunwike

Ejiofor, Munachimso

Nwankwo, Comfon

Obi, Jonathan Chukwuemeka

Okpara, Maudline

Panel interview moderated by Enyikwunazu Agbasi. interviewed bv M-B Okafor

on 24 November 1995

Arazu, Raymond

Agbasi, Goddy

Umeh, 'Nwadibia' John

245
 GLOSSARY OF SOME IGBO WORDS
Ajali]
A/or]
Ala Uno]
Enugu}
Eziowe/e]
Nkpor]
Nkpologu] All lgbo towns
Ukehe]
Umuawulu]
Umuoji]
Afor third Igbo market day
Aha}iokullfeojioku The god of farming
Ala/Ani: The Earth Goddess
A!TUUlioha:
Igbo God of Thunder, one of the attributes of
Chukwu
Anyawu: Sun/sun god
Ayaka/Abare: choral night masquerade and social controller
clzi:
personal god responsible for an individual's fate
and character
Chukwu-Okike: God, the Creator
Eke: the first out of four Igbo market days
Ezechitoke: name used in Nsukka and environs for Chukwu
lgba: skin drum
lchaka: musical instruments - a gourd covered with netted
beads
Mmanwu: masquerades
Muo: name for spirit also used for masquerade
Nkwo: the last of the four Igbo market days
Nzu: white chalk also has the yellow variety called edo
Odu: elephant tusk worn by titled women
Ogene metal gong
Ogo: in-law
Oji: kolanut
Omu: virgin palm frond
Oye: second of the four Igbo market days
Uli: henna

246