Criticism: Course Code:9074

CRITICISM
Course Code:9074
Study Guide
Department of English
Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
CRITICISM
BS English (Four-year Program)
Units: 1-9 Course Code: 9074
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
(Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities)
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD
i
(All Rights Reserved with the Publisher)
Year of Printing ........................ 2023
Quantity .................................... 1000
Layout Setting .......................... Muhammad Zia Ullah
Incharge Printing ..................... Dr. Sarmad Iqbal
Printer........................................ Allama Iqbal Open University
Publisher ................................... Allama Iqbal Open University,

Islamabad
ii
COURSE TEAM
Chairman of the Course Team Dr Malik Ajmal Gulzar

Chairman, Department of English
AIOU Islamabad
Course Development Coordinator Dr Muhammad Kamal Khan

Associate Professor
AIOU Islamabad
Writers Dr Muhammad Kamal Khan (AIOU Islamabad)

Prof Ambreena Qayyum (NUML Islamabad)
Prof Anum Ilyas (Iqra University)
Reviewers Prof Dr Nadeem Haidar Bukhari

Dr Muhammad Kamal Khan
Editor Ms Humera Ejaz (APCP, AIOU Islamabad)
Edition December 2023
iii
CONTENTS
Units Unit Title Page No.
Foreword ........................................................................................................ v
Introduction ............................................................................................................ vi
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................. viii
Units 1: THE GREEK CRITICS
ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC): THE POETICS .........................................1
Units 2: THE GREEK CRITICS

LONGINUS: ON THE SUBLIME .........................................................23
Units 3: ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH-CENTURY CRITICS

SIR PHILIP SIDNEY (1554-1586): AN APOLOGY FOR POETRY ..........41
Units 4: ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH-CENTURY CRITICS

JOHN DRYDEN (1631-1700): PREFACE TO THE FABLES ..............57
Units 5: ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH CENTURY CRITICS SAMUEL JOHNSON

(1709-1784): SHAKESPEAREAN CRITICISM .....................................71
Units 6: THE ROMANTIC CRITICS WILLIAM WORDSWORTH

(1770-1850): PREFACE TO LYRICAL BALLADS ..............................81
Units 7: THE ROMANTIC CRITICSS.T. COLERIDGE (1772-1834):

BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA ..................................................................91
Units 8: THE VICTORIAN CRITICS MATTHEW ARNOLD (1822-1888)

ESSAYS IN CRITICISM: THE STUDY OF POETRY ......................101
Units 9: MODERN CRITICS T.S. ELIOT (1888-1965): TRADITION & THE

INDIVIDUAL TALENT ........................................................................111
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FOREWORD
The BS English study guides aim to include all possible queries that students may
have and gently stimulate their intellect to probe into further questions. The courses
intend for the professional development of the students in various disciplines of
linguistics and literature using versatile methods adopted by course writers while
writing the units. The topics and ideas presented in each unit are clear and relevant.
Owing to the same reason, the text is comprehensive and accessible to students
having no prior knowledge of linguistics and literature.
The BS English study guides are a powerful tool even for BS English tutors
teaching in various regions, focusing upon a uniform scheme of studies for all the
courses. Also, these courses will help tutors by providing adequate teaching
material for independent teaching. All study guides strictly follow the standardized
nine-unit sub-division of the course content for optimum understanding. The short
introduction at the beginning provides an overview of the units followed by
achievable learning objectives. The study guides also define difficult terms in the
text and guide the students to access learning. The units are finally summed up in
summary points and the assessment questions not only guide students but help to
revise the content developed upon previously formed concepts. Moreover, they
provide links and a list of the suggested readings for further inquiry.
In the end, I am happy to extend my gratitude to the course team chairman, course
development coordinator, reviewers, and editors for the development of the course.
Any suggestions for improvement in the program/courses will be fondly welcomed
by the Department of English.
Vice-Chancellor
v
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
Criticism (with code: 9074) is a course on literary criticism which introduces
students to the long-existing traditions in the field of criticism as an important genre
of literature. While doing so, the focus of the course remains on a detailed
discussion of the ideas initiated by classical Greek critics (including Aristotle and
Longinus) and further explored and promoted by critics from Elizabethan 18th-
centuryury writers (Sir Philip Sydney, John Dryden and Samuel Johnson). to
expose the students to the works (theories) of Romantic, Victorian and Modern
critics, writers such as William Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, Matthew Arnold and
T. S. Eliot have also been made part of the module.
This course is a kind of introduction to the historical background of literary

criticism exploring its development through various ages and stages, and in the light
of some contemporary viewpoints. Overall, the course mainly focuses on the
dramatic and poetic forms of criticism to highlight various important concepts (and
trends) given by both classical and modern critics including poetics, sublimity,
imagination, poetry and tradition. For this purpose, the course starts with important
works of classical Greek critics and goes on to include some significant essays on
criticism from the eighteenth-century and modern critics.
The course is intended to be an introduction to important critical essays rather than

an explanation of everything. It is hoped that the readers will be able to find some
taste instead in of literary criticism and think about carrying on with their
exploration of the given topics in future.
The following is the unit-wise division of the module:
Unit-1: The Greek Critics: Aristotle: The Poetics
Unit-2: The Greek Critics: Longinus: On the Sublime
Unit-3: Elizabethan to 18th Century Critics – Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586):

An Apology for Poetry
Unit-4: Elizabethan to 18th Century Critics – John Dryden (1631-1700):

Preface to the Fables
Unit-5: Elizabethan to 18th Century Critics – Samuel Johnson (1709-1784):

Shakespearean Criticism
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Unit-6: The Romantic Critics – William Wordsworth (1770-1850): Preface
to Lyrical Ballads
Unit-7: The Romantic Critics – S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834): Biographia

Literaria
Unit-8: The Victorian Critics – Matthew Arnold (1822-1888): Essays in

Criticism: “The Study of Poetry”
Unit-9: Modern Critics - T.S. Eliot (1888-1965): Tradition & the Individual Talent
This is a guidebook mainly written for the students of BS English at Allama Iqbal
Open University. The coursebook, however, also caters for the needs of any
university in Pakistan offering the topic (Introduction to Criticism) at the
undergraduate level. It is also relevant for a course on introduction to critical
theories or approaches and is equally effective for teachers teaching English
literature at school and college levels.
The step-by-step approach used in the book is designed to introduce the

fundamental aspects of literary criticism to students with no or little background in
the subject area. Accordingly, it is hoped that the students would find some interest
in the topic towards the end of the course and would explore it for their major
research in future.
Dr. Muhammad Kamal Khan

Associate Professor of English
Course Coordinator
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to ALLAH (SWT), we finally made our way to formulate a long-thought
concept into the shape of a book. Several people were instrumental in making it a
reality. The undersigned would like to express his gratitude to:
• Prof. Dr. Zia Ul-Qayyum, Vice Chancellor, Allama Iqbal Open University,
Islamabad for showing his trust and confidence in the faculty of the English
Department by allowing us the launch of four-year BS English degree
programme of which the present course is a part.
• Prof. Dr. Hassan Raza, Dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities at AIOU Islamabad, for his very kind support and guidelines
during the launch of the programme and the process of developing materials
including this coursebook.
• The members of the Committee-of-Courses (CoC) of the English
Department including Prof. Dr. Nadeem Haider Bukhari (UoAJK), Prof. Dr.
Rafique Ahmed Memon (UoSindh), Prof. Dr. Saiqa Imtiaz (BZU), and Prof.
Dr. Munazza Yaqub (IIUI) for their suggestions and recommendations.
• Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar, Chairman Department of English for his support
and suggestions during the write-up of this course.
Special thanks to my wonderful co-authors and reviewers who have been very
patient with my queries and, at times, enquiries during the development of the
course - for their great work and valuable suggestions. They include:
• Prof. Dr. Nadeem Haider Bukhari, University of Azad Jammu and

Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK.
• Prof. Ambreena Qayyum, NUML, Islamabad.
• Prof. Anum Ilyas, Iqra University, Islamabad.
My thanks are also due to Dr. Zahid Majeed (Director APCP) and Ms Humera Ejaz
(Editor at APCP) and the very cooperative staff at PPU AIOU Islamabad.
The remaining shortcomings in the course are my own and any suggestions for the
improvement of the course would be wholeheartedly welcome and the same will
be incorporated in its subsequent revision.
Dr. Muhammad Kamal Khan

Associate Professor of English
Course Coordinator
viii
Unit-1
THE GREEK CRITICS

ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC): THE
POETICS
Compiled by: Dr. Muhammad Kamal Khan

Reviewed by: Prof. Dr. Nadeem Haider Bukhari
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CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ..........................................................................................................3
Learning Objectives .............................................................................................3
1.1 Introduction to Aristotle ............................................................................4
1.2 Introduction to Poetics as a Book on Criticism ............................................5
1.3 Context of ‘Poetics’......................................................................................6
1.4 Summary of ‘Poetics’ by Aristotle ............................................................7
1.5 Important Concepts Used in Poetics ...........................................................14
Summary Points .....................................................................................................19
Self-Assessment Questions ....................................................................................21
Further Readings ....................................................................................................22
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INTRODUCTION
As a starting point in literary criticism, the present unit introduces Aristotle as one of the
great classical critics and his book Poetics as a landmark and as the first great work in
literary criticism. The unit is going to give a kind of overview of Aristotle’s life and his
main contribution to the field of literary criticism. The main features of his book, i.e.,
Poetics related to the concepts of tragedy, comedy, catharsis and mimesis are also
highlighted for the understanding of the students. Similarly, the basic terms and
terminology used by Aristotle are briefly discussed and made clear in this chapter.
The following topics are mainly included in the present unit:
• Aristotle was one of the great classical critics.

• Poetics as Aristotle’s main contribution to the field of literary criticism
• Aristotle’s basic concepts and definitions related to literary criticism.
• Important terms and terminology used in Poetics.
While presenting these importance topics on the subject, the following major learning
objectives were the focus of the unit.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Give a brief overview of Aristotle’s contribution to literary criticism.

• Introduce Aristotle’s basic concepts and definitions of literary criticism.
• Highlight and summarize the main features as given in Poetics.
• Briefly define and discuss:
• Tragedy
• Comedy
• Plot
• Mimesis
• Catharsis
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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTLE
Aristotle was born in Stagira in northern Greece in 384 BCE His father was a doctor at the
court of Amyntas III of Macedon, father of Philip II of Macedon and grandfather of
Alexander the Great. In 367 BCE, Aristotle moved to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy,
where he stayed for twenty years. Aristotle left the Academy in 347 BCE, the year Plato
died, and some have speculated that he felt snubbed that Plato did not choose him as his
successor. The more likely explanation, however, is that anti-Macedonian sentiment was
on the rise in Athens, causing Aristotle to fear being persecuted for his associations with
King Philip’s court.
During his time at the Academy, Aristotle became one of Plato’s most devoted students,
but eventually developed his own ideas and philosophical system. After Plato died in 347
BCE, Aristotle left Athens and spent several years travelling and studying. In 343 BCE, he
was summoned by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor of his son, Alexander.
For the next several years, Aristotle served as Alexander’s tutor and played an important role
in his education. He also conducted research in a wide range of fields, including biology,
zoology, physics, metaphysics, ethics, politics, and rhetoric. In 335 BCE, Aristotle founded his
school, the Lyceum, where he taught and conducted research until he died in 322 BCE.
Aristotle's influence on Western thought has been immense. His works were preserved and
studied throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and his ideas have continued to
shape philosophy, science, and politics up to the present day. His works on ethics and
politics have been particularly influential, and his emphasis on empirical observation and
scientific method has been a cornerstone of modern science.
Aristotle’s influence on subsequent generations is immense. Only Plato can compare in

importance. Aristotle's influence on subsequent generations has been immense, and he is
widely considered one of the most important figures in Western philosophy. His ideas on
metaphysics, ethics, politics, and science have had a profound impact on the development
of Western thought, and his works continue to be studied and debated today.
Aristotle's influence can be seen in a variety of fields, including philosophy, science,

literature, and politics. His emphasis on reason and logic, as well as his ideas about the
nature of reality and the role of the individual in society, have shaped the way we think
about these topics even today.
In terms of the comparison with Plato, indeed, these two philosophers are often considered
the most important figures in ancient Greek philosophy. While Aristotle was a student of
Plato, he ultimately developed his own distinct philosophy, which differed from his
teacher's in many ways. Both philosophers have had a significant impact on subsequent
generations, and their ideas continue to be studied and debated by scholars and
philosophers around the world.
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Though Aristotle's works were lost to the West for many centuries, they were preserved
and studied in the Islamic world, where they were translated into Arabic and became the
basis for much of Islamic philosophy and science. It was through the work of Muslim
scholars such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) that Aristotle's ideas were
reintroduced to the West during the medieval period. These Muslim scholars were not only
instrumental in preserving and translating Aristotle's works, but they also built upon his
ideas and developed their own philosophical and scientific theories.
During the medieval period, many of Aristotle's works were translated from Arabic into
Latin, which allowed his ideas to be more widely disseminated throughout Europe. This
led to a revival of interest in Aristotle's philosophy and a renewed appreciation for his
contributions to science, ethics, politics, and other areas of inquiry.
Today, Aristotle's works continue to be studied and revered by scholars and students
around the world, and his ideas continue to have a profound impact on our understanding
of the natural world, human behavior, and the nature of reality itself.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO POETICS AS A BOOK ON

CRITICISM
Aristotle proposes to discuss poetry, which he defines as a means of mimesis, or imitation,
using language, rhythm, and harmony. As creatures who thrive on imitation, we are
naturally drawn to poetry.
In particular, Aristotle focuses his discussion on tragedy, which uses dramatic, rather than
narrative, form, and deals with agents who are better than us ourselves. Tragedy serves to
arouse the emotions of pity and fear and to affect a katharsis (catharsis) of these emotions.
Aristotle divides tragedy into six different parts, ranking them in order from most important
to least important as follows: (1) mythos, or plot, (2) character, (3) thought, (4) diction, (5)
melody, and (6) spectacle.
Poetics is the study of literary works, including poetry, drama, and prose, as well as the
principles and techniques that underlie their creation. Aristotle's Poetics, written in the 4th
century BCE, is considered one of the foundational works in the field of poetics.
Aristotle's definition of poetry as a means of mimesis emphasizes the idea that poetry is a
representation of reality, rather than a direct reflection of it. According to Aristotle, poets
use language, rhythm, and harmony to create a work that imitates reality in a way that is
both convincing and pleasurable.
Aristotle also identifies these six elements which are essential to creating a successful work
of poetry: plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle. The plot refers to the
structure and organization of the work, while character refers to the people or entities that
populate the work. Thought encompasses the themes and ideas that the work explores,
while diction refers to the choice and arrangement of words. Melody and spectacle relate
to the sound and visual aspects of the work, respectively.
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Throughout history, poets and literary critics have continued to explore and expand upon
the principles and techniques outlined in Aristotle's Poetics. Today, poetics remains an
important field of study for those interested in literature and the creative arts.
"Poetics" by Aristotle is considered one of the most important works of literary criticism
in Western literature. It is a masterpiece of literary analysis and has had a profound impact
on the way that we understand and appreciate literature.
One of the reasons why "Poetics" is so highly regarded is because of Aristotle's ability to
analyze and dissect the elements of tragedy and epic poetry. He can identify the key
features of these genres and explain why they are effective in creating emotional responses
in the audience.
For example, Aristotle's discussion of the concept of catharsis in tragedy, which refers to
the purging of emotions such as pity and fear, is a groundbreaking insight into the
psychological impact of literature. His analysis of the elements of plot, character, language,
and spectacle in tragedy has also been incredibly influential in shaping our understanding
of these features in literature.
Another reason why "Poetics" is such a masterpiece in literary criticism is because of its
ongoing relevance. Despite being written over two thousand years ago, many of Aristotle's
insights and observations about literature still resonate today. His ideas about the
importance of plot, character, and language continue to inform our understanding of
literature and the creative process.
Overall, "Poetics" by Aristotle is a masterpiece in literary criticism because of its profound

insights into the nature of literature and its ongoing relevance to the study and appreciation
of literature. It is a testament to the enduring power and importance of great works of
literature and a reminder of the rich legacy of critical thinking and analysis that has
developed around them.
1.3 CONTEXT OF ‘Poetics’

Plato (427–347 BC) is notorious for attacking art in Book 10 of his Republic. Aristotle's
Poetics can be read as a response to Plato's attack on art. Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a
student at Plato's Academy from the time he was seventeen until Plato's death some twenty
years later. He spent the next twelve years engaging in scientific research and serving as a
tutor to then-teenaged Alexander the Great. He returned to Athens in 335 BC and founded
his school on the steps of the Lyceum. He remained there until 323 BC when he was forced
to leave as a result of his associations with Alexander. He died a year later of natural causes.
The Lyceum remained open until 525 AD when it was closed by the emperor Justinian.
Aristotle's "Poetics" is a treatise on literary criticism and is considered to be one of the most
important works in Western literary theory. It was written in the 4th century BCE and was
likely intended as a set of lectures or notes for Aristotle's students at the Lyceum in Athens.
6
In "Poetics," Aristotle examines the nature of poetry and drama, focusing on tragedy in
particular. He analyzes the elements that make up a good tragedy, including plot, character,
thought, diction, melody, and spectacle. He also discusses the role of catharsis, or emotional
release, in tragedy and argues that tragedy can be a powerful tool for moral education.
The context in which Aristotle wrote the "Poetics" was one of great artistic and cultural
flourishing in Athens. The city was home to some of the greatest playwrights of all time,
including Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and the annual Athenian drama festivals
were major cultural events. Aristotle himself was deeply interested in the arts and was a
patron of the theatre, so his work on literary theory can be seen as an attempt to understand
and analyze the works of his contemporaries.
Overall, "Poetics" reflects Aristotle's belief that art should be based on reality and that it
should aim to imitate or represent the world as it truly is. His ideas have had a profound
influence on literary theory and criticism, and his work continues to be studied and debated
by scholars today.
Though the Poetics is not one of Aristotle's major works, it has exercised a great deal of
influence on subsequent literary theory, particularly in the Renaissance. Later interpreters,
turned many of Aristotle's suggestions into strict laws, restricting the flexibility of drama
in ways that Aristotle would not have anticipated. The tragedies of Racine and Corneille in
particular are formed according to these demands. Even though such great playwrights as
Shakespeare often went against these laws, they were held as the model for writing tragedy
well into the nineteenth century.
1.4 SUMMARY OF ‘Poetics’ BY ARISTOTLE

Aristotle's "Poetics" is a seminal work of literary criticism that has had a lasting impact on
Western thought. Written in the 4th century BCE, it is a treatise on poetry and drama, with
a particular focus on tragedy. The work is divided into 26 chapters, each of which discusses
a different aspect of poetry and drama.
In the first chapter, Aristotle defines poetry as "an imitation of an action" and argues that
it is a more philosophical and serious art form than history. He then goes on to discuss the
different kinds of poetry, including epic poetry, lyric poetry, and tragedy.
The second chapter of "Poetics" focuses on the nature of tragedy. Aristotle defines tragedy
as "an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude." He
argues that tragedy should be written in verse rather than prose and that it should be
performed rather than read.
The third chapter of "Poetics" discusses the elements of a good tragedy. Aristotle argues that
the most important element is plot, which he defines as "the arrangement of the incidents." He
also discusses the importance of character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle.
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In subsequent chapters, Aristotle delves deeper into each of these elements. He argues that
the characters in a tragedy should be neither too good nor too bad, but rather should be
"intermediate" or "mixed." He also discusses the role of thought in a tragedy, arguing that
the best tragedies are those that provoke the audience to think about important ethical and
philosophical questions.
In the later chapters of the "Poetics," Aristotle discusses the role of the poet, the audience,
and the spectacle in a tragedy. He argues that the poet should be able to create a believable
and coherent world, and that the audience should be emotionally engaged with the
characters and the plot. He also discusses the importance of spectacle or the visual and
auditory elements of the performance.
Throughout "Poetics," Aristotle emphasizes the importance of the emotional impact of a

tragedy. He argues that the purpose of tragedy is to produce catharsis, or emotional release,
in the audience. This catharsis is achieved through the pity and fears that the audience feels
for the characters in the tragedy.
In summary, Aristotle's "Poetics" is a comprehensive work of literary criticism that

explores the nature of poetry and drama, with a particular focus on tragedy. It emphasizes
the importance of plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle in creating a good
tragedy, and argues that the purpose of tragedy is to produce a catharsis in the audience.
"Poetics" has had a profound influence on Western literary theory and criticism and
continues to be studied and debated by scholars today.
In the following lines, we are going to discuss some of the concepts and terms which are
given in “Poetics’ and need deeper understanding for the students of literature.
Aristotle's "Poetics" focus on the role of the plot in tragedy. Aristotle argues that the plot
of a tragedy should be "a whole," meaning that it should have a beginning, middle, and
end, and that the events in the plot should be causally linked. He also emphasizes the
importance of unity of action, meaning that there should be a single main plot that is not
overly complicated or fragmented.
Aristotle divides the plot into two main components: simple and complex. Simple plots are
those in which the change in the main character's fortunes is brought about by a single
action, whereas complex plots involve a series of actions and are more appropriate for
longer works. Aristotle argues that complex plots are superior to simple plots because they
allow for a greater range of emotions and actions.
He continues the discussion of plot and focuses on the concept of "reversal" (peripeteia) and
"recognition" (anagnorisis). Aristotle argues that reversal is an important element of the plot
because it creates a shift in the character's fortune, from good to bad or from bad to good. This
reversal should be caused by the character’s own actions, rather than external circumstances.
Aristotle also emphasizes the importance of recognition, which he defines as "a change
from ignorance to knowledge, leading to love or hate between the persons destined by the
8
poet for good or bad fortune." This recognition should be caused by the plot and should be
linked to the character's reversal of fortune. Aristotle argues that recognition and reversal
are closely linked and that a good tragedy should have both.
The "Poetics" highlight the importance of the plot in tragedy argues that it should be
carefully structured and unified. Aristotle emphasizes the importance of complex plots, as
well as the elements of reversal and recognition, which create a sense of surprise and
emotional impact in the audience. These chapters continue to be studied and debated by
literary critics and scholars today.
Aristotle now narrows his focus to examining tragedy exclusively. To do so, he provides a
definition of tragedy that we can break up into seven parts: (1) it involves mimesis; (2) it
is serious; (3) the action is complete and with magnitude; (4) it is made up of language with
the "pleasurable accessories" of rhythm and harmony; (5) these "pleasurable accessories"
are not used uniformly throughout, but are introduced in separate parts of the work, so that,
for instance, some bits are spoken in verse and other bits are sung; (6) it is performed rather
than narrated; and (7) it arouses the emotions of pity and fear and accomplishes a katharsis
(purification or purgation) of these emotions.
In "Poetics" Aristotle provides a definition of tragedy, which is broken up into seven parts.
These parts are as follows:
Mimesis: Tragedy is a form of mimesis or imitation, meaning that it imitates human action
and character.
Seriousness: Tragedy is a serious art form that deals with important and weighty matters.
It is not intended for mere entertainment.
Completeness and Magnitude: The action in tragedy should be complete and have a
certain magnitude, meaning that it should be significant and not overly long or short.
Language: Tragedy is made up of language, which is accompanied by the "pleasurable

accessories" of rhythm and harmony. These elements should be used appropriately and not
uniformly throughout the work.
Variety: Tragedy should include a variety of different modes of expression, such as

singing and speaking in verse, to add interest and depth to the work.
Performance: Tragedy is meant to be performed rather than simply narrated. The visual
and auditory elements of the performance add to the emotional impact of the work.
Emotional Arousal: Tragedy should arouse the emotions of pity and fear in the audience,
leading to a katharsis or purgation of these emotions. The audience should experience a
sense of release or relief at the end of the play.
9
Overall, Aristotle's definition of tragedy in chapter 6 emphasizes the importance of the art
form as a serious and significant medium of expression. The tragedy is not intended for
mere entertainment, but rather as a means of exploring important human themes and
emotions. It is a form of mimesis that imitates human action and character, and it is meant
to be performed rather than simply narrated. Finally, tragedy is meant to have a cathartic
effect on the audience, leading to a release or purgation of emotions such as pity and fear.
Aristotle elaborates on what he means when he says that the action of a tragedy should be
complete in itself and have magnitude. According to Aristotle, a complete action has a
beginning, middle, and end, and that follows a logical sequence of events. The action
should also be self-contained and not require anything outside of the play to be understood.
Aristotle further explains that the magnitude of the action in a tragedy should be
appropriate to the work as a whole. This means that the action should be significant and
not overly long or short. The events in the play should be important enough to warrant the
attention of the audience, but not so complex that they are difficult to follow.
To illustrate this point, Aristotle provides examples of tragedies that have been successful
in terms of their completeness and magnitude. For instance, he cites Sophocles' play
"Oedipus Rex," which has a clear beginning, middle, and end, and follows a logical
sequence of events. The play is also significant in that it deals with important themes such
as fate and free will, and it is not overly long or complex.
In contrast, Aristotle criticizes the work of some poets who he believes have created plays
that are too long or too complex, and which therefore fail to hold the attention of the
audience. He argues that the action in a tragedy should be structured in such a way that it
holds the interest of the audience from beginning to end.
Overall, Aristotle's emphasis on the completeness and magnitude of the action in a tragedy
highlights the importance of structure and coherence in the genre. Tragedy should have a clear
and logical sequence of events, and the action should be significant and appropriate in length.
These elements are essential for creating a work of art that is both engaging and meaningful.
Aristotle also introduces the concepts of peripeteia and anagnorisis, which are important
elements of tragedy. Peripeteia refers to a sudden reversal of fortune or changes in
circumstances, often from good to bad or vice versa. Anagnorisis, on the other hand, refers
to a discovery or recognition, usually by the tragic hero, of some important truth about
themselves, their situation, or the world around them.
According to Aristotle, peripeteia and anagnorisis are essential to the plot of a tragedy
because they add to the emotional impact of the work. The sudden reversal of fortune can
create a sense of surprise or shock in the audience, while the discovery or recognition can
add depth and complexity to the character of the tragic hero.
Aristotle gives several examples of how peripeteia and anagnorisis can be used in a tragedy.
For instance, he cites the example of Oedipus in "Oedipus Rex," who undergoes a sudden
10
reversal of fortune when he discovers that he has unwittingly killed his father and married
his mother. This discovery leads to a profound change in Oedipus's character and ultimately
leads to his downfall.
Aristotle also notes that peripeteia and anagnorisis should be logical and consistent with the
plot of the play. They should not come out of anywhere or be contrived for the sake of adding
drama. Rather, they should arise naturally from the events and circumstances of the plot.
Overall, the concepts of peripeteia and anagnorisis are important elements of tragedy according
to Aristotle. They add to the emotional impact of the work and can create a sense of surprise or
shock in the audience. When used effectively, they can also add depth and complexity to the
character of the tragic hero and contribute to the overall coherence and logic of the plot.
In chapter 14 of "Poetics," Aristotle discusses the emotional impact that a tragedy should
have on its audience. He argues that the purpose of tragedy is to arouse feelings of pity and
fear in the audience, which he calls the "pleasures" of tragedy. These emotions should be
brought about by the plot of the play itself rather than by the spectacle or special effects.
Aristotle believes that the plot of a tragedy should be designed in such a way as to create a sense
of inevitability and foreboding. The audience should be aware from the beginning that the tragic
hero is doomed to a tragic fate, and this knowledge should create a sense of tension and
anticipation. As the plot unfolds, the audience should be drawn into the emotional world of the
characters and feel a sense of empathy for their struggles and sufferings.
When the tragic hero ultimately meets their downfall, the audience should feel a sense of
pity and fear. Aristotle argues that these emotions are most effective when they are brought
about by the plot itself rather than by external factors such as spectacle or special effects.
He believes that the use of such devices can distract from the emotional impact of the play
and create a sense of artificiality.
Overall, Aristotle's emphasis on the importance of the plot in creating emotions of pity and
fear highlights the idea that tragedy should be a cohesive and unified work of art. The plot
should be carefully constructed to create a sense of inevitability and foreboding, and the
emotional impact of the play should arise naturally from the events and circumstances of
the plot. When these elements come together effectively, they can create a powerful and
lasting emotional impact on the audience.
In chapter 13 of "Poetics," Aristotle discusses the character of the tragic hero in a tragedy. He
lays out four requirements that a tragic hero must fulfil in order to be effective in a tragedy:
The tragic hero must be a person of noble birth or high status. According to Aristotle, a
tragedy should depict the downfall of a person who is better than the average person,
someone who is not an ordinary man but a man of importance or high social standing.
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The tragic hero must possess a tragic flaw or error in judgment (hamartia) that leads to their
downfall. This flaw should be a character trait that is inherent in the hero's personality, and
not the result of external circumstances.
The tragic hero must undergo a reversal of fortune (peripeteia) brought about by their tragic
flaw. This reversal of fortune should be sudden and unexpected and should result in the
hero's downfall.
The tragic hero must evoke feelings of pity and fear in the audience. The audience should
feel sympathy for the hero's struggles and suffering, and fear for their inevitable downfall.
Overall, Aristotle believed that the character of the tragic hero was central to the success
of a tragedy. The tragic hero should be a person of noble birth or high status, possessed of
a tragic flaw that leads to their downfall, and undergo a sudden reversal of fortune that
evokes feelings of pity and fear in the audience. When these elements are effectively
combined, they can create a powerful and emotionally resonant work of art.
Aristotle discusses the concept of anagnorisis, or recognition, in tragedy. Anagnorisis is

the moment in a play when a character recognizes or discovers something about
themselves, another character, or the world around them. Aristotle distinguishes between
six different kinds of anagnorisis:
Recognition by perception: This is the most basic form of recognition, where a character
simply perceives or recognizes something through their senses.
Recognition by inference: This is a more complex form of recognition, where a character

draws a conclusion based on evidence or logical deduction.
Recognition by memory: This is recognition that arises from a character remembering

something from their past.
Recognition by sign: This is recognition that arises from a character interpreting a sign or
symbol in a certain way.
Recognition by process of reasoning: This is recognition that arises from a character

thinking through a problem or situation and arriving at a realization or conclusion.
Recognition by discovery: This is recognition that arises from a character discovering

something new or unexpected about themselves or the world around them.
Aristotle argues that anagnorisis is a crucial element of tragedy, as it can create a powerful
emotional impact on the audience. When a character experiences a moment of recognition,
it can lead to a sudden shift in the plot or a change in the character's fortunes. This can
create a sense of tension and anticipation in the audience, as they await the consequences
of the character's newfound knowledge.
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Aristotle's discussion of anagnorisis highlights the importance of character development
and psychological complexity in tragedy. The recognition of a character can reveal deep
truths about the human experience and can create a powerful emotional connection
between the audience and the characters on stage.
Aristotle further discusses the role of diction, or language, in tragedy. He argues that diction
is a crucial element of tragedy, as it can have a significant impact on the audience's
experience of the play.
Aristotle defines thought as everything that is expressed using language, including both the
meaning of the words themselves and the ideas and emotions that they convey. He argues
that the language used in a tragedy should be appropriate to the characters and the setting,
and should reflect the social and cultural context of the play.
Aristotle also emphasizes the importance of clarity and simplicity in diction. He argues that
a tragedy should be written in language that is clear and easy to understand, so that the
audience can follow the action of the play without confusion. However, he also notes that
the language should be elevated and poetic and should incorporate "pleasurable
accessories" such as rhythm and harmony.
Aristotle's discussion of diction in "Poetics" emphasizes the importance of language in

creating a powerful and emotionally resonant work of art. The language used in a tragedy
should be appropriate to the characters and setting, clear and easy to understand, and
elevated and poetic. When these elements are effectively combined, they can create a work
of art that is both intellectually stimulating and emotionally engaging.
In addition to the tragedy, Aristotle also discusses epic poetry in "Poetics." He notes that
while epic poetry and tragedy share some similarities, there are also important differences
between the two forms.
One of the key differences between epic poetry and tragedy, according to Aristotle, is their
respective treatments of character. In epic poetry, characters are often presented as larger-
than-life figures, with heroic qualities that elevate them above the ordinary human
experience. Tragedy, on the other hand, tends to focus on more flawed and vulnerable
characters, whose weaknesses and shortcomings ultimately lead to their downfall.
Aristotle also notes that epic poetry typically relies more heavily on narrative than on
action. In epic poetry, the story is often told through a series of events and encounters,
rather than through a single, focused dramatic action. This can create a sense of grandeur
and scope in the epic but can also make it more difficult for the audience to emotionally
engage with the characters.
Another difference between epic poetry and tragedy is their use of language. While both
forms rely heavily on language, epic poetry tends to be more ornate and decorative, with a
greater emphasis on metaphor and simile. Tragedy, on the other hand, tends to use language
in a more direct and immediate way, with a focus on clear and concise expression.
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Aristotle's discussion of epic poetry in "Poetics" emphasizes the importance of
understanding the unique features and characteristics of different literary forms. While both
epic poetry and tragedy are forms of poetry that use language to create powerful emotional
experiences for the audience, they do so in different ways and with different emphases. By
understanding these differences, writers and readers can better appreciate the beauty and
complexity of different forms of literature.
Aristotle is clearly an admirer of Homer's, as almost all his examples of good epic poetry
are drawn from Homer. He praises Homer for reducing his own voice in the narrative and
letting the actions and the characters tell the story themselves. He uses Homer to show how
epic poetry can recount exaggerated events believably. A tragedy could never get away
with such marvels, since they are less credible when we see them performed. Having said
this, he remarks that no plot should ever hinge on improbable events but praises Homer for
managing through his art to make this flaw in the Odyssey seem insignificant. He also
praises Homer as a master of using paralogisms (conclusions resulting from faulty or
illogical arguments) to make lies seem believable.
Aristotle cautions against an over-enthusiastic use of elaborate diction. While it is pleasing

when there is no action to recount, and no character or thought to reveal, ornate diction can
often obscure these more important elements when they are found together.
In Chapter 26, Aristotle addresses the question of which is the higher form, tragedy or epic
poetry. The argument in favor of epic poetry is based on the principle that the higher art
form is less vulgar and addressed toward a refined audience. Tragedy is performed before
large audiences, which results in melodramatic performances or overacting to please the
crowds. Epic poetry is more cultivated than tragedy because it does not rely on gesture at
all to convey its message.
1.5 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS USED IN POETICS

Mimesis
Mimesis is the act of creating in someone's mind, through artistic representation, an idea
or ideas that the person will associate with experience. In essence, mimesis refers to the
ability of art to imitate or represent reality in a way that creates a sense of familiarity or
recognition in the audience.
According to Aristotle, mimesis is a fundamental characteristic of all art, whether it be

literature, painting, music, or drama. Through the use of language, imagery, and other
artistic techniques, the artist creates a representation of reality that can evoke emotions,
ideas, and associations in the audience.
For example, in a tragic play, the audience may feel a sense of recognition and empathy with
the characters, even if they have never experienced the same situation themselves. This is
because the artist has created a representation of the human experience that is recognizable and
relatable, even if it is not directly based on the audience's own experiences.
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Overall, the concept of mimesis is an important part of Aristotle's theory of art, and it
continues to be relevant to contemporary discussions of aesthetics and the nature of art.
Hamartia
This word translates almost directly as "error," though it is often rendered more elaborately as a
"tragic flaw”. The term "hamartia" is a Greek word that can be translated as "error" or "mistake,"
and it is often used in the context of tragedy to refer to a character's fatal flaw or tragic error.
In Aristotle's theory of tragedy, the concept of hamartia is central to the idea of the tragic
hero. The tragic hero is a character who possesses great virtues and strengths, but who also
has a fundamental flaw or weakness that ultimately leads to their downfall.
This flaw is often referred to as the tragic flaw or fatal flaw, and it is typically a character
trait that is closely tied to the character's virtues. For example, a hero's excessive pride or
ambition may be seen as a tragic flaw if it ultimately leads to their downfall.
The concept of hamartia is important in understanding the psychological and moral

complexities of tragedy. It suggests that even the most virtuous and admirable characters
are not immune to error or weakness and that their downfall is often the result of a complex
interplay of factors, including their character flaws, the actions of others, and the workings
of fate or circumstance.
Overall, the concept of hamartia is a key component of Aristotle's theory of tragedy, and it has
had a profound impact on the way that we understand and appreciate tragic literature and drama.
Anagnorisis
This word translates as "recognition" or "discovery”. The term "anagnorisis" is a Greek
word that can be translated as "recognition" or "discovery," and it is an important concept
in Aristotle's theory of tragedy.
Anagnorisis refers to a moment of sudden realization or discovery in the plot of a tragedy,

often involving the revelation of an important truth or the recognition of a hidden identity.
This moment of recognition is often a turning point in the plot, leading to a shift in the
character's fortunes or a deeper understanding of their situation.
For example, in the play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles, the moment when Oedipus realizes
that he has unknowingly killed his father and married his mother is a powerful example of
anagnorisis. This realization leads to a dramatic reversal of fortune for Oedipus and sets
the stage for the tragic conclusion of the play.
In Aristotle's theory of tragedy, anagnorisis is an important element of the plot, and it is closely
tied to the concept of peripeteia, or reversal of fortune. Together, these elements help to create a
sense of dramatic tension and emotional impact in the audience, as they witness the tragic
unfolding of events and the sudden, often devastating, realizations of the characters.
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Mythos
Mythos" is a Greek term used by Aristotle in his work "Poetics," and it is often translated
as "plot." However, unlike the modern usage of "plot," which often refers to a series of
events in a narrative, "mythos" in Aristotle's sense refers to the arrangement and structure
of those events within a dramatic work.
According to Aristotle, a good plot is both simple and complex. It should be simple in the sense
that the story is easy to follow and understand, but it should also be complex in the sense that
it includes unexpected twists and turns that keep the audience engaged and interested.
A well-constructed plot should also include a clear beginning, middle, and end, with a
logical progression of events that build towards a climax and resolution. The events of the
plot should be interconnected and meaningful, and they should be arranged in a way that
creates a sense of inevitability or necessity.
In Aristotle's view, a good plot is essential to the success of a dramatic work, as it is the
foundation upon which all other elements of the work, such as character and language, are
built. By carefully crafting the plot, the dramatist can create a powerful and emotionally
resonant work of art that speaks to universal human experiences and truths.
Overall, the concept of "mythos" in Aristotle's sense is a vital part of the tradition of
tragedy, and it continues to be an important tool for writers and artists seeking to create
compelling and meaningful works of art.
Peripeteia
"Peripeteia" is a Greek term used in Aristotle's work "Poetics," and it refers to a sudden
and unexpected reversal of fortune for a character or situation in a dramatic work. This
reversal can be either positive or negative, and it often occurs at the climax of the story.
For example, in the Greek tragedy "Oedipus Rex," the peripeteia occurs when Oedipus realizes
that he has unwittingly killed his father and married his mother, thus fulfilling the prophecy
that he had sought to avoid. This revelation brings about a sudden and dramatic reversal of
Oedipus's fortunes, as he goes from being a respected king to a disgraced and tragic figure.
In many cases, peripeteia is closely linked to the concept of anagnorisis, which refers to a
moment of recognition or discovery in which a character realizes a key piece of information
that changes their understanding of the situation. Often, the peripeteia is triggered by this
moment of anagnorisis, as the character's newfound knowledge leads to a sudden and
dramatic reversal of fortune.
Overall, peripeteia is a key element of the tragic form, as it allows for the sudden and
unexpected twists and turns that are characteristic of tragedy. By introducing peripeteia
into a dramatic work, the writer can create a sense of dramatic tension and excitement, and
keep the audience engaged and invested in the story.
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Lusis
Actually, "lusis" is the Greek term that Aristotle uses to refer to the resolution or
denouement of a tragedy, which follows the peripeteia and anagnorisis. The term "lusis" is
derived from the Greek verb "luō," which means "to loosen" or "to untie," and it refers to
the unravelling of the plot and the resolution of the conflict that has been established
throughout the course of the play.
In Aristotle's view, the lusis should follow logically and naturally from the events of the
play, and it should be satisfying to the audience. The lusis should also provide a sense of
closure to the story, tying up any loose ends and resolving any conflicts or ambiguities that
may have been introduced earlier in the play.
For example, in the tragedy "Oedipus Rex," the lusis occurs after Oedipus has blinded
himself and been exiled from Thebes. The play reaches its resolution as Oedipus accepts
his fate and departs, leaving the audience with a sense of closure and finality.
Overall, the lusis is an important element of the tragedy, as it allows for the resolution of
the conflicts and dilemmas that have been introduced throughout the course of the play,
and it provides a sense of closure and satisfaction to the audience.
Desis
Actually, "desis" is the Greek term that Aristotle uses to refer to the complication or knot
of a tragedy, which precedes the climax or peripeteia. The term "desis" is derived from the
Greek verb "deo," which means "to tie" or "to bind," and it refers to the entanglement of
the plot and the development of the conflict that drives the action of the play.
In Aristotle's view, the desis should be intricately woven and built in intensity as the play
progresses, leading to a moment of crisis or climax where the knot is finally resolved. The
desis should also be driven by the characters and their actions, rather than by external
events or coincidences.
For example, in the tragedy "Hamlet," the desis is the series of events leading up to the climax
where Hamlet finally confronts and kills Claudius. The desis is characterized by Hamlet's inner
turmoil, his indecision about how to act, and his increasingly erratic behaviour, all of which
contribute to the buildup of tension and conflict that drives the play forward.
Overall, the desis is an important element of the tragedy, as it establishes the groundwork
for the climax and provides the impetus for the action of the play. It also allows for the
development of complex characters and their motivations, which in turn contributes to the
richness and depth of the tragedy.
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Aristotle's Definition of Poetry
Aristotle's definition of poetry is a philosophical approach to understanding the nature and
function of poetry as an art form. In his work "Poetics," Aristotle defines poetry as a form
of imitation or mimesis, which is the ability to represent or replicate the world around us
through language.
Aristotle argues that poetry is distinct from other forms of imitation because it uses
language in a unique way, combining words and rhythms to create a heightened emotional
and aesthetic effect. He believed that poetry has a special power to engage and move
audiences, and that this power comes from its ability to capture the essence of human
experience and emotion.
According to Aristotle, poetry can take many forms, including epic, tragedy, comedy, lyric,
and others. Each form has its own unique features and characteristics, but they all share the
common purpose of imitating human life and experience.
Aristotle also believed that poetry has a moral and educational function, as it can teach us
about the world around us and help us to better understand ourselves and our place in the
world. He believed that good poetry should inspire and uplift the soul, and that it should
be guided by ethical principles and a sense of purpose.
Overall, Aristotle's definition of poetry emphasizes its ability to imitate and reflect the
world around us, while also serving as a powerful emotional and aesthetic experience that
can engage and move audiences. His ideas about the nature and function of poetry continue
to influence our understanding and appreciation of this art form today.
What is Catharsis?
Katharsis, in the context of tragedy, is the purgation or purification of the emotions of pity
and fear. According to Aristotle, this is the effect of tragedy, though he is less clear as to
whether it is the purpose of tragedy for which all poets should aim.
Aristotle argues that tragedy provides a cathartic experience for the audience, in which the
emotions of pity and fear are aroused and then purged or purified. He sees this as a valuable
and even necessary function of tragedy, allowing the audience to experience these emotions in
a controlled and safe way, and ultimately leading to a sense of emotional release and renewal.
In the context of tragedy, catharsis is the emotional release or purification that occurs when
an audience experiences the emotions of pity and fear in response to the events of the play.
Aristotle famously defined catharsis as the "purification" or "purging" of these emotions,
which he saw as a necessary and valuable function of tragedy.
The idea behind catharsis is that by experiencing strong emotions in a controlled and safe way
through a work of art, the audience can achieve a kind of emotional release or renewal. The
tragedy is particularly well-suited to this purpose, as it often deals with serious and weighty
themes, such as death, love, and power, that can evoke powerful emotions in the viewer.
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Through the events of the play, the tragic hero may experience a reversal of fortune or a
recognition of their flaws and limitations, leading the audience to feel pity and fear for
them. This emotional response is cathartic, in that it allows the audience to experience these
intense emotions in a way that is safe and controlled.
Overall, catharsis is an essential component of Aristotle's theory of tragedy, and it

continues to be an important concept in the study of literature and drama today.
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ Poetics is the study of literary works, including poetry, drama, and prose, as well as
the principles and techniques that underlie their creation. Aristotle's Poetics, written
in the 4th century BCE, is considered one of the foundational works in the field of
poetics.
➢ Aristotle's influence can be seen in a variety of fields, including philosophy, science,

literature, and politics. His emphasis on reason and logic, as well as his ideas about
the nature of reality and the role of the individual in society, have shaped the way we
think about these topics even today.
➢ Though Aristotle's works were lost to the West for many centuries, they were
preserved and studied in the Islamic world, where they were translated into Arabic
and became the basis for much of Islamic philosophy and science. It was through the
work of Muslim scholars such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) that
Aristotle's ideas were reintroduced to the West during the medieval period. These
Muslim scholars were not only instrumental in preserving and translating Aristotle's
works, but they also built upon his ideas and developed their own philosophical and
scientific theories.
➢ Aristotle's definition of poetry as a means of mimesis emphasizes the idea that poetry
is a representation of reality, rather than a direct reflection of it. According to Aristotle,
poets use language, rhythm, and harmony to create a work that imitates reality in a
way that is both convincing and pleasurable.
➢ In the "Poetics," Aristotle examines the nature of poetry and drama, focusing on
tragedy in particular. He analyzes the elements that make up a good tragedy, including
plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and spectacle. He also discusses the role of
catharsis, or emotional release, in tragedy and argues that tragedy can be a powerful
tool for moral education.
➢ Aristotle's "Poetics" is a seminal work of literary criticism that has had a lasting impact
on Western thought. Written in the 4th century BCE, it is a treatise on poetry and
drama, with a particular focus on tragedy. The work is divided into 26 chapters, each
of which discusses a different aspect of poetry and drama.
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➢ Aristotle's discussion of epic poetry in "Poetics" emphasizes the importance of
understanding the unique features and characteristics of different literary forms. While
both epic poetry and tragedy are forms of poetry that use language to create powerful
emotional experiences for the audience, they do so in different ways and with different
emphases. By understanding these differences, writers and readers can better
appreciate the beauty and complexity of different forms of literature.
➢ Aristotle argues that poetry is distinct from other forms of imitation because it uses
language in a unique way, combining words and rhythms to create a heightened
emotional and aesthetic effect. He believed that poetry has a special power to engage
and move audiences, and that this power comes from its ability to capture the essence
of human experience and emotion.
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SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Write an essay in the context of the ‘Poetics’.
2. Discuss the ‘Poetics’ as a masterpiece on criticism by Aristotle.
3. Define "poetry" in terms of the definition given by Aristotle. How is it different from
your own definition?
4. Explain the concept of mimesis as given by Aristotle. Why are we naturally disposed
toward imitation? You can agree or disagree with Aristotle’s arguments?
5. What is catharsis and how does it work in the context of tragedy? Does it serve any
particular purpose?
6. What does it mean to say that a plot must have a beginning, middle, and end? Is such
tight structuring always necessary for a good plot?
7. How do peripeteia and anagnorisis contribute to a good tragedy? How necessary are
they to a successful plot?
8. Compare and contrast the Greek notion of hamartia with our modern conceptions of
guilt and moral failure. Can we still understand Greek tragedy with such a different
moral worldview?
9. To what extent are Aristotle's remarks on character universally applicable, and to
what extent do they reflect the tastes and social structure of his day?
10. What, according to Aristotle, is the primary purpose of tragedy? What problems
might there be with this point of view?
11. Compare and contrast epic poetry and tragedy. What do they share in common? What
are the differences? To what extent do you think they can be judged according to the
same criteria?
12. Explain the following terms with examples:
a. Catharsis
b. Mimesis
c. Tragedy
d. Poetry
e. Tragic hero
f. Hamartia
g. Lusis
h. Desis
i. Anagnorisis
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FURTHER READINGS
Aristotle. (1992). Introduction to Aristotle. Ed. Richard McKeown. New York: Random House.
Barnes, Jonathan. (1995). Rhetoric and Poetics. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle.
Ed. Jonathan Barnes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McLeish, Kenneth. (1998). Aristotle: Aristotle's Poetics. London: Phoenix.
ONLINE SOURCES:
SparkNotes. Aristotle. Poetics: https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/poetics/
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Unit-2
THE GREEK CRITICS

LONGINUS: ON THE SUBLIME

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CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ............................................................................................................25
Learning Objectives ...............................................................................................25
2.1 Introduction to Longinus as a Critic .............................................................26
2.2 Summary and the Analysis of ‘On the Sublime’..........................................28
2.3 Analysis of the Essay ‘On the Sublime’......................................................31
2.4 Sublimity and Sources of Sublimity ............................................................32
Summary Points .....................................................................................................36
Self-Assessment Questions ................................................................................38
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INTRODUCTION
The present unit introduces Longinus as one of the greatest Greek critics. It mainly focuses
on his well-known essay on criticism, i.e., 'On the Sublime'. This essay (which is originally
in letter form) is an immortal critical document of great worth and significance. The unit
further deals with the principle of sublimity in the world of writing and how Longinus
discusses the meaning, the nature and the sources of sublime. On the basis of the definitions
given by the author of ‘On the Sublime’, the unit distinguishes the true sublime from the
false sublime.
The following topics are mainly included in the present unit:
• What is the ‘sublime’?

• ‘On the Sublime’ as a treatise on aesthetics and literary criticism [originally written
in Greek between the first and third centuries AD].
• The interpretation of the sublime as ‘the essentials of a noble and impressive style’.
• Introduction to Longinus as the author of ‘On the Sublime’.
• The ideas of Longinus on greatness in prose and poetry.
While presenting these importance topics on the subject, the following major learning
objectives were the focus of the unit.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this section, the students will be able to:
• Define the ‘sublime’.

• Differentiate between the ‘true’ and the ‘false’ sublime.
• Explore further the work of Longinus on criticism.
• Describes greatness in writing as a combination of innate genius and learned skills.
• Comment the on history and authorship of ‘On the Sublime’.
• Talk about the sources of the sublimity.
• Summaries the main idea of the essay on the topic and relate it to a classical Greek
work on criticism.:
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2.1 INTRODUCTION TO LONGINUS AS A CRITIC
Longinus was a Greek literary critic and philosopher who lived in the 1st century AD. He
is considered one of the greatest critics of Greek literature and was a significant influence
on the development of literary theory in the Western world.
Longinus was also the name of a literary critic from ancient Greece who wrote a treatise
called "On the Sublime".
Very little is known about the life of this Longinus, but scholars believe he lived in the first
century AD and was possibly a teacher of rhetoric in Alexandria, Egypt. "On the Sublime"
is his only surviving work, and it is a treatise on the nature of great literature and how it
inspires awe and admiration in its readers.
In "On the Sublime," Longinus identifies five key sources of literary greatness: the use of
great and appropriate images, the ability to create strong emotional responses in the reader,
the use of figures of speech and rhetorical devices, the use of elevated and passionate
language, and the ability to convey a sense of moral and intellectual greatness.
Longinus also discusses the qualities that make a writer or speaker "sublime," such as
confidence, sincerity, and the ability to see things from a fresh perspective. He cites
examples of great works of literature from ancient Greece and Rome, including passages
from Homer, Euripides, and Virgil.
Longinus' ideas had a significant influence on literary criticism and the theory of rhetoric
in the centuries that followed, and his work remains an important text for students of
literature and rhetoric today.
Longinus is best known for his treatise "On the Sublime," in which he discusses the nature
of great writing and the elements that make it truly great. He argues that great writing must
be able to inspire and move its readers, and that it must be able to evoke strong emotions
and create a sense of awe and wonder.
One of the key concepts in Longinus' theory of the sublime is the idea of "ecstasy," which
he defines as a state of being transported outside of oneself by the power of great writing.
This state of ecstasy is the ultimate goal of great writing, and Longinus argues that it can
only be achieved through the use of powerful language, vivid imagery, and a deep
understanding of the human condition.
Longinus' work was highly influential on later critics and philosophers, including the
Romantics, who saw his ideas as a powerful critique of the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason
and logic. His emphasis on the power of emotion and the importance of the sublime in literature
helped to shape the development of Romanticism and the rise of the modern novel.
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Longinus, also called Dionysius Longinus or Pseudo-Longinus, (flourished 1st century
AD), name sometimes assigned to the author of On the Sublime (Greek Peri Hypsous), one
of the great seminal works of literary criticism. The earliest surviving manuscript, from the
10th century, first printed in 1554, ascribes it to Dionysius Longinus. Later it was noticed
that the index to the manuscript read “Dionysius or Longinus.” The problem of authorship
embroiled scholars for centuries, attempts being made to identify him with Dionysius of
Halicarnassus, Cassius Longinus, Plutarch, and others. The solution has been to name him
Pseudo-Longinus.
On the Sublime apparently dates from the 1st century AD, because it was a response to a
work of that period by Caecilius of Calacte, a Sicilian rhetorician. About a third of the
manuscript is lost. Longinus defines sublimity (Greek hypsos) in literature as “the echo of
greatness of spirit,” that is, the moral and imaginative power of the writer that pervades a
work. Thus, for the first time greatness in literature is ascribed to qualities innate in the
writer rather than in the art.
The author suggests that greatness of thought, if not inborn, may be acquired by emulating
great authors such as his models (chief among them Homer, Demosthenes, and Plato).
Quotations that were chosen to illustrate the sublime and its opposite occasionally also
preserve work that would otherwise now be lost—e.g., one of Sappho’s odes. Longinus is
one of the first Greeks to cite a passage from the Bible (Genesis 1:3–9). See also sublime.
Longinus’s position as a critic is only next to Aristotle. His 'On the Sublime' is an immortal
critical document of great worth and significance. It deals with the principle of sublimity
in the world of writing. He was the first European Critic who emphasised the importance
of style. He made use of both historical and comparative methods in literary criticism.
In regard to his contribution the critics are divided in their opinions. Scott James hails him
as the first romantic critic whereas prof. Atkins admires him as a great classical critic. In
fact, Longinus is a classicist in taste, romantic in temper and an idealist at heart. He
anticipated much that is modern in the critical world.
Longinus is a romanticist in temper. For him, literature is not a mechanical work but a thing
of the spirit of imagination, of feeling and the gift of communication. Again and again he
directs attention from the technical to the more illusive and spiritual side of literature. He
insists upon passion, ecstasy, beauty, transport, imagination, intensity, inspiration,
exaltation, subjectivity and emotion. His love for beauty, for art, and for violating the rules
of the ancients makes him a romantic critic. He is a romantic critic because he believes in
the romantic function of literature and discards the moral function of literature. It is he who
sowed the seeds of romanticism. He can be called a pioneer in the field of aesthetic
appreciation of literature. It would not be an exaggeration in calling him the grandfather of
romanticism. Thus Scott James is right when he says that he was the first to expound the
doctrines upon which romanticism rests.
Longinus is a classicist in taste. The classical qualities of Longinus as a critic are quite
obvious. He likes inspiration but does not ignore perspiration. He shows great reverence
27
for the ancient Greek models, tradition and advocates imitation. He laid emphasis on order
and grandeur of thought and language. He believes in rules and regulations. As a classicist
he stands for restrain, fitness, correctness, selection and balance. He stands for the use of
refined and cultivated poetic style. All these affinities show that he is one of the greatest
classical critics of ancient times. Prof. Atkins admires him as a great classical critic. He
disagrees with Scott James and designates him as an exponent of the real classicism.
Longinus is a great critic. He is not only a romanticist or classicist, but he is something

more than this. He is not only the last of the classical critics but also the first critic who
anticipates much that is modern in outlook. His theory of aestheticism, his emphasis on
imagination, his practical criticism and his wide outlook make him a modern critic. His
chief claim to modernity rests on his conception of inspiration and ecstasy. He is very much
modern when he says that ' literature or art aims to instruct, to delight and to persuade'.
Thus Longinus maintains a fantastic balance between classicism, romanticism and

modernism. In fact, the fusion of the romantic, classical and the modern strains in Longinus
is the real key to his greatness, originality and relevance.
2.2 SUMMARY AND THE ANALYSIS OF ‘On the Sublime’

"On the Sublime" is an essay written by the ancient Greek literary critic Longinus. In the
essay, Longinus explores the nature of great literature and how it inspires awe and
admiration in its readers. He identifies five key sources of literary greatness, including the
use of great and appropriate images, the ability to create strong emotional responses in the
reader, the use of rhetorical devices, the use of elevated and passionate language, and the
ability to convey a sense of moral and intellectual greatness.
Longinus also discusses the qualities that make a writer or speaker "sublime," such as
confidence, sincerity, and the ability to see things from a fresh perspective. He cites
examples of great works of literature from ancient Greece and Rome, including passages
from Homer, Euripides, and Virgil.
Throughout the essay, Longinus emphasizes the importance of the emotional and intellectual
impact that great literature can have on its readers, and argues that the most effective works are
those that transcend ordinary language and ideas. His ideas had a significant influence on
literary criticism and the theory of rhetoric in the centuries that followed, and his work remains
an important text for students of literature and rhetoric today.
Longinus writes to his friend Postumius Terentianus about the principles of great writing. The
most essential principle of great writing is that it “takes the reader out of himself” (4),
impressing him with power and emotion. Great writers must have both natural talent and
disciplined training. They must use figures of speech and rhetorical devices wisely, arranging
their words with care and artistry and avoiding stylistic excess and false emotion. They must
express sincere passion and, in doing so, excite the same emotions in their readers.
28
Literary rules give both structure and aesthetic beauty to our writing. But although rules
are important, a great genius can break the rules to achieve a higher purpose or to express
a particularly strong emotion. Imitating the great literary geniuses of the past, such as
Homer or Demosthenes, is a valid way for the writer to achieve greatness.
Above all, the great writer must possess a moral “high-mindedness” that will shine forth
and influence readers to be morally good as well. Great writing also depends on the social
framework an individual lives in. Freedom is necessary for a society to foster literary
greatess, because without it we are slaves to our passions and lose all sense of value.
On the Sublime by Longinus is a work of literary criticism thought to date back to 1st
century Rome. While the author is not definitively known, Longinus or Pseudo-Longinus
is typically credited for the work. On the Sublime centres on aesthetics and the benefits of
strong writing. Longinus does this by analyzing both strong and weak writing from works
written over the previous thousand years.
The authorship of On the Sublime is a matter of debate among scholars, with some
attributing it to a figure named Longinus and others arguing that it was written by an
anonymous author in the 1st century CE who adopted the name Longinus. Despite this
uncertainty, the work has been widely recognized as a masterpiece of literary criticism and
an important contribution to the study of aesthetics.
The goal, according to Longinus, is to achieve the sublime. In philosophy, the sublime is a
quality of greatness. It can be physical, intellectual, moral, aesthetic, spiritual, artistic, or
metaphysical. Another quality of the sublime is that it can’t be calculated, imitated, or
measured. Longinus argues in On the Sublime that the goal of literature is to achieve the
sublime, which he defines as a quality of greatness that transcends the ordinary and inspires
awe and admiration in the reader. In his view, the sublime is achieved through the use of
powerful and elevated language, vivid imagery, and emotional intensity, which together
create a sense of grandeur and majesty that lifts the reader out of themselves and into a
higher realm of experience. Longinus sees the sublime as the ultimate goal of literature,
capable of moving and inspiring readers in profound ways.
On the Sublime is written in the form of a letter or essay addressed to an anonymous friend
(epistolary form), where Longinus discusses the nature of the sublime in literature and
provides examples of works that achieve it. An epistolary work is usually written through
letters, journal entries, or a combination of the two. There is a missing part to this treatise—
the final part—which reportedly handles the topic of public speaking. Longinus dedicated
the work to one Posthumius Terentianus, a public figure in Ancient Rome known for being
cultured. On the Sublime includes works by roughly fifty authors including Homer, the
famed blind poet of Ancient Greek culture. Longinus also mentions Genesis, a book in
Hebrew Bible. Because of this, many have assumed that Longinus was either
knowledgeable about Jewish culture, or possibly even a Hellenized (Greek) Jew.
29
One of Longinus’ assertions is that for one’s writing to reach the sublime, the writer must
possess and exhibit what he refers to as “moral excellence.” Theories abound that Longinus
avoided publishing his writings in order to preserve his modesty and therefore moral
excellence. This might be another reason why the authorship of On the Sublime is
uncertain. Another main point that Longinus makes is that a writer who transgresses social
mores may not necessarily be a fool or shameless. For Longinus, social subjectivity is also
important. He writes that support spirit and hope, freedom is necessary. That said, too
much freedom can lead to a decline in eloquence, which according to Longinus, can hamper
one’s ability to write in the sublime.
To go into sublimity in more depth, Longinus provides five sources that can lead to this
goal: great thoughts, noble diction, dignified word arrangement strong emotions and
particular figures of speech or thoughts. The sublime also has several specific effects, for
which Longinus calls upon readers to search: the loss of rationality, deep emotion
combined with pleasure, and alienation. That alienation should lead to identifying the
creative process in order to be considered sublime. Longinus simplifies these effects by
stating that a strong writer will not focus on his own emotions, or trying to convey
emotions, but rather cause the reader to feel those emotions.
In addition, Longinus admires genius in writing. He mentions specific writers in addition
to Homer, including Sappho, Plato, and Aristophanes. Longinus talks about these writers’
ability to create the sublime by causing readers to feel pleasure. Other writers on his list
are Apollonius of Rhodes and Theocritus for their sophisticated poetry; however, Longinus
says they fail to measure up to classic writers like Homer because they lack the bravery.
Bravery is necessary to take risks, and taking risks is necessary to reach the sublime. After
making his points about the sublime, Longinus laments the decline of the oratory arts. The
reason for this is two-fold: it comes from the absence of freedom as well as moral
corruption. These two phenomena, Longinus reminds readers, damage the high spirit which
creates the sublime. It’s important to note that the use of the English word “sublime” and
all its philosophical associations that accompany arise from multiple translations, but the
word truly means “the essentials of a noble and impressive style.” Lons’ own writing is
rarely described as perfect or even sublime in part because of his overzealous enthusiasm.
This leads to an overuse of hyperbole, or overstatement, on his part. Longinus is also
criticized for writing tediously in On the Sublime.
By the 10th century, On the Sublime was copied into a medieval manuscript where it was
incorrectly attributed to Dionysius or Longinus, which was misread or mistranslated as
Dionysius Longinus, and therefore confused with Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who also
lived during the first century. The work was also attributed to Cassius Longinus, but as he
lived from 213-273 C.E., he cannot be the same Longinus who wrote On the Sublime.
Three hundred years later, references were made by a Byzantine rhetorician to text that might
be On the Sublime. In the 16th century, the treatise was published by Francis Robortello in
Basel, and six years later by Niccolò da Falgano. In the 1600s, the concept of reaching the
30
sublime becomes a major goal of Baroque literature, and the treatise is rediscovered. Since
then, On the Sublime has received more attention with each passing century.
2.3 ANALYSIS OF THE ESSAY ‘On the Sublime’

Longinus defines sublime as a kind of loftiness and excellence in language raising the style
of the ordinary language. Sublimity springs from a great and lofty soul, thereby becoming
“one echo of a great soul". It should not only be distinct and excellent in composition but
also move the readers along with the effects of pleasure and persuasion. Such effects should
be subtle, flashing at the right moment, scattering everything before it like a thunder bolt
and at once displaying the power of plentitude. In this sense, the sublime is lofty and
excellent poetic creation with the power to please, persuade and move the readers through
the upliftment of their souls. Sublimity is thus the aesthetic upliftment of the soul through
the reconciliation of the poetic inspiration and rhetorical mastery of the writers. Longinus
believes that sublimity is achieved by a deft handling of Nature and Art, which is inborn
genius and learned skills. The five sources he mentions for the sublime are either related
to author or the poem. In the course of dealing with the sources of the sublime, Longinus
even differentiates the true sublime the from false sublime.
In "On the Sublime," Longinus argues that the sublime is a kind of greatness or elevation
that transcends ordinary language and ideas, and that it can be achieved through the use of
certain literary techniques and devices. He suggests that the sublime is characterized by a
sense of loftiness, excellence, and grandeur, and that it can inspire awe and admiration in
its readers or listeners.
According to Longinus, achieving the sublime requires more than just skilful use of language;
it also involves a deep understanding of the emotional and intellectual impact that language can
have on its audience. By raising the style of ordinary language through the use of metaphors,
figures of speech, and other rhetorical devices, the writer or speaker can create a sense of
greatness and elevation that is capable of moving and inspiring their audience.
Longinus believed that the power of forming great conceptions was an essential source of
the sublime in literature. According to Longinus, the ability to conceive of and express
great ideas and emotions in writing is what sets great literature apart from the ordinary. He
believed that the power of forming great conceptions was closely linked to the ability to
see things from a fresh and original perspective, and to convey a sense of moral and
intellectual greatness in one's writing.
Longinus argued that the power of forming great conceptions was a key characteristic of
writers who were capable of achieving the sublime. By expressing their ideas and emotions
in language that transcends the ordinary, these writers were able to create a sense of
grandeur and elevation in their writing that could inspire awe and admiration in their
readers. For Longinus, the power of forming great conceptions was an essential element of
great literature and one that was essential to achieving the sublime.
31
Longinus believed that the expression of vehement and inspired passion was a second
essential source of the sublime in literature. According to Longinus, genuine emotion is
what gives writing the power to move and inspire its audience. He argued that the
expression of intense emotions such as love, grief, anger, or joy can create a sense of
grandeur and elevation in writing that can be sublime.
Longinus believed that the expression of vehement and inspired passion required a deep
understanding of the emotional and psychological aspects of human experience. He
believed that writers who were capable of conveying genuine emotion in their writing were
able to create a sense of connection with their readers that transcends the ordinary, and that
this was an essential element of achieving the sublime.
In his essay "On the Sublime," Longinus cites examples of writers who were able to achieve
the sublime through the expression of genuine emotion, including passages from Homer,
Euripides, and Virgil. He believed that the ability to express intense emotions in writing was a
key characteristic of great literature and one that was essential to achieving the sublime.
The following factors are described to mention how they cause the sublime to be false:
The conceit of turgidity: It is a type of timidity or bombasting use of language, which he
thinks, is drier than dropsy.
Puerility: The use of puerility spoils the sublimity. It is a pedantic type of conceit adding
to a pompous and frigid style.
Parentheses: It is a passion out of place and meaning, where there is no cause for passion
or unrestrained where restraint is needed. Here unrestrained passion does not make sublime
for the greatness of soul, place, manner, occasion, and purposes are essential.
Defects of style: The false sublimity even arises out of the defeats of style, especially when
sincerity is sidelined in favour of the craze for a fashionable style. Here, he suggests that
the same elements of true sublime may obstruct and cause false sublime if they are not well
handled by nature and sincerity.
At last, to Longinus, the form and content should bring about equilibrium. The hierarchical
composition can never be sublime as an art showing a beautiful cock in the mid- ocean can
never be natural and pleasing.
2.4 SUBLIMITY AND SOURCES OF SUBLIMITY

Longinus is one of the greatest Greek critics. His position is only next to Aristotle. His 'On
the Sublime' is an immortal critical document of great worth and significance. It deals with
the principle of sublimity in the world of writing. Here Longinus discusses the meaning,
the nature and the sources of sublime. He distinguishes the true sublime from the false
sublime. He advises how to overcome the vices of the sublime. His suggestions are of
permanent and paramount value.
32
What is sublimity:
Sublimity is a certain loftiness, distinction and consummation of excellence in language,
expression and composition. It is the echo of a great soul. It raises style above the ordinary.
Some persons are of the view that sublimity is a gift of nature. They think that it has nothing
to do with art. But one should not forget that nature needs the help of art to control its wild
impulses. In fact, both nature and art contribute to sublimity in literature. According to
Longinus, 'Art is perfect when it seems to be nature, and nature hits the mark when she
contains art hidden within her'.
Generally speaking, sublimity refers to the quality of being grand, awe-inspiring, and
magnificent. It is the quality of being elevated beyond the ordinary or mundane and
inspiring feelings of greatness and reverence. Artistic works such as paintings, sculptures,
music, and literature can inspire feelings of sublimity through their beauty, complexity,
and emotional depth.
Sources of sublimity can vary depending on the individual and their cultural background,
but some common sources have been recognized throughout history. According to
Longinus there are five principal sources of the sublime. These sources are:
a. Grandeur of thought
b. Strong emotion
c. The use of figures
d. Noble diction
e. Dignified composition
The 'grandeur of thought' and 'strong emotion' is inborn gifts of nature. The rest three
sources are the gifts of art.
Grandeur of thought
'Grandeur of thought' is one of the principal sources of the sublime. It is largely the gift of
nature. It is essential for a sublime work. is often considered to be one of the principal
sources of the sublime. This concept refers to the ability of a writer, artist, or thinker to
express ideas that are vast, powerful, and profound. The idea is that when we encounter
such grand ideas, we are inspired to feel a sense of awe and wonder, and we are reminded
of our smallness and insignificance in the face of the universe. Sublimity demands skilful
selection and organisation of material. Details should be so chosen as to form an organic
whole. Imitation is also one of the significant paths, which lead to sublimity.
For example, the works of philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, or
Martin Heidegger often contain ideas that are considered to be grand and sublime, such as
the nature of the human condition, the meaning of existence, and the limits of human
knowledge. Similarly, literary works such as William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of
Immortality" or Percy Shelley's "Ozymandias" can also be considered sublime due to their
ability to express profound ideas that transcend the ordinary.
33
The concept of "grandeur of thought" is closely related to the idea of the sublime, as both
involve experiences that inspire a sense of awe, wonder, and reverence in the face of
something greater than ourselves.
Strong emotion
Strong and inspired passion is the second significant source of the sublime. This refers to
experiences that elicit intense emotions, such as love, fear, awe, or admiration. When we
encounter such experiences, we are often moved to feel a sense of elevated emotion, which
can inspire feelings of sublimity.
For example, a work of art that evokes a powerful emotional response, such as Vincent van
Gogh's "Starry Night," can be considered sublime because it elicits a sense of wonder and
awe. Similarly, a natural phenomenon such as a thunderstorm or a beautiful sunset can be
a source of the sublime due to the intense emotional response it can provoke.
In addition, strong and inspired passion can also refer to experiences that involve acts of heroism,
sacrifice, or selflessness. When we witness or participate in such experiences, we are often moved
to feel a sense of admiration and reverence, which can inspire feelings of sublimity.
Strong and inspired passion is another significant source of the sublime, as it involves experiences
that elicit intense emotional responses and inspire a sense of awe, wonder, and reverence.
The strong emotion is an inborn gift of a genius. According to Longinus, nothing makes so
much for grandeur as true emotion in the right place. But the subject of emotion has not
been dealt with in detail.
The use of figures

The use of figures is the third principal source of the sublime. It can be acquired through
art. It helps in the creation of the sublime. Figures of speech should be used naturally.
They should be employed in the right place, on the right occasion, in the right manner and
with the right motive. Only such use strengthens the sublime and the sublime supports it.
The chief figures like the rhetorical questions; adjuration, asyndeton, hyperbaton, periphrasis,
anaphora, diatyposis and polyptota contribute much to the sublime and add greatly to the beauty
of language. the use of figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, and personification,
can certainly contribute to creating a sublime experience for the audience or reader. By using
figurative language, the author or artist can evoke vivid mental images and appeal to the reader's
imagination, thus enhancing the emotional impact of the work.
For example, in John Keats' poem "Ode to a Nightingale," the use of figurative language
contributes to the sublime experience by creating a vivid and immersive atmosphere that
transports the reader into a realm of imagination and emotion.
While the use of figures of speech may not be considered a principal source of the sublime,
it can certainly be a valuable tool in creating works that inspire feelings of awe, wonder,
and reverence.
34
Noble diction
Noble diction, or the use of elevated and majestic language, is considered to be another
important source of the sublime. This refers to the use of language that is grand, powerful,
and inspiring, and that elevates the subject matter beyond the ordinary. It includes the
choice of proper words and the use of metaphors and ornamental language. The choice of
proper and striking words is essential for producing sublimity. Longinus is of the view that
beautiful words are the very light of lofty thought. Trivial subjects should not be treated
grandly. It means that the inappropriate magnificence of diction should be avoided. The
use of metaphors also contributes a great deal to the sublime.
For example, the works of Shakespeare are often considered to be sublime due to his use
of noble diction to convey profound themes and ideas. Similarly, the speeches of famous
orators, such as Martin Luther King Jr. or Winston Churchill, often employ noble diction
to inspire feelings of greatness and elevate the subject matter.
Noble diction is an important source of the sublime because it can enhance the emotional
impact of the work and elevate the subject matter beyond the ordinary, inspiring feelings
of awe, wonder, and reverence in the audience or reader.
Dignified composition
Dignified composition or the harmonious arrangement of words is the fifth source of the
sublime. It is a great source of persuasion as well as pleasure. It makes the reader or hearer
share the emotion of the speaker. It is the sense of harmony that gives charm and organic
unity to a word of art. The lack of harmony spoils dignity and elevation and gives the
composition an appearance of meanness.
A work that is well-composed and effectively structured can create a sense of harmony and
balance, which can in turn enhance the emotional impact of the work and inspire feelings
of sublimity. Conversely, a poorly constructed work can detract from its overall impact and
diminish its power.
For example, the sonnet form is often used in poetry due to its highly structured and
harmonious composition, which can create a sense of balance and order that enhances the
emotional impact of the work. Similarly, in music, the use of harmonies and melodic
structure can contribute to the sublime experience by creating a sense of unity and
coherence.
35
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ On the Sublime is a work of literary criticism that belongs to the Graeco-Roman
period. It dates back to the 1st century AD.
➢ On the Sublime was originally a letter written to a friend.
➢ Its author is unknown but is conventionally referred to as Longinus or Pseudo-

Longinus.
➢ Very little is known about Longinus.
➢ It is normally seen as a classic work on aesthetics and the effects of good writing.
➢ It is calculated that as much as one-third of the original text is missing, but what
we have is sufficient to make plain the intention of the author.
➢ Before Longinus, critics believed that the function of poetry was to instruct or
delight or both and if it is prose, its function was to persuade also. But Longinus
was not satisfied with this formula.
➢ Longinus believes that great work of art aims to transport the reader out of himself.
It can move the reader to divine joy. This is the quality of the divine. So, a great
work of art does not only please or instruct, but it also moves, transports, and
elevates. It pleases all and it pleases all the time.
➢ He believes nothing is poetry unless it transports. A work of art becomes excellent,

only when it sublimates.
➢ On the Sublime is both a treatise on aesthetics and a work of literary criticism. It

is written in an epistolary form and the final part, possibly dealing with public
speaking, has been lost.
➢ “On the Sublime” tackles the question “what is good writing, and how it may be
achieved?” The answer Longinus gives to this question is that: “good writing
partakes of what he calls the Sublime.”
➢ The sublime is a certain loftiness and distinction in the style of writing. The effect
of the sublime takes place on the reader and moves him/her from one psychological
state to another. He says it “sways every reader whether he is willing or not”
➢ Sources of the True Sublime:
1. Greatness of thought [Capacity for great thought and a firm grasp of ideas]
36
2. Passion [A vigorous and spirited treatment of the passions].
3. Figurative language [A certain artifice in the employment of figures, which are of

two kinds, figures of thought and figures of speech]
4. Diction [Dignified expression, which is sub-divided into two aspects;
a) The proper choice of words
b) The use of metaphors and other ornaments of diction]
5. Dignified composition [Majesty and elevation of the structure].
➢ Aspects of False Sublime:
Longinus warns against the false sublime. That is to say when a writer intends to produce
a good style but achieves bad writing.
1. Bombastic use of language. (Tumidity)
2. Childish use of language. (Puerility)
3. Cheap display of passion. (Parenthyrsus)
4. Frigidity.
➢ Sublime, in literary criticism, the grandeur of thought, emotion, and spirit that
characterizes great literature. It is the topic of an incomplete treatise, On the
Sublime, that was for long attributed to the 3rd-century Greek philosopher Cassius
Longinus is but now believed to have been written in the 1st century AD by an
unknown writer frequently designated Pseudo-Longinus.
➢ The author of the treatise defines sublimity as “excellence in language,” the

“expression of a great spirit,” and the power to provoke “ecstasy.” Departing from
traditional classical criticism, which sought to attribute the success of literary
works to their balance of certain technical elements—diction, thought, metaphor,
music, etc.—he saw the source of the sublime in the moral, emotional, and
imaginative depth of the writer and its expression in the flare-up of genius that
rules alone could not produce.
➢ The concept had little influence on modern criticism until the late 17th and 18th
centuries when it had its greatest impact in England. Its vogue there coincided with
renewed interest in the plays of William Shakespeare, and it served as an important
critical basis for Romanticism.
37
1. What is sublime? Explain the concept of sublime with examples from

literature.
2. What are the sources of the sublime?
3. How is the nobility of diction a source of the sublime as discussed by

Longinus in On the Sublime?
4. What is false sublimity? Explain concerning On the Sublime by Longinus.
5. What is some information on Longinus as a Classic or Romantic critic?
6. What are the sources of the "sublime" in ‘On the Sublime’ by Longinus?
7. In On the Sublime by Longinus, what is the difference between

amplification and sublimity?
8. How is the nobility of diction a source of the sublime as discussed by

Longinus in On the Sublime?
9. Explain how the effect of elevated language upon an audience is not

persuasion but transport in On the Sublime by Longinus.
10. Write a short note on factors which destroy sublime effects in On the
Sublime.
11. What according to Longinus in On the Sublime is the test of excellence in

literature?
12. "On the Sublime is a wonderful piece of comparative and practical

criticism." Elucidate.
13. How does figurative language enhance "sublimity" in On the Sublime?
38
14. "The effect of elevated language upon the audience is not persuasion but
transport." Discuss with reference to On the Sublime by Longinus.
15. In On the Sublime, the approach can be described as psychological as well.

How far do you agree?
16. In "On the Sublime," why does Longinus shed light on the production itself
rather than on the poet?
39
FURTHER READINGS
Doran, R. (2015). The Theory of the Sublime from Longinus to Kant. Cambridge
University Press.
Ferguson, F. (Winter 1985). A Commentary on Suzanne Guerlac's 'Longinus and

the Subject of the Sublime'. New Literary History. The Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Grube, G.M.A. (1957). On Great Writing (On the Sublime). New York: The
Liberal Arts Press.
Porter, J. (2016). The Sublime in Antiquity. Cambridge University Press.
Russell, A. (1964). 'Longinus' on the Sublime. Clarendon Press
Online sources:
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2013, January 4). sublime. Encyclopedia

Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/sublime
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2017, August 22). Longinus.

Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Longinus-
Greek-literary-critic
40
Unit-3
ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH-CENTURY
CRITICS SIR PHILIP SIDNEY
(1554-1586): AN APOLOGY FOR
POETRY

41
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ............................................................................................................43
3.1 Introduction to Sir Philip Sidney as a Critic ................................................44
3.2 Summary and Analysis of ‘An Apology for Poetry’ ...................................46
3.3 Influence of Sir Philip Sidney ......................................................................49
3.4 Significance of ‘An Apology for Poetry’ ....................................................50
3.5 The 'Apology' as an Epitome of Renaissance Criticism...............................52
Summary Points .....................................................................................................53
42
INTRODUCTION
This unit introduces Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) as a critic and highlights some of his
main ideas regarding poetry and other aspects of literary criticism. Sir Philip Sidney was
an English poet, critic, courtier, scholar and soldier who is remembered as among the most
prominent figures of the Elizabethan era. His works include Astrophel and Stella, The
Defence of Poesy (also known as The Defence of Poetry or An Apology for Poetry) and
The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia.
As a critic, Sidney is best known for his work "The Defence of Poesy," which was written
in response to contemporary critics who had argued that poetry was a frivolous and morally
corrupting pursuit. In "The Defence of Poesy," Sidney argued that poetry was not only a
valuable art form, but that it had the power to inspire moral and intellectual virtues in its
readers. He also emphasized the importance of imagination and creativity in the artistic
process and defended the use of literary devices such as allegory and myth. In the present
unit, we will be talking more about Sidney’s ideas in the defense of poetry.
The following are the learning objectives :
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
• Introduce Sir Philip Sidney as a critic.

• Enlist different phases of Sir Philip Sidney’s life and his political inclinations
• Discuss the contribution of Sir Philip Sidney to poetry
• Summarize the main features of his essay ‘The Defense of Poesy’
• Identify important aspects of Sir Philip Sidney’s critical ideas about poetry
• Enlist the characteristics of Sir Philip Sidney’s definition of poetry
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3.1 INTRODUCTION TO SIR PHILIP SIDNEY AS A CRITIC
Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) was a prominent Elizabethan courtier, soldier, and poet, who
is also known for his critical works on literature. He was born into a noble family and was
educated at Oxford University, where he developed his interest in literature and the arts.
Sidney was known for his chivalrous and idealistic values, which he expressed in his
poetry, as well as in his personal life and career.
As a critic, Sidney is best known for his work "The Defence of Poesy," which was written
in response to contemporary critics who had argued that poetry was a frivolous and morally
corrupting pursuit. In "The Defence of Poesy," Sidney argued that poetry was not only a
valuable art form, but that it had the power to inspire moral and intellectual virtues in its
readers. He also emphasized the importance of imagination and creativity in the artistic
process and defended the use of literary devices such as allegory and myth.
Sidney's work as a critic played an important role in shaping the literary and cultural values of
the Elizabethan era, and his legacy continues to influence the study and appreciation of
literature to this day. Like the best of the Elizabethans, Sidney was successful in more than one
branch of literature, but none of his literary output was published until after his death. His finest
achievement was his connected sequence of 108 love sonnets. These sonnets which owe much
to Petrarch and Ronsard in tone and style, place Sidney as the greatest Elizabethan sonneteer
except Shakespeare. Written to his mistress, Lady Penelope Rich, though dedicated to his wife,
they reveal true lyric emotion couched in a language delicately archaic. In form, Sidney usually
adopts the Petrarchan octave (ABBAABBA), with variations in the sestet which include the
English final couplet. His artistic contacts were more peaceful and more significant for his
lasting fame. During his absence from court, he wrote Astrophel and Stella (1591) and the first
draft of The Arcadia and The Defence of Poesy.
In “An Apology for Poetry,” Sir Philip Sidney sets out to restore poetry to its rightful place
among the arts. Poetry has gotten a bad name in Elizabethan England, disrespected by
many of Sidney’s contemporaries. But, Sidney contends, critics of poetry do not understand
what poetry is: they have been misled by modern poetry, which is frequently bad. If one
understands the true nature of poetry, one will see, as Sidney shows in his essay, that poetry
is the “monarch” of the arts. Sidney does so by articulating a theory of poetry, largely
drawn from classical sources, as a tool for teaching virtue and the poet as a semi-divine
figure capable of imagining a more perfect version of nature. Armed with this definition,
Sidney proceeds to address the major criticisms made of the art of poetry and of the poets
who practice it, refuting them with brilliant rhetorical skills.
Following the seven-part structure of a classical oration, Sidney begins with an exordium
or introduction. He tells an anecdote about horse riding, noting that, like his riding
instructor Giovanni Pietro Pugliano, he will not dwell so much on the writing of poetry as
the contemplation and appreciation of it. Since he has become a poet, he feels obliged to
say something to restore the reputation of his unelected vocation.
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Sidney begins his defence of poetry by noting that poetry was the first of the arts, coming before
philosophy and history. Indeed, many of the famous classical philosophers and historians wrote
in poetry, and even those who wrote in prose, like Plato and Herodotus, wrote poetically—that
is, they used poetic style to come up with philosophical allegories, in the case of Plato, or to
supply vivid historical details, in the case of Herodotus. Indeed, without borrowing from poetry,
historians and philosophers would never have become popular, Sidney claims. One can get
some indication of the respect in which poets were held in the ancient world by examining the
names they were given in Latin and Greek, vates and points. Vates means “seer” or “prophet,”
and in the classical world, poetry was considered to convey important knowledge about the
future. Poietesmeans maker and this title reflects the fact that poets, like God, create new and
more perfect realities using their imaginations.
Sidney then moves to the proposition, which defines poetry as an art of imitation that
teaches its audience through “delight,” or pleasure. In its ability to embody ideas in
compelling images, poetry is like “a speaking picture.” Sidney then specifies that the kind
of poetry he is interested in is not religious or philosophical, but rather that which is written
by “right poets.” This ideal form of poetry is not limited in its subject matter by what exists
in nature, but instead creates perfect examples of virtue that, while maybe not real, are
well-suited to teaching readers about what it means to be good. Poetry is a more effective
teacher of virtue than history or philosophy because, instead of being limited to the realm
of abstract ideas, like philosophy, or to the realm of what has happened, like history, poetry
can present perfect examples of virtue in a way best suited to instruct its readers.
Reading poetry about virtue, Sidney writes, is like taking a “medicine of cherries’. In his
work "The Defence of Poesy," Sir Philip Sidney compares reading poetry about virtue to
taking a "medicine of cherries." By this, he means that reading poetry that promotes
virtuous ideals, such as courage, honesty, and loyalty, is not only enjoyable and
pleasurable, but also has a positive impact on the reader's moral character.
Sidney believed that poetry had the power to inspire and uplift its readers and that by reading
works that celebrated virtuous ideals, individuals could become better people. He argued that
poetry was not just a form of entertainment, but a valuable tool for shaping individual and social
values, and that it had the potential to contribute to the greater good of society.
Sidney's comparison of reading poetry about virtue to taking a "medicine of cherries"

underscores his belief in the power of literature to promote moral and intellectual virtues,
and his conviction that poetry had an important role to play in shaping the values and
character of individuals and societies.
Following the classical structure from this examination to the refutation, Sidney rebuts the
criticisms made of poetry by “poet-haters.” Sidney outlines the four most serious charges
against poetry: that poetry is a waste of time, that the poet is a liar, that poetry corrupts our
morals, and that Plato banished poets from his ideal city in the Republic. He highlights that
all of these objections rest on the power of poetry to move its audience, which means that
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they are reasons to praise poetry. For if poetry is written well, it has enormous power to
move its audience to virtue.
Following a short peroration, or conclusion, in which he summarizes the arguments he has

made, Sidney devotes the final portion of his essay to a digression on modern English
poetry. There is relatively little modern English poetry of any quality, Sidney admits.
However, is not because there is anything wrong with English or with poetry, but rather
with the absurd way in which poets write poems and playwrights write plays. Poets must
be educated to write more elegantly, borrowing from classical sources without apishly
imitating them, as so many poets, orators, and scholars did in Sidney’s time. English is an
expressive language with all the apparatus for good literature, and it is simply waiting for
skilful writers to use it. Sidney brings “An Apology for Poetry” to a close on this hopeful
note—but not before warning readers that, just as poetry has the power to immortalize
people in verse, so too does it have the power to condemn others to be forgotten by ignoring
them altogether. The critics of poetry should therefore take Sidney’s arguments seriously.
3.2 SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS OF ‘AN APOLOGY FOR

POETRY
Sir Philip Sidney’s An Apology for Poetry, also known as The Defence of Poesy, was
written in 1579-80). It has at least one great claim to fame: it’s the first work of ‘literary
criticism’ in English. Sidney’s essay is an ‘apology’ for, or defence of, the art of poetry,
but Sidney was inspired to write it for a very specific reason. Let’s take a closer look at this
landmark defence of poetry from a true Renaissance man.
An Apology for Poetry" is a critical work by Sir Philip Sidney, in which he defends the
value and importance of poetry as an art form. The work was written in response to
contemporary critics who had argued that poetry was a frivolous and morally corrupting
pursuit. Sidney seeks to counter these arguments by asserting that poetry has a positive
impact on society and individuals.
The work is structured as a series of dialogues, in which various speakers present

arguments for and against poetry. Sidney argues that poetry has the power to inspire and
uplift its readers, by presenting idealized versions of human experience and promoting
virtuous ideals. He also emphasizes the importance of imagination and creativity in the
artistic process and defends the use of literary devices such as allegory and myth.
One of the central arguments of "An Apology for Poetry" is that poetry has a moral purpose
and that it can contribute to the greater good of society by promoting virtue and
discouraging vice. Sidney argues that poetry has the power to shape individual and social
values and that it can inspire readers to become better people. He also asserts that poetry
can provide a valuable critique of society, by exposing its flaws and inspiring readers to
work towards a better future.
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Sidney also defends the value of literature as a form of entertainment, arguing that it has
the power to provide pleasure and enjoyment to its readers and that this is a valid and
important function of the art form. He acknowledges that there may be some instances in
which poetry is used for harmful purposes, but argues that this does not negate its overall
value and importance.
Overall, "An Apology for Poetry" is a passionate defense of the value and importance of
poetry as an art form. Sidney argues that poetry has the power to inspire, uplift, and
transform its readers and that it has an important role to play in shaping the moral and
intellectual values of individuals and societies.
Sidney’s A Defence of Poetry is, in part, a response to Stephen Gosson’s School of Abuse.
Gosson was a Puritan, and his School of Abuse was a polemical pamphlet claiming that poets
lead people astray and preach immorality. Given Sidney’s fondness for poetry – he would go
on to write one of the first (though not quite the first) substantial sonnet sequences in the English
language – it’s unsurprising that the author of Astrophil and Stella would leap to the defence of
poetry. Gosson even dedicated his pamphlet to Sidney without Sidney’s permission, which is
one surefire way to provoke a strong response from someone.
An Apology for Poetry is about the role of the poet in society. Sidney takes pains to
demonstrate that all the great civilizations of the world have valued poetry and the work of
the poet. For Sidney, poetry is not merely part of civilisation: it is civilisation. Poetry is a
civilised, and civilising, art form.
Sidney goes on to explain why this is. Poetry can bring you closer to God. It can ‘give right
honour to the heavenly Maker of that maker, who having made man to His own likeness,
set him beyond and over all the works of that second nature; which in nothing he showeth
so much as in poetry’. If God is our ‘Maker’, the poet is a kind of maker, too (and, indeed,
the word ‘poet’ has its roots in the ancient Greek meaning ‘to make’).
For Sidney, poetry ‘is an art of imitation’: as he points out, Aristotle (in his Poetics, the
very first work of literary criticism in all of Western literature) said as much. Poetry
involves metaphor, and metaphor is a form of imitation, comparing one thing to another.
Poetry is, then, ‘a speaking picture’ whose aim is ‘to teach and delight’.
And ‘teach’ is an important word for Sidney, for he acknowledges – indeed, insists – that
poetry should have a didactic element. It should inspire noble and moral behaviour in the
reader. In a famous quotation, Sidney asserts:
Nature never set forth the earth in so rich tapestry as divers poets have done; neither with
so pleasant rivers, fruitful trees, sweet-smelling flowers, nor whatsoever else may make the
too-much-loved earth more lovely; her world is brazen, the poets only deliver a golden.
In other words, poetry is superior to nature or reality in that poets always overlay the world
with gold, depicting it in an idealistic way, and so present it in a ‘better’ light.
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For this reason, poetry is a democratic art, accessible to those who are untutored in
philosophy. And poetic drama is perhaps the most democratic of all. Poetry requires a
reader, and a reader needs to have been taught to read, so those who are illiterate are still
shut out from it. But drama bypasses the need for the audience to be literate. All that drama
requires is a spectator, rather than a reader.
Sidney is writing before the great golden age of the Elizabethan theatre (Thomas Kyd,
Christopher Marlowe, Shakespeare, Ben Jonson), but theatre was a growing art form in
London at this time. And before that, communities up and down England had been
entertained during religious festivals by the Miracle and Mystery Plays, which dramatised
– usually in verse – events from the Bible, such as the Nativity and the Crucifixion.
As well as arguing that poetry is superior to philosophy, Sidney also shows that it is a
superior didactic tool to history. The problem with history is that has to stick to what
happened. And moral lessons aren’t always easy to derive from history, especially when
evil triumphs over good. What kind of moral message does that send out? But in poetry,
Sidney argues, evil doesn’t triumph: good always overcomes it.
But there’s more to it than this. Indeed, Sidney uncovers a startling paradox about the
difference between poetry and history. Whereas poets and playwrights never lie – yes, you
read that right – historians, conversely, do lie all the time. How can that be?
Sidney explains this by saying that for writers of fiction – such as poets and
playwrightsctually impossibl to lie, because they never affirm that anything they say is
true. They are presenting their writing as fiction, so they’re not pretending with deal facts.
If you offer a story to readers and imply, ‘I made this all up’, although what follows is a
fiction – essentially, one long lie – you as a poet are not lying, because by couching your
narrative as a work of fiction, you are admitting that what you offer up is untrue.
But the historian, by contrast, purports to present the reader with facts, so as soon as they
play fast and loose with those facts, or smooth over certain details, or cast things in a
favourable or unfavourable light depending upon their own biases, they run the risk of
lying. Because historians – unlike poets – affirm things, they lie as soon as they offer
something which is packaged as ‘fact’ but is not factually true.
This rhetorical masterstroke is one of the most famous and influential parts of Sidney’s An
Apology for Poetry. It’s a counterblast to not only Gosson’s assertion that the poet is the
‘mother of lies, but to Plato’s older objection to the poet (in his The Republic, arguably the
first work of utopian literature ever writtbecause that poets are unrustworth, because they
make things up.
On the contrary, as we’ve seen, Sidney believes the poet is valuable precisely because he
makes things up and only makes things up. And poetry, through its world of fancy and
idealism, can impart valuable lessons to people. Even comedy, often considered a lower
art form than tragedy, imitates the common errors of life, so fits with Aristotle’s idea of
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poetry as mimesis or imitation. Comedy, Sidney maintains, leads people towards virtue by
representing human error and folly as absurd and worthy of scorn.
Sidney also addresses the role of the English language, arguing that it is a worthy vehicle for
poetry. As the language of the people (it had even been the official language of the English
court since the early fifteenth century), English is perfect for such a democratic art as poetry –
a form that, after all, Sidney believes should both delight and instruct its readers and spectators.
3.3 INFLUENCE OF SIR PHILIP SIDNEY

Philip Sidney's influence can be seen throughout the subsequent history of English literary
criticism. One of the most important examples is in the work of the poet and critic Percy
Bysshe Shelley. Shelley's modern argument for poetry is cast in a Romantic strain in his
critical work "A Defence of Poetry". In 1858, William Stigant, a Cambridge-educated
translator, poet and essayist, writes in his essay "Sir Philip Sidney"[2] that Shelley's
"beautifully written Defence of Poetry is a work which "analyses the very inner essence of
poetry and the reason of its existence,—its development from, and operation on, the mind
of man". Shelley writes in Defence that while "ethical science arranges the elements which
poetry has created", and leads to a moral civil life, poetry acts in a way that "awakens and
enlarges the mind itself by rendering it the receptacle of a thousand unapprehended
combinations of thought".
Sidney's influence on future critics and poets relates more closely to his view of the place
of poets in society. Sidney describes poetry as creating a separate reality. The Romantic
notion, as seen in Wordsworth, is that poetry privileges perception, imagination and modes
of understanding. Wordsworth seeks to go back to nature for moments recollected in
tranquillity. Sidney, like Shelley and Wordsworth, sees the poet as being separate from
society,y. To Sidney, the poet is not tied to any subjection. He saw art as equivalent to
"skill", a profession to be learned or developed, and nature as the objective, empirical
world. The poet can invent, and thus in effect grows another nature.
Sir Philip Sidney is also recognized for his significant contribution to the development of
English literary criticism. Sidney's "Defense of Poesy," written in 1580, is widely regarded
as one of the most influential works of English literary criticism. In this work, Sidney
argues that poetry is not only a form of entertainment but also a powerful means of teaching
and inspiring readers. He defends poetry against those who denigrate it as frivolous or
dangerous, and he articulates a vision of poetry as a way to convey moral and ethical truths.
Sidney's "Defense of Poesy" had a profound impact on subsequent generations of English

literary critics. Its emphasis on the ethical and educational value of literature was taken up
by later writers such as Samuel Johnson, Matthew Arnold, and T.S. Eliot. Sidney's ideas
about the relationship between literature and society helped shape the emergence of
English literary studies as an academic discipline.
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Sidney's work also had a significant influence on the development of the English novel.
His pastoral romance, "Arcadia," helped establish the conventions of the genre, and his
ideas about the moral and educational function of literature were taken up by later novelists
such as Samuel Richardson and Jane Austen.
In addition to his direct influence on English literary criticism and the novel, Sidney's
legacy can be seen in the broader cultural and political context of his time. He was a key
figure in the court of Elizabeth I and was involved in various diplomatic and military
missions. His reputation as a courtier, soldier, and writer helped to shape the cultural and
political ideals of the Elizabethan era, which continue to influence English literature and
culture to this day.
Sidney's doctrine presents the poet as a creator. The poet's mediating role between two
worlds – transcendent forms and historical actuality – corresponds to the Neoplatonic
doctrine of emanation. A complement to this doctrine is the concept of return or catharsis,
which finds a parallel in Sidney's contemplation of virtue, based on man's rational desire.
Apology contains only elements of Neoplatonism without adhering to the full doctrine.
Sidney implies a theory of metaphoric language in his work. A recurring motif in Apology is
painting or “portraiture”. Apology applies language use in a way suggestive of what is known in
modern literary theory as semiotics. His central premise, as was that of Socrates in Plato's
Republic, is that poetry is an art of imitation, that is, a "representing, counterfeiting, or figuring
forth" not unlike a "speaking picture". Sidney pays his homage to Aristotle also. Yet he develops
his idea of metaphoric language, one that is based on an analogy through universal
correspondences. Sidney's humanist poetics and his tendency to harmonize disparate extremes –
to seek mediation – find expression in poetic works by John Donne.
The life and writings of Sir Philip Sidney remain a legacy. In 1819, Thomas Campbell
concludes that Sidney's life was "poetry in action", and then in 1858 William Stigant wrote
that "Sidney's real poem was his life, and his teaching was his example". Sidney, the man,
is apparent everywhere in his works: a study of Sidney's works is a study of the man.
3.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF ‘An Apology for Poetry’

An Apology for Poetry is one of the most important contributions to literary theory written
in English during the Renaissance. Sidney advocates a place for poetry within the
framework of an aristocratic state while showing concern for both literary and national
identity. Sidney responds in Apology to an emerging antipathy to poetry as expressed in
Stephen Gosson's The School of Abuse. Gosson offers what is in essence an attack on
imaginative literature (Griffiths 5). What is at stake in Sidney's argument is a defence of
poetry's nobility. The significance of the nobility of poetry is its power to move readers to
virtuous action. True poets must teach and delight – a view that dates back to Horace.
In an era of antipathy to poetry and puritanical belief in the corruption engendered by

literature, Sidney's defence was a significant contribution to the genre of literary criticism.
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It was England's first philosophical defense in which he describes poetry's ancient and
indispensable place in society, its mimetic nature, and its ethical function. Among Sidney's gifts
to his contemporary’s was his respect for tradition and willingness to experiment. An example
of the latter is his approach to Plato. He reconfigures Plato's argument against poets by saying
poets are "the least liar". Poets never claim to know the truth, nor “make circles around your
imagination,” nor rely on authority. As an expression of a cultural attitude descending from
Aristotle, Sidney, when stating that the po affair claims meth", claims that all statements in
literature are hypothetical or pseudo-statements. Sidney as a traditionalis, hwever, gives
attention to the drama to poetry. Drama, writes Sidney, is “observing ne skilful of honest
civility nor skillful poetry” and thus cannot do justice to this genre.
"An Apology for Poetry," also known as "The Defense of Poesy," is a work of literary
criticism written by Sir Philip Sidney in the late 16th century. The essay is considered one
of the most important works of English literary criticism for several reasons:
1. Defense of Poetry as a serious art form: Sidney's "Apology" defends poetry as a
serious and important art form, worthy of study and appreciation. He argues that
poetry is not merely a form of entertainment, but also a means of conveying truth,
inspiring virtue, and educating readers. He also argues that poetry is capable of
achieving things that other forms of literature, such as history or philosophy, cannot.
2. Exploration of poetic inspiration: Sidney's "Apology" also explores the nature of

poetic inspiration, arguing that poetry is not merely the product of a poet's
imagination, but also a result of divine inspiration. He argues that poets are capable
of achieving a level of insight and understanding that is not available to others and
that this is a reflection of their connection to the divine.
3. Importance of the literary tradition: Sidney's "Apology" emphasizes the importance

of the literary tradition and the need for poets to draw on the work of their
predecessors. He argues that poets must be familiar with the work of other poets to
build on their achievements and create something new and original.
4. Relationship between poetry and society: Sidney's "Apology" also explores the
relationship between poetry and society. He argues that poetry has the power to shape
and influence society and that poets have a responsibility to use their art to promote
virtue and inspire their readers.
Overall, Sidney's "Apology for Poetry" is significant because it helped establish the
importance of poetry as an art form, while also exploring the nature of poetic inspiration,
the importance of the literary tradition, and the relationship between poetry and society.
The essay's ideas continue to influence the study and appreciation of literature to this day.
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3.5 THE 'Apology' AS AN EPITOME OF RENAISSANCE
CRITICISM
Sidney’s 'Apology for Poetry' is a work of genius, a rare and valuable critical document.
Among the manifold achievements of Sidney as a critic one of the most important is the
introduction of Aristotelianism into England. Says Spingarn, “The introduction of
Aristotelianism into England was the direct result of the influence of the Italian critics; and
the agent in bringing this new influence into English letters was Sir Philip Sidney.” His
Defence of Poesy, "is a veritable epitome of the literary criticism of the Italian Renaissance;
and so thoroughly is it imbued with this spirit, that no other work, Italian, French, or
English, can be said to give so complete and so noble a conception of the temper and the
principles of Renaissance criticism."
Sidney is essentially a theorist of the exuberant imagination." His romanticism is also seen
in his appreciation of the ballad of Chevy Chase, which he says has always moved his heart
like a trumpet. He thus illustrates the dual Renaissance tendency, i.e. the simultaneous
presence of the romantic and the classic. Creative literature in the age was romantic, while
criticism was mainly classical. Sidney’s Apology is a synthesis of the critical doctrines of
Plato, Aristotle, Horace, Scaliger, Minturno, and a host of other writers and critics. It brings
together interprets and comments upon, all that was characteristic in the theories of
literature, current at the time.
"The Apology for Poetry," written by Sir Philip Sidney, is considered a prime example of
Renaissance literary criticism. Here are some of how Sidney's work exemplifies the spirit
of Renaissance criticism:
1. Rejection of Medieval learning: Renaissance scholars and critics rejected the
dominant medieval scholastic approach to learning and sought to revive classical
learning. In "The Apology for Poetry," Sidney criticizes the medieval view that
poetry is a worthless and dangerous pursuit and instead argues that poetry is a
noble art form that can inspire virtue and elevate the soul.
2. Emphasis on humanistic values: Renaissance scholars and critics placed a strong

emphasis on humanistic values, such as individualism, reason, and the
importance of the human experience. Sidney's work emphasizes the importance
of the individual poet and the value of personal creativity and inspiration in the
creation of literature.
3. Importance of classical literature: Renaissance scholars and critics also placed a

great deal of importance on the study of classical literature. Sidney's work draws
heavily on classical models and argues that poets must be familiar with the work
of their predecessors to create something new and original.
4. Idealization of the past: Renaissance scholars and critics often idealized the
classical past, and sought to revive its values and achievements. Sidney's work
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is heavily influenced by classical models and argues that the poets of his own
time must strive to emulate the great poets of the past.
5. Integration of literature and society: Renaissance scholars and critics believed

that literature had an important role to play in shaping and influencing society.
Sidney's work argues that poetry can inspire virtue and promote moral and
ethical values and that poets have a responsibility to use their art for the
betterment of society.
Overall, "The Apology for Poetry" exemplifies the Renaissance approach to literary
criticism, with its rejection of medieval learning, emphasis on humanistic values, the
importance of classical literature, idealization of the past, and integration of literature and
society. It is considered a seminal work in the development of English literary criticism
and has had a lasting impact on the study and appreciation of literature.
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) was a prominent Elizabethan courtier, soldier, and
poet, who is also known for his critical works on literature. He was born into a
noble family and was educated at Oxford University, where he developed his
interest in literature and the arts. Sidney was known for his chivalrous and
idealistic values, which he expressed in his poetry, as well as in his personal life
and career.
➢ Sidney believed that poetry had the power to inspire and uplift its readers, and
that by reading works that celebrated virtuous ideals, individuals could become
better people. He argued that poetry was not just a form of entertainment, but a
valuable tool for shaping individual and social values, and that it had the
potential to contribute to the greater good of society.
➢ "An Apology for Poetry" is a passionate defense of the value and importance of
poetry as an art form. Sidney argues that poetry has the power to inspire, uplift,
and transform its readers, and that it has an important role to play in shaping the
moral and intellectual values of individuals and societies.
➢ Sidney's work also had a significant influence on the development of the English
novel. His pastoral romance, "Arcadia," helped establish the conventions of the
genre, and his ideas about the moral and educational function of literature were
taken up by later novelists such as Samuel Richardson and Jane Austen.
➢ Sidney's doctrine presents the poet as a creator. The poet's mediating role
between two worlds – transcendent forms and historical actuality – corresponds
to the Neoplatonic doctrine of emanation. A complement to this doctrine is the
concept of return or catharsis, which finds a parallel in Sidney's contemplation
53
of virtue, based on man's rational desire. Apology contains only elements of
Neoplatonism without adhering to the full doctrine.
➢ Sidney's "Apology for Poetry" is significant because it helped establish the

importance of poetry as an art form, while also exploring the nature of poetic
inspiration, the importance of the literary tradition, and the relationship between
poetry and society. The essay's ideas continue to influence the study and
appreciation of literature to this day.
➢ Sidney is essentially a theorist of the exuberant imagination." His romanticism

is also seen in his appreciation of the ballad of Chevy Chase, which he says has
always moved his heart like a trumpet. He thus illustrates the dual Renaissance
tendency, i.e. the simultaneous presence of the romantic and the classic.
➢ "The Apology for Poetry" exemplifies the Renaissance approach to literary

criticism, with its rejection of medieval learning, emphasis on humanistic values,
the importance of classical literature, idealization of the past, and integration of
literature and society. It is considered a seminal work in the development of
English literary criticism and has had a lasting impact on the study and
appreciation of literature.
54
1. Who was Philip Sidney?
2. What was the purpose of writing "An Apology for Poetry"?
3. What two ideas does "An Apology for Poetry" deal with?
4. What is the origin and meaning of the word "poet"?
5. What is the nature and function of poetry according to Sidney?
6. How is poetry superior to philosophy and history?
7. How has Sidney established that poetry is antique and universal in nature?
8. Is Sidney's idea of mimesis Platonic or Aristotelian?
9. What are the three kinds of poetry according to Sidney?
10. What is the essence of Sidney's defense against poetry?
11. What is Sidney's opinion about heroic or Epic poetry?
12. Sidney says, "Comedy is not merely to provide according to Aristotle". Explain
this statement.
13. What are the main objections brought against poetry by its enemies?
14. How does Sidney refute the allegation against poetry that it is bound up with
"rhyming and versing"?
15. How does Sidney refute the allegation against poetry being the waste of time?
16. How does Sidney refute the allegation against poetry being the nurse of abuse?
17. What was Sidney's approach to Plato's banishment of poets from his ideal republic?
18. What should be the qualities of a tragedy according to Sidney?
19. What should be the qualities of a comedy according to Sidney?
20. What argument does Sidney make concerning the unity of place? Does his
comment seem fitting? Why or why not?
21. What is the value of Sidney's criticism?
55
FURTHER READINGS
Bear, R.S. (2005). ‘Defence of Poesie: Introduction’ in Renascence Editions.
Craig, D.H. (1986). "A Hybrid Growth: Sidney's Theory of Poetry in An Apology for
Poetry". Essential Articles for the Study of Sir Philip Sidney. (Ed. Arthur F. Kinney).
Hamden: Archon Books.
Harvey, E. D. (2005). "Sidney, Sir Philip" in The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory
& Criticism.
Kimbrough, R. (1971). Sir Philip Sidney. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc.
56
Unit-4
ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH-CENTURY
CRITICS JOHN DRYDEN (1631-1700):
PREFACE TO THE FABLES
Compiled by: Prof. Ambreena Qayyum

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Kamal Khan
57
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ............................................................................................................58
4.1 Life and Works of John Dryden ...................................................................60
4. 2 John Dryden as a Poet .................................................................................61
4.3. John Dryden as a Dramatist ........................................................................61
4.4 John Dryden as a Critic ................................................................................62
4.5. Text of the Essay: “Preface,” Fables, Ancient and Modern ........................63
4.6 Summary of the Text ....................................................................................67
Summary Points .....................................................................................................58
Further Reading .....................................................................................................70
58
INTRODUCTION
John Dryden (1631-1700) was an English poet, playwright, and literary critic who is widely
regarded as one of the most important figures in English literature of the late 17th century.
John Dryden is called ‘the father of English criticism’ by Dr Samuel Johnson. Before him,
different literary artists discussed some rules of judgment, but John Dryden was the first
man of letters in English literature to establish the principles of criticism. The present unit
is going to discuss his main concepts and contribution to the field of literary criticism.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, the students will be able to:
1. enlist different phases of John Dryden’s life and his political inclinations
2. discuss the contribution of John Dryden to English poetry
3. classify different sub-genres of plays produced by John Dryden
4. identify the analogies used by John Dryden in his Preface to Fables
5. enlist the characteristics of Geoffrey Chaucer’s narrative poetry
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4.1 LIFE AND WORKS OF JOHN DRYDEN
John Dryden lived in a tumultuous age when England experienced major political changes.
The kingship of Charles I ended in 1642 and Oliver Cromwell ruled during the Interregnum
but when he died in 1659 within a year monarchy was restored and Charles II ascended the
English throne. In 1685 James II, the brother of Charles II replaced him but his rule lasted
only till 1688 when Mary and William of Orange were made the regents of England. Thus
John Dryden who was born in August 1631 and died in May 1700 lived through the reigns
of five rulers of Britain The regime changes affected Dryden’s political inclination and
consequently his literary works.
John Dryden (1631-1700) was an English poet, playwright, and literary critic who is widely
regarded as one of the most important figures in English literature of the late 17th century.
Early Life and Education:

Dryden was born in the market town of Aldwincle in Northamptonshire, England, on
August 9, 1631. He was the eldest of 14 children and grew up in a Puritan household. He
received his early education at the Westminster School in London, where he excelled in
Latin and Greek.
Career as a Poet and Playwright:

In 1650, Dryden entered Cambridge University, but he left without a degree. He began his
career as a writer in the mid-1650s, with his first published work being a set of poems titled
"Heroic Stanzas" in memory of Oliver Cromwell.
Dryden went on to become a prolific poet, writing in a variety of genres, including satire,
heroic drama, and political poetry. Some of his most famous works include "Annus
Mirabilis," a long poem about the events of the year 1666, and "Absalom and Achitophel,"
a political satire that mocked the Whig party and its leaders.
In addition to his work as a poet, Dryden was also a successful playwright. He wrote
numerous plays, including "The Indian Emperor" and "All for Love," and he was appointed
as the Poet Laureate in 1668, a position he held until his death.
Critical Works:
Dryden was also a respected literary critic and essayist. His most important critical works
include "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," which defended the use of rhyme in English drama,
and "Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire," which analyzed the nature
and purpose of satire.
60
Later Years:
During the 1680s and 1690s, Dryden's fortunes began to decline. He became a target of attacks
by the Whigs, who criticized his support for the Catholic King James II. After James was
deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Dryden lost his position as Poet Laureate and
suffered financial hardship.
Dryden died on May 1, 1700, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Despite the difficulties
he faced later in life, Dryden is remembered as one of the most important writers of the
4.2 JOHN DRYDEN AS A POET

John Dryden was a prolific and influential poet of the Restoration era, and his works helped
shape the development of English poetry in the late 17th century. He wrote in a variety of
genres, including satire, heroic drama, and political poetry, and his work often reflected the
social and political upheaval of his time.
One of Dryden's most famous works is "Absalom and Achitophel," a political satire that
criticized the Whig party and its leaders, who were attempting to exclude the Catholic
James, Duke of York, from the throne. The poem was a huge success and helped establish
Dryden's reputation as a political commentator and satirist.
Dryden also wrote several heroic dramas, including "The Conquest of Granada" and
"Aureng-Zebe," which combined elements of classical tragedy with more modern themes
and characters. These works were hugely popular during the Restoration period and helped
establish Dryden as one of the leading playwrights of his time.
In addition to his work as a poet and playwright, Dryden was also a skilled lyricist and
wrote many poems that celebrated the beauty of nature and the pleasures of love. Some of
his most famous lyrical poems include "Song for St. Cecilia's Day," "To the Memory of
Mr. Oldham," and "Alexander's Feast."
Overall, Dryden's poetry was marked by its versatility, its keen observation of human
nature, and its willingness to experiment with different genres and forms. His work remains
an important part of the English literary canon, and his influence can be seen in the works
of many later writers, including Samuel Johnson, Alexander Pope, and T.S. Eliot.
4.3 JOHN DRYDEN AS A DRAMATIST

John Dryden was one of the most important and influential dramatists of the Restoration
period, and his works helped shape the development of English drama in the late 17th
century. He wrote a number of plays, including tragedies, comedies, and heroic dramas,
and he was known for his skillful use of language, his ability to create complex characters,
and his willingness to experiment with different dramatic forms.
61
One of Dryden's most famous plays is "All for Love," a tragedy that reimagines the story
of Antony and Cleopatra. The play is notable for its use of blank verse, which was a
departure from the rhymed verse that was commonly used in Restoration drama. It is also
known for its exploration of themes of love, honour, and dutnd its complex and nuanced
portrayal of its main characters.
Dryden also wrote several heroic dramas, including "The Conquest of Granada" and
"Aureng-Zebe," which combined elements of classical tragedy with more modern themes
and characters. These works were hugely popular during the Restoration period and helped
establish Dryden as one of the leading playwrights of his time.
In addition to his original plays, Dryden also wrote adaptations and translations of classical
works, including versions of "Oedipus" and "Troilus and Cressida." He was also a skilled
satirist and wrote several plays that mocked the political and social mores of his time.
Overall, Dryden's work as a dramatist was marked by his versatility, his skillful use of
language, and his willingness to experiment with different dramatic forms. His influence
can be seen in the works of many later writers, including Samuel Johnson, William
Congreve, and Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
4.4 JOHN DRYDEN AS A CRITIC

John Dryden was not only a poet and dramatist but also an influential literary critic who helped
shape the development of English literary criticism. His critical works were marked by their
clarity, attention to detail, and their ability to synthesize and analyze complex literary ideas.
One of Dryden's most important critical works is "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy," which was
published in 1668. In this work, Dryden defends the practice of rhymed verse in drama and
argues for the importance of verisimilitude, or the realistic portrayal of human characters and
situations, in dramatic literature. The essay is notable for its clear and concise prose style and
its use of examples drawn from both classical and contemporary drama.
Dryden also wrote critical prefaces to many of his works, in which he explained his intentions as
a writer and discussed the literary and historical context of his works. These prefaces were often
marked by their frankness and their willingness to engage with contemporary literary debates.
In addition to his critical works, Dryden was also a prolific translator and commentator on
classical literature. His translations of works by Virgil, Ovid, and Juvenal were widely read and
helped introduce classical literature to a wider audience.
Overall, Dryden's work as a literary critic was marked by his clarity of thought and expression,
his attention to detail, and his ability to synthesize and analyze complex literary ideas. His
influence can be seen in the works of many later critics, including Samuel Johnson, Alexander
Pope, and T.S. Eliot.
62
4.5. TEXT OF THE ESSAY: “Preface,” Fables, ANCIENT
AND MODERN
Dryden, John.
“Preface,” Fables, Ancient and Modern (London, 1700) [sig. A1r]
PREFACE.
TIS with a Poet, as with a Man who designs to build, and is very exact, as he supposes, in
casting up the Cost beforehand: But, generally speaking, he is mistaken in his Account,
and reckons short of the Expense he first intended: He alters his Mind as the Work
proceeds, and will have this or that Convenience more, of which he had not thought when
he began. Sohappened hapned to me; I have built a House, where I intended but a Lodge:
Yet with better Success, than a certain Nobleman, who beginikennel lived Dog kennel,
never liv'dh the Palace he had contriv'd. From translating the First of Homer's Iliads, (which
I intended as an Essay to the whole Work) I proceeded to the Translation of the Twelfth
Book of Ovid's Metamorphoses, beca things contains, among other Things, the Causes, the
Beginning, and Ending, of the Trojan War: He,e I ought in reason to have stopp'd; but the
Speeches of Ajax and baulkses lyincompassed my way, I could not balk 'em. When I had
compass'd them, I was so taken with the former Masterpiece Fiftee enjoyed, (which is the
Master-piece of the whole Metamo rendering that yn'd my self the pleasing Task of
rendring it into English. And now I found, by the Number of my Ve th backwards at they
began to swell into a little Volume; whicme an Occasion of looking backward on some
Beauties of my Author, in his former Books: There occurred to me the Hunting of the
Boar, Cinyras and Myrrha, the good-natur'd Story of Baucis and Philemon, with the rest,
which I hope I have translated closely enough, and given them the same Turn of Verse,
whi had in the Original; and this, I may say without vanity, is not the Talent of every Poet:
has arriv'arrivedearest to it, is the Ingenious and Learned Sandys, the best Versifier of the
former Age; if I may properly call it by that Name, which was the former Part of this
concluding Century. For Spencer and Fairfax both flourished in the Reign of Queen
Elizabeth: Great Masters in our Language; and who saw much farther into the Beauties of
our Numbers, than those who immediately followed them. Milton was the Poetical Son of
Spencer, and Mr. Waller of Fairfax; for we have our Lineal Descents and Clans, as well as
other Families: Spencer more than onceinsinuates, that the Soul of Chaucer was transfused
into his Body; and that he was begotten by him Two hundred years after his Decease.
Milton has acknowledged to me, that Spencer was his Original; and many besides my self
have heard our famous Waller own, that he deriv'd the Harmony of his Numbers from the
Godfrey of Bulloign, which was turn'd into English by Mr Fairfax. But to return: Having
done with Ovid for this time, it came into my mind, that our old English Poet Chaucer in
many Things resembled [sig. A1v ] him, and that with no disadvantage on the Side of the
Modern Author, as I shall endeavor to prove when I compare them: And as I am, and
always have been studious to promote the Honour of my Native Country, so I soon
resolved to put their Merits to the Trial, by turning some of the Canterbury Tales into our
Language, as it is now refin'd: For by this Means both the Poets being set in the same Light,
and dressed in the same English Habit, Story to be compar'd with Story, a certain Judgment
63
may be made betwixt them, by the Reader, without obtruding my Opinion on him: Or if I
seem partial to my Country-man, and Predecessor in the Laurel, the Friends of Antiquity
are not few: And 2 besides many of the Learn'd, Ovid has almost all the Beaux, and the
whole Fair Sex hi declared'd Patrons. Perhaps I have assumed somewhat more to myself
than they allow me; because I have adventured to sum up the Evidence: But the Readers
are the Jury; and their Privilege remains entire to decide according to the Merits of the
Cause: Or, if they please to bring it to another Hearing, before some other Court. In the
meantime, to follow the Third of my Discourse, (as Thoughts, according to Mr. Hobbs,
have always some Connexion) so from Chaucer I was led to think on Boccace, who was
not only his Contemporary, but also pursued the same Studies; wrote Novels in Prose, and
many Works in Verse; particularly is said to have invented the Octave Rhyme, or Stanza
of Eight Lines, which ever since has been maintained by the Practice of all Italian Writers,
who are, or at least assume the Title of Heroic Poets: He and Chaucer, among other Things,
had this in common, that they refined their Mother-Tongues; but with this difference, that
Dante had begun to file their Language, at least in Verse, before the time of Boccace, who
likewise received no little Help from his Master Petrarch: But the Reformation of their
Prose was wholly owing to Boccace himself; who is yet the Standard of Purity in the Italian
Tongue; though many of his Phrases are become obsolete, as in process of Time it must
needs happen. Chaucer (as you have formerly been told by our learned Mr. Rhymer) first
adorned and amplified our barren Tongue from the Provencal, which was then the most
polished of all the Modern Languages: But this Subject has been copiously treated by that
great Critic, who deserves no little Commendation from us his Countrymen. For these
Reasons of Time, and Resemblance of Genius, in Chaucer and Boccace, I resolved to join
them in my present Work; to which I have added some Original Papers of my own; which
whether they are equal or inferior to my other Poems, an Author is the most improper
Judge; and therefore I leave them wholly to the Mercy of the Reader: I will hope the best,
that they will not be condemned; but if they should, I have the Excuse of an old Gentleman,
who mounting on Horseback before some Ladies, when I was present, got up somewhat
heavily, but desired of the Fair Spectators, that they would count Fourscore and eight
before they judged him. By the Mercy of God, I am already come within Twenty Years of
his Number, a Cripple in my Limbs, but what Decays are in my Mind, the Reader must
determine. I think myself as vigorous as ever in the Faculties of my Soul, excepting only
my Memory, which is [sig. A2r] not impaired to any great degree; and if I lose not more
of it, I have no great reason to complain. What Judgment I had, increases rather than
diminishes; and Thoughts, such as they are, come crowding in so fast upon me, that my
only Difficulty is to choose or to reject; to run them into Verse, or to give them the other
Harmony of Prose, I have so long studied and practiced both, that they are grown into a
Habit, and become familiar to me. In short, though I may lawfully plead some part of the
old Gentleman's Excuse; yet I will reserve it till I think I have greater need, and ask no
Grains of Allowance for the Faults of this my present Work, but those which are given of
course to Humane Frailty. I will not trouble my Reader with the shortness of Time in which
I write it; or the several Intervals of Sickness: They who think too well of their
Performances, are apt to boast in their Prefaces how little Time their Works have cost them;
and what other Business of more importance interfered: But the Reader will be as apt to
ask the Question, Why they allowed not a longer Time to make their Works more perfect?
64
and why they had so despicable an Opinion of their Judges, as to thrust their indigested
Stuff upon them, as if they deserved no better? With this Account of my present
Undertaking, I conclude the first Part of this Discourse: In the second Part, as at a second
Sitting, though I alter not the Draught, I must touch the same Features over again, and
change the Dead- coloring of the Whole. In general I will only say, that 3 I have written
nothing which savours of Immorality or Profaneness; at least, I am not conscious to myself
of any such Intention. If there happen to be found an irreverent Expression, or a Thought
too wanton, they are crept into my Verses through my Inadvertency: If the Searchers find
any in the Cargo, let them be staved or forfeited, like Counter banded Goods; at least, let
their Authors be answerable for them, as being but imported Merchandise, and not of my
own Manufacture. On the other Side, I have endeavored to choose such Fables, both
Ancient and Modern, as contain in each of them some instructive Moral, which I could
prove by Induction, but the Way is tedious; and they leap foremost into sight, without the
Reader's Trouble of looking after them. I wish I could affirm with a safe Conscience, that
I had taken the same Care in all my former Writings; for it must be own'd, that supposing
Verses are never so beautiful or pleasing, yet if they contain any thing which shocks
Religion, or Good Manners, they are at best, what Horace says of good Numbers without
good Sense, Versus inopes rerum; nugaeque canorae: 1 Thus far, I hope, I am Right in
Court, without renouncing to my other Right of Selfdefence, where I have been wrongfully
accused, and my Sense wire-drawn into Blasphemy or Bawdry, as it has often been by a
Religious Lawyer, in a late Pleading against the Stage; in which he mixes Truth with
Falsehood, and has not forgotten the old Rule, of calumniating strongly, that something
may remain. I resume the Third of my Discourse with the first of my Translations, which
was the First Iliad of Homer. If it shall please God to give me longer Life, and moderate
Health, my Intentions are to translate the whole Ilias; provided still, that I meet with those
Encouragements [sig. A2v ] from the Public, which may enable me to proceed in my
Undertaking with some Cheerfulness, And this I dare assure the World before-hand, that
I have found by Trial, Homer a more pleasing Task than Virgil,(though I say not the
Translation will be less laborious.) For the Grecian is more according to my Genius, than
the Latin Poet. In the Works of the two Authors, we may read their Manners, and natural
Inclinations, which are wholly different. Virgil was of a quiet, sedate Temper; Homer was
violent, impetuous, and full of Fire. The chief Talent of Virgil was Propriety of Thoughts,
and Ornament of Words: Homer was rapid in his Thoughts, and took all the Liberties both
of Numbers, and of Expressions, which his Language, and the Age in which he lived
allowed him: Homer's Invention was more copious, Virgil's more confined. So that if
Homer had not led the Way, it was not in Virgil to have begun- Heroic Poetry: For, nothing
can be more evident, than that the Roman Poem is but the Second Part of the Ilias; a
Continuation of the same Story: And the Persons already formed: The Manners of AEneds,
are those of Hector superadded to those which Homer gave him. The Adventures of Ulysses
in the Odysseys, are imitated in the first Six Books of Virgil's AEneis: And though the
Accidents are not the same, (which would have argued him of a servile, copying, and total
Barrenness of Invention) yet the Seas were the same, in which both the Heroes wandered;
and Dido cannot be denied to be the Poetical Daughter of Calypso. The Six latter Books
of Virgil’s Poem are the Four and twenty Iliads contracted: A Quarrel occasion'd by a Lady,
a Single Combat, Battels fought, and Town besieged. I say not this in derogation to Virgil,
65
neither do I contradict anything which I have formerly said in his just Praise: For his
Episodes are almost wholly of his own Invention and the Form which he has given to the
Telling, makes the Tale his own even though the Original Story had been the same. But
this proves, however that Homer taught Virgil to design: And if Invention be the first Virtue
of an Epick Poet, then the Latin Poem can only be allowed the second Place. Mr. Hobbs,
in the Preface to his own bald Translation of the Ilias, (studying Poetry as he did
Mathematics, when it was 1 “Verses without content, melodious trifles.”—Ars Poetica 322.
4 too late) Mr. Hobbs, I say, begins the Praise of Homer where he should have ended it.
He tells us, that the first Beauty of an Epick Poem consists in Diction, that is, in the Choice
of Words, and Harmony of Numbers: Now, the Words are the Colouring of the Work,
which in the Order of Nature is last to be considered. The Design, the Disposition, the
Manners, and the Thoughts, are all before it: Where any of those are wanting or imperfect,
so much wants or is imperfect in the Imitation of Humane Life; which is in the very
Definition of a Poem. Words Indeed, like glaring Colours, are the first Beauties that arise,
and strike the Sight; but if the Draught be false or lame, the Figures ill disposed, the
Manners obscure or inconsistent, or the Thoughts unnatural, then the finest Colours are but
Dawning, and the Piece is a beautiful Monster at the best. Neither Virgil nor Homer were
deficient in any of the former Beauties; but in this last, which is Expression, the Roman
Poet is at least equal to the Grecian, as I have said elsewhere; supplying the [sig. B1r]
Poverty of his Language, by his Musical Ear, and by his Diligence. But to return: Our two
Great Poets, being so different in their Tempers, one Choleric and Sanguin, the other
Phlegmatick and Melancholick; that which makes them excel in their several Ways, is, that
each of them has followed his own natural Inclination, as well in Forming the Design, as
in the Execution of it. The very Heroes shew their Authors: Achilles is hot, impatient,
revengeful, Impinger, iracundus, inexorabilis, acer, &c.2 AEnoeas patient, considerate,
careful of his People, and merciful to his Enemies; ever submissive to the Will of Heaven,
quo fata trahunt retrofuture, sequamur. 3 I could please myself with enlarging on this
Subject but am forced to defer it to a fitter Time. From all I have said, I will only draw this
Inference, That the Action of Homer being fuller of Vigor than that of Virgil, according
to the Temper of the Writer, is of consequence more pleasing to the Reader. One warms
you by Degrees; the other sets you on fire all at once, and never intermits his Heat. 'Tis the
same Difference which Longinus makes betwixt the Effects of Eloquence in Demosthenes,
and Tully. One persuades, the other commands. You never cool while you read Homer,
even not in the Second Book, (a graceful Flattery to his Countrymen;) but he hastens from
the Ships and concludes not that Book till he has made you an Amends by the violent
playing of a new Machine. From thence he hurries on his Action with Variety of Events
and ends it in less Compass than Two Months. This Vehemence of his, I confess, is more
suitable to my Temper: and therefore I have translated his First Book with greater Pleasure
than any Part of Virgil: But it was not a Pleasure without Pains: The continual Agitations
of the Spirits, must needs be a Weakening of any Constitution, especially in Age: and
many Pauses are required for Refreshment betwixt the Heats; the Iliad of its self being a
third part longer than all Virgil's Works together. This is what I thought needful in this
Place to say of Homer. I proceed to Ovid, and Chaucer, considering the former only in
relation to the latter. With Ovid ended the Golden Age of the Roman Tongue: From
Chaucer the Purity of the English Tongue began. The Manners of the Poets were not unlike:
66
Both were well-bred, well-natured, amorous, and Libertine, at least in their Writings, it
may be also in their Lives. Their Studies were the same, Philosophy, and Philology. Both
were knowing in Astronomy, of which Ovid's Books of the Roman Feasts, and Chaucer's
Treatise of the Astrolabe, are sufficient Witnesses. But Chaucer was likewise an
Astrologer, as were Virgil, Horace, Perseus, and Manilius. Both writ with wonderful
Facility and Clearness; neither were great Inventors: For Ovid only copied the Grecian
Fables; and most of Chaucer's Stories were taken from his Italian Contemporaries, or their
Predecessors: Boccace his Decameron was first published; and from thence our
Englishman has 2 “Energetic, irascible, unyielding, vehement.”—Horace, Ars Poetica 121
3 “Whithersoever the fates drag us to and fro, let us follow.”—Virgil, Æneid, V. 709. 5
borrowed many of his Canterbury Tales: Yet that of Palamon and Arcita was written in all
probability by some Italian Wit, in a former Age; as I shall prove hereafter: The Tale of
Grizzled was the Invention of Petrarch; by him sent to Boccace; from who m it came to
Chaucer: Troilus and Cressida was also written by a Lombard Author; but much amplified
[sig. B1v ] by our English Translator, as well as beautified; the Genius of our Countrymen
in general being rather to improve an Invention, than to invent themselves; as is evident
not only in our Poetry, but in many of our Manufactures. I find I have anticipated already,
and taken up from Boccace before I come to him: But there is so much less behind; and I
am of the Temper of most Kings, who love to be in Debt, are all for present Money, no
matter how they pay it afterwards: Besides, the Nature of a Preface is rambling; never
wholly out of the Way, nor in it. This I have learned from the Practice of honest Montaigne,
and return at my pleasure to Ovid and Chaucer, of whom I have little more to say. Both
built on the Inventions of other Men; yet since Chaucer had something of his own, as The
Wife of Baths Tale, The Cock and the Fox, which I have translated, and some others, I may
justly give our Countryman the Precedence in that Part; since I can remember nothing of
Ovid which was wholly his. Both of them understood the Manners; under which Name I
comprehend the Passions, and, in a larger sense, the Descriptions.
4.6 SUMMARY OF THE TEXT

Dryden begins his essay by comparing himself with a man who takes up the project of
building a house but fails to plan properly and ends up constructing a lodge. Just like this
man he initiated the project of translating Illiad the famous epic poem by the Greek poet
Homer as well as another poem Metamorphosis by the Roman poet Ovid but as he
proceeded further, he continued to change his initial plan and finally ended up in producing
a work completely different from what he initially intended.
The "Preface" to "Fables, Ancient and Modern" is a critical work written by John Dryden,
in which he reflects on the art of poetry and the challenges of translating and adapting
classical fables.
Dryden argues that poetry is the most ancient and universal form of literature, and that it
has the power to move and inspire readers in ways that other forms of writing cannot. He
also emphasizes the importance of poetic form, arguing that a poem's structure and style
are just as important as its content.
67
In discussing the translation and adaptation of classical fables, Dryden notes that it can be
difficult to capture the essence of these works in a modern language. He suggests that the
translator must have a deep understanding of the original text and be able to convey its
meaning and style in a way that is true to the original but also accessible to contemporary
readers.
Dryden also reflects on the importance of imagination and creativity in poetry, arguing that
the poet must be able to create vivid and compelling images that capture the reader's
imagination. He emphasizes the importance of originality in poetry, while also
acknowledging the debt that poets owe to their predecessors.
Overall, the "Preface" to "Fables, Ancient and Modern" is a thoughtful and insightful
reflection on the art of poetry and the challenges of adapting classical literature for a
modern audience. It showcases Dryden's skill as a critic and his deep understanding of the
poetic tradition.
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ John Dryden (1631-1700) was an English poet, playwright, and literary critic
who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in English literature
of the late 17th century.
➢ John Dryden was a prolific and influential poet of the Restoration era, and his
works helped shape the development of English poetry in the late 17th century. He
wrote in a variety of genres, including satire, heroic drama, and political poetry,
and his work often reflected the social and political upheaval of his time.
➢ John Dryden was one of the most important and influential dramatists of the
Restoration period, and his works helped shape the development of English drama
in the late 17th century. He wrote a number of plays, including tragedies, comedies,
and heroic dramas, and he was known for his skillful use of language, his ability
to create complex characters, and his willingness to experiment with different
dramatic forms.
➢ John Dryden was not only a poet and dramatist but also an influential literary critic
who helped shape the development of English literary criticism. His critical works
were marked by their clarity, their attention to detail, and their ability to synthesize
and analyze complex literary ideas.
➢ The "Preface" to "Fables, Ancient and Modern" is a critical work written by John
Dryden, in which he reflects on the art of poetry and the challenges of translating
and adapting classical fables.
68
1. Enlist the names of poetic works of John Dryden.
2. Enlist the names of dramatic works of John Dryden.
3. Write a short but comprehensive note on the contribution of John Dryden as a critic
of literature.
4. What is the qualities Dryden identifies in Homer’s works?
5. What is the qualities Dryden identifies in Virgil’s works?
6. Why does Dryden admire Chaucer and declare him the greatest of the English
poets?
69
FURTHER READING
Minto, W. & Bryant, M. (1911). "Dryden, John". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopedia
Britannica. 8. (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 609-613.
Sutherland, J. R. (2022, August 15). John Dryden. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dryden
Walker, K. (ed.) (1987). John Dryden The Major Works. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
70
Unit-5
ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH CENTURY

CRITICS SAMUEL JOHNSON
(1709-1784): SHAKESPEAREAN
CRITICISM

Reviewed by: Prof. Dr. Nadeem Haidar Bukhari
71
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ............................................................................................................72
5.1 Life and Works of Dr Samuel Johnson ........................................................74
5.2 Text of Essay ‘Preface to Shakespeare’ .......................................................74
5.3 Summary of the Text ....................................................................................77
Summary Points .....................................................................................................78
References ..........................................................................................................80
72
INTRODUCTION
Dr. Samuel Johnson is known for his compilation of the Dictionary of English language
but besides being a lexicographer, he was a man of letters who produced poems, plays and
essays in English language. He recorded the lives of several English poets in his famous
work Lives of the Poets. He also analyzed the plays written by William Shakespeare and
produced a critical work called the Preface to Shakespeare thus establishing his reputation
as an eminent critic of English literature. His criticism was a reflection of his age, and he
applied the principles of reason in his arguments. Dr Johnson and his works are the subject
of this unit.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to
1. enlist the major events of Dr. Samuel Johnson’s life.

2. discuss the contribution of Dr. Johnson to English poetry and drama.
3. discuss the significance of the Dictionary of English language compiled by Dr.
Johnson
4. summarize the main points presented by Dr. Johnson the Preface to Shakespeare
73
5.1 LIFE AND WORKS OF DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON
Samuel Johnson was born on September 18, 1709, in Lichfield in Staffordshire in England.
His father Michael Johnson was a bookseller. A weak child at birth Johnson suffered from
a disease and by the time he was three had permanent scars on his face caused due to an
operation. Despite his poor health he was an intelligent child and quickly learnt different
passages his mother read from the Book of Common Prayers. He attended Lichfield
Grammar School where he learned Latin. He also attended King Edward VI Grammar
School at Sturbridge and gained knowledge about classical literature under the guidance
of Cornelius Ford.
His family was very poor since his father had accumulated debts which he was unable to
pay so Johnson had to work at his father’s bookshop stitching books. This job gave him an
opportunity to read widely and accumulate knowledge which he used later in his literary
and professional careers.
5.2 TEXT OF ESSAY ‘Preface to Shakespeare’

Nothing can please many and please long, but just representation of nature. Manners can
be known to few, and therefore few only can judge how nearly they are copied. The
irregular combinations of fanciful invention may delight a while, but that the novelty of
the common satiety of life sends us all in quest; but the pleasures of sudden wonders are
soon exhausted, and the mind only repose on the stability of truth.
Shakespeare is above all writers, at least above all modern writers, the poet of nature; the
poet that holds up to his reader a faithful mirror of manners and of life. His characters are
not modified by the customs of places, unpracticed by the rest of the world; by the
peculiarities of studies or professions, which can operate but on small numbers; or by the
accidents of transient fashions or temporary opinions: they are the genuine progeny of
common humanity, such as the world will always supply, and observation will always find.
His persons act and speak by the influence of those general passions and principles by
which all minds are agitated, and the whole system of life is continued in motion. In the
writings of other oets, a character is too often an individual; in those of Shakespeare it is
commonly a species.
It is from this wide extension of design that so much instruction is derived. It is this which
fills the plays of Shakespeare with axioms and domestic wisdom. It was said of Euripides
that every verse was a percept; and it may be said of Shakespeare that from his words may
be collected a system of civil and economical prudence. Yet his real power is not shown in
the splendor of passages, but by the progress of his fable, and the tenor of his dialogue;
and he that tries to recommend him by select quotations will succeed like the pedant in
Heracles, who when he offered his house to sale, carried a brick in his pocket as a specimen.
It will not easily be imagined how much Shakespeare excels in accommodating his
sentiments to real life but by comparing him with other authors. It was observed of the
74
ancient school of declamation that the more diligently they were frequented, the more was
the student disqualified for the world, because he found nothing there which he should ever
meet in another place. The same remark should be applied to every stage but that of
Shakespeare. The theatre, when it is under any other direction, is peopled by such
characters as were never seen, conversing in a language which was never heard, upon topics
which will never arise in the commerce of mankind. But the dialogue of this author is often
so evidently determined by the incident which produces it, and is pursued with so much
ease and simplicity, that it seems scarcely to claim the merit of fiction, but to have been
gleaned by diligent selection out of the common conversation, and common occurrences.
Upon every other stage the universal agent is love, by whose power all good and evil are
distributed, and every action quickened or retarded. To bring a lover, a lady, and a rival
into the fable; to entangle them into contradictory obligations, perplex them ith the
opposition of interest, and harass them with the violence of desires inconsistent with each
other; to make them meet in rapture and part in agony; to fill their mouths with hyperbolic
joy or outrageous sorrow; to distress them as nothing human as ever was distressed; to
deliver them as nothing human ever was delivered is the business of a modern dramatist.
For this, the probability is violated, life is misinterpreted, and language is depraved. But
love is only one of many passions, and as it has no great influence upon the sum of life, it
has little operation in the dramas of a poet who caught his ideas from the living the world
and exhibited only what he saw before him. He knew that any other passion, as it was
regular or exorbitant, was a cause of happiness or calamity.
Characters thus ample and general were not easily discriminated and preserved, yet no poet
ever kept his personages as distinct from each other. I will not say with Pope that every
speech may be assigned to the proper speaker because many speeches there are which have
nothing characteristically; but perhaps, though some may be equally adapted to every
person, it will be difficult to find any that can be properly transferred from the present
possessor to another claimant. The choice is right when there is the reason for the choice.
Other dramatists can only gain attention by hyperbolic and aggravated characters, by
fabulous and unexampled excellence or depravity, as the writers of barbarous romances
invigorated the reader by a giant and a dwarf; and he should form his expectations of human
affairs from the play, or the tale, would be deceived. Shakespeare has no heroes; his scenes
are occupied only by men who act and speak as the reader thinks he should himself have
spoken or acted on the same occasion. Even where the agency is supernatural the dialogue
is level with life. Other writers disguise the most natural passions and most frequent
incidents; so that he who contemplates them in the book will not know them in the world:
Shakespeare approximates the remote and familiarizes the wonderful; the events which he
represents will not happen, but if it were possible, its effects would probably be such as he
has assigned; and it may be said that he has not shown human nature as it acts in real
exigencies, but as it would be found in trials to which it cannot be exposed.
This, therefore, is the praise of Shakespeare, that his drama is the mirror of life; that he
who has mazed his imagination, in following the phantoms which other writers raise before
him, may here be cured of his delirious ecstasies, by reading human sentiments in human
75
language; by scenes from which a hermit may estimate the transactions of the world, and
a confessor predict the progress of the passion.
His adherence to general nature has exposed him to the censure of critics, who form their
judgment upon narrower principles. Dennis and Rymer think his Romans were not
sufficiently Roman, and Voltaire censures his kings as not completely royal. Dennis is
offended that Menenius, a senator of Rome should play the buffoon; and Voltaire perhaps
thinks decency is violated when the Danish usurper is represented as a drunkard. But
Shakespeare always makes nature predominate over accident; and if he preserves the
essential character is not very careful of distinctions super-induced and adventitious. His
story requires Romans or kings, but he thinks only of men. He knew that Rome, like any
other city, had men of all dispositions; and wanting a buffoon, he went into the senate-
house for that the senate-house would certainly have afforded him. He was inclined to show
usurper, a murderer not only odious but despicable; he therefore added drunkenness to his
other qualities, knowing that kings love wine like other men, and that wine exerts its natural
power upon kings. These are the petty cavils of petty minds; a poet overlooks the casual
distinction of country and condition, as a painter, satisfied with the figure, neglects the
drapery.
The censure which he incurred by mixing comic and tragic scenes, as it extends to all his
works, deserves more consideration. Let the fact be first stated, and then examined.
Shakespeare’s plays are not in the rigorous sense tragedies or comedies, but compositions
of a distinct kind; exhibiting the real state of sublunary nature, which partakes of good and
evil, joy and sorrow, mingled with endless variety of proportion and innumerable modes
of combination; and expressing the course of the world, in which the loss of one is the gain
of another, in which at the same time the reveller is hasting to his wine, and the mourner
burying his friend, in which the malignity of one is sometimes defeated by the frolic of
another; and many mischiefs and many benefits are done and hindered without design.
Out of this chaos of mingled purposes and casualties the ancient poets, according to the
laws which custom had prescribed, selected some of the crimes of men, some of their
absurdities; some of the momentous vicissitudes of life, and some of the lighter
occurrences; some the terror of distress, some the gaieties of prosperity. Thus rose the two
modes of imitation known by the names of tragedy and comedy, compositions intended to
promote different ends by contrary means, and considered as so little allied that I do not
recollect among the Greeks or Romans a single writer who attempted both.
Shakespeare has united the powers of exciting laughter and sorrow not only in one mind
but in one composition. Almost all his plays are divided between serious and ludicrous
characters, and in the successive evolution of design, some produce seriousness and
sorrow, and sometimes levity and laughter.
76
5.3 SUMMARY OF THE TEXT
The “Preface to Shakespeare” by Dr Samuel Johnson is a critical work that examines the
plays of William Shakespeare and their place in English literary tradition.
Johnson begins by praising Shakespeare’s talent, noting that he possessed a rare ability to
capture the full range of human experience in his plays. He argues that Shakespeare’s work
is marked by a deep understanding of human nature and a profound insight into the human
condition.
Johnson also discusses the importance of Shakespeare’s influence on English drama,

noting that he helped to elevate the art of playwriting to a higher level of sophistication and
complexity. He suggests that Shakespeare’s work paved the way for later writers and that
he remains a central figure in English literary tradition to this day.
In discussing the style and language of Shakespeare’s plays, Johnson notes that they are
marked by their naturalness and their ability to capture the rhythms of everyday speech.
He argues that Shakespeare’s use of language is one of his greatest strengths as a writer
and that it contributes to the immediacy and realism of his plays.
Johnson also reflects on the challenges of interpreting Shakespeare’s plays for a modern
audience, noting that some of the language and cultural references may be unfamiliar to
contemporary readers. However, he suggests that the universality of Shakespeare’s themes
and characters transcends time and place and that his work remains relevant and engaging
for modern audiences.
The "Preface to Shakespeare” by Dr Johnson is a thoughtful and insightful reflection on

the work of one of the greatest playwrights in the English language. It showcases Johnson’s
deep appreciation for Shakespeare’s talent and his understanding of the importance of
Shakespeare’s work in English literary tradition.
The “Preface to Shakespeare” by Dr. Samuel Johnson is a critical work that examines the
plays of William Shakespeare and their place in English literary tradition. Some of the
main points of the Preface include:
1. Praise Shakespeare’s genius and his ability to capture the full range of human
experience in his plays.
2. Reflection on the importance of Shakespeare’s influence on English drama and his

role in elevating the art of playwriting to a higher level of sophistication and
complexity.
3. Discussion of the naturalness of Shakespeare’s style and language, and how it

contributes to the immediacy and realism of his plays.
77
4. Reflection on the challenges of interpreting Shakespeare’s plays for a modern
audience, but also an acknowledgement of the universality of his themes and
characters that transcends time and place.
5. Recognition of Shakespeare’s influence on later writers and his continued importance

in English literary tradition.
Overall, the Preface presents a deep appreciation for Shakespeare’s talent and a recognition
of his enduring impact on English literature.
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ Dr Samuel Johnson was a representative of the Age of Reason and applied the
principle of reasoning in his literary criticism.
➢ Besides being a lexicographer, academician, poet and essayist Dr Johnson produced

a substantial amount of criticism.
➢ In the Preface to Shakespeare, he refuted the criticism against William Shakespeare’s

works.
➢ He identified the qualities of Shakespeare’s plays which gave them a universal

appeal.
78
1. Enlist the major events of Dr. Johnson’s life.
2. Discuss the contributions of Dr. Johnson to English poetry and drama.
3. How did writing the Dictionary contributed to the literary career of Dr. Johnson?
4. Enlist the critics mentioned by Dr. Johnson in his Preface to Shakespeare.
5. How does Dr Johnson prove the universality of Shakespeare’s works?
79
REFERENCES
Johnson, S. (2011). Preface to Shakespeare, published in the year 1768. In J. Hawkins
(Ed.), The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.: Together with his Life, and Notes on his
Lives of the Poets (Cambridge Library Collection – Literary Studies, pp. 239-302).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Doi:10.1017/CBO9781139056472.005
“Preface to Shakespeare – Quotes” eNotes Publishing Ed. eNotes Editorial. eNotes.com,

Inc. eNotes.com 27 Feb. 2023 <https://www.enotes.com/topics/preface-shakespeare-
samuel-johnson/quotes#quotes-quotes-870335>
80
Unit-6
THE ROMANTIC CRITICS

WILLIAM WORDSWORTH
(1770-1850): PREFACE TO LYRICAL
BALLADS

81
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ............................................................................................................82
6.1. Life and Works of William Wordsworth ....................................................84
6.2. Text of Essay ...............................................................................................84
6.3. Summary of the Text ...................................................................................87
Summary Points .....................................................................................................88
Further Reading .....................................................................................................90
82
INTRODUCTION
Lyrical Ballads was the title of a collection of poems written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
and William Wordsworth. It was published in 1798 and marked the initiation of the Age
of Romanticism in English literature. William Wordsworth wrote a preface to this
collection and presented his theory of poetry in it. In the Preface, Wordsworth identified
the characteristics of the poems included in this collection and discussed the process of
their creation. In this unit, we are going to discuss the wonderful works created by William
Wordsworth.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you will be able to:
1. Enlist the major events of William Wordsworth’s life.

2. Identify the characteristic features of English Romantic poetry
3. Discuss the significant features of poems included in Lyrical Ballads
4. Enlist the views of William Wordsworth’s theory of poetry
83
6.1. LIFE AND WORKS OF WILLIAM WORDSWORTH
William Wordsworth was born on April 7, 1770, in Cumberland in the north of England.
He was one of the five children of John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson. A year later his
sister Dorothy was born and remained his companion throughout his life. His father was
an estate manager and the family lived in a large mansion. Wordsworth’s father encouraged
him to use the large library available at home and read the works of Spenser, Shakespeare
and Milton. He was taught to read and write by his mother and could read the Bible.
He attended Hawkshead Grammar School and St. John’s College. He graduated from
Cambridge in 1791. As a student, he spent his holidays taking walking tours and in 1790
went to Europe and observed the scenic beauty of the mountain range called the Alps.
The French Revolution of 1787 had a strong influence on Wordsworth.
6.2. TEXT OF THE ESSAY

The first volume of these poems has already been submitted for general perusal. It was
published as an experiment which, I hope might be of some use to ascertain, how far, by
fitting to material arrangement a selection of the real language of men in a state of vivid
sensation, that sort of pleasure, and that quantity of pleasure may be imparted which a Poet
may rationally endeavour to impart.
I had formed no very inaccurate estimate of the probable effect of these poems: I flattered
myself that they who should be pleased with them would read them with more than
common pleasure: and on the other hand, I was well aware that those who dislike them
they would be read with more than common dislike. The result has differed from my
expectation in this only, that I have pleased a greater number than I ventured to hope I
should, please.
For the sake of variety and from a consciousness of my weakness I was induced to request
the assistance of a Friend, who furnished me with the Poems of the ANCIENT MARINER,
the FOSTER-MOTHER’S TALE, the NIGHTINGALE, the DUNGEON, and the Poem
entitled LOVE. I should not, however, have requested this assistance, had I not believed
that the poems of my Friend in a greater measure have the same tendency as my own, and
that, though there would be found a difference, there would be found no discordance in the
colours of our style; as our opinions on the subject of poetry do almost entirely coincide.
Several of my friends are anxious for the success of these Poems from a belief that if the
views, with which they were composed, were indeed realised, a new class of Poetry would
be produced, well adapted to interest mankind permanently, and not unimportant in the
multiplicity of the and in the quality of its moral relations: and on this account, they have
advised me to prefix a systematic defence of the theory, upon which the poems were
written. But I was unwilling to take the task because I knew that on this occasion the Reader
would look coldly upon my arguments since I might be suspected of having been
principally influenced by the selfish and foolish hope of reasoning him into an approbation
84
of these particular Poems: and I was still more unwilling to undertake the task because
adequately to display my opinions and fully to enforce my arguments would require a space
wholly disproportionate to the nature of a preface. For to treat the subject with clearness
and coherence, Of which I believe it susceptible, it would be necessary to give a full
account of the present state of the public taste in this country, and to determine how far this
taste is healthy or depraved; which again would not be determined, without pointing out,
in what manner language and the human mind act and react on each other and without
retracing the revolutions not of literature alone but likewise of society itself. I have
therefore altogether declined to enter regularly upon this defence, yet I am sensible, that
there would be some impropriety in abruptly intruding upon the Public, without a few
words of introduction, Poems so materially different from those, upon which general
approbation is at present bestowed.
It is supposed that by the act of writing in verse, an Author makes a formal engagement
that he will gratify certain known habits of association, that he not only does apprize the
Reader that certain classes of ideas and expressions will be found in this book, but that
others will be carefully excluded. This exponent and symbol held forth by the metrical
language must have in different areas of literature have excited very different expectations:
for instance in the age of Catullus Terence and Lucretius, and in the age of Statius and
Claudian, and our own country in the age of Shakespeare and Beaumont and Fletcher, and
that of Donne and Cowley, or Dryden or Pope. I will not take upon myself to determine
the exact import of the promise which by the act of writing in verse an Author in the present
day makes to the Readerbut I am certain it will appear to many persons that I have not
fulfilled the terms of an engagement thus voluntarily contracted. I hope therefore the
Reader will not censure me, if I attempt to state, what I have proposed myself perform, and
also, (as far as the limits of a preface will permit) will explain some of the chief reasons
which have determined me in the choice of my purpose: that at least he be spared any
unpleasant feelings of disappointment, and that I be protected from the most dishonourable
accusation which can be brought against an Author, namely, that of indolence which
prevents him from endeavouring to ascertain what is his duty, or when his duty is
ascertained prevents him from performing it.
The principle object then which I proposed to myself in these Poems was to make the
incidents of common life interesting by tracing in them, truly though not ostentatiously,
the primary laws of our nature: chiefly as regards as how we associate ideas in a state of
excitement. Low and rustic life was chosen because in that situation the essential passions
of the heart find a better soil in which they can attain their maturity, are less under restraint,
and speak a plainer and more emphatic language; because in that situation our elementary
feelings exist in a state of greater simplicity and consequently may be more accurately
contemplated and more forcibly communicated; because the manners of rural life
germinate from those elementary feelings; and from the necessary character of rural
occupations are more easily comprehended; and are more durable; and lastly, because in
that situation, the passions of men are incorporated with the beautiful and permanent forms
of nature. The language too of these men is adopted (purified indeed from what appears to
be real defects, from all lasting and rational causes of dislike and disgust) because such
85
men hourly communicate with the best objects from which the best part of language is
originally derived; and because, and from their rank in society and the sameness and narrow
circle of their intercourse, being less under the action of social vanity they convey their
feelings and notions in simple unelaborated expressions. Accordingly, such a language
arising out of the repeated experience and regular feelings is a more permanent and far
more philosophical language than that which is frequently substituted for it by the Poets,
who think that they are conferring honour upon themselves and their art in proportion as
they separate themselves from the sympathies of men and indulge in arbitrary and
capricious habits of expression furnish food for fickle tastes and fickle appetites of their
creation.
I cannot be insensible of the present outcry against the triviality and meanness both of
thought and language, which some of my contemporaries have occasionally introduced
into their metrical compositions; and I acknowledge that this defect where it exists, is more
dishonourable to the Writer’s character than false refinement and arbitrary innovation,
though I should contend at the same time that it is far less pernicious in the sum of its
consequences. From the such verse, the Poems in this volume will be found distinguished
at least by one mark of difference, that each of them has a worthy purpose. Not that I mean
to say, that I always began to write with a distinct purpose formally conceived; but I believe
that my habits of meditation have so formed my feelings, as that my description of such
objects as strongly excite those feelings, will be found to carry along with them a purpose.
If in this opinion I am mistaken, I have little right to the name of a Poet. For all good poetry
is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; but though this be true, Poems to which
any value can be attached, were never produced on any variety of subjects but by a man
who is possessed of more than usual organic sensibility had also thought long and deeply.
For our continued influxes of feelings are modified and directed by our thoughts, which
are indeed the representatives of all our past feelings.; and as by contemplating the relation
of these general representatives to each other, we discover what is important to men, so by
the repetition and continuance of this act feelings connected with important subjects will
be nourished, till at length, if we are originally possessed of much organic sensibility, such
habits of mind will be produced that by obeying blindly and mechanically the impulses of
those habits we shall describe objects and utter sentiments of such nature and in such
connection with each other, that the understanding of the being to whom we address
ourselves, if he is in a healthful state of the association, must necessarily be in some degree
enlightened, his taste exalted, and his affections ameliorated.
I have said that each of these poems has a purpose. I have also informed my Reader what
this purpose is will be found principally to be: namely to illustrate how our feelings and
ideas are associated with a state of excitement. But speaking in less general language, it is
to follow the fluxes and refluxes of mind when agitated by the great and simple affections
of our nature. This object I have endeavoured in these sorts of essays to attain by various
means; by tracing the maternal passion through many of its more subtle windings, as in the
poems of the IDIOT BOY and the MAD MOTHER; by accompanying the last struggles
of a human being at the approach of death, cleaving in solitude to life and society, as in the
poem of the FORSAKEN INDIAN; by showing as in the Stanzas entitled We ARE
86
SEVEN, the perplexity and obscurity which in childhood attend our notion of death or our
utter inability to admit that notion; or by displaying the strength of fraternal, or to speak
more philosophically, of moral attachment when early associated with the great and
beautiful objects of nature, as in the BROTHERS; or as in the Incident of SIMON LEE, by
placing my Reader in the way of receiving from ordinary moral sensations another and
more salutary impression than we are accustomed to receiving from them.
6.3. SUMMARY OF THE TEXT

"Lyrical Ballads" is a collection of poems written by William Wordsworth and Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, first published in 1798. The collection is often regarded as a landmark
in English Romantic literature, as it introduced a new style of poetry that emphasized
emotion, imagination and the beauty of nature.
The collection is divided into two sections, with Wordsworth's poems in the first section
and Coleridge's poems in the second. The poems in the collection are characterized by their
simple language, vivid imagery, and use of everyday subjects and themes.
Wordsworth's poems in the collection focus on the lives and experiences of ordinary people
and often celebrate the beauty and power of nature. The poems are written in a style that is
accessible and easy to understand, and they often use simple language and direct imagery
to convey their meaning.
Coleridge's poems in the collection are more complex and intricate and often deal with
supernatural and mystical themes. The poems are marked by their vivid imagery and use
of rich, descriptive language to create a dreamlike atmosphere.
"Lyrical Ballads" is a significant work in the history of English literature, as it helped to

establish the Romantic movement and introduced a new style of poetry that emphasized
emotion, imagination, and the beauty of nature.
The "Lyrical Ballads" is a collection of poems written by William Wordsworth and Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, which was first published in 1798. Here are some of the main points of
the collection:
1. A new style of poetry: "Lyrical Ballads" introduced a new style of poetry that
emphasized emotion, imagination, and the beauty of nature, departing from the
traditional, formal poetry of the time.
2. Poems that celebrated ordinary people and everyday themes: The poems in the
collection often celebrated the lives and experiences of ordinary people, using
simple language and direct imagery to convey meaning. This marked a departure
from the more elevated themes and subjects of traditional poetry.
87
3. Emphasis on the natural world: Many of the poems in the collection focused on
the beauty and power of nature, often using nature as a source of inspiration for
the emotions and experiences of the characters.
4. The use of the supernatural: Some of the poems in the collection, particularly those
written by Coleridge, explored supernatural and mystical themes, using vivid
imagery and rich language to create a dreamlike atmosphere.
5. Influence on English literature: "Lyrical Ballads" is considered a landmark work

in English literature and helped to establish the Romantic movement, which
emphasized emotion, imagination, and the natural world.
Overall, "Lyrical Ballads" is an important collection of poems that marked a significant

departure from traditional poetry and helped to establish a new style of poetry that
emphasized the power of emotion, imagination, and the natural world.
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ William Wordsworth was one of the pioneers of the Romantic Movement in
English literature.
➢ Wordsworth’s most significant work is his collection of poems entitled as the
Lyrical Ballads.
➢ Lyrical Ballads include poems composed by Wordsworth as well as Samuel Taylor
Coleridge.
➢ In the Preface, to Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth presented his theory of poetry.
88
1. William Wordsworth was one of the pioneers of the Romantic Movement in
English literature.
2. Wordsworth’s most significant work is his collection of poems entitled as the
Lyrical Ballads.
3. Lyrical Ballads include poems composed by Wordsworth as well as Samuel Taylor
Coleridge.
4. In the Preface to Lyrical Ballads Wordsworth presented his theory of poetry.
89
FURTHER READING
Parrish, S. Maxfield (2022, August 19). William Wordsworth. Encyclopedia
Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Wordsworth
Wordsworth, William (1800). Lyrical Ballads with Other Poems. Vol. I (2 ed.). London:
Printed for T.N. Longman and O. Rees.
Wordsworth, William (1800). Lyrical Ballads with Other Poems. Vol. II (2 ed.). London:
Printed for T.N. Longman and O. Rees.
90
Unit-7
THE ROMANTIC CRITICSS.T.

COLERIDGE (1772-1834):
BIOGRAPHIA LITERARIA

Reviewed by: Prof. Dr. Nadeem Haidar Bukhari
91
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ............................................................................................................93
7.1. Life and Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge ..............................................94
7.2. Text of Essay ...............................................................................................95
7.3. Commentary of the Text .............................................................................96
Summary Points .....................................................................................................98
Further Readings ..................................................................................................100
92
INTRODUCTION
The Romantic Age of English literature which began in the last quarter of the eighteenth
century and continued till the middle of the nineteenth century contributed to the
development of the genre of literary criticism. Romantic poets especially William
Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge not only composed poetry but also presented
their theories of poetry. While Wordsworth projected his theory of poetry in his famous
Preface to Lyrical Ballads, Coleridge his collaborator in composing the Lyrical Ballads
came up with his ideas in his well-known work Biographia Literaria. In the twenty-four
chapters of Biographia Literaria Coleridge argued against Wordsworth’s theory as well as
set rules for literary compositions.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
1. enlist the major events of Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s life.

2. discuss the different phases of Coleridge’s literary career.
3. enlist the poetic works of Coleridge.
4. enlist the critical works of Coleridge.
5. summarize the main points presented by Coleridge in Biographia Literaria
6. identify the points of difference in Coleridge’s and Wordsworth’s opinions of the
poetry.
7. define the terms fancy and imagination.
93
7.1. LIFE AND WORKS OF SAMUEL TAYLOR
COLERIDGE
Samuel Taylor Coleridge was born on October 21, 1772, in a village called Ottery in
Devonshire in England. His father John Coleridge was the vicar of the parish and also the
headmaster of a local school. He was the youngest of ten siblings including seven brothers.
His father died when he was eight and his elder brother George then took up the
responsibility of his upbringing. In 1782 Coleridge entered Christ’s Hospital boarding
school where he befriended Charles Lamb who later became a famous essayist. After
completing his education at secondary school Coleridge began his education at Cambridge
University in 1791. Both at school and college, he was known for his extensive reading.
Even as a child he had read The Arabian Nights and Robinson Crusoe.
His financial problems and disappointment were caused by the failure of the French
Revolution in 1793 he left university and joined the military. His brothers, however, helped
him to resume his education and he again began attending classes. But he did not manage
to get a degree and became a public lecturer like his friend and poet Robert Southey. In
1795 he married Sara Ficker and in the same year also met William Wordsworth. His
friendship with Wordsworth lasted many years and together they produced their collection
of poems called the Lyrical Ballads in 1798. In 1798 he travelled to Germany with
Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy. This journey enlightened him about the latest
philosophical and literary developments taking place in Germany. Moreover, his closeness
to Wordsworth’s family brought him into contact with Sara Hutchinson the sister-in-law
of Wordsworth. Consequently, his relationship with his wife became strained and badly
affected his health. His financial problems also aggravated, and he became more reliant
on opium.
In 1809 he went to the island of Malta in the Mediterranean Sea to work as a secretary for
the acting governor. But despite his spending time in warmer climates his health did not
improve. His relations with Wordsworth also went sour in 1809 and he got separated from
his family. In 1811 and 1812 he delivered lectures on William Shakespeare but still
experienced severe depression. In 1817 he produced his major work of literary criticism
titled Biographia Literaria. As his health deteriorated he lived a quiet life in the suburbs of
London where he died on July 25, 1834.
Coleridge’s literary career can be divided into different phases.
94
7.2. TEXT OF THE ESSAY
Chapter IV
The Lyrical Ballad with the Preface ─ Mr Wordsworth’s earlier poems ─ On fancy and
imagination ─ The investigation of the distinction important to the fine arts.
I have wandered far from the object in view, but as fancied to myself reader who would
respect the feelings that tempted me from the main road: so I dare calculate on not a few
who will warmly sympathize with me. At present, it will be sufficient for my purpose if I
have proved that Mr Southey’s writing no more than my own furnished the original
occasion to this fiction of a new school of poetry, and clamours against its supposed
founders.
As little do I believe that ‘Mr. Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads’ were in themselves the cause.
I speak exclusively of the two volumes entitled. A careful and repeated examination of
these confirms me in the belief that the omission of less than a hundred lines would have
precluded the ninth-tenth of the criticism of this work. I hazard this declaration, however,
on the supposition that the reader had taken it up, as he would have done any other
collection of poems purporting to derive their subjects or interests from the interests of
ordinary or domestic life, intermingled with higher strains of meditation which the poet
utters in his person and character; with the proviso that they were perused without
knowledge of, or reference to, the author’s peculiar opinions, and the reader had not had
his attention previously directed to those peculiarities. In these, as was the case with Mr
Southey’s earlier works, the lines and passages which might have offended the general
taste would have been considered as mere inequalities, and attributed to inattention, not to
the perversity of judgment. The men of business who had passed their lives in cities and
who might therefore be expected to derive the highest pleasure from acute notices of men
and manners conveyed in easy yet correct and pointed language; and all those who, reading
but little poetry, are most stimulated with that species of it which seems most distant from
prose, would probably have passed by the volumes altogether. Others most catholic in their
taste, and yet habituated to be most pleased when most excited would have contended
themselves with deciding that the author had been successful in proportion to the elevation
of his style and subject. Not a few, perhaps, by their admiration of the ‘Lines Written Near
Tintern Abbey’, those ‘Left Upon A Seat Under A Yew-Tree,’ the ‘Old Cumberland
Beggar’ and ‘Ruth’ have been gradually led to peruse with kindred feeling, ‘The Brothers’,
the ‘Heart-Leap Well’ and whatever other poems in that collection may be described as
holding a middle place between those written in the highest and those in the humblest style;
as between the ‘Tintern Abbey’, and the ‘Thorn’, or the ‘Simon Lee’. Should their taste
submit to no further change and will remain un-reconciled to the colloquial phrases, or the
imitation of them that are more or less scattered through the class last mentioned; yet even
from the small number of the latter, they would have deemed them but an inconsiderable
selection from the merit of the whole work; or what is sometimes not unpleasing in the
95
publication of a new writer as serving to ascertain the natural tendency and, consequently,
the proper direction of the author’s genius.
In the critical remarks, therefore, prefixed and annexed to the Lyrical Ballads, I believe
that we may safely rest on the true origin of the unexampled opposition which Mr
Wordsworth’s writing has been doomed to encounter. The humbler passages in the poems
themselves were dwelt on and cited to justify the rejection of the theory. What is and for
themselves would have been either forgotten or forgiven as imperfections, or at least
comparative failures, provoked direct hostility when announced as intentional, as the result
of choice after full deliberation. Thus the poems, admitted by all as excellent joined with
those which had pleased the far greater number, though they formed two-thirds of the
whole work, instead of being deemed (as in all right they should have been, even if we take
for granted that he reader judged all right) an atonement for the few exceptions, gave wind
and fuel to the animosity against both the poems and the poet. In all perplexity, there is a
portion of fear which predisposes the mind to anger. Not able to deny that the author
possessed both genius and a powerful intellect, they felt very positive, but not quite certain,
that he might not be in the right and they in the wrong.: with an unquiet state of mind,
which seeks alleviations by quarrelling with the occasion of it., and by wondering at the
perverseness of the man who had written a long and argumentative essay to persuade them
that
Fair is foul, and foul is fair;
In other words, they had been all their lives admiring without judgment, and were now
about to censure without reason.
7.3. COMMENTARY OF THE TEXT

The title of the work Biographia Literaria is quite misleading because it hints at being a
collection of biographies of literary artists. However, the content consists of rambling
thoughts of the writer dealing with his views on philosophy and literature. Of the twenty
four chapters of Biographia Literaria the fourth and twenty-second chapters are the most
significant since they deal with Coleridge’s criticism of Wordsworth’s literary theory
presented in the Preface to Lyrical Ballads. In these chapters, Wordsworth also reminisces
about his relationship with Wordsworth and analyses his other poetic works. Another
highlight of these chapters of Biographia Literaria is their contribution to the distinction
between fancy and imagination. Coleridge considers fancy and imagination as separate
entities and divides the latter into two categories namely Primary and Secondary
imagination.
Chapter Four
96
Coleridge in the very beginning of this chapter rejects the notion that neither he nor Robert
Southey nor William Wordsworth created a new subgenre of poetry. He, in fact, reacts to
William Wordsworth’s claim made in the Preface to Lyrical Ballads that a new class of
Poetry [has been] produced. Thus Coleridge considers the poems included in the collection
entitled Lyrical ballads as a continuation of the already existing tradition of English poetry.
It is thus obvious that Coleridge disagrees with Wordsworth and presents his stance with
arguments.
He identifies a characteristic of Wordsworth’s poems that they draw their material from
commonplace incidents of life and blend them with sublime thoughts; they ‘derive their
subjects or interests from the interests of ordinary or domestic life, intermingled with
higher strains of meditation’. He also divides the poems written by Wordsworth and
includes in the Lyrical Ballads into three categories: the best ones he calls ‘those written in
the highest … style’ then ‘the middle ones’ and finally the poems were written ‘in the
humblest style’.
97
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ Samuel Taylor Coleridge besides being an established English Romantic Age poet is
also known as a critic.
➢ His critical work Biographia Literaria includes his poetic theory.
➢ Even though Coleridge collaborated with William Wordsworth and together they
produced Lyrical Ballads a collection of poems which initiated the beginning of the
Romantic Movement in English literature Coleridge disagreed with the poetic theory
of Wordsworth.
➢ Coleridge refutes Wordsworth’s assertion that the poems included in the Lyrical
Ballads form a new class of poetry.
98
1. Enlist the important events of Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s life.
2. Briefly discuss the different phases of Coleridge’s literary career.
3. Identify the points of difference in Coleridge and Wordsworth’s theories of poetry.
4. What qualities does Coleridge identify and admire in Wordsworth’s poetry?
5. How does Coleridge define fancy?
6. What are Coleridge’s views about imagination and its role in the composition of
poetry?
99
FURTHER READINGS
Beer, John Bernard. "Samuel Taylor Coleridge". Encyclopedia Britannica, 1 Feb.
2023, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-Taylor-Coleridge.
Accessed 28 February 2023.
Jackson, H. (ed.) (1999). Coleridge, Samuel Taylor - Selected Poetry. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1999.
100
Unit-8
THE VICTORIAN CRITICS

MATTHEW ARNOLD (1822-1888)
ESSAYS IN CRITICISM: THE STUDY
OF POETRY
Compiled by: Prof. Anum Ilyas

101
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ..........................................................................................................102
8.1. Life and Works of Matthew Arnold ..........................................................104
8.2 Summary and Explanation of Text ...........................................................105
Summary Points ...................................................................................................108
Self-Assessment Questions ..................................................................................109
Further Reading ...................................................................................................110
102
INTRODUCTION
Matthew Arnold is the first modern Critic who is known for his poetry and literary
criticism. In “The Study of Poetry”, he discusses the high destinies of poetry and suggests
turning to poetry to understand the meanings of life.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
a. understand the function of poetry.

b. understand the concept of the touchstone method.
c. enlist significant events of Matthew Arnold’s life.
d. survey poetry from Chaucer to modern writers
e. differentiate between inferior and high poetry.
103
8.1. LIFE AND WORKS OF MATTHEW ARNOLD
Matthew Arnold (1822-1888) is an English Victorian poet and critic. He could be called a
“critic’s critic”. He was the eldest son of Dr Thomas Arnold who was Headmaster of
Rugby. Dr. Thomas Arnold married Mary Penrose in 1820. Matthew Arnold was born on
charismas eve, in 1822 in Laleham which is a village near river Thames. He was six years
old when Dr Thomas Arnold was elected headmaster of Rugby in 1828. Matthew Arnold
attained early education at his birthplace, Laleham. When he was fourteen years old, he
was sent to his father’s school, Winchester. Matthew Arnold attended Rugby school in
1837 and attained a scholarship and remained there for four years. He received the prize
for poetry in Rugby and then he entered Oxford as a scholar of Balliol College and
graduated in 1844.
In 1947, Arnold started working as private secretary to Lord Lansdowne and, in 1851, he
was appointed as inspector of schools and he severed for almost 35 years. As an inspector
of schools, he travelled to France, Germany, Holland and Switzerland to inquire the state
of education. He married Lucy, daughter of Sir William Whitman, in 1851. Arnold died in
1888 at Liverpool and was buried with his three sons at Laleham.
Arnold as a Poet
Matthew Arnold is considered a Victorian poet like Browning and Tennyson. Arnold’s first
verse collection, “The Strayed Reveller, and Other Poems,” was published in 1849 when
Arnold was twenty-six years old. For “The Strayed Reveller”, he takes inspiration from
Greek songs. The first publication was followed by “Empedocles on Etna and Other
poems.” Arnold’s classical tragedy, Merope, was published in 1867. His poems were
mainly published from 1849-1867. His poetry revolves around isolation romantic regrets,
nostalgia, intimate affairs and the material approach of modern man. His prominent poems
are Dover Beach, Sohrab and Rustom, and Scholar Gipsy.
Arnold as a Critic
He is a famous cultural critic and he has widened the horizon of criticism by writing many
essays. Dryden is considered the first critic of English but, unlike Arnold, his criticism is
quite personal. Matthew Arnold puts forward unique ideas of analysis without ignoring
context. His first collection of essays was published in 1865 under the title “Essays in
Criticism” and the first essay in this collection, “The Function of Criticism at present”
floats certain ideas and themes that Arnold developed in his later works. He writes that a
critic need not confine himself to the literature produced by his own country rather he
should get inspiration from foreign literature and show an objective approach to literature
and ideas. There are some other famous essays in “Essays in Criticism” like “Maurice De
Guerin,” Eugenie De Guerin,” “Heinrich Heine,” “Joubert,” “Spinoza,” and “Marcus
Aurelius”
104
“The Study of Poetry” contains certain ideas for which Arnold is still remembered. He
opines that poetry must replace religion. When poetry is the best medicine, we should know
how to distinguish superior and inferior poetry. He also proposed a touchstone method for
differentiating best and inferior. “Culture and Anarchy” is another important contribution
of Arnold to the world of criticism. He classified English society into three groups:
Barbarians, the Philistines, the and populace. Philistines were the strongest and most
influential section of society. He has also written some religious writings. He wrote “ST
Paul and Protestantism,” “Literature and dogma,” “God and the Bible,” and Last Essays on
Church and Religion. Arnold influenced some great critics like T.S Eliot, F.R Leavis and
Allen Tate. T.S Eliot prai Arnold’snold objective approach to critical analysis.
8.2 SUMMARY AND EXPLANATION OF TEXT

The essay “The Study of Poetry” can be divided into two parts. In the first part, Arnold
puts forward his observation on the function of poetry; and, in the second part, he surveys
all poets form Chaucer to Victorian times.
In this critical essay, Matthew Arnold compares poetry with other disciplines and
considers everything an allusion except poetry because poetry is higher than everything
else and mankind would turn to poetry because it provides support, consoles and interprets
life for us. While discussing the tremendous future of poetry, he suggests that it would
replace religion and philosophy; and, in times of crisis, humans should turn to poetry for
moral support rather than religion or philosophy because they are not substantial. He
considers philosophy and religion “false shows of knowledge” while poetry is true
knowledge. Philosophy has become abstract and religion too materialistic while poetry is
more fascinating and teaches moral values. In comparison to these subjects, poetry is
deeply connected with human nature, and it is immortal. Poetry also delights the reader
and prepares man to face life rather courageously. We need excellent poetry rather than
anything else.
Arnold defines poetry as criticism of life and without life there is nothing. This definition
attracts the attention of several critics, and they interpret it differently. Lionel Trilling
interprets it as a function of poetry rather than a definition. He considers moral ideas an
integral part of humanity therefore the base of poetry needs to be on moral ideas. Religious
beliefs are crumbling and losing their hold therefore poetry is superior to religion. Arnold
is considered moralist and he considers poetry written against moral ideas as poetry written
against life. He appreciates Wordsworth’s idea that poetry offers “the breath and fine spirit
of knowledge.” Without poetry, science is incomplete. He wonders that people will realize
the hollowness of other disciplines and would regret for taking them seriously.
When poetry is spirit of knowledge, we must have standards for judging poetry. Matthew
Arnold discusses high destinies of poetry and distinguishes between high and low
standards of poetry. Matthew Arnold considers religion as charlatanism and suggests that
it should not enter in the sphere of high standard poetry. Charlatanism eliminates
distinction between excellent and inferior and makes it confuse. In poetry, these
105
distinctions are very important because of high destinies of poetry. Matthew Arnold
discusses the functions of poetry and for him the best poetry has “the power of forming,
sustaining and delighting us”
Matthew Arnold warns against historic and personal estimate which are fallacious. While
reading poetry, we should have the sense of real estimate. The real estimate is
unprejudiced as it takes into consideration the historical context and creativity of writer for
evaluating the worth of poetry. The real estimate is superseded if reader is not vigilant of
other two estimates which are fallacious. Historical estimate gives much value to historical
context and overlooks creative faculty. Historic estimate we can encounter a poem based
on historic events like development of language, it will influence reader while evaluating
any work of ancient writer. Real judgment is affected because the writer has enjoyed high
reputation in society, and we fail to evaluate his work with discerning eyes. The halo of
accomplishment surrounds the name of ancient writers and blinds our critical discerning
eyes, and we fail to highlight their shortcomings. They enjoy God like status in society
and everyone appreciates their work.
In personal estimate, personal likes, dislikes and tastes affect the art of judgment. We
elevate a poet more based on our personal liking. The personal estimate is also dangerous
because we give undue attention and importance to works based on personal affinities.
These two fallacious estimates dominate real estimate. While talking about poets, Matthew
Arnold puts their work in three categories: dubious classic, false classic and real classic.
He suggests that we have to examine dubious classic, and we have to explode false classic.
The work of real classic belongs to the class of the best therefore we should enjoy his
work. This is helpful to differentiate the work of high standard and low. He suggests that
we should study classic writers with discerning eyes and not blindly accept all classic
writers as classic. We should highlight the shortcomings of their work. We should always
keep in mind the fallacies and judge any work based on real estimate.
In order to overcome these two estimates, Arnold proposes the Touchstone method that
is comparative method of criticism. It determines whether poetry is of high standard or not.
This essay seems to be an effort of preserving some old writers. He suggests that one should
always have in one’s mind some lines of great writers and use them as touchstone to other
poetry. A passage or a line can serve this purpose. Arnold quotes Homer, Dante, Milton
and Shakespeare to elaborate his idea of true poetry. He quotes verses of these writers and
considers them true classics. He also acknowledges this fact that the lines are different but
there is one thing common and that is highest poetical quality. As far as substance and
mater of poetry is concerned, in Aristotalian word, it should have truth and seriousness.
Based on these two qualities, Aristotle considers poetry superior to history. It should also
have superiority of language.
While tracing the history of poetry, Matthew Arnold writes that the poetry of England is
connected with poetry of France. He writes that Southern France poetry influenced Italian
literature and poetry of northern France was dominant in twelfth and thirteenth century.
French poetry had clear prevalence in Europe and the English poetry was formed form the
romance poems of France. Greece were renowned for bravery, it passed to Rome and
106
finally reached France. In fourteenth century, Englishman rhyme, meter and stanza form,
words were taken from French poetry.
Chaucer, who is considered the father of English poetry, was influenced by French and
Italian poetry. Matthew Arnold praises his style, spontaneity, but does not consider him
classic because his work lacks seriousness like Homer. He acknowledges the importance
of Chaucer in history and says that people read his work and enjoy him and so this tradition
will continue. His superiority lies in his substance and style of poetry. He presents the
survey of world from human point of view and his substance is large, free and simple.
There is truth in its substance, liquidness of diction and fluid movement in Chaucer’s
poetry. These virtues were not present in any verse of romance poetry. Arnold does not
consider Chaucer a classic because he does not possess the accent of classics. He compares
Chaucer with Dante and writes that Dante style is out of reach of Chaucer. We should adopt
real rather than historic estimate of poetry. Chaucer work does not have high seriousness
though it has largeness, freedom, and benignity. In Aristotle’s view, high poetic seriousness
is one of the great virtues of poetry and Arnold took up his view and considers Homer,
Dante, and Shakespeare classics because they have seriousness in their substance. He takes
Homer as a best model for grand style, Milton for severe grand style and Dante is perfect
for both. Chaucer language is difficult so is Burns. Chaucer fascinated his contemporaries.
According to Arnold, Dryden and Pope are not poet classic but they are prose classic of
the age of prose and reason. There were restrictions in 18th century which cramped the
growth of poetry and encouraged the growth of prose. Dryden and Pope Poetry has force
and vigor but their poetry does not have high seriousness. They can be considered glorious
inaugurator and splendid priest of age of Prose and Reason but not poetry. Gray did not
write much. Arnold calls him classic because he thoroughly enjoyed Greek poetry and
inherited their style and stance. He is “scantiest and frailest of poetry” but he is classics.
By the end of eighteenth century, Burns name was dominant. He seems close to 19th
century, and he is more eloquent in his native language. His poetry deals with Scottish
culture. His dealing with morality seems insincere. Arnold calls him hypocritical because
poems teach morality which he lacked in his private life. His work also lacks seriousness.
Burn is Scottish and he himself says that he is not eloquent in English. The poetry written
in Scottish represents real Burns. Arnold compares Burns with Chaucer and concludes that,
like Chaucer, Burn does not have high seriousness; but, his manner of presentation is
deeper. Arnold suggests modern writers to look up at ancient poets and follow their themes
and style. The romantic poetry is quite personal and brims with passions. Arnold defies
romantic who did not follow classics and for the sake of novelty change things.
107
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ He praises Chaucer style, spontaneity, but does not consider him classic because
his work lacks seriousness like Homer.
➢ He calls Burn hypocritical because his some poems are teaching morality which
he lacked in his private life. His work also lacks seriousness.
➢ The historic estimates affects our judgments while dealing with ancient poets and
Personal estimates affects our judgment when we deal with our contemporaries.
➢ According to Arnold, Dryden and Pope are not poet classic but they are prose
classic of the age of prose and reason
➢ He calls Gray classic because he thoroughly enjoyed Greek poetry and inherited
their style and stance.
➢ Arnold suggests modern writers to look up at ancient poets and follow their themes
and style.
➢ Arnold challenges romantic who did not follow classics and for the sake of novelty
changed things.
108
1. Discuss Touchstone method?
2. What are reasons for placing Gray among Classics?
3. Define personal estimate.
4. What is difference between real estimate and historic estimate?
5. Why it is important to study Arnold’s “The study of Poetry?”
109
FURTHER READING
Arnold, Matthew. Matthew Arnold: english literature and Irish politics . michigan : the
university of michigan press, 1973. pdf.
Kolanchery, Dr. George. "Mathew Arnold as a Critic of English Literature-With Special

Reference to Functions of Poetry." Global English-Oriented Research Journal (G
E O R J (2015): 146-156. pdf.
Lakshmi, S. N. Radhika. The London School of Journalism . n.d. online. 9 Oct 2022.
Saintsbury, George. Matthew Arnold. London: WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS,

2009. PDf .
Shaheer. Literature Times . 30 March 2021. online. 9 October 2022.
Stoddard, R. H. "Matthew Arnold as a Poet." The North American Review (1888): 657-
662. pdf.
Willey, Basil. Britannica. n.d. online. 20 september 2022.
110
Unit-9
MODERN CRITICS
T.S. ELIOT (1888-1965):
TRADITION & THE INDIVIDUAL
TALENT
Compiled by: Prof. Anum Ilyas

111
CONTENTS
Page No.
Introduction ..........................................................................................................113
9.1. Life and Works of T.S Eliot ......................................................................114
9.2 Summary and Explanation of Text ............................................................115
Summary Points ...................................................................................................118
Self-Assessment Questions ..................................................................................119
Further Reading ...................................................................................................120
112
INTRODUCTION
T.S Eliot is an American English writer who is best known for modernist movement
in poetry. He is not only a poet but also a playwright, and literary critic. His critical
essays are of paramount importance in English literature. In “Tradition and
Individual Talent,” he discusses the role of tradition in modern times.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, students will be able to:
1. Enlist significant contribution of T.S Eliot

2. Understand T.S Eliot concept of Tradition and Individual Talent
3. Differentiate between historic and personal estimates.
4. Understand the theory of impersonality.
5. Identify the use of idea of tradition in modern poetry.
6. Find details about T.S Eliot life.
7. Differentiate between romantic and modern notion of writing.
113
9.1. LIFE AND WORKS OF T.S ELIOT
Life of T.S Eliot
T.S Eliot’s father, Henry Ware Eliot, was quite prosperous and he married Charlotte
Champe Stearns in 1868. T.S Eliot was born in LOUIS, Missouri, on September 23, 1888.
Later on, his father had business failure but he worked hard and ended up as president of
Hydraulic Press Company. In 1896, Eliot father, Hennery, was prosperous enough to build
a house at Gloucester. Eliot remained student of Smith Academy in St. Louis and he
published many stories in the Smith Academy record. In 1905, he joined Milton Academy
in Milton, Massachusetts for secondary education. Then he joined Harvard College as an
undergraduate student in 1906. T.S Eliot is also known as a travelling student. In 1910,
after graduating from Harvard, he spent time with his family in Gloucester and then left for
Paris where he attended lectures of Henri Bergson in the College De France. He honed his
philosophical skills. During this period, he completed his most famous poem “The Love
Songs of J. Alfred Prufrock.”. Eliot French friend’s, Jean Verdenal, was a poetry enthusiast
and he shared same interests with him. His death in World War I was a great shock for T.S
Eliot and he dedicated his 1917’s “Prufrock and Other Observations” to him.
In July 1915, he married Vivien Haigh Wood who suffered from a nervous disorder, and it is
quoted that she had an affair with Bertrand Russel. They did not enjoy a healthy relationship,
therefore, in 1933, Eliot filed for separation from Viven. In 1915, Eliot met Ezra Pound in
London and become friends. He had a great influence on Eliot and worked as a mentor in his
life. When Eliot doubted his talent, Pound inspired him to write poetry and helped T.S Eliot’s
work published. In 1922, Eliot wrote “The Waste Land”. In 1932, Eliot went to America to
work as visiting professor at Harvard. On 10th January 1957, Eliot married Valerie Fletcher
who was Eliot’s secretary at Faber for eight years. This marriage was solemnized secretly at
6:00 am and only Eliot’s lawyer and Valerie Fletcher’s parents attended it.
Eliot had some health issues, and he had a double Hernia. He smoked strong French
cigarettes and consequently developed emphysema. In 1962, Eliot was hospitalized in
London and could not recover from it fully. His lungs continued to deteriorate and he failed
to recover from this illness. Allen Tate, an American poet, visited Eliot in London and
according to him Eliot was unable to wave goodbye. In November of 1963, Eliot and
Valerie went to America and stayed in New York and then returned to England in 1964. In
the concluding phase of his life, he remained in a coma and had paralysis too. He did not
enjoy a healthy life and he died on January 4, 1965.
T.S Eliot as a Poet

T.S Eliot (1888-1965) is the most influential ground-breakeraker poet of modern poetry.
He introduced a new style of writing and dismantled the old style. Eliot grew up near the
Mississippi River and the essence this river can be traced and sensed in his poetry. For
example, “The Dry Salvages” begins with river image that is distinctly the Mississippi
river. In one of his letters, he admits feelings of grateful to Laforgue. He learned how to
114
use poetic emotions by means of mask from Lafrogue. “Prufruk and other observation” is
another seminal work of T.S Eliot that got published in 1917. He published “The
Wasteland” in 1922 and it is about condition of England after first World War. In war
decades, Eliot worked as fire watcher and he experienced the horrors of war. His poetry
showcases hollowness, alienation and psychological dilemmas of modern men. Four
Quartets was published in the form of book in 1943.
T.S Eliot as a Playwright

Eliot is not only a poet but also a dramatist who practiced the tradition of writing poetic
plays in twentieth century. He wrote “The Rock”, “Murder in the Cathedral”, “The Family
Reunion”, “The Cocktail Party”, “The Confidential Clerk” and “The Elder Statesman.” E.
Martin Brown, who is famous drama director, asked Eliot to write Choruses and dialogue
for “The Rock” that revolves around the idea of relationship between drama and church in
England. It also engaged with the difficulties that church faced in the rampant world of
materialism and consumerism. On request of George Bell, Eliot produced an original work
for Canterbury festival by seeking direction from Browne. In Eliot words, “The Family
Reunion” is a melancholy work as its tone is quite pessimistic.
T.S Eliot as a Critic

In 1920, he published volume, ara vos prec (collection of his poetry), and The Sacred Wood
(collection of critical prose). “The Sacred Wood” includes “Tradition and Individual
Talent”, “Hamlet and his Problem”, and “The Metaphysical Poets.” In “Hamlet and his
problems,” he examines Hamlet’s character and comments that Hamlet character lacks
objective correlative. Eliot criticism gives attention to objectivity rather than subjectivity.
He believes that art has its own existence and can survive without artist. In “The
Metaphysical poets,” Eliot glorified 17th century poets and appreciated them for their art of
merging wits and emotions in a balanced form. The poets of New-classicism and
romanticism lacked this feature in their poetry.
9.2 Summary and Explanation of Text

In 1922, “Tradition and Individual Talent” was published in “Sacred Woods” and later on
it was included in the “Selected Essays.” This essay gives distinctive attribute to modern
writing. In this seminal work, T.S Eliot engages with the concept of tradition,
interdependence of past and present, and lastly with the impersonality in poetry. This essay
is divided into three section.
In first part, Eliot dwells on this argument that English never appreciate living or dead by
using word tradition. They use it as an adjective to show that something is very traditional
that is quite negative. However, in field of archaeology, the use of this word is not much
derogatory. According to Cambridge Dictionary, Tradition is defined as “a belief,
principle, or way of acting that people in a particular society or group have continued to
follow for a long time” (Tradition). Eliot’s use of word tradition is quite novel and positive.
115
While using word “tradition” in positive vein, he is reviving past. He is not preaching to
imitate past blindly or to improve it but he wants to reinforce to develop it. The poet or any
other writer should not disregard tradition. The poetry should be timeless and it must
transcend the boundaries of time.
English appreciates any writer on the basis of his original and individual content. When we
read a poet, we praise him on the basis of his content which least resemble to anyone else.
While doing this, we try to find individuality of a poet in his work. We tend to find
something different form poet’s ancestors. If we remove this prejudice approach, we will
find the immortality of his ancestors in his work. T.S Eliot wants to eliminate the prejudice
of standing out from their ancestors. He argues that the best works acknowledge past. T.S
Eliot admires the idea of tradition but he does not encourage blind imitation of poetry. He
does not allow to repeat same ideas and sacrifice novelty. He discourages imitation of
successful writers and asserts that something new is much better than something blindly
copied. Tradition is something which cannot be inherited and one needs to work really hard
in order to achieve it. Poets need plethora of knowledge for writing. According to Eliot, a
lot of learning kills “poetic sensibility.” English don’t have critical turn of mind because
the best work shows influences of ancestors. Different nations have different talents and
“critical turn of mind” and sometime they are oblivious of their own shortcomings. He
elaborates this point by giving example of French language. Being “unconscious people”,
English conclude that French are “more Critical” than themselves and also less
spontaneous. Eliot reminds us that we should not overlook the fact that “criticism is as
inevitable as breathing” it means we all are critical.
Eliot focuses on the cultivation of “historical sense” and states that a great poet must have
it. The “historical sense” makes traditional writers conscious of past as if it is present. A
man with historical sense in his mind writes with the perception of “his own generation in
his bones” and keeps in mind that the whole literature has simultaneous existence. He is
aware of “pastness of past.” Knowing past writers would develop historical sense and it
requires hard labor. The writer with historical sense is neither oblivious of present nor past.
He is cognizant of his own generation, and also knows about his relationship with past
writers. According to Eliot, any literary work has no meaning in solitude and one cannot
appreciate his work alone. In order to evaluate any artist, we must compare and contrast
him with the dead and he calls it “principle of aesthetic.” According to him, the present is
directed by past and past is altered by present. A poet would be aware of this fact that he
would be judged by past standards. The judgment does not mean as good or bad but
judgment is, a comparison, in which two things are measured by each other.” We cannot
value or appreciate any work of literature or writer alone. We have to set him in comparison
with past writers.
Dr. Rakesh Chandra Joshi in his article, titled as “Theory of Tradition: Aristotle, Matthew
Arnold, and T.S Eliot” writes that not only poet but also a critic should be aware of the
concept of tradition because he evaluates work. According to Aristotle, all art is an
imitation and while elaborating the concept of tradition it seems Eliot is also trying to
imitate Aristotle. Dr. Rakesh Chandra Joshi compares Eliot and Aristotle and states that
116
both prohibit copying. He writes that “The Only difference that may be traced out in their
theories is that tragedy is an imitation of action, while tradition is an imitation (not servile
copying) of past writers” (Joshi 192). Arnold touchstone method and Eliot method of
tradition seem to complement each other.
According to Eliot, art does not improve, it only develops and traditional poet understands
the complete flow of time. The immature poets don’t understand the difference between
present and past. Present understands past in such a way that past itself cannot understand.
For Eliot, tradition is dynamic. It changes constantly. Like past guides present in the same
fashion present or any new work of art alters past too. When art does not improve so the
significance and importance of past writers never diminishes. Every piece of writing is
unique in its own ways and comparing works with other writers in order to figure out the
superiority or inferiority of work is useless activity. In the field of science and technology,
there is development and old versions are discarded with the invention of new ones but in
literature there is no such philosophy of improvement. It keeps on developing. Eliot also
elaborates the relation of poet to past. There are certain things he must keep in his mind while
connecting with poet. He cannot take past as lump. He can neither wholly rely on one or two
writers of his own choice nor any specific period. A poet must keep in mind that the “mind
of Europe” is more important than his own private mind. In order to make progress, artist
must eliminate his own personality. This is how art may reach level of science.
In second part of essay, T.S Eliot discusses the relation of poetry with poet. He explains
his “impersonal Theory of Personality” and suggests that “Honest Criticism and sensitive
appreciation” should target poetry not poet, but most critics direct criticism on the poet
rather than the poem. The mind of a mature poet is different from the mind of an immature
one. The poet’s mind work as a medium for merging feelings and emotions in a new way
without showcasing his personality. Eliot gives an example of a chemical reaction between
two gases in the presence of platinum the product would be Sulphuric acid. This reaction
cannot take place without platinum but in the final product, there are no traces of platinum.
The poet’s mind works as a catalyst, like platinum, and the final product is poem. There
should be no traces of poet’s feelings and emotions in the poem. The platinum as an inert
remains unaffected by this reaction. The mind of the poet is a piece of platinum. The
catalyst, platinum, accelerated the reaction without involving in the chemical process and
it remains unaffected by the results. Through this analogy, he calls the poet a catalyst. The
personality of the poet is not important, the most important thing is the sense of tradition.
The poet must forget his personal life and his own emotions while writing.
Emotions and feelings are two different elements in any poetic reaction. There can be only
one emotion in any piece of art or an amalgam of several. According to T.S Eliot, great
poetry can be produced with feelings only or without the direct use of emotions. The poet’s
mind works as a storehouse/jar for storing several images, emotions, feelings and phrases.
All these remain there in an unorganized chaotic way until all elements which will unite to
make the final product are present there. If we compare different passages of poetry, we
will find a variety of combinations. He wants to say that a poet must monitor his emotions
while writing because he believes that unmonitored emotions can produce chaos in writing.
117
T.S Eliot wants poets to work objectively and be like scientists. This is how art can reach
the heights of science.
T.S Eliot differentiates between artistic and personal emotions. Personal emotions are
unsophisticated and simple while poetic emotions are refined and complex. The expression
of personal emotions in writing does not make poets remarkable in academic landscapes.
For him, artistic emotions are complex but not as complex as some people have complex
emotions in life. To bring novelty, it is expected to search for new emotions but that is not
the poet’s job. The poet has to use ordinary emotions. The poet doesn’t need to express
his emotions. He can even write about those emotions which he has never experienced. He
rejects Worthworthian definition of poetry and writes that poetic composition is a passive
process and it needs concentration which is not a conscious effort. Consciousness is
something which makes writing personal. Eliot does not clearly state whether a poet needs
to be conscious or unconscious.
Lastly, in the third part of the essay, Eliot suggests that poetry must be impersonal and to
achieve depersonalization the poets need to develop consciousness of the past and its
presence in present.
SUMMARY POINTS
➢ T.S Eliot is a twentieth-century American poet who has written plays, critical
essays and poetry.
➢ He elaborates on the derogatory use of the word tradition by English and
assigns new meanings to it.
➢ English appreciate writers based on their original content and Eliot considers
it a prejudiced approach because it diminishes the past.
➢ Tradition is something which cannot be inherited and one needs to put effort
in order to achieve it
➢ He encourages writers to develop historical sense because it makes writers
traditional but he does not allow blind imitation of past writers.
➢ He separates poet and poetry and presents his theory of impersonality.
➢ He believes that art does not improve, it only develops and a mature poet must
understand the flow of time.
118
1) What does Eliot mean by the word “Tradition”? Discuss
2) Discuss T.S Eliot’s Theory of impersonality?
3) Define historical sense?
4) How does T.S Eliot criticize William Wordsworth’s definition of poetry?
5) How can art reach the level of science?
6) Why does T.S Eliot criticize Matthew Arnold’s Touchstone method?
119
FURTHER READING
"Analysis of 'Tradition and the Individual Talent'." 27 July 2021. UKESSAYS.

Online. 15 September 2022. <https://www.ukessays.com/essays/english-
literature/tradition-individual-talent-analysis-6077.php?vref=1>.>.
Bressler, Charles E. Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and practice.

New Jersey: Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, 1994. Book.
Eliot, T.S. Selected Essays. London: FABER- AND.FABER LIMITED, n.d. pdf.
Joshi, Dr Dr Rakesh Chandra. "Theory of Tradition: Aristotle, Matthew Arnold,

and T.S. Eliot." International Journal of Humanities & Social Science
Studies (2016): 191-197. pdf.
Murphey, Russel Eliot. T.S Eliot: Literary references to his life and work. New
York: Infobase Publishing, 2007. Pdf.
Tradition. n.d. online. 10 October 2022.

<https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/tradition>.
120
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Criticism: Course Code:9074

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CRITICISM

Units: 1-9 Course Code: 9074

Year of Printing ........................ 2023

Quantity .................................... 1000

Layout Setting .......................... Muhammad Zia Ullah

Incharge Printing ..................... Dr. Sarmad Iqbal

Printer........................................ Allama Iqbal Open University

Publisher ................................... Allama Iqbal Open University,

Chairman of the Course Team Dr Malik Ajmal Gulzar

Course Development Coordinator Dr Muhammad Kamal Khan

Writers Dr Muhammad Kamal Khan (AIOU Islamabad)

Reviewers Prof Dr Nadeem Haidar Bukhari

Editor Ms Humera Ejaz (APCP, AIOU Islamabad)

Edition December 2023

Units 2: THE GREEK CRITICS

Units 3: ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH-CENTURY CRITICS

Units 4: ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH-CENTURY CRITICS

Units 5: ELIZABETHAN TO 18TH CENTURY CRITICS SAMUEL JOHNSON

Units 6: THE ROMANTIC CRITICS WILLIAM WORDSWORTH

Units 7: THE ROMANTIC CRITICSS.T. COLERIDGE (1772-1834):

Units 8: THE VICTORIAN CRITICS MATTHEW ARNOLD (1822-1888)

Units 9: MODERN CRITICS T.S. ELIOT (1888-1965): TRADITION & THE

This course is a kind of introduction to the historical background of literary

The course is intended to be an introduction to important critical essays rather than

The following is the unit-wise division of the module:

Unit-1: The Greek Critics: Aristotle: The Poetics

Unit-2: The Greek Critics: Longinus: On the Sublime

Unit-3: Elizabethan to 18th Century Critics – Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586):

Unit-4: Elizabethan to 18th Century Critics – John Dryden (1631-1700):

Unit-5: Elizabethan to 18th Century Critics – Samuel Johnson (1709-1784):

Unit-7: The Romantic Critics – S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834): Biographia

Unit-8: The Victorian Critics – Matthew Arnold (1822-1888): Essays in

The step-by-step approach used in the book is designed to introduce the

Dr. Muhammad Kamal Khan

• Prof. Dr. Nadeem Haider Bukhari, University of Azad Jammu and

Dr. Muhammad Kamal Khan

THE GREEK CRITICS

Compiled by: Dr. Muhammad Kamal Khan

The following topics are mainly included in the present unit:

• Aristotle was one of the great classical critics.

• Give a brief overview of Aristotle’s contribution to literary criticism.

Aristotle’s influence on subsequent generations is immense. Only Plato can compare in

Aristotle's influence can be seen in a variety of fields, including philosophy, science,

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO POETICS AS A BOOK ON

Overall, "Poetics" by Aristotle is a masterpiece in literary criticism because of its profound

1.3 CONTEXT OF ‘Poetics’

1.4 SUMMARY OF ‘Poetics’ BY ARISTOTLE

Throughout "Poetics," Aristotle emphasizes the importance of the emotional impact of a

In summary, Aristotle's "Poetics" is a comprehensive work of literary criticism that

Language: Tragedy is made up of language, which is accompanied by the "pleasurable

Variety: Tragedy should include a variety of different modes of expression, such as

Aristotle discusses the concept of anagnorisis, or recognition, in tragedy. Anagnorisis is

Recognition by inference: This is a more complex form of recognition, where a character

Recognition by memory: This is recognition that arises from a character remembering

Recognition by process of reasoning: This is recognition that arises from a character

Recognition by discovery: This is recognition that arises from a character discovering

Aristotle's discussion of diction in "Poetics" emphasizes the importance of language in

Aristotle cautions against an over-enthusiastic use of elaborate diction. While it is pleasing

1.5 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS USED IN POETICS

According to Aristotle, mimesis is a fundamental characteristic of all art, whether it be

The concept of hamartia is important in understanding the psychological and moral

Anagnorisis refers to a moment of sudden realization or discovery in the plot of a tragedy,