Skill Lab Manual-All Branches
Skill Lab Manual-All Branches
Student Name:
USN:
Section:
Batch:
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BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(Autonomous Institute affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
(Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ grade and NBA)
Yelahanka, Bengaluru – 560064.
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BASIC ENGINEERING SKILL LABORATORY (0:0:1) 1
Course Code 22BESL111/211 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 0:0:2 SEE Marks 50
Total Number of Contact Hours 26 Exam Hours -
Objectives:
The main objective of this course is to develop basic skill sets that needed to perform in our day to
day life using engineering knowledge and tools. The detail objectives are as follows.
1. To facilitate the students to understand commonly used materials and tools in day to day life of
Engineering.
2. To prepare the students to understand and prepare basic connections and drawings related to
the branches of Engineering.
3. To provide practical hands on training on connections, constructions and testing in the field of
Engineering.
4. To make the students to understand the basic safety aspects and devices that are commonly used
in the field of Engineering.
CIVIL ENGINEERING
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
THEORY: Specific gravity is normally defined as the ratio between the mass of a given volume of
material and mass of an equal volume of water. One of the methods of determining the specific
gravity of cement is by the use of a liquid such as water-free kerosene which does not react with
cement. A specific gravity bottle may be employed or a standard Le-Chatelier flask may be used.
PROCEDURE:
• Weigh the dry specific gravity bottle (W1).
• Pore some kerosene out; introduce a weighed quantity of cement (1/3) of the bottle.
Roll the bottle gently to remove the air bubbles. Fill the bottle to the top with the
kerosene and weigh it (W3).
• Fill the kerosene to the top of bottle & then take the weight. (W4).
• Remove the Kerosene, and fill it with water to the top and the weight (W5).
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OBSERVATION:
Mass of empty dry bottle, (W1) gm
Mass of bottle + dry cement, (W2) gm
Mass of bottle + cement + kerosene, (W3) gm
Mass of bottle + kerosene (W4) gm
Mass of bottle + water, (W5) gm
specific gravity of kerosene,
𝐖𝟒 − 𝐖𝟏
𝐆𝐤 = ( )
𝐖𝟓 − 𝐖𝟏
specific gravity of cement,
(𝐖𝟐 − 𝐖𝟏)
𝐒= 𝑥𝐺𝑘
(𝐖𝟒 − 𝐖𝟏) − (𝐖𝟑 − 𝐖𝟐)
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
THEORY: The compressive strength of mortar is the resistance against compressive load.
Generally compressive strength of mortar increase with curing period. The compressive strength
of cement mortar is determined in order to verify whether it will be able to develop the required
compressive strength of concrete.
PROCEDURE:
Calculate the materials required for one cube mould for the desired mix proportion.
Take about 200 grams. of cement and 600 grams of sand and mix it thoroughly to get
uniform mixture.
The percentage of water to be used shall be (4 + 3), where P is standard consistency of
cement.
Place the assembled mould on the table of the vibrating machine & firmly hold it in
position by means of suitable of clamps.
The period of vibration is 2 minutes.
Remove the mould & keep it at a temperature of 27 degree & 90% relative humidity for
24 hours.
After 24 hours remove the cubes from the mould & keep it for pond curing until it is taken
out for testing
OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. No. 7- day strength 28 - day strength
Load (KN) Strength (N/mm2) Load ( KN) Strength(N/mm2)
1
2
3
Average
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RESULTS:
Compressive strength of cement
a) After 7 days…………………… N/mm2
The crushing strength test for cement has established itself as superior to the tensile strength
test. Results are less variable between different laboratories. In addition there is good correlation
between the strength of cement mortar test cubes and strength of concrete made with same
cement. According to IS: 269-1976, the ultimate compressive strength of cubes of cement sand
mortar of the ratio 1: 3 containing water of ( ) Percentage of combined weight of cement and
standard sand water should be as follows:
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
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SHORT QUESTIONS
1. Define bulk density and specific gravity. Which one is most often used in concrete calculations
in the field?
2. What is the range of values of specific gravity of ordinary aggregates like gravel and crushed
granite?
3. What are light weight aggregates and where do you use them?
4. Why is the knowledge of water absorption of fine aggregate essential?
DISCUSSIONS
Since concrete aggregates are normally used in a wet condition, the bulk specific gravity as
determined for field use is based on the mass of saturated surface dry sample, rather than an
oven dry sample.
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
OBJECTIVE
To determine the fineness modulus and grain size distribution of given coarse and fine
aggregates.
THEORY:
IS: 383-1963 defines the Fine aggregates as the aggregate most of which will pass 4.75mm
IS sieve. The fine aggregate is often termed as a sand size aggregate. The sand is generally
considered to have a lower size limit of 0.07mm. The material between 0.06mm and 0.002mm is
classified as silt and still smaller particles are termed as clay. The Coarse aggregate is defined as
an aggregate most of which is retained on 4.75mm IS sieve.
The fineness modulus is a numerical index of fineness, giving some idea of the mean size
of the particles present in the entire body of the aggregate.
The main objective of this test is to determine the relative amount of various sizes of
particles present in the aggregates. The object of finding fineness modulus is to grade the given
aggregate for the most economical mix for the required strength and workability with minimum
quantity of cement. For aggregates commonly used, the fineness modulus of fine aggregate
varies between 2.0 and 3.5; for coarse aggregate between 5.5 and 8.0. A grading curve is drawn
IS sieve size v/s percent passing on semi-log sheet. If the test aggregates gives higher fineness
modulus, the mix will be harsh and if on the other hand gives a lower fineness modulus, it results
in an uneconomical mix.
APPARATUS:
IS test sieves: Fine wire cloth nos. 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600 m, 300 m, 150 m and square hole
perforated plates 80 mm, 40mm, 20mm, 10mm and 4.75mm refer to IS:460-1978, weighing
balance (sensitive to 1/1000th of the test specimen), sieve shaker, trays, rice plates, drying oven
(to operate between 100o to 110o C)
PROCEDURE
A) Coarse Aggregate:
1. Take 5kg of coarse aggregate of nominal size 20mm from a sample of 20kg by quartering.
2. Carry out sieving by hand. Shake each sieve in order: 80mm, 40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm
over a clean dry tray for a period of not less than 2 minutes. The shaking is done with a varied
motion: backwards and forwards, left to right, circular, clockwise and anti-clockwise and with
frequent jarring, so that the material is kept moving over the sieve surface in frequent changing
directions.
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3. Find the mass of aggregate retained on each sieve taken in order.
4. Fineness modulus is an empirical factor which is obtained by dividing the cumulative sum of
the percentage of aggregate retained on each IS sieves taken in order by 100.
5. Plot a graph of IS Sieve size v/s Percentage passing on regular graph sheet.
B) Fine Aggregate:
1. Take 1 kg of sand from a laboratory sample of 10kg by quartering and break clay lumps, if any,
in a clean dry tray.
2. Arrange the sieves in order of IS sieve nos. 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18 mm, 600µm, 300µm and
150 µm keeping sieve nos. 4.75mm at the top and 150µm at the bottom. Fix them in the sieve
shaking machine with the pan at the bottom and cover at the top.
3. Keep the sand in the top sieve; carry out sieving in the set of sieves as arranged before for not
less than 10minutes.
4. Find the mass retained on each sieve.
5. Fineness modulus is an empirical factor which is obtained by dividing the cumulative sum of
the percentage of aggregate retained on each IS sieves taken in order by 100.
6. Plot a graph of sieve size v/s percentage passing on a semi-log graph sheet.
A) Coarse Aggregate:
Mass of tray =W
Mass of tray + Coarse aggregate = (W+5) Kg
ΣC + 500
Fineness modulus of Coarse Aggregate = ( )
100
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B) Fine Aggregate:
RESULT:
DISCUSSIONS:
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
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RESULT
The water absorption is found to be _____________________%
CONCLUSION
Hence the water absorption value is within the permissible limit.
PRECAUTIONS
The bricks should be collected of uniform size.
The bricks should be fully immersed in water.
REFERENCE:
IS: 5454 – Method of sampling for clay building bricks.
IS: 1077 – Common burnt clay building bricks- Specification.
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
AIM
To determine the compressive strength of bricks.
The common bricks are classified on the basis of their average compressive strength as given in
the following table:
The compressive strength of any individual brick tested is not to fall below the minimum
compressive strength specified for the corresponding class of bricks by more than 15 percent.
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APPARATUS REQUIRED
Compression testing machine, Weighing balance (sensitive to 0.1 gm), trowel, tray, damp
Jute bags
PROCEDURE
1. Take randomly 5 no. of bricks and measure its dimension.
2. The frogs and all the voids in the bed face are filled with cement mortar 1:1.
3. The bricks specimens are immersed in water at room temperature (250c to 290c) for
24 hours.
4. Then remove the specimens and drain out any surplus moisture at room temperature.
5. Test the sample by keeping the mortar filling face upwards and flat face horizontal in
6. Brick place in the Compression testing machine and note down the compression load.
RESULT
The average compressive strength of bricks = _________________N/mm2
CONCLUSION
The average compressive strength of bricks is within the permissible limit.
PRECAUTIONS
The bricks should be collected of uniform size.
The frog and all the void spaces are to be properly filed with cement mortar so as to give
a plane surface for loading.
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After filling the frog and any other voids the bricks should be fully immersed in water.
The testing sample should be placed with flat face horizontal and mortar face facing
upwards and the load is to be applied centrally.
REFERENCE:
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
VOLUME OF BRICKS
AIM
To determine the volume of bricks and number of bricks in a wall
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
DEMONSTRATION ENGLISH BOND, FLEMISH BOND, CONSTRUCTION TOOLS AND FIRE SAFETY
DEVICES
AIM
Demonstration of English Bond and Flemish Bond
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MSTrYZ6p79M
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IXDyBE4x7kE&t=500s
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Experiment No.________________ Date_______________
AIM
Demonstration of Construction tools and fire Safety devices
Concrete Mixer
Concrete mixer is a machine which mixes the integrands water, fine aggregrates, coarse
aggregrates and cement to deliver the perfect mixed concrete
Head Pan
Head pan which is made up of iron or plastic which is used to lift the excavated soil or cement
or concrete to the working site. It is most commonly used in construction sites.
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Measuring Tape
Measuring tape is used to check the thickness, length, widths of masonry walls, foundation beds,
excavated trenches etc.
Plumb Bob
Plumb bob is used to check the verticality of structures. It contains a solid metal bob connected
to the end of a thread. It is also used inn surveying to level the instrument position .
Plumb Rule
Plumb rule is used to check the vertical line of wall whether it is perfect vertical or not. It contains
a straight wood board with uniform edges. On its center a groove is provided in which plumb bob
is situated. When the rule is placed vertically with the wall the plumb bob should be in the groove
line otherwise the wall will not be vertical.
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Spirit Level
Spirit level is made of wood or hard plastic with bubble tube in the middle. The bubble tube is
filled with alcohol partially. So, the air bubble is formed in it. Spirit level is used in brick masonry
to check the level of the surface. The spirit level is placed on surface and bubble is checked. The
surface is leveled when the bubble in the tube settles at middle of tube.
Trowel
Trowel is used to lift and apply the cement mortar in small quantities. It is made of steel and
wooden handle is provided for holding. The ends of trowel may be pointed or bull nosed.
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Sledge Hammer
Sledge hammer is used when the ground is hard and contains rock layers. A large weighted
metal head is provided at the wooden handle with which hard layers can be cracked, which
makes easy for digging.
Wheel Barrow
Wheel barrow is used to transport bulk weights of materials like cement, sand, concrete mix etc.
it contains one or two wheels at its front and two handles at its back which are used to push the
wheel barrow.
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FIRE SAFETY DEVICES
Gloves
Gloves are required to prevent the hands from direct contact with cement, paints etc. and to
avoid injury while using machine tools.
Rubber Boots
During construction works, legs may damage due to contact with chemical materials like cement
or physical accidents. So, for safety rubber shoes are required.
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Safety Helmet
The safety helmet should be necessary in construction works. Any material or structure may fall
from height during construction work. So, to protect the head from injury or any fatal accident,
this safety helmet should be used.
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FIRE SAFETY DEVICES
Fire Extinguishers
Most buildings contain a variety of hand-held firefighting equipment. This range of equipment is
designed to help contain small fires before they spread and become too large to control. Portable
fire extinguishers are available with a number of different extinguishing agents to help you
combat a flame. A portable extinguisher may contain the following substance:
water
foam
dry powder
CO2
wet chemical
Fire Blankets
Fire blankets are designed to smother class F fires. That means flame that is fuelled by cooking
oils and fats. Naturally, fire blankets are installed in kitchen environments, where the chance of
a class F fire is the highest.
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Fire Hose Reels
Fire hose reels are ideal for extinguishing class A fires. That is fires that are fueled by paper,
rubber, wood, and other non-conductive materials. As fire hose reels discharge water, they
cannot be used to combat electrical fires. There are other types of fire safety equipment designed
to deal with electrical fires – namely C02 fire extinguishers.
Signage
All fire equipment should be accompanied by standard signage. This helps users identify the
location and type of equipment they can access in an emergency. There is a range of different
regulations when it comes to fire safety signage. Each piece of equipment is accompanied by an
Australian standard for maintenance and installation. The corresponding guide will contain more
information about signage and where it should be located.
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Sprinklers
When it comes to the design, installation, and maintenance of fire sprinkler systems in Australia,
there are a number of standards that could apply to your building. The following standards will
influence the implementation of fire sprinklers in your space:
AS 2118.6:2012 Standard for Automatic fire sprinkler systems Combined sprinkler and
hydrant systems in multistorey buildings
AS 2118.1:2017 Standard for Automatic fire sprinkler systems General systems
AS 1905.1:2005 Standard for Components for the protection of openings in fire-resistant
walls Fire-resistant doorsets
AS 1760:2105 Fire detection, warning, control and intercom systems – System design,
installation and commissioning Fire
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First Aid Kits
They might not be the first thing to spring to mind when you think of the different types of fire
safety equipment, but first aid kits are essential in the aftermath of a fire. Having adequate first
aid measures on hand will help with minor injuries sustained during a fire. It’s also a matter of
compliance – as a business owner or manager, you need to provide your staff members with first
aid.
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Emergency & Exit Signs
Whilst firefighting equipment is important during an emergency when a flame is out of control,
you need to evacuate a building. Emergency and exit signs will help to provide a clear path to an
exit during a fire. Having clear signage and lighting will help contain panic and guide your team
members to an appropriate exit in time. Emergency and exit lights need to be maintained
according to the AS 2293:2005 (Set) standard for Emergency escape lighting and exit signs.
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Smoke Alarms
Some types of fire safety equipment are designed for detection. Smoke alarms should be installed
in all commercial and domestic buildings. If you are a landlord, the legislation for smoke alarm
installation varies from state to state. You can find more information about your obligations on
your state government website.
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BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(Autonomous Institute affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
(Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ grade and NBA)
Yelahanka, Bengaluru – 560064.
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER
SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
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Preamble
Skills and knowledge are the driving forces of economic growth and
social development for any country, as it faces a demand for supply
mismatch requiring enhanced skilled workforce to meet the industry
standards. Large-scale international assessments of adult skills
generally point to skills mismatches as well as large variation in the
returns to education across fields of study, institutions, and population
groups. Employers in many developing countries report that a lack of
skilled workers is a major and increasing bottleneck for their
operations, affecting their capacity to innovate. The development of
skills can contribute to structural transformation and economic growth
by enhancing employability and labour productivity for both the
current and future workforce and helping countries to become more
competitive thereby increasing the country’s economic and
international status.
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BASIC ENGINEERING SKILL LABORATORY
Course Code 22BESL111/211 CIE Marks 50
Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P) 0:0:2 SEE Marks 50
Total Number of Contact Hours 26 Exam Hours -
OBJECTIVES:
The main objectives of this course is to develop basic skill sets that needed to perform in our day
to day lifeusing engineering knowledge and tools. The detail objectives are as follows.
1. To facilitate the students to understand commonly used materials and tools in day to
day life ofEngineering.
4. To make the students to understand the basic safety aspects and devices that are
commonly used inthe field of Engineering.
1. Computer basics: introduction, front panel, back panel, inside CPU, assembling,
disassembling of computer and troubleshooting.
2. Software basics, types of software, installation demo of OS.
3.Networking basics, introduction to networking tools such as routers, switches, hubs, hands-on.
4.Introduction to networking tools such as crimpling tools, testing and making networking
cable and setting up a networking and sharing files.
OUTCOMES:
1. Students are able to understand the basic materials and tools that are commonly used in
day to day life ofEngineering.
2. Students are able to acquire basic skill sets of preparing connections, drawings, testing and
constructionthat are commonly used in day to day life of Engineering.
3. Students are able to demonstrate practically the acquired skill sets in constructions, testing
and troubleshooting in day to day life of Engineering.
4. Students are able to acquire the basic knowledge of tools and procedure that are commonly
used in safetyaspects of Engineering.
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INDEX
Experiment Description
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1. Computer basics: introduction, front panel, back panel, inside CPU,
assembling, disassembling of Computer, troubleshooting of
Computer System (Hands-0n)
Introduction:
Being a modern-day student you must have used, seen, or read about
computers. This is because they are an integral part of our everyday existence.
Be it school, banks, shops, railway stations, hospital or your own home,
computers are present everywhere, making our work easier and faster for us. As
they are such integral parts of our lives, we must know what they are and how
they function. Let us start with defining the term computer formally.
The literal meaning of computer is a device that can calculate. However, modern
computers can do a lot more than calculate. Computer is an electronic device
that receives input, stores or processes the input as per user instructions and
provides output in desired format.
The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something like this −
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memory and secondary memory. Primary memory resides within the CPU
whereas secondary memory is external to it.
Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central
processing unit or CPU. Computer devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc.
that we can see and touch are the hardware components of a computer. The set
of instructions or programs that make the computer function using these
hardware parts are called software. We cannot see or touch software. Both
hardware and software are necessary for working of a computer.
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Both the sides of a PC are explained below with the help of the picture below:
DVD-Writer. The top slot of the cabinet is reserved to fix CD-ROM or DVD-
writer.
Power-LED: The LED glows and indicates that the Input Power is ON
HDD LED: When we are working on the computer, the hard disk is in use,
this LED glows and is the indication that the hard disk drive is in use.
Reset Switch: This computer switch is quite handy when the computer is
stuck-up and you are not able to work on the computer. Just press this
switch, and the computer will Re-Boot.
Front USB. Cabinet provides a facility for you to connect USB devices from
the front side as it is quite awkward to get to the back side of the computer
again and again.
Front Audio Ports: The ports for MIC and Headphone at the front are for
users quite easy to approach.
Power Switch. It is used to switch ON the computer.
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BACKofPANEL
Back side connectors PC CONNECTORS
SMPS. Switch Mode Power Supply uses electronics circuitry that converts
the AC input voltage to different values of regulated DC supply which are
fed into various color-coded wires fixed to connectors.
SMPS FAN. The fan is fixed inside the SMPS and is used to radiate the
internal heat of the SMPS to the outside.
Power In Socket. This socket is used to input 220V AC to the PC from the
main supply when the computer switch on the front side is pressed.
PS-2 Port. You can see two different colored 6-pin round-shaped
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USB Port. The full form is Universal Serial Bus and is used to connect
various input and output devices like Mouse, Keyboard, Printers, Webcams,
etc. USB 3.0 is the latest version which offers a high data transfer speed.
DVI Port. Digital Video Interface is a high-speed serial link for connecting
output Display Devices.
HDMI Port.HDMI stands for high definition multimedia interface. This is
the latest interface that helps to get high-definition video and multi-channel
sound. You can connect HDMI-enabled blue ray devices, LED, etc.
15-pin Female VGA Port. This is used to connect display devices like
Monitor / LCD / LED Display.
LAN Port. The LAN or network port is used to connect to other devices and
computers in a network.
Audio Ports. Generally, there is 3 number of audio ports on the back side
of a PC. These parts are either aligned vertically or in a horizontal position.
The green color port is dedicated for headphones or speakers, a blue colored
port is marked as Line-in and Mic can be inserted in a pink port.
Expansion Slots: These expansion slots are used to connect add-on
cards to increase the capabilities of the motherboard.
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INSIDE CPU BOX
The inside of a desktop computer is not as complicated as you may think. Below
is an example of the major components that make up the inside of a computer.
Information about each of the items pointed out in the picture above are found
in the links below.
Chassis (case)
Data cable: (IDE, SATA)
Disc drive: CD-ROM, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, or Blu-ray.
Expansion card (ISA, PCI, AGP, and PCI Express).
Fan (Heat sink)
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Floppy drive
Hard drive: HDD, SSD
Memory (RAM)
Motherboard
Power cable (Molex)
Power supply (PSU)
Processor (CPU)
The expansion cards are often devices such as your video card, sound card,
network card, etc. Click any of the links below for additional information about
each of these devices.
Note:
It is common today for a computer to have these components built into the
motherboard, also referred to as integrated components.
Network card
Sound card
Video card
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THE MOTHERBOARD:
The motherboard is sometimes called the system board or main board. It is the
main circuit board of a microcomputer. This component contains the connectors
for attaching additional boards. All other parts connect in one way or another to
the motherboard.
This part typically contains the CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces,
serial and parallel ports, expansion slots, and all the controllers required to
control standard peripheral devices, such as the display screen, keyboard,
mouse, and disk drive.
When you are reading about motherboards, you won't fail to come across the
term motherboard form factors, which describes the general shape, the type of
case, and the power supply it can use. It also describes the physical organization
of the motherboard.
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CPU/PROCESSOR:
The central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, is located inside
the computer case on the motherboard. It is sometimes called the brain of the
computer, and its job is to carry out commands. Whenever you press a key, click
the mouse, or start an application, you're sending instructions to the CPU.
The CPU is usually a two-inch ceramic square with a silicon chip located
inside. The chip is usually about the size of a thumbnail. The CPU fits into the
motherboard's CPU socket, which is covered by the heat sink, an object that
absorbs heat from the CPU.
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Memory: Memory is installed in memory sockets located on the motherboard.
These are easily found by looking for the small hinges on either side that lock
the memory in place.
This short-term memory disappears when the computer is turned off. If you're
working on a document, spreadsheet, or other type of file, you'll need to save it
to avoid losing it. When you save a file, the data is written to the hard drive,
which acts as long-term storage.
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RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB). The more RAM you
have, the more things your computer can do at the same time. If you don't have
enough RAM, you may notice that your computer is sluggish when you have
several programs open. Because of this, many people add extra RAM to their
computers to improve performance.
HARD DRIVE
The hard drive is where your software, documents, and other files are stored.
The hard drive is long-term storage, which means the data is still saved even if
you turn the computer off or unplug it.
When you run a program or open a file, the computer copies some of the data
from the hard drive onto the RAM. When you save a file, the data is copied back
to the hard drive. The faster the hard drive, the faster your computer can start
up and load programs.
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POWER SUPPLY UNIT
The power supply unit in a computer converts the power from the wall outlet
to the type of power needed by the computer. It sends power through cables to
the motherboard and other components.
If you decide to open the computer case and take a look, make sure to unplug the
computer first. Before touching the inside of the computer, you should touch a
grounded metal object—or a metal part of the computer casing—to discharge any
static buildup. Static electricity can be transmitted through the computer
circuits, which can seriously damage your machine.
EXPANSION CARDS
Most computers have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add
various types of expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI (peripheral
component interconnect) cards. You may never need to add any PCI cards
because most motherboards have built-in video, sound, network, and other
capabilities.
However, if you want to boost the performance of your computer or update the
capabilities of an older computer, you can always add one or more cards. Below
are some of the most common types of expansion cards.
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VIDEO CARD
The video card is responsible for what you see on the monitor. Most computers
have a GPU (graphics processing unit) built into the motherboard instead of
having a separate video card. If you like playing graphics-intensive games, you
can add a faster video card to one of the expansion slots to get better
performance.
SOUND CARD
The sound card—also called an audio card—is responsible for what you hear in
the speakers or headphones. Most motherboards have integrated sound, but you
can upgrade to a dedicated sound card for higher-quality sound.
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NETWORK CARD
The network card allows your computer to communicate over a network and
access the Internet. It can either connect with an Ethernet cable or through
a wireless connection (often called Wi-Fi). Many motherboards have built-in
network connections, and a network card can also be added to an expansion
slot.
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COMPUTER DISASSEMBLING / ASSEMBLING
Our guide covers the most common ways computers are put together, but
computers and manufacturers can vary. If you can’t access a particular
component when it’s listed in the guide, skip to the instructions to remove the
other parts until you can reach the original component.
Generally, the process is to unplug all the cords and cables connecting a
component to other components, then remove the part from the case or frame.
Components can be attached to the case with special clips, screws, or by
insertion into a holder. In each case, no more than a small amount of force is
needed to remove the part. If it’s not moving, check for more attachments that
are holding the component in place.
If you are rebuilding the computer, be sure to document what area you removed
components from, the order you removed them, and what cables attach to each
part. You can take pictures before each removal or write it down. Keep careful
track of the screws, as well. Keep the screws with their relevant component by
screwing them back in the holes either on the component or on the frame or by
taping them to the correct location.
Turn off the computer, unplug the power cord and unplug any peripheral items
attached to the computer, such as the keyboard, mouse, monitor, headphones,
and any external drives.
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Step 2 – Remove side covers
Remove at least one of the side covers, usually the right side as you face the front
of the computer. You might find it easier to access all the parts if you remove
both side covers; there are sometimes thumb screws on the covers to make
access easier.
Disconnect all the connectors, then remove any card readers and internal DVD
players. These are usually screwed into place.
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Step 4 – Remove standalone fans
Remove any standalone fans. This is a good time to remove any dust, lint, and
pet hair from the fans if you’re planning on reusing them.
Disconnect the cables and remove the storage drive. Generally, storage drives
are held in place by multiple screws. If you have a hard drive, be gentle when
moving the drive as hard bumps can damage the internal parts.
Remove the memory (RAM) modules by pushing the clips on both ends of the
module down. This will cause the module to pop up for easy removal. Do not
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touch the gold connectors on the chips if you’re reusing the modules. If you're
not reusing the RAM.
Remove the power supply unit by unplugging the remaining connectors, then
unscrewing the unit from the frame.
Remove any adapter or expansion cards from the motherboard. Although these
cards usually slide into preconfigured slots, there can be screws. Do not touch
the gold connectors on the cards if you’re reinstalling the cards.
Disconnect all the cables from the motherboard, then unscrew it from the frame
by loosening each screw a little bit before going around again to loosen each
screw properly. This prevents any potential warping of the motherboard by
gradually releasing the tension on it.
All the components should now be out of the computer case. If you’re reusing
the case, this is a good time to get rid of all the dust and lint that might have
collected.
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Computer reassembly
If you are rebuilding the computer, insert the components in the opposite order
you removed them, starting with the motherboard. Plug in all the cables as you
insert the component; most items will plug into the motherboard and the power
supply unit.
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TROUBLESHOOTING / HANDS-ON
PROBLEM #1: YOUR COMPUTER WON’T TURN ON
This is a common problem that often offers a simple solution.
1. Is everything plugged in? I can’t tell you how many times I have come across
a “broken” computer that simply had an unplugged component.
2. Try plugging into different power outlets. It isn’t uncommon to blow a fuse,
especially with more power-hungry systems.
3. Is either the monitor, mouse, or keyboard the only thing not working? If so,
try plugging in a different one to see if that does the job. Most of the time,
replacing one of these is cheaper than attempting a repair.
Once you’ve completed the above steps, it’s time to look at the tower.
1. Are the lights on in the front or back of the tower? If not, the power supply
unit (PSU) may be turned off.
2. Next, you can open up your tower and look at the motherboard. Most have a
small LED light built in to show if power is running to the motherboard. If it’s
turned off, you can either try using a PSU tester, or replace the PSU. Never
try to open a PSU and try to repair it yourself as this is extremely dangerous.
PROBLEM #2: YOUR COMPUTER TURNS ON, BUT STILL DOESN’T WORK
If power is obviously flowing to the computer system and its peripherals, there
may be a component issue. When you first turn on the computer, do you hear
or see anything out of the ordinary? Many times the computer’s Power-On Self-
Test (POST) will let you know what’s going on with the machine.
Beep Codes
If you hear any beeps when your computer turns on, they can help you
troubleshoot common PC hardware problems. Here’s a list of beep codes.
No beep but the system turns on and runs fine - Under normal circumstances,
most computer systems will beep one short beep when turned on. If yours
doesn’t, your “beeper” may have died out.
No beep - The power supply is not plugged in or turned on. Or, the power
supply is completely dead.
Steady, short beeps - The power supply may be bad or the voltages might be
wrong. A replacement would usually be necessary.
Steady, long beeps - The power supply has gone bad.
Long, continuous beep - Your Random Access Memory (RAM) sticks may
have gone bad. If there is more than one stick installed, try taking one out to
see if the computer boots. If it does not, try the same thing with the other stick.
This will tell you which stick has gone bad and you can replace or upgrade
accordingly. If there is only one stick installed, you will need to replace or
upgrade it to fix the problem.
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One long, two short beeps - There has been a video card failure. Your first
action is to try reseating the video card. This often solves the problem when
the computer system is connected to projectors because the VGA/DVI/Video
cable gets moved so often that the card can be slowly unplugged. If reseating
doesn’t work, replace the video card.
1. The basic input/output system (BIOS) doesn’t detect Windows’ hard disk, or
the disk failed. If you know how, take out the hard drive and reconnect it. If
that doesn’t work, the hard drive’s interface is forbidden or the hard drive is
seriously damaged. Restart the computer and watch for the message telling
you which key to strike to go into the BIOS. The key can vary from system to
system so you may need to use a search engine to find the instructions for
your system. Be sure to strike the specified key as soon as you see the
message. In the BIOS highlight the hard drive and set it to “Auto”. If it’s still
invisible, you need a hard drive repair or replacement.
2. The BIOS settings are incorrect. Set the BIOS back to Default State.
3. The Master Boot Record (MBR) is damaged or corrupted. Rebuild the MBR
using either the Windows installation disk, the Windows repair disk, or a
bootable partitioning tool.
4. The Windows boot file partition isn’t active. Start the computer using a
bootable partitioning tool. If that doesn’t work, set the wrong partition to
‘inactive’ and activate the correct partition.
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2. Software Basics, types of software, installation MS Windows and
Linux OS (Hands-On).
INTRODUCTION:
Every day, we come across different types of computer software that helps
us with our tasks and increase our efficiency. From MS Windows that greets
us when we switch on the system to the web browser that is used to surf
the internet or the games that we play on our computer to the calorie burn
counter on our smartphone, are all examples of software. In this world of
technology, we even come across various software development trends that
help our business to grow, we are surrounded by all these software which
are determined to make our lives easier. By definition, a Software (also
abbreviated as an SW or S/W) is a collection of data, programs, procedures,
instructions, and documentation that perform various predefined tasks on
a computer system. They enable users to interact with the computer
1. SYSTEM SOFTWARE
A system software aids the user and the hardware to function and interact
with each other. Basically, it is a software to manage computer hardware
behavior so as to provide basic functionalities that are required by the user.
In simple words, we can say that system software is an intermediator or a
middle layer between the user and the hardware. These computer software
sanction a platform or environment for the other software to work in. This
is the reason why system software is very important in managing the entire
computer system. When you first turn on the computer, it is the system
software that gets initialized and gets loaded in the memory of the system.
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The system software runs in the background and is not used by the end -
users. This is the reason why system software is also known as ‘low-level
software’.
provides general services for the other applications that run over them.
Although each Operating System is different, most of them provide a
Graphical User Interface through which a user can manage the files
and folders and perform other tasks. Every device, whether a desktop,
laptop or mobile phone requires an operating system to provide the
basic functionality to it. As an OS essentially determines how a user
interacts with the system, therefore many users prefer to use one
specific OS for their device. There are various types of operating
system such as real-time, embedded, distributed, multiuser, single-
user, internet, mobile, and many more. It is important to consider the
hardware specifications before choosing an operating system. Some
examples of Operating systems given below:
o Android
o CentOS
o iOS
o Linux
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o Mac OS
o MS Windows
o Ubuntu
o Unix
o BIOS Driver
o Display Drivers
o Motherboard Drivers
o Printer Drivers
o ROM Drivers
o Sound card Driver
o USB Drivers
o USB Drivers
o VGA Drivers
o VGA Drivers
o Virtual Device Drivers
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o Examples of Programming Language Translators are Interpreter,
Compiler and Assemblers.
2. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
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There are various types of application software:
o Abiword
o Apple iWork- Pages
o Corel WordPerfect
o Google Docs
o MS Word
o Clipper
o dBase
o FileMaker
o FoxPro
o MS Access
o MySQL
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o Adobe Photoshop
o Inkscape
o Media Monkey
o Picasa
o VLC Media Player
o Windows Media Player
o Windows Movie Maker
o Delta Drawing
o GCompris
o Jumpstart titles
o KidPix
o MindPlay
o Tux Paint
o Adobe Photoshop
o Autodesk Maya
o Blender
o Carrara
o CorelDRAW
o GIMP
o Modo
o PaintShop Pro
o Google Chrome
o Internet Explorer
o Microsoft Edge
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o Mozilla Firefox
o Opera
o Safari
o UC Browser
HANDS-ON
2. Select Language to install, Time and currency format, and Keyboard or input method. If
it is selected, click next.
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3. Then click Install now.
4. Setup is starting, wait for the process to continue at the next stage.
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5. Then enter the serial number that you have. If you don’t have it, just click skip.
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6. In this section, you can customize the Windows 10 that you will install. Adjust it to each of
your choices or needs! If it is selected, click Next.
7. Then check the I accept the license terms section. Then click Next.
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8. In this section, there are two options, which you can choose between upgrade or custom. Since
we will reinstall our computer or laptop, then I choose custom.
9. Then we will continue with a split of partitions. Urgent! Here I hope you are very careful,
especially for the first time. Because if it’s wrong, your data might be lost (therefore, don’t forget
to backup data before reinstalling the computer/laptop).
In this example, the hard drive that I have is already split into several partitions. That means
I have to make sure that I will install it on the Disk Drive that I prepared for the
OS. Remember! don’t get the wrong choice between Local Disk C and other Local
Disks that store your data! If your computer already has an operating system, you only need
to format the partition where the system was installed..
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10. Next are the steps in the process of allocating Windows files from the installer media to the
hard disk. Wait for the process to finish.
11. Then the computer will ask to restart itself. Just click Restart now.
If the computer has restarted, you can remove/unplug the installer media from the
computer. Then wait for the whole process to be completely finished. In this process, the
computer may restart several times. Let it to be done, the computer is customizing the
system to the existing hardware. Wait until a window like below appears.
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12. Now almost finished, follow for the next step to the Windows 10 desktop. Then, enter the
serial number if asked. If you don’t have it, click Do this later.
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14. Create an account for your computer. Enter your username, password, and HINT (for a
reminder if you forget your password), don’t leave it blank because if forget your password have
to format the data. When it is selected, click Next.
15. Wait for the process for a moment. Soon you will be on the desktop Windows 10.
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16. Congratulations you guys have successfully installed windows 10 on your computer or laptop
!
If you’ve until this step it means that you’ve successfully installed Windows 10 on your computer
or laptop. What do you think about installing Windows 10? so easy right? If you run into
difficulties, feel free to ask in the comments. So from me, may it help all pals. Don’t forget to
share on your social media to share your knowledge with other friends in need.
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HOW TO INSTALL UBUNTU OS STEP BY STEP
Currently, Ubuntu might be one of the most popular offshoot of Linux. It has been widely
accepted by people from all over the world. If you get interested right now, OK, download an
Ubuntu Live CD ISO file and get the installation started. This set of pictures shows you how to
install Ubuntu OS step by step. Note: This guide has been tested by myself, but if there is
something wrong, please let me know.
Before you get started, you should make sure that the Internet is available. Afterwards insert
your Ubuntu live CD and boot your computer from the Ubuntu CD.And then follow the steps
below.
The system will automatically load the required files and after that you should click Install
Ubuntu on the shown interface.
Select the installation language and then click Next.
You can choose installing the third-party software or not. After that, click Continue.
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Select the disk drive where you want to install Ubuntu and click Install Now.
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Select the keyboard layout that you are accustomed to using
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Set up a user account including a user name and the password for it. You are recommended to
create a strong enough password.
Actually, there are some tips about choosing password that you might not know.
The installation is in process. According to your computer's performance, you might spend up to
25 minutes.
Next, some new features of Ubuntu will be displayed through the installation, like personal cloud,
photo manager, etc.
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Once the installation of Ubuntu is done, you should click Restart Now.
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Below is the logo screen of Ubuntu. Here you are requested to show your password before you
can sign in to your Ubuntu.
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This is the Ubuntu Destop. Once you reach there, you will be able to experience this fresh system
freely.
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3. Networking Basics, Hubs, Switches, Routers, Checking networking
connection, IP address, MAC Address (Hands-On).
INTRODUCTION:
This tutorial covers the basics of how networking works, and how to use different
devices to build networks. Computer networking has existed for many years, and
as time has passed the technologies have become faster and less expensive.
Networks are made up of various devices—computers, switches, routers—
connected together by cables or wireless signals. Understanding the basics of
how networks are put together is an important step in building a wireless
network in a community or neighbourhood.
This module covers the concepts of:
1. Clients and servers—how services such as e-mail and web pages connect
using networks.
2. IP addresses—how devices on a network can be found.
3. Network hubs, switches and cables—the hardware building blocks of any
network.
4. Routers and firewalls—how to organize and control the flow of traffic on a
network.
Reading through this material should take between half an hour to an hour.
Exploring the activities and details of the subject with a group will take longer.
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Most requests and content delivery on networks are similar to, or are based on,
a client to server relationship. On a network, the server can be located almost
anywhere, and if the client has the address, it can access the content on the
server.
IP ADDRESSES:
In order to send and direct data across a network, computers need to be able to
identify destinations and origins. This identification is an IP—Internet Protocol—
address. An IP address is just a set of four numbers between 1 and 254,
separated by dots. An example of an IP address is 173.194.43.7.
An IP address is similar to a street address. Parts of the address describe where
in the world the building is located, another part narrows it down to a state or
city, then the area within that state or city, then the location on the street.
Below we can see 192.168.1 Street. On it are three houses:
The complete addresses for each of these houses is: 192.168.1.20, 192.168.1.21,
and 192.168.1.22.
There are different classifications, or types of IP addresses. A network can be
public, or it can be private. Public IP addresses are accessible anywhere on the
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Internet. Private IP addresses are not, and most are typically hidden behind a
device with a public IP address.
Here we can see an example—a street with two buildings with public IP
addresses—representing computers with addresses that are visible to the entire
Internet. These buildings might be anywhere in the world, but their addresses
are complete, so we know exactly where they are and can send messages to them.
To see an example of how public and private IP addresses are commonly used,
let’s take another look at 192.168.1 Street. We have a new building on the
street. That building has a public IP address, and a private IP address. There is
also a fence that blocks the rest of the Internet from seeing and passing messages
to addresses on the street.
The postal building controls messages that travel between the Internet and the
street, keeping track of messages that leave the street, and directs return
messages to the right house. On the street, it has the address 192.168.1.1, and
on the Internet it has the address 74.10.10.50.
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NETWORK HUBS AND SWITCHES
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A network using a hub can slow down if many computers are sending messages,
since they may try and send messages at the same time and confuse the hub.
To help with this problem, networks began to use another device called a switch.
Instead of repeating all messages that come in, a switch only sends the message
to the intended destination. This eliminates the unnecessary repetition of the
hub.
Using a switch, computer A sends a message to computer B—the other
computers do not see the message. Those computers can send other messages
at the same time without interfering.
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Switches do have a limitation though—they only know about the addresses of
equipment that is plugged directly into them. So, you can only send messages to
a small number of devices—however many ports the switch has! If you need to
send a message to a computer on another network, it will need to be sent through
a router, which we discuss next.
Routers do the majority of the hard work on a network - they make the decisions
about all the messages that travel on the network, and whether to pass messages
to and from outside networks. There are three main functions:
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Assign IPs
They can assign IP addresses. In the example of
192.168.1 Street, if a new house is built on the
street, it would get whatever the next highest
house number available. In the case of routers,
they assign IP addresses using DHCP—Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol.
Let us take another look at 192.168.1 Street, and the postal service building we
included when it had a public address for the entire street. As it turns out, that
postal service building is acting as a Router.
In this case, the postal service building is routing messages between the rest of
the Internet using its public address and the street with private addresses.
THE MAIN FUNCTIONS OF ROUTERS ARE THE FOLLOWING: -
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To connect different network protocols such as IP and IPX.
To connect several smaller networks into a large network.
To break a large network into smaller networks.
To connect two different media types such as UTP and Fiber optical.
To connect two different network architectures such as Token Ring and
Ethernet.
To connect LAN network with Telco company's office.
To access DSL services.
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TYPES OF NICS
There are two types of
NICs: media-
specific and
network design
specific
Media Specific: - A
media-specific NIC
supports a
particular type of
media. For
example, to connect a
coaxial cable, you
need a NIC that has the BNC port whereas to connect an Ethernet cable, you
need a NIC that has the RJ-45 port.
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HANDS-ON
1. How to Check Network Connection on Windows 10
When we're connected to the internet, our computers help us maintain our financial, social, and
professional relationships.
We use them for banking and bill paying, online shopping, connecting with our friends and family
through email and social networking sites, researching data posted on the Internet, and so much
more.
This guide will show you ways to check the status of the internet connection that allows us to
ccomplish all these things on a Windows 10 computer.
1. The Network icon represents the current status of your network connection. Depending
on the current status of your connection, the appearance of this icon will change. The
following are the different icons you might see and their corresponding meanings.
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A wireless adapter is detected and there are wireless networks in range, but
you’re not connected to one.
Your wireless network adapter is recognized, but no WiFi networks are found and
you’re not connected to WiFi.
2. If you want to see even more information about your connection status, click the Network
icon itself regardless of what status it currently displays.
oder
3. This will bring up the Network menu. Within your network menu, you can see
the status of your current connection. If your device is capable of connecting to
WiFi, you will also see a list of wireless networks your device is currently in
rangeof.
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WiFi network with strong signal (Good).
2nd Method
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2. Select Settings.
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3. Select Network & Internet.
4. Select Status. Your current connection status will be displayed on the right side of the
screen.
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2. How to check IP address of a Computer?
1. Go to your start menu and find 'Run'
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3. Type 'ipconfig' and press enter.
4.It should list not only your computers IP address, but your router's as well.
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1. Click on the Start menu in the bottom-left corner of your computer. Select Run or
type cmd into the search bar at the bottom of the Start menu to bring up the command
prompt.
2. Type ipconfig /all (note the space between the g and /).
3. The MAC address is listed as series of 12 digits, listed as the Physical
Address (00:1A:C2:7B:00:47, for example). Each network adapter (wireless, Ethernet,
etc.) has a separate MAC address.
Even though most homes and organizations use wireless networks and Wi-Fi
routers nowadays, there is still a widespread need for wired networks. Wired
networks are known to be much stronger and faster than wireless ones and they
are also less expensive as compared to wireless networks. Another perk of having
a wired network is that you do not need to worry about any interference from the
presence of other users on the same wireless channel.
However, creating and maintaining a wired network requires the use of many
components like Cat5 and Cat6 bulk cables, Ethernet cables, phone, USB, and
FireWire cables as well as patch panels. Furthermore, in order to maintain and
troubleshoot a wired network, other networking tools and accessories are also
needed.
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CRIMPING TOOL
A crimping tool is one of the most crucial network connecting tools. In order to
connect a connector to the cable, you will need a tool to crimp or connect. Known
as the crimping tool, this tool is used to connect RJ-45, RJ-11 and other
connectors to the end of a cable. Some crimping tools have a built-in wire cutter
near the handle. This wire cutter can be used to cut a phone cable or a Cat5
cable.
While using a crimping tool, the wires that need to be crimped are first placed
into the connector. Once this is done, the jack with the wires is placed in the
designated slot of the crimping tool and the handles of the tool are squeezed
tight. By doing this, you can ensure that the plastic connector you are using
punctures the wires inside and holds them all in place. This prevents the wires
from loosening and coming out. If the wires are crimped securely in place, data
can be easily transmitted by every wire. We offer several varieties of crimping
tools such as the hex crimp tool.
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NETWORK CABLE TESTER
One of the problems with wired networks is that when they cease to work,
troubleshooting may be a little more difficult as compared to wireless networks.
This is where a network cable tester can help you. A network cable tester is a
useful device that allows you to check the continuity of the cable to figure out if
the signal is strong enough to get through to the network. This helps to eliminate
cable connectivity issues while troubleshooting the problems.
It is important to remember that you should never connect a live wire circuit to
a network cable tester. It should be used only after the cable has been
disconnected from the router, modem, and a computer. Generally, a network
cable tester has two parts – the tester and remote. Most testers work with two or
three connectors. In general, they will have an Ethernet RJ-45 connector,
telephone cable RJ-11 connectors and one BNC for the coaxial cable.
The remote has connectors for Ethernet and telephone cable. Using a network
cable tester is a simple affair. All you have to do is connect the cable to the right
port on the tester and connect the remote to the other end. Once you run the
network cable tester, you will be able to figure out if the network problem lies in
the connectivity. If it doesn’t, you will have ruled it out and can continue
troubleshooting.
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PUNCH DOWN TOOL
The punch down tool is also known as the Krone tool. It is small tool that is used
most frequently by network troubleshooting technicians. The basic purpose of a
punch down tool is to insert wires into various devices like pinch down blocks,
patch panels, surface mount boxes, and more with the help of insulation-
displacement connectors.
The impact type of punch down tool is the most popular and commonly used
one. The impact punch down tool consists of a slot for inserting removable
blades, an internal spring impact mechanism and a handle to hold the tool.
Other than just inserting the wire, a punch down tool can also be used to cut off
the excess wire. Some punch down tools come with a fixed blade and may even
lack an impact mechanism. Ensure that you are acquiring the right type of
punch down tool to suit your needs. If you need it for a large number of
connections, an impact mechanism can make life much simpler and stave off
muscle fatigue.
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HANDS-ON
1. HOW TO MAKE A Cat6 PATCH ETHERNET CABLE
Step 1
This procedure generally applies to Cat 6 RJ45
connectors. An alternate method is given for
connectors utilizing a "load bar".
Step 2
Cut the cable to the length needed. If you plan to use
snagless boots, this would be a good time to slide
them on. Be sure the boots will be facing "out"
towards the connector.
Step 3
Strip back the cable jacket approximately 1 inch. Use the cutter provided
with the crimping tool or strip by hand. Be careful not to nick the
individual wires. Un-twist each of the 4 pairs and straighten each wire as
much as possible between the fingers.
Step 4
Use the 568-B wiring scheme on both ends for a standard patch cable.
Step 5
Bring all of the wires together as
closely as possible. Hold the
grouped (and sorted) wires
together tightly between the
thumb, and the forefinger. Cut
all of the wires at a perfect 90
degree angle from the cable, 1/2
inch from the end of the cable
jacket. Use a sharp cutting tool
so as not to "squash" the wire
ends.
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Step 6
With the connector pins facing up, carefully insert the wires into the connector.
Apply a moderate amount of force in order to properly seat the wires against the
contacts in the connector.
A.
Note that the loadbar has slots on one side with a flanged edge on one end.
The sloted side should face the pins inside the connector.
The wires are inserted into the flanged end.
B.
Hold the grouped (and sorted) wires together tightly, between the thumb, and
forefinger. Cut all of the wires at a sharp angle from the cable.
Use a sharp cutting tool so as not to "squash" the wire ends.
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C.
Hold the load bar so the staggered holes face toward the cable.
Insert the wires through the load bar, one at a time, carefully observing the
orientation. Slide the load bar as far down as possible.
D.
Cut off the excess wire ends with a straight cut about 0.25" past the load bar.
With the connector pins facing up, slide the load bar assembly into the
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connector. Insure that the wires are firmly seated to the end of the connector.
The brown pair wires should be on the right side.
Step 7
Observe the tip of the connector to confirm that all the wires are fully inserted.
The end of each wire you should be in full view. There should be enough of the
cable jacket inside the connector to crimp against.
Tip: Slide the load bar forward as necessary to provide the ideal placement.
Step 8
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Place the connector into the crimp tool, and squeeze hard so that the handle
reaches its full swing.
Step 9
Repeat the process on the other end using the desired wiring scheme.
Be sure to slide the snagless boots snugly over the connectors when finished.
Step 10
Always use a cable tester to check for continuity, opens and shorts.
Step 11
Building patch cables takes practice so keep at it until you master your
technique!
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2. HOW TO SHARE FILES BETWEEN TWO COMPUTERS
USING LAN CABLE:
Over the years, Wi-Fi has grown tremendously but sharing huge files or for that
matter, a whole drive is still not efficient. You get cramped up speed and your
data is running through a public channel. I would any day prefer sharing a drive
or transferring data over LAN cable. On that note, the following is the step by
step guide to transfer files between PC’s using an Ethernet cable.
Just in case, if the file you want to transfer is small and the systems are in the
same network then consider doing it over Wi-Fi.
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Step 2: Enable Network Sharing on Both PCs
Now that you have physically connected both PCs with a LAN cable, we have to
turn on Network Sharing on both computers to exchange files between them. It
is a simple process step-by-step process. Make sure you do this on both PCs. To
enable sharing, go to the Start menu and search “Control Panel”. Once you see
it, click on it, to open it.
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Once the Control Panel window opens, click on Network and Internet.
In the next dialogue box, open Network and Sharing Center. Alternatively, you
can also type “Control Panel\Network and Internet\Network and Sharing
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Center” in the search box of Control Panel and hit Enter key. This will redirect
you from Control Panel to Network and Sharing Center.
Here, you’ll find three networks – Public, Private and All Network. Public Network
is for places like airports and coffee shops, Private network is for an organization
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or your home network and All Network comprises of both. To make sure, the
setup is flawless, we’ll recommend you choose “All Networks“.
Next, expand All Networks by clicking on the drop-down icon. Here, we need to
enable Public Sharing so that the PCs can access files from each other over the
LAN cable. To avoid more configuration, just Turn off password protected
sharing.
By doing so, you enable the other computer to access shared data without
providing any credentials. This is not a good security practice by since you are
sharing your data with people you trust, you can make this one-time exception.
Once you are done with file sharing, make sure you Turn on password protected
sharing.
Once done, click Save Changes. Just as I said in the beginning, repeat the
same steps for the other PC.
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Step 3: Setup Static IP
Now that you have enabled network sharing on both PCs, it’s time to bring both
the computers on to the same network. We will do this by setting a static IP
address of the same class. Just like the previous step, you need to do this on
both PCs. The following are the steps.
1. To set up a Static IP, open Control Panel, browse to Network and Internet and
click on Network Sharing Center. Alternatively, you can also right-click on the
Start Menu and select Network Connections.
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2. On the next window, you will see the active connections which should be
Ethernet, since both PCs are connected with a physical LAN cable. Click on the
Ethernet link. A new dialog box will open, here click on the Properties button.
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3. In the next pop-up, select “Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)”. Now,
click on Properties. This will open another dialogue box.
4. Here, you need to configure the two PCs with different IP settings.
On computer 1, select the option “Use the following IP address.” and, put
the following values
IP Address: 192.168.1.1
Subnet mask: 225.225.225.0
Default gateway: 192.168.1.2
Of course, it’s not necessary you use these IP addresses. You can use any
Class A or B IP address. In case you are not sure what this all means, better
stick with this example.
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On the second computer, do similar steps, but flip the IP address and Default
gateway values
IP address: 192.168.1.2
Subnet mask: 225.225.225.0
Default gateway: 192.168.1.1
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What we are doing is keeping the subnet mask the same and changing the IP
address.
Next, open your Window’s File Explorer and click on Network tab at the left
side of the window.
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If you have set up everything right, both the PCs should appear in this Network
window on both computers. Now, you can just click on the other PC’s icon and
browse the file. But wait, you still need to configure one last setting.
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Step 4: Share a folder
Assuming that you have connected the cable properly, enabled the sharing
options, and configured the IP addresses. Now, it is time to send files from one
PC to another. For that, you first need to share the target folder on LAN. I’ll
recommend, you can create a new folder on your desktop, and copy paste all the
files that you want to move to another computer in that folder.
Next, select the folder you want to share and right-click on it. From the context
menu, navigate to “Give access to” and select the option “Specific People.”
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3. In the File Sharing window, choose Everyone from the drop-down menu.
Click on the Add button next to it and finally hit the Share button.
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Once you have shared it, the next window will show you the network location of
the folder.
That’s it. Just go back to the other PC from where you want to access the file,
open the Networks panel and click on the other computer’s name.
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Here, you will see the folder you just shared. From there, just open the folder
and transfer the files and folders as you normally do. i.e, by copy and paste.
Similarly, you can repeat the same steps from the other computer.
This method would work only between Windows PC. For Mac or Linux, you need
to use a different file sharing agent like Samba. If you have furthermore queries,
drop down a comment and I will be happy to answer them.
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Raspberry Pi Introduction
Einführung
Raspberry Pi 3 Board
Raspberry Pi is a small single board computer. By connecting peripherals like Keyboard, mouse,
display to the Raspberry Pi, it will act as a mini personal computer.
Raspberry Pi is popularly used for real time Image/Video Processing, IoT based applications and
Robotics applications.
Raspberry Pi is slower than laptop or desktop but is still a computer which can provide all the
expected features or abilities, at a low power consumption.
Raspberry Pi Foundation officially provides Debian based Raspbian OS. Also, they provide
NOOBS OS for Raspberry Pi. We can install several Third-Party versions of OS like Ubuntu,
Archlinux, RISC OS, Windows 10 IOT Core, etc.
Raspbian OS is official Operating System available for free to use. This OS is efficiently optimized
to use with Raspberry Pi. Raspbian have GUI which includes tools for Browsing, Python
programming, office, games, etc.
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We should use SD card (minimum 8 GB recommended) to store the OS (operating System).
Raspberry Pi is more than computer as it provides access to the on-chip hardware i.e. GPIOs for
developing an application. By accessing GPIO, we can connect devices like LED, motors, sensors,
etc and can control them too.
It has ARM based Broadcom Processor SoC along with on-chip GPU (Graphics Processing Unit).
The CPU speed of Raspberry Pi varies from 700 MHz to 1.2 GHz. Also, it has on-board SDRAM
that ranges from 256 MB to 1 GB.
Raspberry Pi also provides on-chip SPI, I2C, I2S and UART modules.
1. Raspberry Pi 1 Model A
2. Raspberry Pi 1 Model A+
3. Raspberry Pi 1 Model B
4. Raspberry Pi 1 Model B+
5. Raspberry Pi 2 Model B
6. Raspberry Pi 3 Model B
7. Raspberry Pi Zero
Out of the above versions of Raspberry Pi, more prominently use Raspberry Pi and their features
are as follows:
Operating
700 MHz 900 MHz 1.2 GHz 1 GHz
Freq.
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Ethernet Yes Yes Yes No
Raspberry Pi Zero
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Raspberry Pi Board
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Raspberry Pi 3 Model B Hardware
1. HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface): It is used for transmitting uncompressed video or digital
audio data to the Computer Monitor, Digital TV, etc. Generally, this HDMI port helps to connect Raspberry
Pi to the Digital television.
2. CSI Camera Interface: CSI (Camera Serial Interface) interface provides a connection in between Broadcom
Processor and Pi camera. This interface provides electrical connections between two devices.
3. DSI Display Interface: DSI (Display Serial Interface) Display Interface is used for connecting LCD to the
Raspberry Pi using 15-pin ribbon cable. DSI provides fast High-resolution display interface specifically used
for sending video data directly from GPU to the LCD display.
4. Composite Video and Audio Output: The composite Video and Audio output port carries video along with
audio signal to the Audio/Video systems.
5. Power LED: It is a RED colored LED which is used for Power indication. This LED will turn ON when
Power is connected to the Raspberry Pi. It is connected to 5V directly and will start blinking whenever the
supply voltage drops below 4.63V.
6. ACT PWR: ACT PWR is Green LED which shows the SD card activity.
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Turn your Raspberry Pi into a WiFi Router using OpenWrt
OpenWrt
“OpenWrt”, which literally means “Open Wireless Router”, is an open-source Linux operating system that
has been developed to target embedded developers. OpenWrt allows developers to completely
customize the firmware on compatible network devices. Along with this, thanks to the open-source and
customizability offered by OpenWrt, you can add functionalities like:
Native Ad-Blocking will completely block ads and make your surfing experience much
more fluid.
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Ability to use VPN Add-Ons to prevent your Internet Service Provider from accessing
Firmware Updates, A lot of manufacturers often stop giving firmware updates which makes
your router vulnerable to new security threats, since OpenWrt has a huge thriving
community of developers, it will always have updates and you can be sure that your custom
These are just a few of the plethora of features offered by OpenWrt. In this tutorial, we will
be loading the OpenWrt Firmware on Raspberry Pi and configure it to use it as a router acting
like a bridge between the Router provided by our ISP and our Computer.
directly connecting our devices to the router, we connect our R-Pi to this router using a LAN Cable.
This Raspberry Pi loaded with the OpenWrt OS acts as an access point for all the devices that we
want to connect. This tutorial will discuss in detail how to install and configure OpenWrt on your
The Process
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1. Let’s begin by downloading the image files of the latest stable release of OpenWrt from
its official website.
Select the raspberry model that you are going to use for the project and download the EXT4 Image
2. Once you have successfully downloaded the latest build, we will etch it onto the SD card, but
for that, we will need two more utilities, namely the SD Card Formatter for cleaning your SD
Card, and the Balena Etcher to write the image file onto your SD Card. Both these software can
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3. Once We have the software installed, plug your SD Card into the Card Reader and then into
your computer system. Open the SD Card Formatter > Select the SD Drive > click on format.
4. Open the Balena Etcher Tool and select the “Flash from file option”.
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5. Select the image file that you downloaded from the OpenWrt website in Step 1.
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7. Click on the Flash Button and that’s it. OpenWrt will be etched on your SD card and can now
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8. Before booting up our Raspberry Pi, we have to determine the default gateway IP of our ISP
Router. For this, connect your PC to the router’s Wi-fi and open CMD to run the following
command.
Ipconfig
Under the wireless LAN adapter option, you will see the Default Gateway IP of your router. Note
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9. You now need to disconnect from your Wi-fi. Plug in your SD Card to your R-Pi and connect
it to a power supply. Using an Ethernet LAN Cable, connect the R-Pi to your system.
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10. Once your PC is connected with the R-Pi via the LAN Cable, you will see an Ethernet Network.
arp -a
This will list all the available devices in your network. Note down the IP Address of the device
192.186.x.x
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This will be our R-Pi device and we will use this IP to log into our R-Pi using SSH (Secure Shell
Protocol).
12. If you have Windows 10 and above, you can directly SSH into the R-Pi using the command
Where root is the default username and 192.x.x is the IP. (if the prompt asks you for a password,
leave it blank)
Note: CMD will prompt you if you want to continue with the connection, type yes and hit enter.
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You can also use the software PuTTy to log in via SSH. Be starting an SSH client as shown in the
image.
When asked for a Username enter “root” and leave the password field blank.
13. When you successfully log in via SSH, you will see a prompt like this which means OpenWrt
passwd
This will set a password for your device; this will be used only when you want to SSH into the
device again or log in to the web dashboard.
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15. Now we just have to edit two configuration files. Since the commonly used Linux-based text
editor ‘nano’ is not available in Open Wrt, we will be using the text editor vim.
cd /etc/config
17. You can then see all the config files available using the command:
ls
18. We will first edit the file network. Use the command-
vim network
19. This will open the file, press ‘i’ on your keyboard to start editing it. The window would look
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20. First, we need to add the option gateway with the IP of the router that you noted in Step 8.
Along with this, need to add another option dns with the same IP again.
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21. Now you need to change the IP in the ipaddr option so that the first three parts of the IP are the
same as that of the gateway and dns option IP with a different last head. The change would look
as follows:
22. This completes all the changes in the file, to exit the file:
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Press ESC
:wq
23. Now we need to edit the file wireless so we use the command:
vim wireless
Create a new option key, and enter a password for your Wi-fi access point in between the quotes.
24. Follow the save and exit procedure i.e. hit ESC, and enter the command:
:wq
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25. Once you hit Enter, all the required configurations are done, we just need to restart the network
26. This will close your SSH connection and restart the R-Pi. You can also unplug the Ethernet
27. After the R-Pi boots, you will now be able to see the Open Wrt access point on all of your Wi-
fi enabled devices nearby. You can simply connect to this by entering the key you had entered.
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28. You can open the dashboard of OpenWrt on any browser by simply entering its IP address in
the address bar of your browser. And log in after entering the username as root and the password
29. Since the dashboard looks all set, we can now plug in one end of the ethernet cable to the ISP
You can once again see the OpenWrt access point on all Wi-fi enabled devices, this time since the
R-Pi is connected to your router, you will be able to successfully access the internet with this
access point
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BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(Autonomous Institute affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
(Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ grade and NBA)
Yelahanka, Bengaluru – 560064.
147
SKILL LAB MANUAL
Experiment 1:
Oscilloscope to illustrate options to measure various circuit elements.
Basic Oscilloscope Operation
Oscilloscope Displays
Oscilloscopes allow us to determine relationships between certain variables in electrical
circuits. Early oscilloscopes were only able to show the relationship that exists between
potential difference and time. Today’s oscilloscopes continue the tradition of measuring
voltage vs. time while also providing an extensive collection of sophisticated data-analysis
capabilities, display features, and triggering options.
To understand what electrical relationships exist in your circuits, you have to know how
to interpret what is presented to you.
This is a typical single waveform display in an oscilloscope, showing the time on the
horizontal axis and potential difference on the vertical axis.
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In the lower left part of the image, you will see ①500mV
In the bottom left, you will see another box that says AFG Sine 100.00kHz 1.0000 Vpp:
● 4.00 µs is the value of each rectangle in the horizontal direction: "4 microseconds
per division." The display includes 10 rectangles,
so 4.00μs1 division×10divisions=40 μs4.00μs1 division×10divisions=40 μs of
time is visible across the entire screen.
● The oscilloscope is recording 5.00 GS/s, i.e., 5×1095×109 samples per second.
● Channel 1 is used to control the triggering of the waveform.
● Triggering occurs on the rising edge of the channel 1 waveform.
● The image is centered at T →▼0.000000 s from the trigger point.
● 1 million (1 M) data points will be collected.
● Triggering occurs when a rising signal passes through 0 V.
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bottom menu button below "Waveform" and use rotary knob Multipurpose a to select
"Ramp."
Turn on Channel 1
Press the Channel 1 button to activate it. Rotate the Horizontal Scale knob clockwise
to adjust the scale to spread out a complete wave over most of the screen. Use the
Horizontal Position knob to adjust its location on the screen if you like.
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In the vertical direction there are 500 mV per division and the distance from lowest
point to highest point is 4 rectangles for 500mV1division×4divisions from peak to
peak=2000mVpp=2Vpp500mV1division×4divisions from peak to
peak=2000mVpp=2Vpp.
In the horizontal direction there are 4.00 µs per division and there are 5 divisions
before the signal begins to repeat,
giving 4.00μs1division×5divisions1period=20μs1period4.00μs1division×5divisions1p
eriod=20μs1period.
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a and Multipurpose b to move them to the parts of the waveform that you would like
to inspect. In the following example, I moved the cursors to the positive peaks of the
wave.
You will see in the upper right corner a new box that has information about the values
of potential difference and time for the points a and b. Here we are interested in the
interval of time between the two points, i.e., Δ20.00μsΔ20.00μs.
To determine the Peak-to-Peak potential difference, switch to horizontal cursors by
pressing and holding the Cursors button again, selecting "Cursors-Screen" and "Bars-
Horizontal." Then use Multipurpose a and Multipurpose b knobs to adjust the
position of the cursors and "Cursors linked" to aid your adjustment. You can move
between horizontal and vertical measurements by pressing the Select button.
Here we are interested in the potential difference between the two points,
i.e., Δ2.000VΔ2.000V.
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Below is a video walkthrough of the steps you'll need to follow. Each step uses orange
highlights to indicate the appropriate button or knob you'll need to use on the Tektronics
model.
Press the bottom menu button below "Add Measurement" and use Multipurpose b to
select "Period", followed by "OK". Then repeat "Add Measurement" and
use Multipurpose b to select "Amplitude", followed by "OK". Now Period &
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Amplitude are shown at the bottom in a less obtrusive fashion. You may remove them
by selecting the button below "Remove Measurement" followed by "Remove All
Measurements". You may simplify the display at any time by pressing the Menu
Off button.
155
156
BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(Autonomous Institute affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
(Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ grade and NBA)
Yelahanka, Bengaluru – 560064.
157
Lab Manual
Prepared By:
Support Staff
Mr. Channamallappa
Foreman,
158
Vision of the Department
PEO2 Demonstrate ability to work in multidisciplinary teams and engage in lifelong learning.
After the successful completion of the Program, the graduate will be able to,
159
Instruction to Students
The students are informed to note the following and abide by:
1. Khaki uniform is mandatory for laboratory classes. (Half sleeve
shirts tucked inside the pant)
2. Good quality shoes (preferably leather shoes/ Rubber soled
shoes) are mandatory.
3. Regularity and Punctuality should be maintained.
4. Students should come prepared for the laboratory sessions and
observation books are to be maintained neatly and up to date.
5. Students should enter their details in the register provided.
6. Power supply is to be Switched ON only after the connections are
checked by the Faculty Member / Instructor.
7. When power supply is ON students are not supposed to touch
the circuit connection/terminals on panel board.
8. Any metallic ornaments like bracelets, bangles, rings, chains,
metallic loose wrist watches etc. should be avoided during the
conduction of experiment.
9. After completion of conducting the experiment, students should
Switch OFF the power supply and then remove the circuit
connection.
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List of Experiments
Sl. No Experiment
1 Trouble-shooting of Main distribution board,
Electrical/Electronic chokes of fluorescent lamp/circuit
2 Testing of Continuity in switches (MCBs, Fuses etc), windings
and wires using Test Lamp/Multimeter and Cable Insulation
testing using Megger
3 Connection of switches, sockets and fuses and Wiring and
Connection of UPS
4 Trouble shooting of ceiling fan and sump motor and its wiring
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Experiment – 1
Apparatus Required:
Circuit Diagram:
i) Mains Connection
162
ii) Choke Coil Testing
163
Procedure:
i) Mains Connection
1. Make the connections as shown, on the board keeping the main supply off.
2. Close the switch of the load and observe if lamp glows.
3. If lamp glows then all the elements are in good state of operation.
4. If lamp does not glow then disconnect the circuit from supply and check the continuity of
all circuit elements and replace the faulty elements with elements in good condition and repeat
the above steps.
1. Connect the test lamp/multimeter as shown in the circuit with main supply off.
2. Test the continuity of the choke ensuring lamp glow or beep of the multimeter. This
ensures the choke in good condition.
3. If the lamp does not glow or multimeter does not give beep, then Choke is faulty.
4. Change the choke and repeat above procedure to obtain choke in good operating condition
Observation:
Mains Connection
MCB
Switch
Lamp
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Experiment – 2
Testing of Continuity in switches (MCBs, Fuses etc), windings and wires using Test
Lamp/Multimeter and Cable Insulation testing using Megger
Apparatus Required:
Circuit Diagram:
Testing of Continuity
165
Procedure:
Testing of Continuity:
Observation:
Testing of Continuity:
MCB
Fuse
Winding
Wire
166
Testing of Cable Insulation
Experiment – 3
Apparatus Required:
Circuit Diagram:
167
(Switch Connection Study Diagram)
168
Inverter Connection Diagram –
Procedure:
1. All the elements of the circuit are tested for the proper operation
2. Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram
3. Switch on the supply and observe the operation of load lamp and any other load
connected to the socket.
4. Switch off the supply and disconnect the wiring.
Observation:
Load Status
Connected to Switch
Inverter Connection:
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Experiment – 4
Trouble shooting of ceiling fan and sump motor and its wiring
Apparatus Required:
1. Ceiling Fan
2. Sump Motor
3. Multimeter
4. Connecting wires
Circuit Diagram:
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Trouble Shooting of Motor Winding
Procedure:
171
Observation:
Condition of
Staring Resistance Final Resistance
Capacitor
Capacitor 1
Capacitor 2
Capacitor 3
Motor winding 1
Motor winding 2
172
BMS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
(Autonomous Institute affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)
(Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ grade and NBA)
Yelahanka, Bengaluru – 560064.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
173
SYLLABUS FOR MECHANICAL STREAM
Individual Experiments
1. Joint preparation for CPVC pipes/ PVC pipes.
2. Measurement of height, diameter and pitch using different measuring instruments.
Group Experiments:
3. Assembly/disassembly of bicycle.
4. Preparation of holes and joints on metals and non-metals using power tools.
Demonstration
5. Demonstration of a) Assembly and disassembly of pump b) Metals, non-metals and
advanced materials.
174
Other details/observations (if any)
1(b) CPVC Pipes (T-Joint, Elbow joint, Collar joint, Reducer Joint
175
Figure: Photograph of actual long bend (CPVC)
Observation:
Joints Identified:
Joints prepared:
Operation performed:
Other details/observations (if any)
Result:
ME2) Measurement of height, diameter and pitch using different measuring instruments.
2a) Aim: Measure the diameter of the given work piece/material using micrometer
Tools/Apparatus used: Vernier Caliper and Micrometer
MICROMETER
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Figure: Actual photograph of Micrometer
Details: Range: 0 to 25mm and 0-50 mm
Least Count: 0.01
Total Reading = MSR + CTD XLC
MSR: Main Scale Reading, CTD: Coinciding Thimble Reading, LC: Least Count
Observations:
Make:
Range:
Parts identified:
Procedure followed:
Measurement details:
Other details/Observations (if any)
Result:
177
Figure: Actual Photograph of digital Micrometer
Details: Range 0-25mm, Least Count: 0.001mm
Observation:
Make:
Range:
Parts identified:
Measurement details:
Other details/Observations (if any)
Result:
VERNIER CALLIPER
Aim: Measure the diameter of the given work piece/material using Vernier calliper
Apparatus used:
178
Figure: Actual photograph of Vernier calliper
Details: Range 0-150mm and 0-300mm
Least Count: 0.01
Total Reading (TR) = MSR + CTD XLC
CVD: Coinciding Vernier Division
Observation:
Range:
Parts Identified:
Procedure followed:
Other details/Observations:
179
Parts Identified:
Other details/Observations (if any)
Uses/applications:
Result:
180
Figure: Actual photograph of Vernier height gauge
Details: Range 0-200 mm, Make: Mitutoyo
181
Figure: Parts of Pitch gauge
182
Figure: Actual photograph of Bicycle-1
Observation:
Make:
Parts Identified:
Tools used for assembly and disassembly:
Operation performed:
Uses/applications:
Other details/Observations:
183
ME4) Preparation of holes and joints on metals and non-metals using power tools
4a) Aim: Preparation of holes and joints on metals using power tools.
Tools/apparatus used: Cut off saw (Hand cutting M/c), Hand Grinding Machine, Hand
Drilling Machine, Portable Arc Welding Machine
Portable Hand Drilling M/c.
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Portable/Hand Grinding Machine
Observation:
Make:
Specification:
Important Parts identified:
Operation performed:
Use/application:
Drilling, Spanner, pipe wrench, Torque wrench / Spanner set,Drilling set, Screw driver bit set
BOSCH GSB 550 - Mechanic Power & Hand Tool Kit [120 Tools]
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PORTABLE METAL CUT OFF MACHINE
Details: Speed: 3800 rpm Blade Diameter: 355 mm
Observations:
Make:
Specification/other details of the machine:
Operation performed
Parts identified:
Uses/applications:
Other details/Observations if any
Operation performed:
Tools used:
Other details/Observations:
Hole preparation on non-metal
Operation performed:
Tools used:
Other details/Observations:
ARC WELDING MACHINE
Figure: Schematic diagram of Arc welding machine setup
186
Figure: Actual photograph of Arc welding machine setup
Details: Arc 200-300 i (IGBT) Single Phase Portable 200A MMA Inverter Welding Machine
187
Figure: Different types of welding joints
Welding Joints:
Lap joint:
T Joint
Observations
Make:
Specification/other details of the machine:
Uses/applications:
Operation performed
Parts identified:
Other details/Observations:
Result:
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Experiment No.: ME 5
ME5) Demonstration of Assembly and disassembly of pump, Metals, non-metals and
advanced materials
Aim: Study different parts/operation of the Centrifugal Pump and submersible pump
5A) CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
189
Figure: Actual photograph of Centrifugal pump
5B) SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
190
Observation
Parts identified:
Make:
Specification:
Uses/Applications:
Other observation/details if any
Result:
ii)Aluminum
Dia-100 x 10 mm –Aluminium
Observation
Material identified:
Other details/observations:
Applications:
191
Sample: cast Iron and Steel
iii) STEEL
Diameter 100mm and 10mm thick
Observation:
Material Identified:
Other details/observations:
Applications:
Result:
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