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Grade 8 CBC English Notes
Grade 8 CBC English Notes
ENGLISH
8 GRAMMAR
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PARTS OF SPEECH
All words may be classified into groups called parts of speech. There are 8
parts of speech namely: Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
We shall now discuss these parts of speech one at a time:
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NOUNS
A noun is the part of speech that names a person, a place, a thing or an idea.
You use nouns every day when you speak or write. Every day you probably use
thousands of nouns. Because nouns name the objects and people and places around
you, it would be very difficult to talk about anything at all without them.
Many nouns name things you can see:
Persons Places Things
boy lake boot
student country shadow
John Kamau Nairobi chair
stranger Jupiter sweater
writer Kenyatta Market calendar
Barack Obama Sierra Leone short story
Some nouns name things you cannot see such as feelings, ideas and
characteristics:
Feelings Ideas Characteristics
excitement freedom curiosity
fear justice cowardice
anger fantasy courage
happiness faith imagination
surprise evil self-confidence
Exercise 1
What words in each sentence below are nouns?
Example: John is a dancer – John, dancer
1. The students planned a party.
2. Three boys performed songs.
3. Excitement filled the air.
4. Joyce Chepkemoi won a prize.
5. Otieno lives in a house on my street.
Exercise 2
Copy the nouns below and write whether it names a person, a place, a thing, or an
idea.
Example: river – place
1. Candle 5. Guitar
2. Wrestle 6. China
3. Joy 7. Hatred
4. Menengai Crater 8. Masanduku Arap Simiti
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Exercise 3
Write down each noun in the following sentences.
Example: Kenya is a beautiful country – Kenya, country
1. The musicians played drums and trumpets.
2. Her family lives in a village.
3. Petronilla enjoyed the trip.
4. A festival was held in Kenyatta University.
5. People in costumes filled the streets.
6. Boys in Scouts uniforms were leading the parade.
7. The holiday was a great excitement.
8. A taxi brought the family to the airport.
9. Maryanne built a huge castle in the wet sand.
10. Her mother swam in the warm water.
There are different kinds of nouns:
Common and proper nouns
All nouns can be described as either common or proper. When you talk or write
about a person, a place, a thing, or an idea in general, you use a common noun.
Example: Doctors work hard. They treat many patients.
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, thing, or idea. Proper
nouns always begin with capital letters.
Example: Ephraim Maree is a doctor. He comes from Kirinyaga.
Note: When a proper noun is made up of more than one word, only the important
words in the noun will begin with a capital letter. Do not capitalize words such as
the, of, or for.
Example: Gulf of Mexico, Statue of Liberty, the Commander–in–Chief.
Common and Proper Nouns
Common Proper Common Proper
street Kerugoya city Raila Odinga
author South Africa ocean Wanjohi
policeman Asia bed Moi Avenue
country Indian Ocean wardrobe Lake Victoria
mountain England continent Dr. Frank Njenga
lake Mandela assistant Professor Saitoti
Proper nouns are important to good writing. They make your writing more specific,
and therefore clearer.
Exercise 4
Which words are proper nouns and should be capitalised? Which words are
common nouns?
Example: kenya Proper: Kenya
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5. When a singular noun ends with a consonant and y, change the y to i and add -
es.
Examples: Library – libraries, activity – activities, story – stories, city –
cities, berry – berries.
6. When a singular noun ends with a vowel (a,e,i,o,u) followed by y, just add -s.
Examples: Valley – valleys, essay – essays, alley – alleys, survey – surveys,
joy – joys.
7. To form the plural of many nouns ending in f or fe, change the f to v and add -
es or s.
Examples: Wife – wives, thief – thieves, loaf – loaves, half – halves, shelf –
shelves, leaf – leaves, scarf – scarves, life – lives, calf – calves, elf – elves.
8. For some nouns ending in f, add -s to form the plural.
Examples: proof – proofs, belief – beliefs, motif – motifs, cliff – cliffs.
9. Some nouns remain the same in the singular and the plural.
Examples: deer – deer, sheep – sheep, series – series, species – species,
moose – moose, trout – trout.
10. The plurals of some nouns are formed in special ways.
Examples: foot – feet, child – children, mouse – mice, man – men, woman –
women, ox-oxen, tooth – teeth.
NB: If you don’t figure out the correct spelling of a plural noun, look it up in a
dictionary.
Exercise 6
What is the plural form of each of the following nouns? Example: scarf -scarves
1. tooth 9. cuff 17. moose 25. boss
2. wife 10. deer 18. child 26. fox
3. giraffe 11. cliff 19. echo 27. bunch
4. hero 12. auto 20. baby 28. ferry
5. radio 13. studio 21. sky 29. flash
6. potato 14. man 22. beach 30. ship
7. belief 15. roof 23. eye
8. thief 16. rodeo 24. Volcano
Exercise 7
Write the plural form of each noun in brackets to complete each sentence correctly.
Example: I bought two ________________ from the shop. (loaf) loaves
1. I used two different _______________ to cut the rope. (knife)
2. She peeled the _______________ with a knife. (potato)
3. They are feeding the noisy _____________. (goose)
4. The tools are placed on the _____________. (shelf)
5. Mukami cut a few _______________ for the salad. (tomato)
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Exercise 10
When I arrived at the airport, there were.........1......... (crowd) of people blocking
the entrance with their .................2..................( luggage ). Near the customs
sections, several...............3................. (group) of officials were standing, checking
the ..................4.................. (equipment) that was being loaded onto a trolley. Most
people were standing, waiting for... .............5................. (information) from the
loudspeakers on the departures and arrivals of aircraft.
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COMPOUND NOUNS
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. The words
that form compound nouns may be joined together, separated or hyphenated.
Examples:
Joined: bookcase, blackboard, pushcart
Separated: high school, rabbit hutch, radar gun
Hyphenated: go-getter, mother-in-law, sergeant-at-arms
Compound nouns are usually a combination of two or more word classes. The
most common combinations are as follows:
a. Some are formed by joining a noun with another noun. Most of these
compound nouns take their plurals in the last words.
Examples:
tableroom(s) grass root(s) prize-fighter(s)
cupboard(s) policeman/men rubber-stamp(s)
bookcase(s) farmhouse(s) sanitary towel(s)
cowshed(s) fruit machine(s) shoulder blade(s)
b. Some are formed by joining a verb and an adverb. Most of these compound
nouns also take their plurals in the last words.
Examples:
breakfast(s) push-up(s) rundown(s)
takeaway(s) knockout(s) slip-up(s)
sit-up(s) meltdown(s)
c. Some compound nouns are formed by joining an adjective and a noun. Most of
these also take their plurals in the last words.
Examples:
hotdog(s) polar bear(s) safe guard(s)
blackboard(s) quicksand
highway(s) remote control(s)
nuclear power right angle(s)
d. Some are formed by joining a verb and a noun. Most of these also take their
plurals in the last words.
Examples:
driveway(s) playground(s) spend thrift(s)
breakdance(s) pushchair(s) go-getter(s)
mincemeat screwdriver(s)
password(s) spare wheel(s)
e. Some ore formed by joining an adverb and a noun. Most of these also take their
plural in the last words.
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Examples:
overdraft(s) overcoats(s) backyards(s)
backbencher(s) undercoat(s) backbone(s)
backlog(s) underwear(s) oversight(s)
f. A few compound nouns are formed by joining an adverb and a verb. These
ones also take their plurals in the last words.
Examples:
outbreak(s) backlash(es) output(s)
outburst(s) outcast(s) input(s)
g. A few others are formed by joining a noun and a verb. They also take their
plurals in the last words.
Examples:
nosedive(s) nightfall(s)
h. A number of compound nouns are formed by joining two nouns by use of
hyphens and a short preposition in between. These compound nouns always take
their plurals in the first words.
Examples:
commander(s)-in-chief sergeant(s)-at-arms
mother(s)-in-law sister(s)-in-law
play(s)-within-a-play
Exercise 11
Underline the compound nouns in the following sentences and write down their
plural forms where possible.
1. John wants to be a quantity surveyor when he grows up.
2. Rainwater had washed away all the top soil.
3. The footballer was shown a red card by the referee.
4. Neither candidate won the elections, forcing a runoff.
5. The goalkeeper saved a penalty in the second half.
6. He killed the wild pig with a sledge hammer.
7. Njoroge’s tape-recorder was stolen yesterday.
8. The theatregoer was disappointed with the show.
9. Size 8’s latest song has caused an uproar.
10. He attempted a creative writing workshop.
Possessive Nouns
A possessive noun shows who or what owns something. A possessive noun can
either be singular or plural.
Singular possessive nouns
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A singular possessive noun shows that one person, place, or thing has or owns
something. To make a singular noun show possession, add an apostrophe and s
(‘s).
Example:
the feathers of the chick – the chick’s feathers
the hat that belongs to the man – the man’s hat
Other examples:
the child’s toy the fish’s fins
Mark’s bike the horse’s tail
Using possessive nouns is shorter and better than other ways of showing
possession.
Example:
LONGER: The dog belonging to Papa is barking.
BETTER: Papa’s dog is barking.
Plural Possessive Nouns
A plural possessive noun shows possession or ownership of a plural noun.
Example:
The cars that belong to the teachers are parked here.
The teachers’ cars are parked here.
When a plural noun ends in s, add only an apostrophe after the s to make the
noun show possession.
Not all plural nouns end in s. When a plural noun does not end in s, add ‘s to
form the plural possession.
Examples:
the shoes of the men – the men’s shoes
the food of the children – the children’s food
The noun following a possessive noun may either be the name of a thing or a
quality.
Example:
Thing – Koki’s raincoat Brian’s umbrella
Quality – the judge’s fury Bob’s courage
Exercise 8
Change the following phrases to show possession in a shorter way.
Example: the claws of the leopard
the leopard’s claws.
1. the tail of the lion
2. the dog that Cliff has
3. the hat of my mother
4. the book that Evans owns
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Gender
Personal pronouns can also be classified by gender. Gender can either be
masculine (referring to male people), feminine (referring to female people) or
neuter (referring to animals or things).
Examples:
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Joseph cleaned his car. (his is the third person, masculine gender).
Isabel said the dress was hers (hers is the third person, feminine gender).
The dog wagged its tail. (its is the third person, neuter gender).
FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS
In English, personal pronouns have three forms: the subject form, the object
form and the possessive form.
Examples:
She is a painter. (subject form)
He praised her. (Object form)
It is her best painting. (Possessive form)
Subject Pronouns
A subject pronoun takes the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence. These
pronouns are:
(i) Singular forms – I, you, he, she, it
(ii) Plural forms – we, you, they
Examples:
Noun Subject Pronoun
The housegirl takes care of her. She takes care of her.
The dog guards the house. It guards the house.
Mark and Francis love swimming. They love swimming.
Subject pronouns also appear after forms of the linking verbs be.
Examples:
The watchman today is he.
The composers were they.
Exercise 1
Underline the subject pronouns in the following sentences.
Example: She ate a water melon
1. They ate fish and chips.
2. We like Italian food.
3. It is delicious.
4. The biggest eater was he.
5. You helped in the cooking.
6. The cooks were Tom and I.
Exercise 2
Replace the underlined words with subject pronouns.
Example: Pio and Gama are friends - They
1. The glasses were under the table.
2. Emma fed the chicken.
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their they’re
whose who’s
Incorrect: The team celebrated it’s victory.
Correct: The team celebrated its victory.
Incorrect: Your late for the preps.
Correct: You’re late for the preps.
Incorrect: Whose the fastest runner in the world?
Correct: Who’s the fastest runner in the world?
Rules of using possessive pronouns and contractions correctly:
1. If the word you want to use stands for two words, it is a contraction and needs
an apostrophe.
2. Never use an apostrophe in a possessive pronoun.
Exercise 5
Write the contractions for the following word pairs. Example: It has = it’s
1. You will 3. He had 5. You have
2. We would 4. I am 6. They will
Exercise 6
What pronoun and verb make up each of the following contractions?
Example: It’s = it is, it has
1. I’ll 3. you’d 5. they’re
2. we’re 4. he’s 6. she’d
Exercise 7
Choose the correct word given in brackets in the following sentences.
1. The Kenyan government has worked hard to improve (its, it’s) educational
system.
2. (Whose, Who’s) going to decide where the guests will sleep?
3. (Their, They’re) learning French in their school.
4. Only students (whose, who’s) scores are excellent will join national schools.
5. (Its, It’s) been estimated that about 8 million Kenyans are living with HIV
AIDS.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific person or
thing.
In English, there are singular indefinite pronouns, plural indefinite and both
singular and plural indefinite pronouns.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
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Exercise 11
Complete the following sentences with who, whom, or whose.
1. ________________ knows the origin of the Luos?
2. ________________ did you ask about it?
3. To _______________ did you give the letter?
4. _________________ is the most attractive painting?
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NB: When the antecedent refers to both males and females, it is best to use the
phrase his or her.
3. Use of we and us with nouns.
Phrases such as we students and us girls are often incorrectly used. To tell
which pronoun to use, drop the noun and say the sentence without it.
Problem: (We, Us) boys study hard.
Solution: We study hard. = We boys study hard.
Problem: The DC praised. (us, we) students.
Solution: The DC praised us. = The DC praised us students
4. Using the pronoun Them
The word them is always a pronoun. It is always used as the object of a verb or a
preposition, never as a subject.
Examples:
Correct: The president greeted them. (direct object of the verb greeted)
Correct: She gave them a sandwich. (Indirect object of the verb gave)
Correct: The information was useful to them. (object of the preposition to)
Incorrect: Them they arrived late.
5. Using Those
Although we previously said that those is used as a demonstrative pronouns, it is
sometimes used as an adjective i.e. a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. If a
noun appears immediately after it, those is now an adjective, not a pronoun.
Examples:
Those are the new desks that were bought. (Those is a pronoun, the subject of the
verb are).
Those desks are attractive. (Those is an adjective modifying the noun desks).
Exercise 13
Each of the following sentences has a double subject. Write each correctly.
1. Papa Shirandula he is a good actor.
2. Many people they find him funny.
3. The show it was on television for many years.
4. Their daughter she is also in that show.
5. The shoes they are beautiful.
6. People they like our hotel.
7. My brother he drives a matatu.
8. Our hotel it is open seven days a week.
9. The TV it is very clear today.
10. My brother and sister they work in Nairobi.
Exercise 14
Pick the correct pronoun in the brackets in the following sentences.
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Examples:
The bird hatches in the nest.
The stream flows down the hill.
The boys rush for their breakfast.
We talk a lot.
Rules for forming the Present Tense with Singular Subjects
1. Most verbs: add –s
get – gets play – plays eat – eats
2. Verbs ending in s, ch, sh, x, and z: add -es
pass – passes mix – mixes
punch-punches buzz – buzzes
push – pushes
3. Verbs ending with a consonant and y: change the y to i and add -es
try – tries empty – empties
Exercise 3
Write the correct present form of each verb in the brackets in the following
sentences.
1. She carefully ________________ the map. (study)
2. A fish _______________ in the water near me. (splash)
3. She _______________ her hands. (wash)
4. He ______________ to the classroom. (hurry)
5. Bryan and I ____________ the assignment. (discuss)
The Past Tense
A verb which is in past tense shows what has already happened.
Example:
Tito liked his grandmother’s story.
The verb liked tells that the action in the sentence happened before now.
Rules for forming the Past Tense
1. Most verbs: Add -ed play – played
talk – talked
climb – climbed
2. Verbs ending with e: Add -d praise – praised
hope – hoped
wipe – wiped
3. Verbs ending with a consonant and -y: Change the y to i and add –ed
bury – buried
carry – carried
study – studied
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4. Verbs ending with a single vowel and a consonant: Double the final
consonant and add-ed stop – stopped
man – manned
trip – tripped
Exercise 4
Write the past tense forms of each of the verbs in brackets in the following
sentences.
1. John _____________ his house burn into ashes. (watch)
2. The baby _____________ loudly. (cry)
3. The teacher ______________ at the naughty student. (yell)
4. The chef ______________ a delicious cake. (bake)
5. We ______________ for a present for our grandmother. (shop)
The Future Tense
A verb which is in future tense tells what is going to happen.
Examples:
Evans will take his car to the garage.
She will probably come with us.
The verbs will take and will come tell us what is going to happen. Hence, they
are in future tense.
To form the future tense of a verb, use the helping verb will or shall with the
main verb.
Exercise 5
Write the future tense forms of the verbs in the following sentences.
1. We write in exercise books.
2. The train stopped at the station.
3. He decides what he wants to do.
4. They practise in the football field.
5. Rats multiply very fast.
More Tenses
The above three forms of tenses can further be divided into:
1. The simple tenses - Present simple tense
- Past simple tense
- Future simple tense
2. The perfect tenses - Present perfect tense
- Present perfect progressive
- Past perfect tense
- Future perfect
- Future perfect progressive
3. The progressive tenses - Present progressive tense
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annoy worry
pity fit
3. Future Simple Tense
The future simple tense places the action or condition in the future. It is
formed by using the word shall or will before the present form of the main verb.
Examples:
We shall need help with her load.
She will eat the bananas alone.
The dancers will entertain them.
Exercise 8
Use the following words in future simple tense in sentences of your own.
see develop
go begin
exist consume
introduce hunt
bring become
The Perfect Tenses
The perfect tenses are used to show that an action was completed or that a
condition existed before a given time. The perfect tenses are formed using has,
have, or had before the past participles, that is, verb forms ending in -ed.
Examples:
1. Present Perfect Tense:
Ceasar has just finished his homework.
Kamau and Njoroge have now agreed to meet.
2. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Kibet has been working in his shamba for two hours.
We have been swimming in this pool for ten minutes.
3. Past Perfect Tense
We had completed the work by the time the supervisor came.
Nobody knew that she had already remarried.
4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I had been trying to contact him for two hours before he finally appeared.
Mrs. Masumbuko had been feeling unwell the whole week before she decided
to visit a doctor.
5. Future Perfect Tense
Agege will have sold his goats by two p.m.
By next term, twenty students will have dropped from this school.
6. Future Perfect Continuous
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The players will have been playing for twenty minutes by the time the President
arrives.
By the end of this term, she will have been living with her aunt for five years.
Exercise 9
Rewrite the following sentence changing the verb into present perfect, present
perfect progressive, past perfect, past perfect progressive, future perfect and future
perfect progressive tenses. Make any necessary changes to make the sentences
meaningful.
John comes here every year.
The Progressive Verb Forms
The progressive form of the verb shows continuing action.
Examples:
I am singing
She was dancing.
The progressive form is formed using various forms of the verb be plus the
present participle, that is, a verb form that ends in -ing.
Examples:
1. Present Progressive Tense
I am reading a book about Red Indians.
Her mother is preparing dinner.
2. Present Perfect Progressive
He has been cleaning his car since morning.
They have been exercising for a week now.
3. Past Progressive Tense
She was cooking supper when I arrived.
They were fighting fiercely when the police arrived.
4. Past Perfect Progressive Tense
Sonko had been wearing an earing for years before he removed it.
Onyancha had been killing children before he was finally discovered.
5. Future Progressive
He will be tilling the land next week.
Joyce and Joan will be washing clothes all morning.
6. Future Perfect Progressive
The children will have been sleeping for two hours by the time their parents
arrive.
John will have grown a beard by the time he is twelve.
Exercise 10
Rewrite the following sentence changing the verb into present progressive, present
perfect progressive, past progressive, past perfect progressive, future progressive
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and future perfect progressive tenses. Make any necessary changes to make the
sentences meaningful.
Jane plays the guitar well.
SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT
Present tense
A verb and its subject must agree in number. To agree means that if the
subject is singular, the verb must be in singular form. If the subject is plural, the
verb form must be plural.
Examples:
The baby cries every morning. - SINGULAR
The babies cry every morning. - PLURAL
Rules for subject-verb Agreement
1. Singular subject: Add -s or -es to the verb
The man drives a bus.
She teaches in a primary school.
He studies his map.
2. Plural subject: Do not add -s or -es to the verb
The men drive buses.
They teach in primary schools.
We study our maps.
3. For I or You: Do not add -s or -es to the verb
I hate books.
You like dogs.
I admire actors.
When a sentence has a compound subject, that is, two subjects joined by and,
the plural form of the verb is used.
Examples:
John and James work at Naivas Supermarket.
The teachers and the students respect one another a lot.
Subject-verb Agreement with be and have
The verbs be and have change their forms in special ways in order to agree with
their subjects.
Various ways in which be and have change in order to agree with their
subjects
Subject Be Have
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1. Singular subjects:
I am, was have, had
You are, were have, had
He, she, it is, was has, had
Singular Noun is, was has, had
2. Plural subjects:
We are, were have, had
You are, were have, had
They are, were have, had
Plural Noun are, were have, had
Exercise 11
Put appropriate Present tense verbs in the blank spaces in the following sentences.
Ensure that the subject agrees with the verb and that the sentence makes sense.
1. The dogs _______________ their owners.
2. She ______________ at the door.
3. They ______________ the road at the Zebra-crossing.
4. Many blind people ___________________ dogs as guides.
5. We ________________ dogs every day.
6. Mark always _______________ his house.
7. I often _______________ with June.
8. Mr. Mwangi __________________ his aunt in Mombasa.
9. Jane and he ________________ next month.
10. The directors ______________ the company.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
We have learned in the previous chapter how to form the past tense and how to
use helping verbs to show that something has already happened. We saw that for
most verbs, we form the past tense and participles by adding -d or -ed to the verb.
Verbs that follow this rule are called Regular Verbs.
Examples:
The farmer planted his crops last month. – past tense
The crops have been planted recently. – past participle.
For all regular verbs, the past and the past participles are spelled alike. They
are made up by adding -d or -ed to the present form of the verb.
Examples:
Present Past Past Participles
help helped had helped
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For a few irregular verbs, like hit and cut, the three principal parts are spelled
the same. These ones offer no problems to learners. Most problems come from
irregular verbs with three different forms. For example, the irregular verbs throw
and ring.
throw threw had thrown
ring rang had rung
If you are not sure about a verb form, look it up in the dictionary.
Exercise 13
Write the past tense and past participles of the following irregular verbs and then
use each of them in sentences of your own.
1. arise 6. fall
2. tear 7. blow
3. wear 8. freeze
4. lay 9. fly
5. see 10. write
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERB FORMS
ACTIVE VOICE
A verb is in active voice when the subject of the sentence performs the action.
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Examples:
Our teacher punished us for making noise in class.
Subject action
Players arrived for their first match early in the morning.
Subject action
In the above sentences, the subject is who performed the action. Hence, the
verbs of these sentences are in active voice.
PASSIVE VOICE
The word passive means “acted upon”. When the subject of the sentence
receives the action or expresses the result of the action, the verb is in passive voice.
Examples:
We were punished by the teacher for making noise.
Sub action
He was helped by a passer-by.
Sub action
In the above sentences the subjects we and he receive the action.
When we do not know who or what did the action, or when we do not want to
say who or what did it, we use the passive voice.
The passive form of a verb consists of some form of be plus the past participle.
Examples:
Active Passive
Baabu explored the sea. The sea was explored by Baabu.
Be + past participle
The captain helped him. He was helped by the captain.
Be+past participle
Exercise 14
Write the verbs from the following sentences and then label each one Active or
Passive.
1. The guest of honour presented prizes to the best students.
2. The cattle were taken home by the herders.
3. The health officer ordered the slaughter house closed.
4. Peace and order has been restored in the area by the youth wingers.
5. The workers cleared the farm.
6. The crop was harvested by the hired workers.
7. The government stressed the importance of unity among tribes.
8. The farmers were urged to redouble their efforts in food production.
9. The K.I.E is developing support materials for the 8-4-4 system of education.
10. A fishing pond was started by the Wildlife Club in the school.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
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Some sentences express a complete thought with only a subject and an action
verb.
Example:
The sun shines.
Subject Action verb
In other sentences, a direct object must follow the action verb for the sentence
to be complete. A direct object is a noun or a pronoun that receives the action of
the verb.
Example:
The goalkeeper caught the ball.
Subject action verb direct object
Transitive verbs
A Transitive verb is an action verb that must take a direct object for the
sentence to express a complete thought. A direct object answers the question what?
or whom?
Examples:
The captain steered the ship. (Steered what? the ship)
The teacher praised the students. (Praised whom? The students)
Transitive verbs cannot be used alone without direct objects in sentences; they
would not have complete meanings.
Exercise 15
What are the action verbs and the direct objects in the following sentences?
1. He carried his bag with him.
2. The two friends discussed the examination paper.
3. We took a trip to Nakuru last month.
4. The water splashed me.
5. He gave interesting facts about whales.
6. We searched the house for rats.
7. They cheered the team noisily.
8. My brother bought a camera.
9. Njoroge admires Papa Shirandula.
10. We viewed the shouting star at midnight.
Intransitive verbs
An Intransitive verb is an action verb that does not require a direct object for
the sentence to have complete meaning.
Examples:
The ship sailed.
Subject action verb
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their meanings are different. Others are similar in appearance but different in
meanings.
The Meaning Prese Past Past Examples of its
pair nt tense partici usage
s tense ple
1 sit To be in a seated sit sat sat Sit on that chair.
position
set To put or place set set set Set the cage
down.
2 lie To rest in a flat lie lay lain The cat lies on
. position the table.
lay lay laid laid Lay the cloth on
To put or place the table.
3 rise To move upward rise rose risen The children rise
. up early in the
raise To move raise raised raised morning.
something The scout raised
upward or to lift the flag.
4 let To allow or let let let Let the bird go
. permit free.
leav leave left left Leave this house
e To depart or to now!
allow to remain Leave the door
where it is closed.
5 lear To gain learn learne learned I learned a lot in
. n knowledge or d school.
skill teach taught That teacher
teac To help someone taught taught me in
h learn or to show Biology.
how or explain
6 can To be able I can ride my
. may To be allowed bike well.
You may go out.
EXERCISE 17
Pick the correct verb from the ones given in brackets in the following sentences.
1. Studying spiders closely can (learn, teach) us how they get their food.
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2. An insect that (lays, lies) motionless on a leaf can become prey to some other
animal.
3. The lion will (lay, lie) there waiting for its prey.
4. The monster spider (sits, sets) patiently near its web.
5. Experience has (taught, learned) me not to take things for granted.
6. A bird (raises, rises) its body using its wings.
7. This (raises, rises) another question,
8. Nature has (learned, taught) spiders new tricks.
9. The watchman instantly (raises, rises) the alarm when there is danger.
10. The trappers have (lain, laid) fresh traps for the porcupines.
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. To
describe or modify means to provide additional information about nouns or
pronouns. To modify further means to change something slightly.
Writers and speakers modify an idea or image by choosing certain describing
words, which are called adjectives. Hence, these adjectives are also called
modifiers. Adjectives are like word cameras. They are words that describe colours,
sizes and shapes. Adjectives help you capture how the world around you looks and
feels.
Adjectives tell:
1. What kind?
Examples:
The powerful gorilla knocked down the hunter.
The old man walked slowly.
2. How many?
Examples:
Three zebras were resting.
He has few friends.
3. Which one(s)?
Examples:
This painting is attractive.
These farmers are clearing the field.
There are 5 main kinds of adjectives, namely:-
1. Descriptive adjectives
2. Definite and indefinite adjectives
3. Demonstrative adjectives
4. Interrogative adjectives
5. Articles and possessive adjectives
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Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives tell us the size, shape, age, colour, weight, height, make,
nature and origin of the nouns they are describing.
Examples of descriptive Adjectives:
Size Shape Age Colo Wei Heigh Make Natur Origin
ur ght t e
big oval old red heav tall woode warm Kenya
huge circular youn gree y short n cold American
small triangul g n light plastic shy Tanzania
tiny ar aged whit metal famous Italian
thin rectang e stony peacef South
fat ular blue glass ul African
wide round brow mud brave Ugandan
shall square n powerf Korean
ow twisted blac ul
slend pointed k gentle
er maro kind
on
purpl
e
pink
Descriptive adjectives are of two types:
1. Common descriptive adjectives – these are adjectives that give general features
of somebody or something. They are the adjectives of size, shape, age, colour,
weight, height, make and nature. Refer to the examples in the diagram above.
2. Proper adjectives – These ones are formed from proper nouns. They are always
capitalized. They always appear last in a string of adjectives modifying the same
noun, just before the noun itself.
Examples:
The Japanese ambassador
A Mexican carpet
An Italian chef
Note that when a proper adjective comprises of two words, both are capitalized.
Examples:
A South African farmer
A North American cowboy
Exercise 1
Find the adjectives in the following sentences and indicate what types they are.
1. Alaska is the largest state in the USA.
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These are adjectives which tell how many or how much. They give the number
or the quantity, either specific or approximate, of the noun in question.
Examples:
Three elephants were killed by the game rangers.
He bought several houses in Kileleshwa.
Don’t put much sugar in the tea!
More examples
Numbers Amount Approximat
e
Three Much Several
Ten All Some
Five Some Little
Hundred Any Many
Twenty Few Few
Each
Every
Numerous
Adjectives that are in form of numbers are used with countable nouns:
Examples:
Two calves were born yesterday.
Five chimpanzees performed funny tricks.
Many children like dinosaurs.
A definite or indefinite adjective may look like a pronoun, but it is used
differently in a sentence. It is an adjective used to modify a noun.
Adjectives that are in form of quantity are used with uncountable nouns.
Examples:
Do you have any water in the house?
How much flour did you buy?
Interrogative Adjectives
The interrogative adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions. Examples
are what, which, and whose.
Examples:
What movie do you want to see?
Which leaves turn colour first?
Whose son is he?
An interrogative adjective may look like an interrogative pronoun but it is used
differently. It is an adjective, used to modify a noun.
Exercise 3
Underline the adjectives in the following sentences.
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Exercise 6
Identify the predicate adjectives in the following sentences.
1. Her early songs were often quiet and serious.
2. One of her songs, Vulindlela, is very popular.
3. The dark city below the sky seems calm and peaceful.
4. Her performance in K.C.S.E. was brilliant.
5. The West African singer Kofi Olominde is extraordinary.
COMPARING WITH ADJECTIVES
We have seen that adjectives describe nouns. One way in which they describe
nouns is by comparing people, places or things.
To compare two people, places or things, we use the comparative form of an
adjective. To compare more than two, we use the superlative form of the
adjective.
Examples:
ONE PERSON: Kimenju is tall.
TWO PERSONS: Kimenju is taller than James.
THREE OR MORE: Kimenju is the tallest of all.
THE COMPARATIVE
The comparative form of the adjective is used to compare one thing, person or
place with another one. It is formed in two ways.
1. For short adjectives, add -er.
Examples:
great + er = greater sweet + er = sweeter
big + er = bigger light + er = lighter.
2. For longer adjectives, the comparative is formed by using the word more before
them.
Examples:
More handsome more remarkable
More attractive more hardworking
Most adjectives ending in -ful and -ous also form the comparative using more.
Examples:
More successful more curious more ferocious
More beautiful more generous more prosperous
THE SUPERLATIVE
The superlative form of the adjective is used to compare a person, a place or a
thing with more than one other of its kind.
Examples:
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Irregular comparisons
Some adjectives have special forms for making comparisons. That is, they do
not form their comparatives by use of -er or more, or their superlatives by use of -
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est or most. Instead, these adjectives change the words completely to form
comparatives and superlatives.
Examples:
Adjectives Comparative Superlative
good better best
well better best
bad worse worst
ill worse worst
little less or lesser least
much more most
many more most
far farther farthest
Example of use in sentences:
The presentation of our play was good.
Our second performance was better.
But our last performance was the best.
Exercise 8
Write the correct forms of the adjectives in brackets in the following sentences.
1. The comedy was the ________________ show of the three. (good)
2. Mary had a _________________ cold yesterday. (bad)
3. It was her ____________ performance this year. (good)
4. Her illness is getting _____________ every day. (bad)
5. The old woman received the _____________ amount of money from the MP.
(little)
6. Smoke your cigarette _______________ away from the children. (far)
7. There was ______________ noise in the classroom than yesterday. (little)
8. The musician said that that was a very ______________ year for him. (good)
9. This year’s songs were much ______________ than last year’s. (good)
10. He has the _____________ pairs of shoes in the school. (many)
SPECIAL PROBLEMS WITH ADJECTIVES
1. Those and Them
Those is an adjective if it is followed by a noun. It is a pronoun if it is used alone.
Examples:
Those thieves are daring! (Adjective modifying thieves)
Those are thieves! (Pronoun)
Them is always a pronoun. It is used only as the object of a verb or as the
object of a preposition. It is never used as an adjective.
Examples:
We followed them. (Object of a verb)
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ADVERBS
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Sometimes the addition of -ly to an adjective may require changing the spelling
in the adjective.
Examples:
Easy + -ly = easily (y changes to i)
Full + -ly = fully (ll changes to l)
Other adverbs are complete words on their own. That is, they are not formed
from other words.
Examples:
fast tomorrow soon first later
next inside somewhere quite
Note:
1. Soon and quite can be used only as adverbs.
Examples:
The school will soon open.
The holiday was quite well spent.
2. Some other modifiers, like late or first, can either be used as adverbs or
adjectives.
Examples:
The visitors arrived late. (adverb)
The late arrivals delayed the meeting. (adjective)
The robbers had gotten there first. (adverb)
The first house was already broken into. (adjective)
3. When you are not sure whether an adjective or an adverb has been used in a
sentence, ask yourself these questions.
(i) Which word does the modifier go with?
If it goes with an action verb, an adjective or another adverb, it is an
adverb.
Examples:
The story teller spoke quietly. – used with an action verb.
The story teller was very interesting. – used with an adjective.
The story teller spoke extremely slowly. –used with another adverb.
But if it goes with a noun or a pronoun, it is an adjective.
Examples:
The quiet story teller spoke. – used with a noun.
He was quiet. – with a pronoun.
(ii) What does the modifier tell about the word it goes with?
If the modifier tells when, where, how, or to what extent, it is an adverb.
Examples:
He will come tomorrow. – When?
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Examples:
The bird flew higher than the helicopter.
The president arrived sooner than we expected.
2. For most adverbs ending in -ly, use more to make the comparative.
Examples:
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Exercise 5
Write each of the following sentences using the correct form of the adverb.
1. Does she cry ______________ (often) than the baby does?
2. She crosses the river _____________ (slowly) than her son does.
3. James jumps into the swimming pool _____________ (quickly).
4. Charles swims _____________ (skilfully) than all of us.
5. Of all the athletes, Tecla Lorupe is ____________ (fast).
6. The antelope disappeared _____________ (swiftly) than the gazelle.
7. Chicharito scored the goal _____________ (accurately) of all.
8. Mange and Marto stayed in the hall ______________ (long) of all.
9. Sarah walks _____________ (gracefully).
10. Ng’ang’arito sang ____________ (sweetly) of all participants.
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between other words in a
sentence.
Examples:
The cat lay under the table.
The preposition under connects the verb lay with table. Under points out the
relationship between lay and table.
Hence a preposition is a word that links another word or word group to the rest
of the sentence. The noun or pronoun after the preposition is called the object of
the preposition. The table is the object of the preposition under in the above
sentence. The preposition under relates the verb lay to the noun table.
More examples:
She gave it to me.
(The preposition to relates the pronoun me with the action gave).
I liked the bike with the metal handles.
The preposition with relates the noun handles with the noun bike.
COMMON PREPOSITIONS
about before except on toward
above behind for onto under
aboard below from out underneath
across beneath in outside until
after beside inside over up
against between into past upon
along beyond like since with
among by near through within
around down of throughout without
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at during off to
From the above list of prepositions, you will note that some of them tell where,
others indicate time, others show special relationships like reference or
separation.
Changing one preposition with another in a sentence changes the meaning of
the sentence.
Example:
The cat lay under the table.
The cat lay on the table.
Lying under the table means below the surface of the table but on means
above the surface.
Exercise 1
Write the preposition in each of the following sentences and say what relationship it
indicates.
1. Sometimes they lie on the ground.
2. They have grown maize for food.
3. The children played with the dolls.
4. A man found some treasure in the cave.
5. They make clothes from cotton.
Exercise 2
Use the most appropriate preposition to complete the sentences below.
1. Driving had been my dream ________________ years.
2._____________ 1990, I bought a second-hand car.
3.______________ that year, I learned how to drive.
4. I rolled the car ________________ the road _____________ more than two
kilometres.
5. I was really thrilled ______________ the experience.
PREPOSITION PHRASES
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object and any words
that modify the object.
Examples:
The school children waited for the green light.
In this sentence, the preposition is for, its object is light, and the modifier, or
adjective, is green. The entire preposition phrase modifies the verb waited.
Sometimes two or more nouns or pronouns are used as objects in a
prepositional phrase.
Example:
He needs a worker with diligence and a good character.
The preposition with has two objects: diligence and character.
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Exercise 3
Identify the prepositional phrase in each of the following sentences. Underline the
preposition once and its objects twice.
1. Donkeys help people in many ways.
2. They bring happiness to the people around them.
3. In large cities, they help to carry water.
4. On farms, they carry heavy loads.
5. How could you travel across a river?
6. You might swim to the other side.
7. You might cross at a shallow place.
8. You can cross by boat.
9. Bridges are a better solution to the problem.
10. Most bridges are built over water.
Types of prepositional phrases
Prepositional phrases can either be:
(i) Adjective prepositional phrases - these prepositional phrases, just like
adjectives, modify nouns and pronouns.
Example:
A scout leader wears a uniform with many badges.
In this sentence, with many badges is an adjective prepositional phrase
modifying the noun uniform.
(ii) Adverb prepositional phrases – these ones, just like adverbs, modify verbs,
adjectives or other adverbs.
Examples:
Scouts rain for many hours.
(The adverb prepositional phrase for many hours modifies the verb train.)
They are active in all public functions.
(The adverb prepositional phrase in all public functions modifies the adjective
active.)
The scout leader commands forcefully with a loud voice.
(The adverb prepositional phrase with a loud voice modifies the adverb
forcefully.)
We have seen that the object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that
follows the preposition. When the object of the preposition is a pronoun, we use an
object pronoun like me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. (And not a subject
pronoun like I, he, she, we, and they).
Examples:
Correct: I gave a present to her.
Incorrect: I gave a present to she.
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Examples:
The helicopter flew past. (Adverb)
The aircraft was parked inside. (Adverb)
The helicopter flew past noisily. (Adverb)
Therefore, if a word begins a prepositional phrase, it is a preposition. If it
stands alone or is followed by an adverb, it is an adverb.
Some words that can be used either as prepositions or adverbs.
above down over
along in out
around Inside outside
below near under
by off up
Exercise 5
Indicate after each of the following sentences if it has a preposition or an adverb.
1. Jack stood outside the shop.
2. He was curious and went inside.
3. He saw strange things in every corner.
4. An old coat and several sweaters lay over a chair.
5. Blue and green umbrellas stood above the fire place.
6. He looked up suddenly.
7. He sat down heavily.
8. Then he lifted the curtain and peeped outside.
9. A jogger ran by
10. Jack ran out.
NEGATIVES
Negatives are words that mean “no” or “not”. These words are adverbs and not
prepositions!
Examples:
She has no more work.
There are none left.
Other common negatives
not nowhere nobody aren’t haven’t
never nothing no one doesn’t wouldn’t
The combination of a verb and not also form a contraction which is also a
negative. The letters n’t stand for not.
Examples:
They won’t be able to attend the funeral.
He couldn’t make a speech.
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Double negatives:
A sentence should have only one negative. Using double negatives in a
sentence is usually incorrect. A double negative is the use of two negative words
together when only one is needed.
Examples:
Incorrect Correct
We don’t need no money. We don’t need any money.
She hasn’t bought nothing. She hasn’t bought anything.
Mark hasn’t no homework. Mark hasn’t any homework. Or
Mark has no homework.
When you use contractions like don’t and hasn’t, do not use negative words
after them. Instead, use words like any, anything, and ever.
Examples:
We don’t have any work.
He hasn’t any work.
I won’t ever respond to the summons.
Other negatives include hardly, barely, and scarcely. They are never used
after contractions like haven’t and didn’t.
Examples:
Incorrect: We couldn’t hardly continue with the work. Correct: We
could hardly continue with the work.
Incorrect: The child can’t barely walk.
Correct: The child can barely walk.
Exercise 6
Write the following sentences choosing the correct negatives from the ones given in
brackets.
1. They (have, haven’t) nothing to eat.
2. Isn’t (anyone, no one) at home?
3. Didn’t you (ever, never) swim in that river?
4. There isn’t (anybody, nobody) weeding the farm.
5. Ann and Martin haven’t (anywhere, nowhere) to sleep.
6. Our friends (had, hadn’t) none of the fun.
7. Isn’t (anybody, nobody) watching Tahidi High?
8. Hasn’t (anyone, no one) thought of washing the utensils?
9. Tabby (hasn’t, has) had no luck.
10. We haven’t (ever, never) tried.
CONJUNCTIONS
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SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Subordinating conjunctions connect two or more clauses to form complex
sentences. (Refer to Part Two of this handbook). Subordinating conjunctions
introduce subordinate clauses. They include because, since, if, as, whether, and
for.
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Examples:
If I go home, my dog will follow me.
(The subordinating conjunction if connects the subordinate clause I go home with
the main clause my dog will follow me.)
The stayed inside the church because it was raining.
He was always rude since he was a child.
The rain fell as they entered the building.
The pastor asked the congregation whether they were happy.
The man rejoiced for he had won a prize.
Exercise 2
Join the following pairs of sentences using the most appropriate subordinating
conjunctions.
1. They arrived late. It was raining heavily.
2. John worked hard. He wanted to buy a house.
3. I won’t carry the umbrella. You need it.
4. I drove the car madly. I was late for the meeting.
5. He will come. The meeting ends.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are used in pairs to connect
sentence parts. These include either ….. or, neither ….. nor, not only……. but
also, whether ……. or and both …… and.
Examples:
Both boys and girls attended the conference.
People brought not only food but also clothes for the victims of the floods.
The students ride either on bicycles or motorbikes.
The sailor had to decide whether to sail on or head back when the weather
changed.
Neither John nor James was moved by the shocking news.
Exercise 3
Join the following pairs of sentences using the correlative conjunctions in brackets.
1. The vehicles stopped for repairs. The vehicles stopped for fuel. (either…..or)
2. The drivers knew they had to travel more than fifty kilometres. If they did not
travel more than fifty kilometres, they would have to endure harsh storms.
(either….or).
3. Many people build their own homes. Many people grow their own food. (not
only…but also)
4. Men wanted to buy the pictures. Women also wanted to buy the pictures.(both….
and)
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INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is either a single word or a short group of words that is used
to express a feeling or emotion. Interjections can express such feelings as urgency,
surprise, relief, joy, or pain. An interjection that expresses strong emotion is
often followed by an exclamation mark. An interjection that expresses mild
emotion is usually followed by a comma.
Examples:
Let’s go! We can’t sleep before we find the missing boy. (urgency)
Phew! I was afraid we would never find him. (relief)
Oh, you have grown so big. (surprise)
Well, I have never been so happy. (joy)
Exercise 1
Identify the interjection in the following sentences and indicate what feeling or
emotion it expresses.
1. Say, have you heard about Nameless and Jua Kali, the famous Kenyan
musicians?
2. Wow! Seeing the calf being born was exciting.
3. “All right!” I yelled to him. “This is not the right thing to do.”
4. Boy! Some people felt wonderful being in the air balloon, but I felt nervous.
5. Oh, did that boat rock back and forth for a while.
CHAPTER TWO
FORMATION AND ORIGIN OF WORDS
Some words in the English language have unique origins and formations.
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Adjective suffixes
-able, -ible capable of being edible, presentable
-al pertaining to regional, sectional
-esque reminiscent of picturesque
-ful notable for fanciful, colourful
-ic, -ical pertaining to musical, mythic
-ious, ous characterized by nutritious, portentous
-ish having the quality of fiendish, greenish
- ive having the nature of creative, abusive
-less without endless, pointless
-y characterized by sleazy, cheeky
Exercise 5
Add an appropriate suffix to each of the following words and then give the meaning
of the new word.
1. hope 6. green
2. read 7. wear
3. child 8. fear
4. grey 9. kind
5. play 10. wash
WORDS USAGE
Words in English language have various meanings depending on their usage in
sentences.
1. HOMOGRAPHS
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Homographs are words which are spelled the same but have different
meanings. They usually appear as separate entries in a dictionary.
Examples:
The man dug a well in his compound.
They worked well together.
In the first sentence, the noun well means “a spring of water”. In the second
sentence, the adverb well means “in a good manner”.
Examples of common homographs in the English Language
Homograph Meaning Examples
bear (V) to support or carry I will bear the burden.
(N) an animal The bear killed the hunter.
sow (V) to plant seed The farmer sowed the seeds.
(N) female pig The sow is very fat.
lead (V) to guide The mother duck can lead her
ducklings around.
(N) a metal Gold is heavier than lead.
close (Adv)near The tiger was now so close that I
could smell it.
(V) lock “Will you please close that door?”
Wind your watch.
wind (V) turning something The wind howled through the
around woodlands.
(N) moving air
date (V) to determine the age Can you date this sculpture?
(N) to “go out” I have a date with Mary.
(N) a kind of fruit Dates are grown in South Africa.
(N) a calendar time What is the date today?
Exercise 7
Give the homophones and the meanings of the following words.
1. in 6. knight
2. heard 7. knows
3. horse 8. tick
4. hey 9. rung
5. need 10. sees
3. SYNONYMS
Synonyms are words that have almost the same meaning but different
spelling and pronunciation.
Examples:
Slender–thin finish–end sick–ill
Some words have several synonyms. For example, happy has such synonyms
words like light-hearted, pleased, and cheerful.
Synonyms help vary the writing, just like pronouns do. For example, the word
happy and its synonyms help vary the writing.
Daniel felt happy – Daniel felt light-hearted.
She was happy with her grade – She was pleased with her grade.
They sang a happy song – They sang a cheerful song.
4.shattered 9. reply
5.Fix 10. purchase
4. ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. Antonyms also add variety
to your writing.
Examples:
Cold-hot heavier – lighter fearful – brave.
Some words have more than one antonym. Some of these antonyms can be
formed by adding a prefix to a base word.
Examples:
Kind – cruel, unkind like – hate, dislike
Examples of common antonyms in English
absent – present enemy – friend permit – forbid
absurd – sensible evil – good polite – rude
abundant – scarce exhale – inhale positive – negative
accidental – intentional expensive – cheap private – public
accuse – defend fail – succeed push – pull
accurate – incorrect fat – skinny question – answer
admit – deny fertile – barren quick – slow
advance – retreat floor – ceiling reckless – cautious
after – before former – latter rival – friend
alien – native funny – serious sane – insane
alone – together generous – stingy servant – master
always – never genuine – fake sick – well
amuse – bore guilty – innocent simple – complex
anger – kindness humble – arrogant slavery – freedom
applaud – boo husband – wife smart – dumb
asleep – awake illegal – lawful solid – gas
beautiful – ugly import – export spend – save
beg – offer indoor – outdoor stranger – friend
below – above inferior – superior strong – weak
bitter – sweet intelligent – stupid sudden – gradual
buy – sell joy – grief suffix – prefix
careful – careless kind – mean tame – wild
cease – begin king – commoner temporary – permanent
civilian – military lazy – industrious thaw – freeze
closed – open lock – unlock tough – tender
condemn – praise majority – minority unique – common
crooked – straight man – woman vacant – occupied
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Exercise 9
Give the antonyms of the following words:
1. easy 6. sweat
2. whisper 7. stationary
3. triumph 8. strengthen
4. dull 9. precious
5. dangerous 10. naked
5. IDIOMS AND SAYINGS
An idiom is a phrase that has a special meaning as a whole. The meaning of
an idiom is different from the meanings of its separate words.
Examples:
It was raining cats and dogs.
(The idiom raining cats and dogs does not mean that cats and dogs were falling
out of the sky! It means “raining heavily”.)
I put my foot in my mouth today.
(The idiom put my foot in my mouth means “to say the wrong thing”.
Sometimes the context in which an idiom is used can give a hint of its meaning.)
Example:
Jeff is talking through his hat when he says that he can spell every word in the
English language.
(This idiom clearly means that Jeff cannot possibly spell every word in the English
language. Hence, the idiom talking through his hat means talking nonsense.)
More examples of idioms in the English language
Idiom Meaning
1 It was a blessing in disguise. Something good that is not recognised at first.
in the wrist.
5 The thief received a taste of He was mistreated the same way he mistreats
his own medicine. others.
6 Don’t add fuel to the fire! When something is done to make a bad
situation even worse than it is.
9 We are all in the same boat. When everyone is facing the same
challenges.
10 The house cost him an arm Very expensive. A large amount of money.
and a leg.
12 Joyce is the apple of my eye. Someone who is cherished above all others.
14 The politician is a back seat People who criticize from the sidelines
driver.
16 The government has to go When an attempt fails and it’s time to start all
back to the drawing board over again.
on the issue of the New
Constitution.
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17 The exam was a piece of A task that can be accomplished very easily.
cake.
22 She was caught between a Stuck between two very bad options.
rock and a hard place.
23 You are biting off more To take on a task that is way too big.
than you can chew.
28 Don’t cry over spilt milk. When you complain about a loss from the
past.
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30 Tim is a dark horse. One who was previously unknown and now
is prominent.
31 Kinyua is a devil’s Someone who takes a position for the sake of
advocate. argument without believing in that particular
side of the argument.
55 You let the cat out of the To share a secret that wasn’t supposed to be
bag. shared.
60 She is the new kid on the Someone new to the group or area.
block.
62 The accused man is now off No longer have to deal with a tough situation.
the hook.
63 I said that off the record! Something said in confidence that the speaker
doesn’t want attributed to him or her.
67 You will get the job over my When you absolutely will not allow
dead body. something to happen.
72 Rise and shine! It’s time to Time to get out of bed and get ready for work
go to school. or school.
75 He was a scapegoat for the Someone else who takes the blame.
amorous politician.
76 The naughty boy got away To escape and not have to pay.
scot-free.
10. Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth. – When someone gives you a gift, don’t be
ungrateful.
11. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. – Do not put all your resources in one
possibility.
12. Drastic times call for drastic measures. – When you are extremely desperate you
need to take extremely desperate actions.
13. Elvis has left the building. – The show has come to an end. It’s all over.
14. Every cloud has a silver lining. – Be optimistic, even difficult times will lead to
better days.
15. Great minds think alike. – Intelligent people think like each other.
16. Haste makes waste. – Doing things quickly may result in a poor ending.
17. Idle hands are the devils’ tools. – You are more likely to get it trouble if you
have nothing to do.
18. If it’s not one thing, it’s another. – When one thing goes wrong, then another,
and another ….
19. It takes two to tango. – A conflict involves two people and both must cooperate
to have it resolved.
20. It’s a small world. – You cannot hide from your evil deeds in this world.
21. Let bygones be bygones. – To forget about a disagreement or argument.
22. Let sleeping dogs lie. – To avoid restarting a conflict.
23. Never bite the hand that feeds you. – Don’t hurt anyone that helps you.
24. Practice makes perfect. – By constantly practising, you will become better.
25. Rome was not built in one day. - If you want something to be completed
properly, then it’s going to take time.
26. The bigger they are, the harder they fall. – The bigger and stronger opponent
may be more difficult to beat, but when he does, he suffers a much bigger loss.
27. Variety is the spice of life. – The more experiences you try the more exciting
life can be.
28. When it rains, it pours. – Since it rarely rains, when it does it will be a huge
storm.
29. You are what you eat. – In order to stay healthy, you must eat healthy foods.
30. You can’t judge a book by its cover. – Decisions shouldn’t be made primarily
on appearance.
Exercise 10
Give the meaning of the italicized idioms in the following sentences.
1. I was completely at sea when the Prime Minister visited my house.
2. Jane has her hands full. She can’t take on more work.
3. Do you have a bone to pick with me?
4. I can’t make heads or tails of this story.
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PHRASES
A phrase is a group of words without a subject or a predicate or both and
does not express a complete thought. Therefore, a phrase can never stand on its
own as a complete sentence. Using different kinds of phrases enables a writer or a
speaker to create informative and descriptive sentences that vary in structure.
Phrases combine words into a larger unit that can function as a sentence element.
The most common kinds of phrases in English are: Noun phrases, verb
phrases, prepositional phrases, gerund phrases and participial phrases.
1. NOUN PHRASES
A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers. It can function as a
subject, object, or complement in the sentence. The modifiers may include
articles, prepositions and adjectives.
Examples:
(a) Noun phrases as subjects
The lazy old man sleeps all day long.
Some school boards reward teachers who produce good results.
(b) Noun phrases as objects
Teachers rejected the proposed performance contracts.
Critics opposed the controversial marriage bill.
(c) Noun phrases as complements
Teaching is a valuable profession.
Sheila is a hardworking no-nonsense lady.
Exercise 1
Identify the noun phrases in each of the following sentences and indicate whether it
functions as a subject, object or complement.
1. I saw a TV show yesterday.
2. Playful animals really fascinate me.
3. Yesterday, I had a thrilling adventure.
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Msechu dreamt all his life about winning the top award. (The gerund phrase is an
object of the preposition about).
One of Msechu’s biggest disappointments was losing to Alpha. (The gerund phrase
is a complement).
The game involves jumping over hurdles. (The gerund phrase is an object of the
verb involves).
Exercise 4
Underline the gerund or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label each
one subject, direct, object, object of preposition, or complement accordingly
1. In early days, golfing was a game for the rich.
2. The rich were mostly interested in protecting their status.
3. Playing golf with a commoner would mean lowered status.
4. Much of the rich people’s time was spent playing the game.
5. Training thoroughly improved a golfer’s accuracy in the game.
6. There he learned about playing the game.
7. Later, he started contesting with other junior golfers.
8. At fifteen or sixteen, he began playing with the professionals.
9. Participating in international tournaments was the golfer’s dream.
10. But the greatest dream was winning an in international title.
5. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
A participle is a verb form that always acts as an adjective. There are two
types of participles:
(a) The past participle – it is usually formed by adding –d, or -ed to the present
tense.
Examples:
Fooled, the shopkeeper bought fake products. (Fooled is a past participle modifying
the noun shopkeeper)
Shaken, he dashed to the police station.
(Shaken is a past participle modifying the pronoun he)
The participles of irregular verbs, however, do not follow the above rule: run-
run, throw-thrown.
(b) The present participle – it is usually formed by adding -ing to the present tense
of any verb.
Examples:
Smiling, the conman stepped out of the shop. (Smiling is a present participle
modifying the noun conman).
Using participles is a simple way of adding information to sentences and to
vary sentences beginnings.
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SENTENCES
What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. A complete
thought is clear. A sentence always begins with a capital letter. It ends with a full
stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).
Examples:
Ted sent me a letter.
Jane slept soundly.
Sentence fragments
A sentence fragment does not express a complete thought. The reader or
listener cannot be sure what is missing in or the meaning of a sentence fragment.
He or she will be left wondering: What is this about? What happened?
Examples:
Fragment: The huge boat. (What happened?)
Sentence: The huge boat sails down the river.
You can correct a sentence fragment by supplying the missing information.
Subjects and predicates
The two fundamental parts of every English sentence are the subject and the
predicate.
A subject can be described as the component that performs the action
described by the predicate. It tells who or what does or did the action. It may also
name the topic.
The predicate tells about the subject. It tells what the subject does or is.
Examples:
Subject Predicate
(Who or what) (What is said about the subject)
The antelope jumped over the high fence.
Pigs eat anything is sight when hungry.
In a sentence, a few key words are more important than the rest. These key
words make the basic framework of the sentence. The verb and its subject are the
key words that form the basic framework of every sentence. The rest of the sentence
is built around them.
Examples:
Sentence Key words
The young kids jumped playfully. kids, jumped
Their faces shone brightly. faces, shone
To find out the subject, ask who or what before the verb.
Examples:
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In the above examples, the snake, goggles and the door are the objects as they
are the things being affected by the verbs in the sentences.
(Refer to the topic on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs under the main topic
VERBS in Chapter One).
Exercise 1
Which groups of words are sentences and which ones are sentence fragments?
1. A huge storm was coming.
2. Behind the wattle tree.
3. After the earthquake.
4. The wind broke several houses.
5. Surprised by a loud noise.
6. Winds of high speed.
7. Rescue workers arrived.
8. From different parts of the world.
9. Many people were injured.
10. In the weeks after the earthquake.
Direct and indirect objects
Objects come in two types, direct and indirect:
Direct objects
The direct object is the word that receives the action of a verb.
Examples:
Christine saw a snake. ( a snake receives the action of saw)
Rose wears goggles. (goggles receives the action of wears)
Sometimes the direct object tells the result of an action.
Examples:
Tecla won the race.
She received a trophy.
To find the direct object first find the verb. Then ask whom or what after the
verb.
Examples:
Christine saw a snake. Rose wears goggles
Verb: saw verb: wears
Saw what? a snake wears what? goggles
Tecla won the race She received a trophy
Verb: won verb: received
Won what? the race received what? a trophy
Remember, we said earlier that a verb that has a direct object is called a
transitive verb and a verb that does not have an object is called an intransitive
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verb. We also said that a verb may be intransitive in one sentence and transitive in
another. Other verbs are strictly intransitive, e.g. disagree.
Indirect objects
The indirect object refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object.
They tell us for whom or to whom something is done. Others tell to what or for
what something is done.
Examples:
I gave him the book.
He is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary of the book.
Direct object or adverb?
Direct objects are sometimes confused with adverbs. The direct object tells
what or whom as we have seen earlier. Adverbs on the other hand tell how, where,
when or to what extent. They modify the verbs.
Examples:
Brian Swam slowly. (slowly is an adverb telling how)
Brian Swam a tough race. (race is a direct object telling what).
Verbs can also be followed by a phrase that tells how, when, or where. This
kind of a phrase is never a direct object but an adverbial phrase.
Example:
Brian swam across the pool. (across the pool tells where Brian Swam).
Therefore, to decide whether a word or a phrase is a direct object or adverb,
decide first what it tells about the verb. If it tells how, where, when or to what
extent, it is an adverb. If it tells what or whom, it is a direct object.
Exercise 2
Identify the objects or the adverbs/adverbial phrases in the following sentences. If
the sentence has two objects, indicate the direct object and the indirect object.
1. Nanu sings pop music.
2. Nanu sings sweetly.
3. He spoke very quietly.
4. I have read that book three times.
5. She has gone to the bank.
6. David gave her a present.
7. David disagreed bitterly.
8. The player sat on his heels.
9. She made a list of the items to buy.
10. They offered him help.
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Complements
Some sentences do not take objects or adverbs (or adverbial phrases) after the
verbs. Instead, they take complements. A complement is the part of the sentence
that
gives more information about the subject (subject complement) or about the object
(object complement) of the sentence.
Subject complements
Subject complements normally follow certain verbs like be, seem, look, etc.
Examples:
He is British. (British gives more information about he)
She became a nurse. (a nurse gives more information about she)
Object complements
Object complements follow the direct objects of the verb and give more
information about those direct objects.
Examples:
They painted the house red. (red is a complement giving more information about
the direct object house)
She called him an idiot. (an idiot is a complement giving more information about
the direct object he).
The complement often consists of an adjective (e.g. red) or a noun phrase
(e.g. an idiot) but can also be a participle phrase.
Example:
I saw her standing there. (standing there is a complement telling more about her).
Exercise 3
Pick out the complements in the following sentences and indicate whether subject,
object or participial complements.
1. The tourist is a German citizen.
2. She seems a very arrogant lady.
3. You look tired.
4. They painted the car green.
5. James nicknamed Lucy the queen.
6. I saw him stealing the mango.
7. They beat the thief senseless.
8. The priest looks a kind person.
9. We left her crying.
10. Job left her trembling.
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TYPES OF SENTENCES
Sentences can be categorised in terms of structure or in terms of purpose.
(A) IN TERMS OF STRUCTURE
Sentences can be categorised into 3 main types:
(i) Simple sentences
(ii) Compound sentences
(iii) Complex sentences.
(i) SIMPLE SENTENCES
A simple sentence contains a single subject and predicate. It describes only
one thing, idea or question, and has only one verb. It contains only an independent
(main) clause. Any independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It has a
subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Examples:
Bill reads.
Jack plays football.
Even the addition of adverbs, adjectives and prepositional phrases to a simple
sentence does not change its structure.
Example:
The white dog with the black collar always barks loudly.
Even if you join several nouns with a conjunction, or several verbs with a
conjunction, it remains a simple sentence.
Example:
The dog barked and growled loudly.
(ii) COMPOUND SENTENCES
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined
together using a co-ordinating conjunction such as and, or or but.
Example:
The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising.
Each clause can stand alone as a sentence.
Example:
The sun was setting in the west. The moon was just rising.
Every clause is like a sentence with a subject and a verb. A coordinating
conjunction goes in the middle of the sentence; it is the word that joins the two
clauses together.
Other examples:
I walked to the shops, but my wife drove there.
I might watch the film, or I might visit my aunt.
My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn’t like the actor.
Note
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MAIN CLAUSES
A main clause is a clause that can stand as sentence by itself. A compound
sentence contains two or more main clauses, because it is made up of two or more
simple sentences. Each of these simple sentences is a main clause.
Example:
Robots operate machines, and they solve many labour problems.
Robots operate machines and they solve many labour problems are both main
clauses. They are also simple sentences. Main clauses are sometimes called
independent clauses.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
Subordinate clauses are clauses that do not express a complete thought. So
they cannot stand by themselves.
Examples:
If technology will improve When robots can do the work
While electronics will work After the system is complete
None of the above clauses express a complete thought. They are sentence
fragments that leave the reader wondering then what?
Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as if,
when, while, and after.
Other examples of subordinating conjunctions:
Although because so that until
as before than whatever
as if in order that though wherever
as long as provided till whenever
as though since unless where
Now we can understand a complex sentence better. We have said that it
contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Main clause subordinate clause
The bell started ringing before we were out of bed.
The battery needs recharging so that it can work tonight.
The subordinate clause can sometimes appear before the main clauses.
Examples:
When the power failed, the computer stopped.
Before you know it, your flat screen television will be stolen.
The subordinate clause can also sometimes appear in between the sentence.
Example:
The medicine man, who knew many tricks, cheated the man that he had been
bewitched.
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In the last sentence, the relative clause (called so because it is introduced by the
relative pronoun which) which they ate modifies the noun meat and answers the
question which meat?
More examples:
They are searching for the one who borrowed the book.
The relative clause who borrowed the book modifies the pronoun one and answers
the question which one?
Besides relating the adjectival clause to a noun or pronoun in the main clause, a
relative pronoun may also act as the subject, object, predicate pronoun, or object
of a preposition in the clause.
Examples:
Subject: This is the forest that has a secret cave.
(that is the subject of has)
Object: The map, which you saw, guides the way.
(which is the object of saw)
Object of a preposition: The map leads to the cave of which the bushman spoke.
(which is the object of the preposition of)
In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it
is not the subject of the adjectival clause, but you should usually include the relative
pronoun in formal academic writing.
Examples:
Formal: The books that people read were mainly religious.
Informal: The books people read were mainly religious.
Formal: The map which you saw guides the way.
Informal: The map you saw guides the way.
But never omit the relative pronoun if it is in the clause.
Examples:
Correct: This is the forest that has a secret cave.
Incorrect: This is the forest has a secret cave.
Commas are put around adjectival clauses only if they merely add additional
information to a sentence.
Example:
The map, which you saw, shows the way.
This adjective clause can be left out without affecting the grammatical structure
of the sentence. It is merely adding information to the sentence by telling us which
map?
The map shows the way.
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Example:
Njoroge organised a demonstration where his father’s murder occurred.
Note that an adverbial clause can appear either before or after the main clause of
the sentence.
(iii) Noun clauses
A noun clause is a clause which takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase. It
can be used in any way that a noun is used. That is, it can act as the subject, object,
object of a preposition, or predicate noun in a sentence. Just like a noun, a noun
clause answers the questions who, when, or what?
Examples:
As subjects
Noun: Kamau is unknown
Noun phrase: Their destination is unknown
Noun clause: Where they are going is unknown.
The noun clause where they are going is the subject of the verb is.
As objects
Noun: I know French.
Noun phrase: I know the three ladies.
Noun clause: I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In the first sentence, the noun French acts as the direct object of the verb
know. In the third sentence, the entire clause that Latin is no longer spoken as a
native language is the direct object of the verb know.
As objects of the preposition
Noun: He talked about him.
Noun phrase: He talked about the funny items.
Noun phrase: He talked about what you bought at the supermarket.
In the first sentence the pronoun him is the object of the preposition about. In
the third sentence, what you bought at the supermarket is the object of the
preposition about and answers the question about what?
As predicate nouns
Her first day in school was what shaped her life.
The adverbial clause what shaped her life gives more information about the
subject of the sentence Her first day in school.
Words often used to introduce noun clauses
that when whose
what whatever whoever
how who whoever
where whom
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Note:
You cannot tell the kind of a clause from the word that introduces it. You can
tell the kind of clause only by the way it is used in a sentence. If the clause is used
as a noun, it is a noun clause. If the clause is used as a modifier, it is an adjectival
clause or an adverbial clause.
Examples:
Whoever built the house was not an expert. (Noun clause as a subject)
No one knew where he came from. (Noun clause as a direct object)
He left the construction site whenever he wished. (As an adverbial clause)
This is the layout which he left behind. (As an adjectival clause).
Exercise 4
Identify the following sentences as simple, compound or complex. If it is a complex
sentence, indicate whether it has an adjective, an adverb or a noun subordinate
clause.
1. The hotel is not very old.
2. The hotel is not very old; it was constructed in 1987.
3. It has a strange name, but it attracts many tourists.
4. Whoever broke the mirror will have to pay for it.
5. The Gor Mahia fans hope that the team will win again.
6. Did I tell you about the author whom I met?
7. They are searching for the man who stole the cow.
8. People began riding horses at least five thousand years ago.
9. Some people watch the moon as though it affects their lives.
10. Some superstitions were developed when people felt helpless about the world
around them.
11. The parachute was really a sail that was designed for skiing.
12. The moon orbits the earth every 291/2 days.
13. My dog loves bread crusts.
14. I always buy bread because my dog loves the crusts.
15. Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Ndegwa throws pieces of chalk at them.
16. The lazy students whom Mrs. Ndegwa hit in the head with pieces of chalk
complained bitterly.
17. My dog Shimba, who loves bread crusts, eats them under the kitchen table.
18. A dog that drinks too much milk will always be alert.
19. You really do not want to know what Aunt Lucy adds to her stew.
20. We do not know why, but the principal has been away from school for two
months.
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Examples:
(You) Please bring my camera.
(You) Take your medicine before going to bed.
(v) Conditional sentences
A conditional sentence expresses what one would do if a condition were or
were not met.
The condition in the conditional if-clause will determine the fulfilment of the action
in the main clause.
Examples:
If I had a million dollars, I would buy a Hummer.
John would be very successful if he had more brains.
In sentence 1, the condition of having a million dollars will determine whether the
speaker will buy a hummer or not. In sentence, the condition of John not having
more brains determines that he is not very successful.
Exercise 5
Label each of the following sentences declarative, imperative, exclamatory,
interrogative or conditional
1. There is a terrible storm tonight.
2. Try to cover yourself with a blanket.
3. How strong the winds are!
4. If the storm continues, we shall have to go down into the bunker.
5. Do you think it will rip off the roof?
6. Look at that that flash of lightning!
7. What an amazing sight that is!
8. The night looks dark and scary.
9. Please tell the children to stop screaming.
10. Susan will sit beside me if the storm continues.
11. We are hopeful all will be well.
12. Dive under the table if it breaks the roof.
13. How will I find my way?
14. Can I take a glass of water?
15. John wants to know what will happen if our house collapses.
16. There goes the thunder!
17. We shall have to move to another city if we get out of this alive.
18. Tell me a good city where we can move to.
19. The storm is subsiding.
20. Hooray! Safety at last!
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Exercise 6
Rewrite the following sentences correctly in direct speech. Ensure you punctuate
them accordingly.
1. John said there was a terrible accident in Nairobi.
2. Petro added it happened in Umoja Estate.
3. It involved a train and a bus added John.
4. Sarah asked did anyone die.
5. No one died, but the railway line was destroyed answered Peter.
6. Over the months said John the railway line has been rebuilt.
7. How lucky that no one died exclaimed Sarah.
8. I think they should put a railway-crossing sign board Petro said it would help
bus drivers a lot.
9. Or they should put bumps on both sides of the railway line to slow down the
buses John suggested
10. Who knows what might happen next wondered Sarah
INDIRECT SPEECH
Indirect speech is used to refer to a person’s words without quoting him or
her exactly. It is also referred to as indirect quotation or reported speech. The
original spoken words are not repeated. The exact meaning is given without
repeating the speaker’s words.
Example:
Direct speech: The governor said, “Creating new jobs will be my first priority.”
Indirect speech: The governor said that creating new jobs would be his first
priority.
Several changes do occur when changing a sentence from direct to indirect
speech
A. Quotation marks
Quotation marks are left out when writing a sentence in direct speech.
Example:
Direct: Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory”
Indirect: Hemedi announced that his aunt worked in a biscuit factory.
B. Tense - The tense of a verb in the direct sentence will change in indirect
speech
Examples:
1. Simple present changes to past simple
Direct: John said, “She goes to school early.”
Indirect: John said that she went to school early.
2. Simple past changes to past perfect
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Examples:
Mark Francis wakes up very early, doesn’t he?
Peter Bryan bought an I-pad phone, didn’t he?
4. The subject in the statement must be repeated in the question tag. If it is a
noun in the statement, it changes to the appropriate pronoun. If it is a
pronoun in the statement, it remains a pronoun in the question tag.
Examples:
Fatou Bensouda is a prosecutor in ICC, isn’t she?
She does her work meticulously, doesn’t she?
5. When the statement is positive (i.e. It does not have the word not in it), the
question tag must be negative (i.e. must use the negative word not) and vice
versa.
Examples:
David Rudisha has broken another record, hasn’t he?
Catherine Ndereba hasn’t been very active, has she?
Douglas Wakiihuri does not run any more, does he?
Ezekiel Kemboi entertains the audience after winning, doesn’t he?
You will note from the above examples that the auxiliary verb is usually
contracted (joined) with the negative indicator not when using question tags.
However, this does not apply when using primary auxiliary verb am and the modal
auxiliary verbs will and shall. Am does not allow contraction with not, will and
shall usually change their forms to allow contraction.
Examples:
WRONG: I am the next speaker, amn’t I?
CORRECT: I am the next speaker, am I not?
WRONG: They will be late for church, willn’t they?
CORRECT: They will be late for church, won’t they?
WRONG: We shall attend the Memorial service, willn’t we?
CORRECT: We shall attend the memorial service, shan’t we?
6. Whereas there is no inversion in the statement, inversion must occur in the
question tag i.e. the auxiliary verb comes before the subject
Examples:
President Uhuru Kenyatta has won the case, hasn’t he?
Subject verb verb subject
He can now relax and attend to his duties, can’t he?
Subject verb verb subject
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7. For sentences that are in form of requests and commands, the question tags
will commonly take the auxiliary verb will or shall followed by the
appropriate pronoun.
Examples:
Please help me with your pen, will you?
Let us go for a swim, shall we?
Bring me that chair, will you?
Stop that noise, will you?
Kneel down right away, will you?
Those are the rules that govern question tags and if followed well, the learners
will not have any problems with question tags.
Exercise 8
Supply the appropriate question tags in the following sentences.
1.The marriage caused a rupture in her relationship with her mother,
_____________?
2.She didn’t think anyone would be interested in a woman like her,
_______________?
3.The troops are on standby in case chaos erupt, _________?
4.The Prime Minister must take a firm stand against extremists in his party,
_________?
5.I am the best so far, ____________________?
6.The amendments will strengthen the bill, __________?
7.The new tax is tantamount to stealing from the poor, ____?
8.Please send all your remarks to Prof Kibwana as soon as possible,
_______________?
9.She raised the gun and pulled the trigger,______________?
10.We need to learn to prioritize, __________________?
11.Get out of this room now, ___________________?
12.We’ve made a reservation for next week, ____________?
13.They couldn’t conceal the secret any more, ___________?
14.We shall not accept anything less, __________________?
15.I am not a conman, __________________?
16.Jonny wanted to pursue a career in theatre, __________?
17.Sharon’s parents claim that the house is legally theirs, ____________?
18.I haven’t told you my name, _________________?
19.Come and visit us tomorrow, __________________?
20.Time will tell whether he made the right choice, _______?
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Capitalize the first and last words only. Do not capitalize little words such as a,
an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor etc.
C. Titles of shorts stories, songs, articles, book chapters and most poems.
Examples:
Half a Day (short story)
Kigeugeu (song)
Three Days on Mt. Kenya (short story)
The Noun Clauses (chapter in a book)
Grass Will Grow (a poem)
D. Religious names and terms
Examples:
God Allah Jesus the Bible the Koran
Do not capitalize the words god and goddess when they refer to mythological
deities.
E. Major words in geographical names
Examples:
Continents – Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia
Water bodies – the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile River,
RiverTana, Lake Victoria.
Landforms – the Rocky Mountains, the Aberdares Mountains, the Rift Valley, the
Sahara Desert.
Political Units – the Kirinyaga County, the Central Province, Inoi Sub-location.
Public Areas – Nairobi National Park, Wajee Nature Park.
Roads and Highways – Jogoo Road, Kenyatta Avenue, Uganda Road.
F. Names of organisations and institutions
Examples:
Kianjege West Secondary School, United Nations, University of Nairobi, Nairobi
Women’s Hospital
Note that here you capitalize only the important words. Do not capitalize such
words such as a, in, and of. Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church
and hospital when they are not used as parts of names.
Example:
There will be a beauty contest at school.
G. Months, days and holidays
Examples:
June Labour Day
Tuesday December
Kenyatta Day Mashujaa Day
Do not capitalize names of seasons: autumn, summer, winter, spring
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Be careful!
(iii) At the end of an indirect question – one that tells what someone asked, without
using the person’s exact words.
Example:
The naughty boy wanted to know why there was no mid-term break.
Other uses of the full stop
Full stops are also used:
(iv) After initials and after most abbreviations
Examples:
L.L. Coo J. Mr. Sammy Njagi 11:00 A.M.
Sept. Wed. 2hr. 12min
Note that some abbreviations do not require full stops:
Examples:
M (metres) FM (frequency modulation) Km kilometres)
(v) After each number or letter that shows a division of an outline or precedes an
item in a list.
Examples:
Outline List
1. Parts of speech 1. Water – borne diseases
A. Nouns 2. Air-borne disease
1. Types of nouns 3. Sexually – transmitted diseases
2. Uses of nouns 4. Skin diseases
B. Verbs 5. Hereditary diseases
1. Types of verbs 6. Lifestyle diseases
2. Uses of verbs 7. Infectious diseases
(vi) Between numerals representing dollars, cents, before a decimal and in
percentages
Examples:
$ 25.65 165.42 25.3%
b. The question mark (?)
The question mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence (a
sentence that asks a question).
Examples:
When was the Times Tower built?
Who built it?
c. The Exclamation mark (!)
The exclamation mark is used at the end of the exclamatory sentence and
after an interjection. (An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emotion
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Examples:
Mary entered and won the beauty contest.
That camera focuses, flashes, and rewinds automatically.
(iii) After introductory words phrases or clauses
Special elements add specific information to a sentence, but they are not
essential. A comma is used to separate a special element from the rest of the
sentence.
Examples:
Word: Cautiously, he entered the building.
Phrase: After his failure, he disappeared from the public scene.
Clause: Because he had practised daily, he presented his new song perfectly.
Note: If the pause after a short introductory element is very brief, you may omit
the comma.
Examples:
At first he was unsure of his singing ability.
Finally it was his turn.
Commas are also used after introductory words such as yes, no, oh and well
when they begin a sentence.
Examples:
Well, it’s just too cold out there.
No, it isn’t seven yet.
Oh, you have spilled the milk.
(iv) With interrupters
Interrupters are words that break, or interrupt the flow of thought in a
sentence. The commas are used before and after the interrupter to indicate pauses.
Examples:
I didn’t expect, however, to lose the job.
So many people assumed, unfortunately, that he sings as well as he does.
He was chosen, nevertheless, as the new band leader.
(v) To set off nouns of direct address
Examples:
Yes, Kamau, you can borrow my book.
Serah, do you know where I kept my phone?
How is your leg, grandpa?
(vi) To set off the spoken words in a direct sentence or quotation from the speech
tag
Examples:
Jackson said, “After my injury I had to learn to walk again.”
“The therapists urged me to keep trying,” he continued.
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If the speech tag interrupts the spoken words, commas are used after the last
word of the first part of the spoken words and after the last word in the speech tag.
Example:
“After a while,” he added, “I was walking without a cane”.
Note: When a sentence is indirect or reported, no commas are used.
Example:
He added that after a while he was walking without a cane.
(vii) When writing dates
Place a comma after the day of the month.
Examples:
July 3, 1965 December 12, 2010
(viii) When referring to geographical location
Place a comma between the name of the town or city and the name of the state,
district, or country.
Examples:
Kibingoti, Kirinyaga County Mombasa, Kenya
(ix) After the salutation and closing of a friendly or business letter
Examples:
Dear Rose, Yours sincerely,
3. The semicolon (;) and the colon (:)
The semicolon (;)
The semicolon is used:
(i) To separate the parts of a compound sentence when no conjunction is used
Example:
Mountain climbing is exciting; it can also be dangerous.
Note that the semicolon replaces the comma and the coordinating conjunction.
Conjunctions that are commonly replaced by semicolons are and, but, or, for, and
nor. (ii) Before a conjunctive adverb that
joins the clauses of a compound sentence
(Conjunctive adverbs are words like therefore, however, hence, so, then,
moreover, nevertheless, yet, consequently, and besides).
Example:
The competition takes place in July; however, I prefer August.
(iii) To separate the parts of a series when commas occur within the parts
Example:
Last year I flew to Johannesburg, South Africa; Cairo, Egypt; and Kingston,
Jamaica.
The colon (:)
The colon is used:
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Examples:
children’s men’s women’s
(iii) To form the possessive of a plural noun that ends in s
Add only the apostrophe.
Examples:
tricksters’ tenants’
(iv) To form the possessive of an indefinite pronoun
Use an apostrophe and an s.
Examples:
everybody’s somebody’s nobody’s
Note: Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun like our, yours, hers,
theirs.
(v) In names of organisations and business
Show possession in the last word only.
Example:
the United Nations’ brochure
(vi) In hyphenated terms
Show possession in the last word only.
Example:
My mother-in-law’s photograph album
(vii) In cases of joint ownership
Show possession in the last word only.
Example:
Peter and Patrick’s Limousine
(viii) In forming contractions
In contractions, apostrophes replace omitted letters.
Examples:
she’s = she is aren’t = are not I’m = I am
it’s = It is isn’t = is not we’ll = we will
can’t = cannot won’t = will not they’ve = they have
(ix) To show that part of a date has been omitted
Examples:
The tribal clashes of ’08 (the tribal clashes of 2008)
The ’82 coup attempt (the 1982 coup attempt)
6. Quotation Marks (“ ”)
The quotation marks are used:
(i) To enclose the spoken words in a direct sentence. Indirect sentences
need no quotation marks
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Example:
Direct speech: The presidential candidate promised, “Creating new jobs for the
youths will be my first priority.”
Indirect speech: The presidential candidate promised that creating new jobs would
be his first priority.
Note:
1. Always begin a direct quotation with a capital letter.
Example:
The minister said, “You must conserve our environment.”
2. When the spoken words are divided by the speech tag, begin the second part of
the quotation with a small letter.
Example:
“Bring me the money,” said the moneylender, “before the end of the day.”
2. If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the first word of this
sentence is capitalized.
Example:
“I am scared,” said the borrower. “That moneylender is a brute.”
4. Place commas and fullstops inside quotation marks
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
Examples:
“Last month,” the borrower explained, “I borrowed some money from the
moneylender.”
Carol said to the borrower, “And you refused to repay back on time”; however, the
borrower did not agree.
These candidates were suggested in the article “Our Country’s Future”: Raila
Odinga, Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, and Martha Karua.
5. Place question marks and exclamation marks inside quotation marks if they
belong to the quotation. Place them outside if they do not belong to the quotation.
Examples:
Carol asked, “How much money did you borrow?”
Did the borrower say, “I can’t remember”?
“You are a fool!” exclaimed Carol.
6. Use single quotation marks to enclose a title or quotation within a quotation.
Example:
“Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember’ before she lost her temper.”
7. If the title or quotation within the quotation ends the sentence, use both the single
and the double quotation marks after the last word of a sentence.
Example:
“Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember.’”
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8. In a quotation of more than one paragraph, use quotation marks at the beginning
of each paragraph and the end of the final paragraph.
Exercise 1
Punctuate each of the following sentences appropriately.
1. He earned about three million dollars that year
2. You know who Jomo Kenyatta was, don’t you
3. What a wonderful and inspired leader he was
4. He was also a person who helped many people
5. Some people write stories but others write poems.
6. Try to write a concise informative and interesting letter.
7. Also make sure your letter has a heading an inside address a salutation a body a
closing and your signature.
8. One of the most exciting modern developments I believe is the computer.
9. Today is July 2 2011. I will never forget this date.
10. I have lived in Sagana Kirinyaga County since 2008.
11. Try submitting your work to these Publishers Longhorn Publishers Jomo
Kenyatta Foundation or Oxford University Press.
12. Remember a writing career requires the following traits confidence
perseverance and a thick skin!
13. Long ago people used hand sharpened straws or reeds as pens.
14. Fountain pens were invented in our great grandparents time
15. Soft tip pens and rolling ball pens were invented twenty five years ago
16. What would you do if you couldn’t build a house for yourself
17. Youd find someone who could built it for you wouldn’t you.
18. These archives are important to modern historians research.
19. In his play shreds of tenderness, John Ruganda said people who have never
lived through a coup d’etat have romantic ideas about it.
20. Mr. Mureithi said a short letter to a friend is an insult.
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ANSWERS
ANSWERS ON NOUNS
Exercise 1
1. students, party
2.boys, songs
3. Excitement, air
4. Joyce Chepkemoi, prize
5. Otieno, house, street
Exercise 2
1. candle – thing 5. guitar – thing
2. wrestler – person 6. China – place
3. joy – idea 7. hatred – idea
4. Menengai Crater – place 8. Masanduku arap Simiti – person
Exercise 3
1. musicians, drums, trumpets
2. family, village
3. Petronilla, trip
4. festival, Kenyatta University
5. people, costumes, streets
7. holiday, excitement
8. Taxi, family, airport
9. Maryanne, castle, sand
10. mother, water
Exercise 4
Proper nouns Common nouns
July book
England face
Kendu Bay crocodiles
John Hopkins student
Johannesburg life
America business
East Africa day
Calendar
Exercise 5
1. Proper – Lucky Dube Common – singer
2. Proper – London, Paris Common – dancer
3. Proper – Mediterranean sea Common – flight
4. Proper – Second World War Common – nurse
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ANSWERS ON PRONOUNS
Exercise 1
1. They ate fish and chips.
2. We like Italian food.
3. It is delicious
4. The biggest eater was he.
5. You helped in the cooking.
6. The cooks were Tom and I.
Exercise 2
1. They were under the table.
2. She fed the chicken.
3. They were juicy.
4. They visited the orphans.
5. The new waitress is she.
6. The fastest runners were Tecla and she.
7. She went to the hall.
8. It was slaughtered.
9. Lucky Dube and she were South African singers.
10. He has won many athletics medals.
Exercise 3
1. Lisa asked him for a picture.
2. Adam sketched Lisa and me.
3. He gave a photo to us.
4. Ann and she saw Dave and Bob.
5. Adam drew Lisa and them.
6. Mark helped me with the packing.
7. Loise praised him for his good work.
8. Everyone spotted them easily.
9. That night Mike played the guitar for us.
10. We drove with them to the mountains.
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Exercise 4
1. My journey to Mombasa was enjoyable.
2. Florence said hers was the best.
3. Are the pictures of Fort Jesus yours?
4. Hers are about Jomo Kenyatta Beach.
5. Tomorrow we will make frames for our pictures.
6. My class is planning a trip to Mt. Kenya.
7. Our trip will be taken on video.
8. Micere is excited that the idea was hers.
9. Koki and Toti cannot hide their excitement.
10. My dream is to climb to the highest peak of the mountain.
Exercise 5
1. You will = You’ll
2. we would = we’d
3. he had = he’d
4. I am = I’m
5. you have = you’ve
6. they will = they’ll
Exercise 6
1. I’ll = I will
2. we’re = we are
3. you’d = you would, you had
4. he’s = he is, he has
5. they’re = they are
6. she’d = she would, she had
Exercise 7
1. its 3. They’re 5 it’s
2. who’s 4. whose
Exercise 8
1. All – are 6. Everyone – his
2. Anybody – has 7. Several – their
3. Many – believe 8. Anyone – her
4. Each – makes 9. Another – his
5. All – indicates 10. Somebody – her
Exercise 9
1. This 3. Those 5. these
2. That 4. those
Exercise 10
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9. is – Linking verb
10. seems – Linking verb
Exercise 2
Helping verb Main verb
1. is singing
2. has begun
3. can travel
4. had waited
5. will be visiting
6. have come
7. must buy
8. has chosen
9. is hitting
10 will go
Exercise 3
1. studies
2. splashes
3. washes
4. hurries
5. discuss
Exercise 4
1. watched
2. cried
3. yelled
4. baked
5. shopped
Exercise 5
1. will write
2. will stop
3. will decide
4. shall practice
5. will multiply
Exercise 7
1. started 6. breathed
2. added 7. roamed
3. trapped 8. obeyed
4. annoyed 9. worried
5. pitied 10. fitted
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Exercise 8
1. will/shall see 6. will/shall develop
2. will/shall go 7. will/shall begin
3. will/shall exist 8. will/shall/consume
4. will/shall introduce 9. will/shall hunt
5. will/shall bring 10. will/shall become
Exercise 9
1. John has come here every year. - present perfect
2. John has been coming here every year. - present perfect progressive
3. John had come here every year. – past perfect
4. John had been coming here every year. – past perfect progressive
5. John will have come here every year. – future perfect
6. John will have been coming here every year. – future perfect progressive.
Exercise 10
1. Jane is playing the guitar. – present progressive
2. Jane has been playing the guitar. – present perfect progressive
3. Jane was playing the guitar. – past progressive
4. Jane had been playing the guitar. – past perfect progressive
5. Jane will play the guitar. – future progressive
6. Jane will have been playing the guitar. – future perfect progressive
Exercise 11
1. guard 6. cleans
2. stands 7. study
3. cross 8. visits
4. use 9. wed
5. feed 10. run
Exercise 12
Present Past Past participle
1. prevent prevented prevented
2. donate donated donated
3. hurry hurried hurried
4. worry worried worried
5. train trained trained
6. aid aided aided
7. relieve relieved relieved
8. share shared shared
9. enrol enrolled enrolled
10. save saved saved
Exercise 13
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4. sits 9. raises
5. taught 10. laid
ANSWERS ON ADJECTIVES
Exercise 1
1. largest 6. vast
2. Alaskan 7. American, wild
3. tallest 8. huge
4. tiny 9. Australian
5. small, scattered 10. beautiful, Egyptian
Exercise 2
1. those 6. Those
2. Those 7. This
3. that 8. This
4. That 9. those
5. This 10. Those
Exercise 3
1. Twenty 6. What
2. Few, our 7. Whose
3. all 8. Which
4. much 9. what
5. Numerous, this 10. which
Exercise 4
1. A 6. the
2. a 7. an
3. the 8. the
4. The 9. the
5. an 10. A
Exercise 5
1. many – songs
2. Her, early – songs, her – fans
3. Our, first – performance
4. Her – coughing
5. their, best – goal, ten – years
Exercise 6
1. quiet, serious
2. popular
3. calm, peaceful
4. brilliant
5. extraordinary
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Exercise 7
1. more beautiful 6. stranger
2. funniest 7. more curious
3. most enjoyable 8. higher
4. most energetic 9. more creative
5. most helpful 10. simpler
Exercise 8
1. Best 6. Farther
2. Bad 7. Less or lesser
3. Best 8. Good
4. Worse 9. Better
5. Least 10. Most
Exercise 9
1. those 6. these
2. These 7. those
3. This 8. This
4. Those 9. that
5. Those
ANSWERS ON ADVERBS
Exercise 1
Adverb What it indicates
1. far where
2. cheerful how
3. downstairs where
4. carefully, skilfully how
5. extremely how
6. curiously how
7. soon when
8. fully to what extent
9. adorably how
10. down where
Exercise 2
Adverb Adjective
1. highly successful
2. extremely cold
3. quite difficult
4. barely visible
5. very old
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6. mysteriously secretive
7. horribly mean
8. totally exciting
9. completely mad
10. never punctual
Exercise 3
Adverb Adverb
1. very gradually
2. surprisingly quickly
3. somewhat closer
4. extremely irresponsibly
5. totally carelessly
Exercise 4
1. quickly 6. odd
2. gradually 7. reasonable
3. good 8. rapidly
4. rapidly 9. well
5. strange 10. well
Exercise 5
1. more often 6. more swiftly
2. more slowly 7. most accurately
3. quickly 8. the longest
4. more skilfully 9. gracefully
5. the fastest 10. the most sweetly
ANSWERS ON PREPOSITIONS
Exercise 1
1. on – where
2. for – purpose
3. with – use
4. in – place
5. from – place
Exercise 2
1. for
2. In
3. In
4. down, for
5. by
Exercise 3
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Preposition Object/objects
1. in ways
2. to people
3. In cities
4. On farms
5. across river
6. to side
7. at place
8. by boat
9. to problem
10. over water
Exercise 4
1. her 6. us
2. me 7. me
3. us 8. him
4. her 9. me
5. us 10. her
Exercise 5
1. outside – preposition 6. up – adverb
2. inside – adverb 7. down – adverb
3. in – preposition 8. outside – adverb
4. over – preposition 9. by – adverb
5. above – preposition 10. out – adverb
Exercise 6
1. have 4. Anybody 7. anybody 10. ever
2. anyone 5. anywhere 8. anyone
3. ever 6. had 9. Has
ANSWERS ON CONJUNCTIONS
Exercise 1
1. but 6. but
2. or 7. and
3. or 8. or
4. and 9. and
5. but 10. but
Exercise 2
1. They arrived late because it was raining heavily.
2. John worked hard as he wanted to buy a house.
3. I won’t carry the umbrella for you need it.
4. I drove the car madly since I was late for the meeting.
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CHAPTER FOUR
Exercise 1
1. A huge storm was coming. – sentence
2. Behind the wattle tree- sentence fragment
3. After the earthquake – sentence fragment
4. The wind broke several houses. – sentence
5. Surprised by a loud noise – sentence fragment
6. Winds of high speed – sentence fragment
7. Rescue workers arrived. – sentence
8. From different parts of the world – sentence fragment
9. Many people were injured. – sentence
10. In the weeks after the earthquake – sentence fragment
Exercise 2
1. pop music – object
2. sweetly – adverb
3. very quietly – adverbial phrase
4. that book – object, three times – adverbial phrase
5. to the bank- adverbial phrase
6. her – indirect object, a present – direct object
7. bitterly – adverb
8. on his heels – adverbial phrase
9. a list of the items to buy – object
10. help – object
Exercise 3
1. a German citizen – subject complement
2. a very arrogant lady – subject complement
3. tired – subject complement
4. green – object complement
5. the queen – object complement
6. stealing the mango – participial complement
7. senseless – object complement
8. a kind person – subject complement
9. crying – participial complement
10. trembling – participial complement
Exercise 4
1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Compound sentence
4. Complex – whoever broke the mirror – noun clause
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5. Simple sentence
6. Complex sentence – whom I met – adjectival clause
7. Complex sentence – who stole the cow – adjectival clause
8. Simple sentence
9. Complex sentence – as though it affects their lives – adverbial clause
10. Complex sentence - when people felt helpless about the world around them –
adverbial clause.
11. Complex sentence – that was designed for skiing – adjectival clause
12. Simple sentence
13. Simple sentence
14. Complex sentence – because my dog loves crusts – adverbial clause
15. Complex sentence – whenever lazy students whine – adverbial clause
16. Complex sentence – whom Mrs. Ndegwa hit in the head with pieces of chalk
– adjectival clause
17. Complex sentence – who loves bread crusts – adjectival clause
18. Complex sentence – that drinks too much milk – adjectival clause
19. Complex sentence – what Aunt Lucy adds to her stew – noun clause
20. Compound sentence
Exercise 5
1. Declarative 11. Declarative
2. Imperative 12. Imperative/conditional
3. Exclamatory 13. Interrogative
4. Conditional 14. Interrogative
5. Interrogative 15. Declarative
6. Exclamatory 16. Exclamatory
7. Exclamatory 17. Conditional
8. Declarative 18. Imperative
9. Imperative 19. Declarative
10. Conditional 20. Exclamatory
Exercise 6
1. John said, “There was a terrible accident in Nairobi.”
2. Petro added, “It happened in Umoja Estate.”
3. “It involved a train and a bus,” added John.
4. Sarah asked, “Did anyone die?”
5. “No one died, but the railway line was destroyed,” answered Peter.
6. “Over the months,” said John, “the railway line has been rebuilt.”
7. “How lucky that no one died!” exclaimed Sarah.
8. “I think they should put a railway-crossing sign board,” Petro said. “It
would help bus drivers a lot.”
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9. “Or they should put bumps on both sides of the railway line to slow down
the buses,” John suggested.
10. “Who knows what might happen next?” wondered Sarah.
Exercise 7
1. Joel asked him if he saw the fire at the West Gate Mall.
2. Njagi said that ten fire-engines had arrived in fifteen minutes.
3. Patty exclaimed that it had destroyed an entire building.
4. Joel said that one fire fighter had been slightly injured.
5. Njagi said that several people working in the building had escaped unhurt.
6. Patty wanted to know what would happen to them.
7. Joel replied that other people were giving them food and clothes.
8. Njagi added that they were resting in the school at that time.
9. Patty exclaimed that those terrorists would finish them.
10. Joel told them not to worry; they would be apprehended the following day.
Exercise 8
Supply the appropriate question tags in the following sentences.
1. The marriage caused a rupture in her relationship with her mother, didn’t it?
2. She didn’t think anyone would be interested in a woman like her, did she?
3. The troops are on standby in case chaos erupts, aren’t they?
4. The Prime Minister must take a firm stand against extremists in his party,
mustn’t he?
5. I am the best so far, am I not?
6. The amendments will strengthen the bill, won’t they?
7. The new tax is tantamount to stealing from the poor, isn’t it?
8. Please send all your remarks to Prof Kibwana as soon as possible, will you?
9. She raised the gun and pulled the trigger, didn’t she?
10.We need to learn to prioritize, don’t we?
11.Get out of this room now, will you?
12.We’ve made a reservation for next week, haven’t we?
13.They couldn’t conceal the secret any more, could they?
14.We shall not accept anything less, shall we?
15.I am not a conman, am I?
16.Jonny wanted to pursue a career in theatre, didn’t he?
17.Sharon’s parents claim that the house is legally theirs, don’t they?
18.I haven’t told you my name, have I?
19.Come and visit us tomorrow, will you?
20.Time will tell whether he made the right choice, won’t it?
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CHAPTER FIVE
Exercise 1
1. This play is a revision of Shakespeare’s earlier play, The Merchant of Venice.
2. John Kiriamiti wrote My life in Crime.
3. I admire women who vie for parliamentary seats.
4. Bernard Mathenge and his wife travelled to America.
5. My grandmother grew up in Witemere.
6. The Nile River is one of the largest rivers in Africa.
7. Each year tourists visit Maasai Mara National Park.
8. The TV show Papa Shirandula has attracted many viewers.
9. Uganda and Kenya have signed an agreement over the ownership of Migingo
Islands.
10. Our country got independence in December, 1963.
11. On Christmas Day, all my relatives gathered at my home.
12. Waiyaki is a fictional character in Ngugi wa Thiongo’s novel, The River
Between.
13. The city of Mombasa gets its water from River Tana.
14. I would like to become a famous writer like Sidney Sheldon.
15. They captured the stark beauty of Hell’s Gate National Park in their movie.
Exercise 2
1. He earned about three million dollars that year.
2. You know who Jomo Kenyatta was, don’t you?
3. What a wonderful and inspired leader he was!
4. He was also a person who helped many people.
5. Some people write stories, but other write poems.
6. Try to write a concise, informative, and interesting letter.
7. Also make sure that your letter has a heading, an inside address, a salutation, a
body, a closing, and your signature.
8. One of the most exciting modern developments, I believe, is the computer.
9. Today is July 2, 2011. I will never forget this date.
10. I have lived in Sagana, Kirinyaga County, since 2008
11. Try submitting your work to the following publishers: Longhorn Publishers,
Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, or Oxford University Press.
12. Remember, a writing career requires the following traits: confidence,
perseverance, and a thick skin!
13. Long ago, people used hand–sharpened straws and reeds as pens.
14. Fountain pens were invented in our great–grandparents’ time.
15. Soft-tip pens and rolling-ball pens were invented twenty-five years ago.
16. What would you do if you couldn’t build a house for yourself?
148
17. You’d find someone who could build it for you, wouldn’t you?
18. These archives are important to modern historians’ research.
19. In his play Shreds of Tenderness, John Ruganda said, “People who have never
lived through a coup d’etat have romantic ideas about it.”
20. Mr. Mureithi said, “A short letter to a friend is an insult.”
149
ORAL SKILLS
PRONUNCIATION
PRONUNCIATION OF VOWEL SOUNDS
In English, we have various vowel sounds. We shall study them one after the other.
Sound /ᵆ/
Consider the letter ‘a’ in the words below. Each says this sound.
Pan Pat Track Rag
Fan Dad Cram Sand
Ban Ham Fanned Slam
Brash Mat Flash Tag
Cat Rash Pack Man
Sound /ᶾ˸/
This sound is more like the sound you make when you are disgusted.
The letters in boldface say this sound. Study them carefully.
Bird Berth Cur Pert
Shirt Her Fur Stir
Flirt Heard Firm Blur
Turn Hurt Herd Shirk
Learn Purse Burn Surge
First Birth Curt
Sound /a:/
It is pronounced by having a much wider open mouth position.
Inside your mouth is shown in the process of saying this sound.
Examples of words bearing this sound include:
Far Heart Bard Dart
Farm Hard Cart Card
Guard Bar Car Par
Sound /ə/
This sound (referred to as schwa) is a short vowel sound.
It mostly found in words containing letter ‘o’, for example,
Confuse Contemptuous Continue Condolence
Also in words such as:
Business
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Sound /Ʌ/
Examples of words containing this sound include:
Sun Cum Fun Brush Drum
Son Cup Sung Hum Dumb
Some But Swum Rung Fund
Pun Much Bug Truck
Fun Begun Bunk Stunned
Sound /ɔ˸/
It is a long sound.
The mouth doesn’t move while saying this sound, and it can be pronounced as long
as you have breath.
It is said in words such as:
Or Pork Nor Horn Chalk
More Door Law Lord Jaw
Chores Four Cord Saw Scorn
Dorm Fore Form Shore
Sound /ᶛ/
It is a short sound.
The mouth doesn’t move.
Each of the words below bear this sound:
Got Boss Cop Pot Swatch
On Stock Mop Blot
Cost Plot Rod Crock
Lost Block Sock Frog
Odd Cock Shot Swat
ᶹ
Sound / /
bosom
Sound /u:/
Sound /I:/
Long sound
Said in words such as the ones below:
Sheep
Feet
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Meat
Tweet etc.
Sound /ᶦ/
It is a short sound.
In words such as:
Fit
Bit
Quit
Blip etc.
Exercise
The table below has columns with different sounds. Pronounce each of the words
in the list and classify, according to the highlighted letter(s), under the column
that bears that sound.
Chip Greased Still cheat
Jeep Teal Blip blink
Creek Hill Fill thrill
Wet Sit Bed jet
/i:/ /ᶦ/ /e/
ᶞ
Sound / /
Unlike /ᶿ/, it is voiced.
It also pronounced with tongue touching or between your teeth.
It is found in such words as:
With Clothing Thence Their
There These Then they
Sound /s/
This is a hissing sound like a snake.
It is voiceless.
The few rules for some of the common spellings that say the sound /s/ are:
(a)Letter ‘S’, for example,
Sit Say Boss Misty
Wise Sad This Sunday
Dogs Sound Lips
(b) Letter ‘SC’, for example,
Muscle Descend Science Scream
(c)Letter ‘X’, for example,
Fix Fox Next Mix
(d) Letter ‘C’, for example,
Face City Fence
Practice Circle License
Sound /z/
The /z/ is like the sound of buzzing bees.
It is voiced.
Most words with the letter ‘Z’ say /z/, for example,
Zoo Zebra Buzz Doze
Zip Quiz Freeze prize
There are those words with letter ‘S’ saying this sound, for example,
Is Noise Girls Wednesday
Was Noises Friends Sounds
His Rose Lies Pose
Hers Roses Busy Reason
Nose Frogs Tuesday Rise
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Exercise 2
Considering the pronunciation of highlighted letters, pick the odd word out.
(a)Judge, gesture, garage
(b) Jump, gift, geological
(c)Fungi, just, go
(d) Digit, game, gamble
(e)Hygiene, prodigy, entangle
(f) Gecko, gem, zoology
Exercise 3
Pronounce each word correctly and then group it under the column containing
the sound that the highlighted letter(s) bear.
Tissue Cautious Persian Decision
Caucasian Leisure Casual Collision
Division Solution Chef Sure
Passion Pressure Conclusion Precious
Ocean Vision Television Exposure
/ᶴ / /ᶾ /
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Exercise 4
Circle the letter(s) that say /f/ and underline those saying /v/ in the sentences
below.
(a)Please forgive me for forgetting the leftover food.
(b) Save the four wolves that live in the cave.
DIPHTHONGS
A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds.
Some of the diphthongs include:
/ᵊᶹ/
/ᵃᶸ/
/ᵉᶦ/
/ᵊᶹ/
In words like;
Role Moment Owe Mexico Don’t
Bone Bonus Own Potato Soul
Phone Focus Bowl Tomato Shoulder
Stone Vogue Blow Logo Road
Close Social Grown Motto Load
Note Soldier Throw Cold Boat
Notice Coworker Go Gold Coast
Lonely Most Ago Bold Coat
Home Post No Sold Oak
Hope Host So Told Soak
Open Ghost Toe Roll Approach
Ocean Both Hero Poll Boast
Remote Low Zero Control Ok
Solar Know Veto Bolt Obey
Polar Mow Ego Colt Omit
Modal Sow Echo Folk Hotel
Total Show Radio Comb Motel
Motor Tow Studio Won’t
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/ᵃᶸ/
Said in words such as:
How Crown Doubt Around Bowel
Cow Crowd Foul Pound Power
Now Powder Noun Sound Tower
Allow Browse House Count Flower
Owl Loud Mouse Amount Shower
Brown Proud Mouth Mountain Hour
Down Cloud South Announce Our
Town Out Couch Bounce Sour
Clown Shout Found Allowing Flour
Drown About Ground Towel coward
/ᵉᶦ/
The words containing this diphthong are:
wait Danger Faint Nation Save
late Angel Paint Nature Cave
bait Stranger Fate Fatal Wave
date Basis Rate Patriot Ray
tale Lazy Kate Radio Gray
bail Crazy Race Vacant Play
bale Fail Base Weight Lay
sale Mail Place Eight Day
gate Sail Lake Vein May
waste Rail Take Neighbou Pray
wade Raise Name r Convey
baby Raid Ache Break Survey
bacon Afraid Rage Steak Stain
paper Wait Patient Age Change etc
April Straight Racial Wage
Exercise
Write another word pronounced the same way as:
a) Gait b) Made c) Mail d) Pale e) Pain
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6. bale – veil
7. bane – vein
8. curb – curve
9. bolt – volt
10. bowl – vole
11. broom – vroom
12. dribble – drivel
13. dub – dove
14. jibe – jive
15. rebel – revel
Exercise 7
There is another word that will vary with the one written below with just one
sound. Depending on the sounds /b/ and /v/, write that word.
(a)van (c)Vest (e)Vent (g) Loaves
(b) boat (d) Vowels (f) Bury (h) Verve
Minimal pairs of /f/ and /v/
Fan – van Fie – vie Feel – veal
Off – of Foal – vole Staff – starve
Fat – vat Guff – guv Feign – vain/ vein
Fee – v Waif – waive Foist – voiced
Foul – vowel Gif – give Fox – vox
Fender – vendor Life – live Reef – reeve
Serf/Surf – serve Safe – save
Duff – dove Belief – believe
Exercise 8
Write the minimal pair of the word below with consideration being either the
sound /f/ or /v/.
(a)Ferry (d) Fine (g) Veil (j) Fault
(b) Leaf (e)Half (h) Grief (k) Vile
(c)Vast (f) Proof (i) Calf (l) Strive
Minimal Pairs of Sounds/s/ and /ᶿ/
Mouse – mouth Force – fourth Sort – thought Miss – myth
Sing – thing Sick – thick Tense – tenth Pass – path
Face – faith Sink – think Mass – math Saw – thaw
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(r) Log
(s) Rack
(t) Cot
HOMOPHONES
Words pronounced the same way but have different spellings and meanings are the
homophones. The list below is English homophones.
1. Accessary accessory 30. Be, bee
2. Ad, add 31. Beach, beech
3. Ail, ale 32. Bean, been
4. Air, heir 33. Beat, beet
5. Aisle, I’ll, isle 34. Beau, bow
6. All, awl 35. Beer, bier
7. Allowed, aloud 36. Bell, belle
8. Alms, arms 37. Berry, bury
9. Altar, alter 38. Berth, birth
10. Ante, anti 39. Bight, bite, byte
11. Arc, ark 40. Billed, build
12. Aural, oral 41. Bitten, bittern
13. Away, aweigh 42. Blew, blue
14. Awe, oar, or, ore 43. Bloc, block
15. Axel, axle 44. Boar, bore
16. Aye, eye, I 45. Board, bored
17. Bail, bale 46. Boarder, border
18. Bait, bate 47. Bold, bawled
19. Baize, bays 48. Boos, booze
20. Bald, bawled 49. Born, borne
21. Ball, bawl 50. Bough, bow
22. Band, banned 51. Boy, buoy
23. Bard, barred 52. Brae, bray
24. Bare, bear 53. Braid, brayed
25. Bark, barque 54. Braise, brays, braze
26. Baron, barren 55. Brake, break
27. Base, bass 56. Bread, bred
28. Bay, bey 57. Brews, bruise
29. Bazaar, bizarre 58. Bridal, bridle
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Letter ‘G’
Align Champagne Gnash Reign
Assign Cologne Gnaw Sign
Benign Consign Gnome
Campaign Gnarl Gnu
Letter ‘H’
Honest Archeology Charisma Loch
Hour Architect Chemical Shepherd
Heir Archives Chemist Monarch
Honour Chaos Chorus Scheme
Ache Character Choir psych
Anchor Cholera Echo
Letter ‘I’
Business
Parliament
Letter ‘K’
Knock Kneel Knight Know
Knapsack Knell Knit Knowledge
Knave Knew Knob Knuckle
Knead Knickers Knock
Knee Knife Knot
Letter ‘L’
Calm Walk Calf Folk
Half Would Salmon Balk
Talk Should Yolk
Letter ‘N’
Autumn Damn
Column Hymn
Condemn Solemn
Letter ‘O’
Lesson
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Letter ‘P’
Psychology Psychiatrist Receipt
Pneumonia Psychotherapy Corps
Pseudo Psychotic Coup
Letter ‘S’
Island Apropos
Aisle Bourgeois
Letter ‘T’
Apostle glisten mortgage whistle
Bristle hustle nestle wrestle
Bustle jostle rustle
Castle listen thistle
fasten moisten trestle
Letter ‘U’
baguette disguise guillotine guitar
biscuit guess guilt rogue
build guide guilty silhouette
built guild guilty colleague
circuit guile guise tongue
Letter ‘W’
awry wreak wriggle wrong
playwright wreath wring writhe
sword wreck wrinkle wrong
wrangle wreckage wrist wrought
wrap wren writ wrung
wrapper wrench write wry
wrath wretched wrote
Exercise
Identify the silent letter(s) in:
i. debtor v. acquit ix. handsome xiii. Christmas
ii. isle vi. womb x. sandwich xiv. Whether
iii. mock vii. patios xi. government xv. Rapport
iv. depot viii. thyme xii. listen xvi. Ballet
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The words: will, you, me, since, I, are just meant to make the sentence correct
grammatically. They can also be stressed to bring the intended meaning.
Now let’s study the sentence below:
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my green skirt.
Each word in the sentence can be stressed to bring the meaning as illustrated in the
table.
Sentence Meaning
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my She doesn’t think that, but
green skirt. someone else does.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my It is not true that Joan thinks that.
green skirt.
Joan doesn’t thinkAkinyi stole my Joan doesn’t think that, she knows
green skirt. that.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my Not Akinyi, but someone else.
green skirt. Probably Njuguna or Adhiambo.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyistole my Joan thinks Akinyi did something
green skirt. to the green skirt, may be washed
it.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my Joan thinks Akinyi stole someone
green skirt. else’s green skirt, but not mine.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my She thinks Akinyi stole my red
green skirt. skirt which is also missing.
Joan doesn’t think Akinyi stole my Joan thinks Akinyi stole my green
green skirt. shirt. She mispronounced the word.
Exercise 1
1. The words that follow can be nouns or verbs dependingon the stressed syllable.
Use each as both the verb and noun in a single sentence.
(a)Cement (b)Address (b) Permit (c)Content
2. Underline the part of the word in boldface you will stress in each of the
following sentences.
(a)The boy has been asked to de.sert the de.sert.
(b) My handsome es.cortwilles.cort me to the dance.
(c)After updating my re.sume, I will re.sume my job search.
(d) They have to con.testin the annual Math con.test.
(e)If you con.vict me, I will remain a con.vict for 5 years.
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Exercise 2
Each word in the sentences below can be stressed to bring the meaning. What
will be the meaning when each word is stressed?
(a)I love your sister’s handwriting.
(b) You came late today.
INTONATION
It is the rise and fall of voice in speaking.
Intonation is crucial for communication.
In English there are basically two kinds of intonation: rising and falling.
We can use arrows to show the intanotion – whether rising or falling. ↘ represents
falling intonation while ↗ represents the rising one.
Falling Intonation
Falling intonation is when we lower our voice at the end of a sentence.
This usually happens in:
(a)Statements, for example,
I like↘ bananas.
It is nice working with ↘you.
She travelled to↘ Eldoret.
(b) W/H Questions
What is your ↘name?
Where do you ↘live?
How old are↘ you?
Who is this young↘ man?
(c)Commands
Get out ↘now.
Give me the ↘money.
Close your ↘books.
(d) Exclamatory sentences e.g.
What a wonderful ↘present!
How ↘nice of you
Rising intonation
When we lower our voice.
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Used in:
General Questions e.g.
Do you visit them↗ often?
Have you seen ↗her?
Are you ready to ↗start?
Could you give me a↗ pen, please?
Alternative questions e.g.
Do you want ↗coffee or ↘tea?
Does he speak↗ Kiswahili or ↘English?
Before tag questions e.g.
This is a beautiful ↘place, ↗isn’t it?
She knows↘ him,↗ doesn’t she?
Enumerating e.g.
↗One, ↗two,↗ three, ↗four,↘ five.
She bought ↗bread, ↗cheese, ↗oranges, and ↘apples.
Exercise
Using an arrow, determine whether rising or falling intonation is used in the
sentences.
(a)This music sounds good.
(b) I love watching horror movies.
(c)My sister’s name is Amina.
(d) Blue is my favourite colour.
(e)Is that tv good?
(f) Do you like that movie?
(g) Are you hungry?
(h) Get me my shoes.
(i) Study your lessons now.
(j) Are you insane?
(k) How many more hours before you are done with your work?
(l) Which novel is the best for you?
(m) He is a little bit nervous, isn’t he?
(n) You should listen to your parents’ advice.
(o) Did you finish your homework?
(p) Water is good for the body.
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SHORT FORMS
PUNS/WORD PLAY
A pun is a form of word play that suggests several meanings, by either exploiting the
multiple meanings of a word, or substituting a word for another similar sounding
word, the result of which is humorous.
A pun is also known as paronomasia.
There are two main types of puns:
(a)Homophonic puns
This is where a word is substituted for another similar sounding word or word
pronounced almost in the same way . For example,
Fishermen are reel men.
Explanation: There is a twist on the word ‘reel’ which is originally supposed to be
spelt ‘real’.
Can you now explain the pun in the following homophonic puns?
1. What do sea monsters eat for lunch? Fish and ships.
2. I am on a seafood diet. Every time I see food, I eat it.
3. Did you about the Italian chef with terminal illness? He past away.
4. Beauty is in the eye of the beer holder.
5. What tea do hockey players drink? Penalttea
6. What do ghosts serve for dessert? I scream.
7. What did the tree sya to the autumn? Leaf me alone.
8. What did the boy cat say to the girl cat on valentine’s day? You’re purr-fect for
me.
9. What day does an Easter egg hate the most? Fry-days.
10. Why did the scientist install a knocker on his door? He wanted to win the
No-bell prize!
(b) Homographic puns
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Homographic pun is formed by using a word that has multiple meanings. You might
not tell what exactly what the speaker means.
For example;
Rose is the flower of my life.
Explanation: The word ‘Rose’ is a female name. it could be the person the speaker
loves.
It is also a type of flower.
The other examples are;
1. My math teacher called me average. How mean!
2. What do prisoners use to call each other? Cell phones.
3. No matter how much you push the envelope, it’ll remain stationery.
4. Have you ever tried to eat a clock? It’s very time consuming.
5. A waist is a terrible thing to mind.
6. I am reading a book about anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.
7. What part of football ground is never the same? The changing room.
8. I want to tell you a chemistry joke but I know I will not get a reaction.
9. Why did the bee get married? Because he found his honey.
10. Did you hear about the guy who got hit in the head with a can of soda? He
was lucky it was a soft drink.
Features of Puns
Puns are characterized by;
1. They are short.
2. They are humorous.
Functions of Puns
They serve functions such as:
(a)Teaching pronunciation. For example, homophones.
(b) Enhancing creativity. One has to think in order to form their puns.
(c)Entertaining. When said one wonders what the speaker intends, the audience will
laugh.
Exercise
Explain the pun in:
(a)I used to be a banker but I lost interest.
(b) A bicycle can’t stand on its own because it is two-tired.
(c)I don’t trust these stairs because they are always up to something.
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TONGUE TWISTERS
A phrase or a sentence which is hard to speak fast because of alliteration or a
sequence of nearly similar sounds is the tongue twister.
It is worth noting that there is usually the use of mnemonic feature (sound devices
or sound patterns) in the tongue twisters.
Let us read the following tongue twisters fast.
She sells sea shells on the sea shore.
Any noise annoys an oyster but noisy noise annoys an oyster more.
Kindly kittens knitting mittens keep kazooing in the king’s kitchen.
Sound Patterns in Tongue Twisters
1. Read the tongue twister below fast.
She saw a fish on the seashore and I am sure the fish she saw on the sea shore was a
saw-fish.
In the words: she, shore and sure, there is the repetition of the consonant sound /ᶴ/ at
the beginning of the words. This is alliteration.
Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant sound in the nearby words.
Can you identify any other instance of alliteration in the above tongue twister?
2. Read this other tongue twister and take note of the highlighted letters.
A skunk sat on a stump and thank the stump stunk, but the stump thank the skunk
stunk.
The sound pattern here is consonance.
Consonance is the repetition of the inner consonant sound in the nearby words. An
inner sound is that which comes after the first.
There is another instance of consonance. Can you illustrate it?
3. Repetition
In most tongue twisters, there is repetition of words or phrases. In (1) above, the
words ‘saw’, ‘fish’, etc. have been repeated.
Now pick out the words and phrases repeated in these tongue twisters.
(a)If you tell Tom to tell a tongue twister, his tongue will be twisted as tongue
twister twists tongues.
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RIDDLES
A riddle is a statement or a question with veiled meaning posed as a puzzle to be
solved.
The riddles play functions such as:
They boost the creativity of kids.
They entertain.
Some examples of riddles include:
What gets wetter and wetter the more it dries? A towel.
What can you catch but not throw? A cold.
What goes around the world but stays in a corner? A stamp.
Give me food, and I will live; give me water, and I will die. What am I ? Fire.
Riddling Process
There are two parties involved: the audience (respondents) and the challenger(or
the riddler).
There are basically four stages of a riddling process, but at times six.
The parts of the riddling process are:
(1) The riddlerchallenges the audience. The challenge differs from community to
community. Some phrases used here include: riddle riddle!, I have a riddle! Etc.
(2) The respondents accept the challenge. The invitations include: riddle come!
Throw it! Etc.
(3) The riddler then poses the riddle.
(4) The guess or guesses. The audience tries to come up with the solution. If they are
unable, then the next part follows.
(5) The challenger asks for a prize. The prize can be a town or city, or any other
thing. The challenger accepts the prize.
(6) Then the solution is given by the challenger.
Exercise
Read the riddling convention below and then identify its six parts.
Challenger: I have a riddle!
Respondent: Throw it.
Challenger: What comes down but never goes up?
Respondent: Wind
Challenger: no, try again.
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Respondent: Bird
Challenger: What will you give me if I offer the solution?
Respondent: You will have the entire fire to yourself.
Challenger: The answer is rain.
A word at the end of a line rhymes with one or more in the middle of the
following line.
Read the poem below and then try to identify the instances of rhyme in it.
Mystic Travel
Mystic travel time
Too endless islands in your mind
Happy or sad
Good days or bad
Cherry or down
The world goes around
Give up or try
Out going or shy
A smile or a frown,
The world goes around
Early or late,
Patient …can’t wait,
Lost or your found,
The world goes around
Angry, serene
Out spoken, unsent
Tense or unwound,
The world goes around
All future days,
Are hidden in haze,
Don’t worry, just learn,
To let the world turn.
Exercise 2
The incomplete poem below has the rhyme scheme: aabccbddebfe. Complete it
with appropriate words.
Death did not take Paris silently
Rumbled the grave screaming _______________________
No child slept easy that _______________________
Twenty minutes of terror waking
Wee ones from sleep in cold sweats __________________________
Stealing their peaceful birthright.
RHYTHM IN POETRY
MASTERY OF CONTENT
DEBATE
A formal contest of argumentation between two sides is what debate is.
Debate embodies the ideals of reasoned argument, and tolerance for divergent
points of view.
There are two sides in the debate: the proposition and the opposition.
These two teams are presented with a resolution, such as, ‘Girls and Boys Should
play in a mixed football team.’
The teams are given enough preparation time.
The team affirming the resolution speaks first.
The opposing team then must refute the arguments offered by the affirming team
and offer arguments rejecting the resolution.
Both sides are given the opportunity to present their positions and to directly
question the other team.
Neutral judge (s) then evaluate the persuasiveness of the arguments and offer
constructive feedback.
Preparation Time
This is the time you have from when the motion is announced to the beginning of the
debate. During this time:
1. Research on the motion to get facts. The facts can be got from the teachers, other
students, etc.
2. Write notes on the facts. You can once in a while look at them during your
presentation.
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(a)Objective
(b) Evidence
(c)Point of information
They are said after standing up by one member of the opposing side. These are meant
to alert the judge to a problem in the opposing side’s argument.
Exercise
After you deliver your points during the debate, everyone claps for you. How could
you have delivered your points to earn their heckling?
INTERVIEWS
Have you ever attended the formal meetings where you are asked questions and are
expected to respond to them? More than once you will be invited to attend interviews.
You can also invite someone to interview. For this reason, you should some interview
tips.
The two participants in an interview are the interviewer (at times a panel of
interviewers), and the interviewee.
Tips for the Interviewees
Job Interview Preparations
If you really want to be considered for a particular job following an interview, you
have to adequately prepare to succeed. The following are the preparations the
interviewee would put in place before the interview:
(a)Contact your referees to alert them that you will be interviewed and they are
likely to receive a call.
(b) Prepare your documents. Make sure they are neat and well arranged.
(c)Know the location where you are having the interview. It will help you know
how long it will take you to reach there.
(d) Do some research about the organization.
(e)Prepare what to wear and how to groom.
(f) Anticipate potential questions and prepare answers correctly.
(g) Arrive early enough for the interview.
(h) Prepare questions to ask the interviewer at the end. It will show how much
you are interested in working there.
During the Interview;
(a)Greet the interviewer.
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(b) Knock on the door and wait for response before you enter. Shut the door
behind you quietly.
(c)Wait until you are offered the seat before sitting.
(d) Sit or stand upright and look alert throughout.
(e)Make good eye contact with the interviewer to show you are honest.
(f) Explain your answers whenever possible and avoid answering questions with
yes/no as answers.
(g) Answer questions honestly. Don’t ever lie!
you are the secretary of journalism Club at Maembe Dodo Mixed School. On Friday
you would like to interview your school Deputy Principal on the issue of Students’
Discipline.
(a)Write down any three questions you would ask him/her.
(b) Other than writing down questions to ask, how else would you prepare
prepare for this day?
(c)State four things you would do as you interview him.
Exercise 2
Read the conversation below and then answer questions after it.
Ms Naomi: Welcome to our Doctor’s office.
Mr. Josh: Nice to be here.
Ms Naomi: I see from your resume that you are a cardiologist with 10 years of
practice.
Mr. Josh: That’s right.
Ms Naomi: This interview is just to get to know you a little and then there are follow
up interviews. So what do you do in your free time?
Mr. Josh: I like golfing and swimming. I also like to read newspapers.
Ms Naomi:Why did you want to be a doctor?
Mr. Josh:Actually I love helping people get well. I think cardiology has made great
strides recently and I would like to share my findings with others.
Ms Naomi:Have you written in any scientific journals so far?
Mr. Josh:Not yet. But hopefully soon.
Ms Naomi:OK, we’d like to learn more about you. Let’s go for lunch wwith our
colleagues, if that’s OK.
Mr. Josh:That’s fine, I am free.
(a)What two things qualify Ms Naomi as a good interviewer?
(b) Identify two evidences of interview tips displayed by Mr. Josh.
SPEECHES
Have you ever stood in front of a big group of people to present your talk? Well here
we shall learn how to prepare your speech and deliver it effectively.
Preparation for Speech Delivery
There are steps any speaker should follow in preparation for presentation of speech.
They include:
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1. Doing some research on the topic to present. Get the facts about the topic. If you
do enough research, your confidence level will be boosted.
2. Practice in front of a group of friends or relatives. This can also be done in front
of a mirror, or videotaping your rehearsals. You will be able to correct your
gestures, postures etc.
3. Write down the points about the topic on a note pad. You can refer to them when
giving the speech.
4. Plan on how to groom and dress decently. You should appear presentable to feel
confident.
1. Use gestures effectively to reinforce the words and ideas you are trying to
communicate to your audience. For example, when talking about love, you can
use your hands to form a cup shape to indicate how tiny something is.
2. Make eye contact with your audience members to study their reactions to you. If
you sense boredom, you need to improve and if you sense enthusiasm, it will
help pump you up.
3. Use movements to establish contact with your audience. Getting closer to them
physically increases their attention and interest, as well as encouraging response
if you are asking questions.
4. Your posture should be upright. The way you conduct yourself on the platform
will indicate you are relaxed and in control. Do not lean or slouch.
5. Wear appropriate facial expressions to show feelings and emotions. Smile to
show happiness, for example.
6. Speak loud enough to be heard by all your audience members.
7. Pronounce the words correctly and speak clearly for your message to be
understood.
8. Pause at key points to let the message sink.
Stage Fright
Almost all speakers are nervous. Even the most experienced do. Fear of addressing a
group is not wrong, but how we deal with it is what is possibly not good enough.
Those speakers who seem relaxed and confident have learnt how to handle anxiety.
Symptoms of Nervous Speakers
An anxious speaker can be identified in case of:
Shaking hands Knocking knees
Sweating palms Facial flushes
Dry mouth Watery eyes
Rapid heartbeat Mental confusions
Squeaky voice jitters
Causes of Fear
1. Past failures during presentation. Plan to succeed instead.
2. Poor or insufficient preparation. Nothing gives you more confidence than being
ready.
3. Discomfort with your own body and movement.
Dealing with Anxiety
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A speaker can try the suggestions below to deal with anxiety before and on the day of
speech.
Before the day;
1. Know your topic by doing adequate and thorough research. You will be sure of
presenting accurate information and be able to answer questions asked by
audience members.
2. Practice delivering your speech several times. This helps you be sure of your
organization of the main points.
On that day;
1. Do some physical exercises like press ups, push walls, etc. to reduce anxiety.
2. Use simple relaxation techniques like taking deep breath, tightening and relaxing
your muscles, etc.
3. Wear clothes that you feel confident in. when you feel good about of you feel,
your confidence level is boosted. You don’t need to adjust your clothes or hair
during your speech.
4. Spot friendly faces in the crowd. These are people who give you positive
feedback (e.g. nodding, smiling). Such faces give you encouragement to speak.
5. Come up with ways to hide your anxiety. For example,
When mouth goes dry, drink some water
Incase of excessive sweating, wear clothes that will not allow your
audience detect
If your hands shake, use gestures to mask the shaking.
Exercise 1
In the next three days, you are presenting a speech on the topic: Effects of HIV/AIDS.
(a)Write down any three ways you would prepare for the speech delivery.
(b) State the techniques you would employ to ensure your audience listens to
you throughout and that they understand the message during the presentation.
Exercise 2
Makufuli is presenting his speech. Your friend, Makwere claims that Makufuli is not
confident.
(a)What could have warranted this claim?
(b) State four reasons that could be behind Makufuli’s state?
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DISCUSSION
Discussion is a process where exchange of ideas and opinions are debated upon
in a group.
A group which comprises a small number of people is given a topic to discuss.
Preparation for Group Discussion
Do the following before you start the discussion:
1. Select/choose group leaders. Choose the secretary to write the points down and
the chair to lead the discussions.
2. Research round the topic to make sure you have the points. You can get the
points from the sources including:
Newspapers and magazines
Friends, relatives and teachers
Text books
Internet
Television
3. Arrive early for discussions. It is advisable you do so so that you start early and
finish early.
4. Gather writing materials – pen and note book.
5. Prepare with questions to ask.
Participating in a Group Discussion
Remember the tips below for success during the discussion:
1. Learn to listen to each other and respond to what other people have to say.
2. Speak with moderation. What you say is usually more important than how much
you say. Quality is needed rather than the quantity.
3. Back up each point you put across. You can explain your points in a number of
ways including:
Providing facts or statistics to support it;
Quoting expert opinion;
Explain why said what you said; and
Referring to your own experience.
4. Stay calm and polite. Use polite words like ‘May I ….?, please …, etc.’
5. Take notes of important words and ideas.
6. Speak clearly.
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Exercise
You and your group members have been assigned the topic: ‘Responsibilities of a
Good Citizen’ by your teacher of History and Government. You are supposed to
discuss this before you give the presentation in two days.
(a)State three ways in which you would prepare before you start discussing the
topic.
(b) How would you ensure your group members and yourself benefit from this
discussion?
ORAL REPORTS
From the heading, an oral report is spoken, not written.
Being oral, it doesn’t mean writing is not involved. As part of preparation, you
have to write notes on the topic or at least an outline of points.
When asked to present an oral report you get the opportunity to practice your
speaking skills.
A spoken report has various elements including an introduction, body and
conclusion.
Preparation for Oral Reports
You can prepare by:
1. Researching on the topic. Get all the facts about what is known and unknown by
your audience.
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2. Take notes on the facts about the topic. Choose your words appropriately in the
process.
3. Practice the report before presenting it. You may
Practice in front of a mirror.
Practice in front of friends or relatives.
Videotape your rehearsals.
More practice is required if it has to be memorized.
4. Plan on how to dress and groom.
5. Prepare the visual aids if you plan to use the them. Select the appropriate chart,
picture, etc. that will make abstract ideas concrete.
Reporting
1. Stand up straight. Your upper body should be held straight, but not stiff. Do not
fidget.
2. Make eye contact in order to look surer of yourself and to ensure your audience
listens better.
3. Vary your tone appropriately and speak clearly.
4. Use gestures to make your points well understood and to keep the audience
interested.
5. Pause at key points to let the point sick.
6. Speak loud enough for everyone to hear you.
7. If you have visual aids use them appropriately.
Exercise
You have seen thieves robbing your neighbor’s house. During this time you have your
phone that you have used to capture one of the two robbers. The next day you are
called at the police station to report on what occurred.
(a)State any three ways you would prepare to deliver this oral report.
(b) What three details would you include in your report?
(c)How would you deliver the report to ensure the information is understood?
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ETIQUETTE
Etiquette is the rules that indicate the proper and polite manner to behave.
USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE
When one uses courteous language, he/she uses a language that is very polite
and polished to show respect.
At no time should you allow yourself be rude, ill-mannered, impolite,
inconsiderate, or even thoughtless.
Being and remaining polite will go a long way in building relationships.
To show politeness and respect:
Use the word please in request;
Say thank you to those who help or compliment you.
Start your requests or interrogatives beginning with words such as can, could,
may, will, or would.
Say excuse me when you interrupt other people or intrude into their time or
privacy.
Use question tags.
In this section, we shall learn the words and phrases that show respect.
(a) Please
We use it when you want someone to do something for you. For example:
Can you pass that cup, please?
also used when you want something from someone. For example: Lend me
ten shillings, please.
(b) Thank you
Use it whenever someone does something for you.
Use it when someone commends you.
(c)Sorry
Say it any time you inconvenience someone.
Say it when step on someone’s toes, etc.
Also when someone asks you something you cannot do.
(d) Excuse me
To introduce a request to someone, or to get past someone, use this phrase. For
example
Excuse me, can you show me where Amina lives?
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(e)Pardon me
Almost as ‘excuse me’
Exercise 1
Jennifer has gone to the shop to buy a bar of soap. The shopkeeper tells her to be
polite the next time she comes to buy from him. Showing where, which polite phrases
could Jennifer have failed to use?
Exercise 2
Read the dialogue below and then explain how Jacinta expresses politeness.
John: I would like to send this letter to japan by airmail, how much is the charge?
Jacinta: It’s one pound, do you need extra stamps?
John: I do, I have been also expecting a package from New-York. Here is my identity
card and receipt.
Jacinta: Would you mind signing this form? Here is the package.
John:Finally, I would like to send this registered letter to London.
Jacinta:Please fill in the complete address in capital letters.
TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE
Telephone etiquette are the rules that demonstrate the proper and polite way to use
your phone/telephone.
It starts from how you prepare for phone calls to when you end the call.
Exercise 2
Your sibling is very sick. You are planning to make a doctor a phone call to come to
your home to provide medication.
(a) State any three preparations you would put in place before making
this important call.
(b) Give four bad habits you would avoid when making this call.
Exercise 3
Joan has just called the parent to ask them to pay the school fee. Unfortunately, the
parent is not happy with the way she has made the call. Identify any four telephone
etiquette tips shecould have failed to display.
APPROPRIATE CHOICE OF REGISTER
Register denotes the choice of language, whether that be formal or informal.
It is the choosing of appropriate language for the context.
There are factors that determine the language we use.
It is important to select the right language for the right situation.
The choice of register is affected by:
(a)The setting of the speech;
(b) The topic of the speech;
(c)The relationship that exists between the speakers; and
(d) The age.
The Setting
There are words we use depending on the field. There are those we use in the field of
medicine, in the field of law etc. they are also those that we use at home when talking
to family members. A chemist, for example, will ask for ‘sodium chloride’ while at
the laboratory, while at home she will request for ‘salt’. At work place, people tend to
use formal language while informal language at home.
Topic
If, for example, you want to ask for something valuable from a brother you
would say: ‘I was wondering if you could lend me….’. This is a formal
language even though it is your family member you are talking to.
When offering your boss tea or coffee, you will still use formal language for
example: ‘Would you mind being served tea or coffee? ’ and to a friend you
will say: ‘Tea or coffee?’
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Relationship
There are words you use when speaking to different people in different situations.
More often than not, an intimate couple will use words like ‘darling’, ‘honey’, etc.
These words cannot be used to address your colleague at work place; or even your
pastor.
Age
There are ways to speak to a child and those of speaking to adults. To a baby, we use
words like ‘popopoo’ while to an adult ‘long call’, etc.
The Words used in Different Fields
Field of Medicine
Some words used in the hospitals, clinics and other health stations include: X-ray,
syringe, paracetamol, doctor, nurse, mortuary, patient, etc.
Police Station
Lockup, cell, bond, etc.
Airport
Aircraft, flight, air hostess, etc.
Information Technology
Computer, laptop, CPU, Monitor, software, hardcopy, hard disk, etc.
School
The words used by the teachers, students and others at school are: chalk, ruler,
blackboard, senior teacher, deputy principal, dean of studies, etc.
Law
Technical terms used by lawyers and in the courts of law include: adult probation,
affidavit, alimony, Amicus Curiae brief, annulment, appeal, appellant, appellee, arrest,
plaintiff, defendant, dismissal, oath, revocation hearing, learned friend, etc.
Exercise
Read the conversation below and then answer question that follow.
Caller:Is this the Credex?
Receptionist:Yes, how may I be of help to you?
Caller:It’s Dorothy calling.
Receptionist:Oh, Dorothy! How is the going?
Caller: Lunch today?
Receptionist: Of course..
Caller: what time then?
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Receptionist: After I have seen the deputy principal. There are packets of chalk I am
supposed to deliver.
(a)Giving the reasons, where is the Credex?
(b) What is the relationship between the caller and the receptionist?
(c)Explain the formality of the language the receptionist and the caller use.
(d) Give illustrations for (c) above.
TURN-TAKING
Being a cyclical process, turn taking starts with one person speaking, and continues as
the speaker gives control to the next individual. This is then offered to another person
and then back to the original speaker. Orderly conversation has to take place.
A turn is a crucial element within turn taking. Each person takes turn within the
conversation – either in person or on phone.
Achieving Smooth Turn Taking
It is achieved with:
1. Using specific polite phrases, for example, those for,
Interrupting
Accepting the turn when offered it
Keeping your turn
Getting other people speaking, etc.
2. Using gestures to indicate you have completed what you are saying or that you
want to say something. You drop your arm when you have completed and raise it
when you want to say something.
3. Varying the intonation to show you have or have not finished speaking.
4. Use noises like ‘uming’ and ‘ahing’ while thinking so as not to lose your turn.
Turn Taking Cues
There are various ways of signaling a finished turn. They might be indicated when the
current speaker:
1. Asks a question, for example, ‘ Did you want to add anything?’
2. Trails off (his/her voice becomes weaker to the extent you may not hear his
words)
3. Indicates they are done speaking with a closing statement, for example, ‘That’s
all I wanted to say.’or ’I think I have made my point.’
4. Uses marker words (those that allow the other a chance to speak), for example,
‘well…’ or ‘so…’
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5. Drops the pitch or volume of their voice at the end of their utterance. This is the
use of falling intonation.
6. Uses gestures to signal that another can contribute.
Violations in Turn-Taking
There are five well known turn-taking violations in a conversation. They are:
interruptions, overlaps, grabbing the floor, hogging the floor, and silence. Do you
know what they really are? If you don’t, read the explanations for the violations in that
order.
1. Inhibiting the speaker from finishing their sentences during their turn.
2. Talking at the same time as the current speaker. This is interruptive overlap.
However, cooperative overlap is encouraged as it shows you are interested in the
message.
3. Interrupting and then taking over the turn before being offered it.
4. Taking over the floor and ignoring other people’s attempt to take the floor.
5. Remaining without saying anything for quite some time.
The List of Turn-Taking Phrase
To interrupt;
Before I forget, …
I don’t like to interrupt, but ….
I wouldn’t usually interrupt, but …
I’m afraid I have to stop you there.
I will let you finish in a minute/second/moment ….
May I interrupt?
To accept the turn when offered it;
Thanks. I won’t take long.
What I wanted to say was …
To stop other people from interrupting you during your turn use;
I have just one more point to make
I have nearly finished
Before you have your say …
I haven’t quite finished my point yet
I know you’re dying to jump in, but….
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2. Wait patiently until the speaker pauses or incase of a lull in the conversation.
3. Speak clearly using polite phrases. These phrases will be learnt later.
4. Wait for the speaker to acknowledge your request to speak before you do so.
5. After you have spoken, thank the speaker and allow them continue.
6. Take a deep breath and calm yourself before interrupting when you feel angry or
annoyed.
7. Take care to use low tone of voice.
Avoid:
1. Unnecessary interruptions.
2. Finishing speaker’s sentences.
3. Interrupting to correct the speaker unnecessarily.
4. Speaking harshly or using disparaging comments.
Phrases used in Interruption
Below is the list of phrases which you can use to politely interrupt someone:
May I say something here?
I am sorry to interrupt, but …
Excuse me, may I add to that…?
Do you mind if I jump in here?
Before we move on to the next point, may I add …?
Sorry, I didn’t catch that, is it possible to repeat the last point?
I don’t mean to intrude ….
Sorry to butt in, but …
Would this be a good time to ….?
Excuse the interruption, but …
I hate to interrupt, but …
I know it is rude to interrupt, but …
How to Disagree Politely
The tips that follow will help you handle disagreements without annoying the other
person in a discussion or discussion:
1. Actively listen to the other person’s point of view. This helps in showing respect
and understanding of the other person’s perspective.
2. Stay calm even if you feel angry.
3. Acknowledge the other person’s point of view before the buts.
4. Disagree only with the person’s idea but not he person.
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NEGOTIATION SKILLS
This is the process of discussion between towo or more disputants, aimed at finding
the solution to a common problem.
It is a method by which people settle their differences.
It is also the process by which a compromise or agreement is reached while
avoiding arguiment.
There could be a difference between people with different aims or intentions,
especially in business or politics. When this happens, they have to reach an
agreement.
Negotiation skills will be helpful when:
Haggling over the price of something;
Negotiating with your employer e.g. for higher salary;
Negotiating for peace/ solving conflict;
Negotiating for better services; etc.
Stages Of Negotiation
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1. Preparation comes first. During this time, ensure all the pertinent facts of the
situation is known in order to clarify your own position. It will help in avoiding
wasting time unnecessarily.
2. Discussion then follows. This is the time to ask questions, listen and make things
easier to understand. At times, it is helpful to take notes to record all points put
forward.
3. Negotiate towards a win-win outcome. Each party has to be satisfied at the end of
the process.
4. Agreement comes after understanding both sides’ viewpoints and considering them.
5. Implement the course of action. If for example, paying the amount, it has to be
paid.
Points Every Negotiator Should Consider
1. Ask questions, confirm and summarise. These three activities ensure that there is no
confusion on what each party wants.
2. Acknowledge each other’s point of view. Show that you have listened to and
understood their perspective. Show appreciation of the other person’s point of view.
3. Listen attentively to the other person.
4. Respond to negative comments and complaints. Avoid confrontational language.
5. Behave in a confident way, but don’t be rude. Make polite but firm requests.
6. Give options/alternatives. You can both win if you recognise that you share a
common ground.
Exercise
You are planning to buy a new model car.
(a)Write down three relevant facts you would want to know before going to buy the
car.
(b) State any three hints for the negotiators you would consider when haggling over
the price of that car.
9. Make eye contact with the speaker. when you do this you will be able to
understand the non verbal messages too.
Signs of Inactive Audience
You can easily tell whether your audience listens or not. The inattentive listeners
tend to posses the following characteristics:
(a)Fidgeting
(b) Doodling
(c)Playing with their hair
(d) Looking at a clock or watch
(e)Picking their fingernails
(f) Passing small pieces of paper to one another
(g) Shifting from seat to seat
(h) Yawning
Barriers to Effective Listening
There are many things that get in the way of listening and you should avoid these bad
habits so as to become a more effective listener. These factors that inhibit active
listening include;
1. Lack of interest in the topic being discussed.
2. Unfamiliarity with the topic under discussion.
3. Fear. One might fear being asked a question and in the process fail to look at the
speaker.
4. Noise. In case of noise the listeners might not get what the speaker is saying.
Exercise 1
MwangiMwaniki, the author of one of the set text you study, is coming to your school
to give a talk on the themes in his novel.
(a)How would you prepare for this big day?
(b) State what you would do to ensure you benefit from the talk during the
presentation.
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ORAL NARRATIVES
FEATURES OF ORAL NARRATIVES
Oral narratives have many features. The main ones include:
Use of opening formula. This is used to indicate the beginning of a story. It also
remove the audience from the world of reality and take them to the world of
fantasy. A world of fantasy is where bones speak, a king is the lion, etc. some
commonly used opening formula phrases are ‘ a long time ago…’, ‘once upon a
time’, ‘there once was ….’, and ‘long, long ago…’
Use of Closing formula. It makes the end of a story. It also removes the audience
from the world of fantasy and take them back to the world of reality. Here are
examples of closing formulae:
And that is why …
And there ends my story.
From then onwards …
To come to the end of my story …
Use of idiophones. There is the use of words that imitate the movement or sounds
made by characters in the story. For example,
The bees flew buzz buzzbuzz.
The woman laughed hahahahaha.
The branch was cut kacha.
Repetition. A word, phrase, a song, or even a sentence can occur more than once in
a story. The repetition is meant to bring out the meaning.
Use of songs. Many narratives have songs. The songs perform the following
functions:
(a)Brings out the character traits.
(b) Brings out the theme.
(c)To entertain.
Fantasy.
Use of suspense. Here the audience is left wondering what will happen next.
There is also the use of dialogue. A character speaks directly to the other. Dialogue
is used to bring out the theme, character traits as well as to develop the plot of the
story.
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When speaking or listening, flex your facial muscles as appropriate. You can’t
smile when the speaker is talking about incidence of tragedy. Doleful face will do.
Remember your face is like a switch and will keep changing depending on the
feelings and emotions.
Some words for Describing Facial Expressions
Emotion/ Feeling Facial Expression
Approval/ agreement Appealing
Happy and peaceful Beatific
Angry or unhappy Black, grave
Worried Bug-eyed
Sad Doleful
Confused Quizzical
Surprised Wide-eyed, quizzical
Extremely happy Radiant
Embarrassed Withering
GESTURES
A speaker will always move part of their body especially a hand, arm or the head
when speaking.
This is done to express the idea or meaning.
As a speaker you can use illustrators of what you are saying using your hands.
They will add mental image to what is being conveyed. For example,
Headshake to mean ‘no’.
Use hands to form the shape of heart to express love.
Use the hands to form the bow shape to show the big belly. Etc.
EYE CONTACT
Did you know you can use your eyes to listen? We use the eyes to listen to another
person’s body language – gesture included.
An eye is a powerful tool of effective communication.
Let us learn some situations that demand different uses of the eyes. For example:
(a)When arguing, hold your gaze.
(b) When deferring, lower your eyes.
(c)When loving someone, stare in the pool of their eyes.
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Making eye contact is very vital as you can get the feedback from your listeners, on
your message. When you notice they are bored you know you have to make
adjustments and when they show enthusiasm then this will help in pumping you up.
Too much eye contact by the listener indicate they have interest in either you or the
information you are putting across.
Speakers tend to look up:
(a)At the end of their utterances.
(b) To indicate to the others to have their turn.
Speakers tend to look away when:
(a)Talking non-fluently.
(b) Thinking
(c)Not sure of the topic.
BOWING/CURTSYING
A curtsy is a polite gesture of respect or reverence made chiefly by women and
girls.
It is the female equivalent of males’ bowing.
When to Bow or Make Curtsy
To end a performance.
To show respect.
How to Curtsy
Lower your head.
Hold your skirt at the edges with both hands.
Place your right foot behind the left.
Bend your knees outward
APPERANCE AND GROOMING
How you look when speaking in front of an audience or when going for an interview
is very crucial. It both boosts your confidence level and build respect.
Your appearance involves the clothes you wear as well as how you groom.
Grooming on the hand involves what you do to your body other than the clothing.
Your personal hygiene is the simplest term that can replace the term grooming.
Clothing
The kind of clothe you wear will depend on such factors as:
(a)Your occupation;
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(b) Weather;
(c)Location; and
(d) Your preference.
Guidelines for Clothing
1. Your cloth should fit comfortably.
2. The cloth should also be neat and clean.
3. Wear the right cloth for appropriate occasion.
Grooming
Read the grooming checklist below.
1. Your hair should be lean, trimmed and neatly arranged.
2. If you are a man, ensure your facial hair is freshly shaved.
3. Fingernails should be neat, clean and trimmed.
4. Teeth should brushed and with fresh breath.
5. Body should be freshly showered.
6. If a woman, use make up sparingly and be natural looking.
7. Use perfumes/aftershave/colognes sparingly or even use non at all.
Exercise
Ayub has been invited to an interview. State four grooming mistakes he should be
careful to avoid.
4. Specify distance. Offer the Ballpark Figures (rough estimates of the time and
length of travel). The three ways of specifying the distance are:
(a)Telling them how many streets or buildings to pass;
(b) Giving them distance in kilometres, metres , or miles;and
(c)Telling them how much time in minutes or hours it will take them to reach
their destination.
5. Warn them about any confusing parts of the route. For example, let them know
of a narrow road that people normally miss.
6. Say which side of the street or road their destination is on. There could be two
houses that look alike on either sides of road. Tell them: My house is on the
right.
7. Repeat directions to them and allow them repeat back directions to you.
8. Draw a simplified map if paper and pencil or pen are available.
9. Give them a drop-dead point. This is the place when if you reach you know you
are lost and have to make a U-turn. For example, tell them: if you see a big black
billboard you have gone too far.
Exercise
Your church is in the same estate you live. Your mother goes to a different church. On
this particular Sunday she has decided to join you later in your church. For that reason,
she asks you to give her the direction to the church.
(a)Mention three ways you would specify her the distance from your home to the
church.
(b) Apart from specifying the distance, how else would you ensure she reaches the
church when giving her the direction?
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/i:/
Jeep
Creek
Greased
Teal
cheat
/e/
jet
bed
wet
Sound /ᶾ/ :Caucasian, division, leisure, vision, casual, conclusion, television, decision,
collision, exposure
Exercise 4
Sound /f/ : forgive, for, forgetting, leftover, food
Sound /v/ :forgive, leftover
DIPHTHONGS
(a)Gate (e)Pane (i) Vane/vein (m) Sow
(b) Made (f) Plane (j) Waste (n) Know
(c)Male (g) Sail (k) Weight (o) Tow
(d) Pail (h) Tail (l) Ate (p) Groan
MINIMAL PAIRS
Exercise 1
(a)Heat (d) Pitch (g) Keep (j) Peel
(b) Shit (e)Leap (h) Ill (k) Skid
(c)Teen (f) Knit (i) Grid (l) Scheme
Exercise 2
(a)Hid (c)Hem (e)Fin (g) Din
(b) Mess (d) Led (f) Led (h) Pig
Exercise 3
(a)Fail (d) Sail/sale (g) Read/red (j) Stead
(b) Pen (e)Whale (h) Debt
(c)Hell (f) Met (i) Main
Exercise 4
(a)Bat (d) Flash (g) Sung (j) Suck
(b) Much (e)Come (h) Ankle (k) Damp
(c)Mud (f) Dam (i) Crush (l) Tag
Exercise 5
(a)Merry (c)Kettle (e)Sex (g) Tread
(b) Bland (d) Vet (f) Track (h) Mat
Exercise 6
(a)Fir/fur (c)Purse (e)Shirk
(b) Hard (d) Firm (f) Cart
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Exercise 7
(a)Ban (c)Best (e)Bent (g) Lobes
(b) Vote (d) Bowels (f) Very (h) Verb
Exercise 8
(a)Very (d) Vine (g) Fail (j) Vault
(b) Leave (e)Halve (h) Grieve (k) File
(c)Fast (f) Prove (i) Carve (l) Strife
Exercise 9
(a)Bad (f) Bet (k) Hid (p) Not
(b) Got (g) Bought (l) Heard (q) Said
(c)Ride (h) Aid (m) Mad (r) Plate
(d) Ant (i) Bed (n) Meant (s) Sad
(e)add (j) feed (o) need (t) Debt
Exercise 10
(a)Tag (f) Jag (k) Glass (p) Duck
(b) Flock (g) Gave (l) Could (q) Cut
(c)Tuck (h) Sack (m) Coat (r) Lock
(d) Come (i) League (n) Block (s) Rag
(e)Cash (j) Grab (o) Gill (t) got
HOMOPHONES
(a)bee, be (c)aye, eye (e)tea, tee
(b) see, sea (d) pee, pea (f) ewe, you
SILENT LETTERS
i. b vii. s xiii. t xix. t xxv. z
ii. s viii. h xiv. h xx. e xxvi. ue
iii. c ix. d xv. t xxi. p xxvii. e
iv. t x. d xvi. t xxii. x xxviii. th
v. c xi. n xvii. t xxiii. m xxix. th
vi. b xii. t xviii. b xxiv. b xxx. s
STRESS
Exercise 1
1.
(a)Bamburi cement was used to cement the bridge.
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(b) After leaving us his address, he will address those students over there.
(c)He had to permit us to do business since we had a business permit.
(d) The content of the letter will content the man.
2.
(a)Sert, de
(b) es, cort
(c)re, sume
(d) test, con
(e)vict, con
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Exercise 2
(a)
I – no one else loves your sister’s handwriting.
Love – I don’t hate your sister’s handwriting
Your – Not any other person’s sister
Sister’s – not your brother’s or your uncle’s
Handwriting – It I only your sister’s handwriting I love, not her walking style
or her cooking.
(b)
You – all the others came early
Came – you did not leave late
Late – Not early
Yesterday – the rest of the days you came early
INTONATION
(a)Falling
(b) Falling
(c)Falling
(d) Falling
(e)Rising
(f) Rising
(g) Rising
(h) Falling
(i) Falling
(j) Rising
(k) Falling
(l) Falling
(m) Rising
(n) Falling
(o) Rising
(p) Falling
(q) Falling
(r) Falling
PUNS
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TONGUE TWISTERS
Exercise 1
(a)
Alliteration: cough, carries, coffin, carry
Consonance: cough, off, coffin, off
Repetition: off
(b)
Alliteration: witches, were, watching, watches, which, witch, would,
watch, which, watch
Consonance: witches, watching, watches, which, witch, watch, which,
watch
Repetition: watch, which, two
(c)
Alliteration: black, bug, bleeds, black, blood, blue, bug, bleed
Consonance: bleeds, blood, bleed
Repetition: black, blood, bug repeated
(d)
Sibilance: wish, wash, Irish …. Or consonance
Alliteration: wish, wash, watch
Exercise 2
(a)It is a tongue twister.
(b) The sound /s/ and /ᶴ/
RIDDLES
Challenge – I have a riddle!
Acceptance – Throw it.
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RHYME
Exercise 1
(a)Violently
(b) Day
(c)shaking
(d) terror
(e)Forget
Exercise 2
aabcddbceeccffccgghh
ALLITERATION AND ASSONANCE IN POEMS
Alliteration
Black Breweries braveness /b/
Tracers ticking Time /t/
Black braveness baselessly /b/
Mirror, my emotion moves momentarily /m/
And others
Assonance
In ink incorporative individualism
Directed diagonal
Etc.
Consonance
Little, black, baselessly /l/
Black believes /l/
Determined, destinies /t/
DEBATE
I could have:
Spoken confidently
Varied my tone appropriately
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INTERVIEWS
Exercise 1
(a)Questions
How would you handle cases of indiscipline among the students?
Will you appoint prefects in charge of discipline?
What punishment will you mete out on those who are indiscipline? Etc.
(b) I would;
Inform him about the interview.
Arrive early for the interview.
Prepare the place to interview him..
(c)I would;
Allow him enough time to respond to the questions.
encourage him to speak by slightly nodding my head.
Make eye contact with him.
Exercise 2
(a)Ms Naomi is a good interviewer because;
She warmly welcomes Mr. Josh, hence making him feel free to speak.
She also offers to take Mr. Josh along with her for lunch.
(b) Mr. Josh:
Explains her answers well.
Is honest. When asked whether he has written in any scientific journal he
says not yet.
SPEECHES
Exercise 1
(a)I would;
Do some research on the topic.
Practice adequately.
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DISCUSSION
(a)
Choose group leaders.
Do research on the topic to get facts.
Write the points.
Arrive early for the discussion.
Gather writing materials to use.
(b)
Ensure each point given is backed up.
Ensure members speak with moderation.
Speak clearly.
Take notes on what is discussed.
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ORAL REPORTS
(a)
Prepare the photo to show the police.
Ask the neighbours questions to get more facts.
Practice how to report.
(b) I would:
Vary my tone appropriately.
Make eye contact with the officer.
Use gestures effectively.
Pause at key points.
Speak loud enough enough.
Speak slowly.
USE OF COURTEOUS LANGUAGE
Exercise 1
Failed to use ‘thank you’ after being given the bar of soap.
Failed to use ‘please’ when asking to be given the bar of soap.
Failed to use ‘excuse me’ to get the shopkeeper’s attention.
Exercise 2
She has used ‘please’ when asking John to fill the address.
She has used ‘would’ in asking questions.
TELEPHONE ETIQUETTE
Exercise 1
(a)The patterns include;
Answering of the phone – Hello, …
Request -- May I speak to the principal, please?
The caller is told the principal is not in the office at the moment.
Pauline is asked to leave a message.
Pauline leaves the message for the principal.
The call finishes with pleasantry – have a nice day.
(b) Evidences:
She introduces herself to the secretary.
She ends the call with pleasantry.
She speaks politely to the secretary.
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Exercise 2
(a)I would:
Ensure I have adequate airtime.
Go to a quiet place.
Jot down what to tell the doctor.
Ensure the place to make the call has network.
(b) I would avoid:
Talking too loudly
Engaging in an argument with the doctor.
Interrupting the doctor.
Being distracted by other activities.
Exercise 3
Joan could have failed to:
Identify herself at the beginning of the call.
Speak clearly and slowly.
Speak with a low tone of voice.
End the call with a pleasantry.
APPROPRIATE CHOICE OF REGISTER
(a)Credex is a school. There is the use of words such as ‘pieces of chalk’, and
the ‘deputy principal’.
(b) The two are friends .
(c)At first it is formal. But when the receptionist realizes it is Dorothy calling it
becomes informal.
(d)
Formal
Is this the credex?
Informal
How is the going?
Lunch today?
NEGOTIATION SKILLS
(a)
Know the prices elsewhere
Whether I can get discount
Whether the purchase of the car comes with any offer
Whether the car is in high demand
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(a)
Switch off the lights in his room
Call his name
Bang the table beside him
Clap my hands
(b)
Use simple language
Give one instruction at a time
Be loud enough
Repeat the instruction.
Ask him if he has any question
Ask him repeat instructions back to me.
Make eye contact.
GIVING DIRECTIONS
(a)
Giving the distance in metres.
Telling her time in minutes.
Telling her the number of streets to pass.
(b)
I would give her the route with minimal turns.
I would indicate the turns.
Mention the landmarks.
Warn her about any confusing part of the route.
Have her repeat directions back to me.
Draw a simplified map.
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