Ebook PDF Engineering Graphics Essentials 5th Edition by Kirstie Plantenberg

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Engineering Graphics Essentials
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Introduction to Engineering Drawings
1 .1) DESIGN ........….................................……….........……..................……….........…·….................. 1-2

1 .2) COMMUNICATING A DESIGN ....................….......................................…...............….......... 1-2
1 2 1) Sketching .. .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ......... ...... .. ..... . ............................................. 1-2
1 2 2) Technical D『awi ng .. . . . . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . . . . .... . ... 下2
1 2 3) Compute『－Aided Drawing . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. . .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . ..... . .. ... 1-4
1 .3) STANDARDS ...................................……….........….........….........……….................................. 1-4
1 .4) HISTORY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING .............…................…...............….................…....... 1-5
1 .5) MANUFACTURING ...........….........……….........……….........….........…….........……................... 1-5
1 .6) ENGINEERING DRAWING FORMAT AND CONTENTS. ……................…........................... 1-6
1 6 1 ) Sheet Sizes ...............................................……. .•• •. … ……………. 1-7 h
1 6 2) Drawing ....…. .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . 1-8

1 6 3) Zoning.. . . . .. .. .. .. ... .. .... . . .. ... . .. . . ... .. .. ... .. .... . . .. .. . .. . .. ... .. .. ... 1-9
1 6 4) Scale ........... … ………………··…- ….• •. …… ……………. .•• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. .••.•. •1-9
h
1 6 5) Notes . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. . . .. 1-9

1 6 6) Title Block ............................ ….• •. ….• •. ......…·…-…·…- … ……......... 1-9 h
1 6 7) Revision History Block . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. ... .. . . . 1 斗 0

1 6 8) Tole『a nee and Projection Blocks ...............................…·…….• •. ……..... 1-11
INTRODUCTI。N T。 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS QUESTI。NS .......….......……··…··…··…··….. 1-13
INTRODUCTI。N TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS PR。BLEMS .............................................. 1-17
Chapter 2：。rthographic Projections
2.1) ORTH。GRAPHIC PROJECTION INTR。DUCTI。N .................…........................................2-2

2 1 1) The Six P『i nciple Views ..................................…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ..•.•. •2-2
2.2) THE GLASS BOX METHOD .......................….........…..................…......................................2-3
2.3) THE STANDARD VIEWS .............….........….........….................…..........................................2-7
2 3 1) The F『ont View . .. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. . .. ... . . . . 2-7
2.4) LINE TYPES USED IN AN ORTHOGRAPHIC PR。JECTION ............................................. 2-7
2.5) RULES F。R LINE CREATI。N AND USE .........….........….........…........................…...........2-10
2 5 1) Hidden Lines.. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . .. ... .. . . . 2-10
2 5 2) Cente『 Li nes ........ …………·…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…- ….• •. ……..... 2-11
2 5 3) Phantom Lines. . .. .. ... . .. . . . .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... . .. . . . .. .. . .. . .. ........ 2-14
2 5 4) Break Lines ..............................................…·…-…·…- … ……........ 2-15 h
2 5 5) Line Type Precedence......................................................................... 2-16

2.6) CREATING AN 。RT HOG RAPHIC PROJECTION ............................................................. 2-18
2 6 1) P『ojection Symbol. .......................................…·…-…. •• •. …................. 2-19
2.7) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ……….......………….......................……......….......2-27
ORTH。GRAPHIC PR。JECTIONS QUESTI。NS .......................……….........……......................2-31
ORTHOGRAPHIC PR。JECTI。NS PR。BLEMS ........….........…..................…..........................2-33
Chapter 3: Pictorial Drawings
3.1) PICT。RIALS INTR。DUCTI。N ........…....................................…….........…...........................3-2

3.2) PICTORIAL TYPES .….........…........…….......................................................…........…............3-4
3.3) AXONOMETRIC PROJECTI。NS ..............….........…..................….........……........................3-5
3 3 1) Types of axonometric pictorials .. . ... . .. . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. .. . .. . .. ...... ... 3-5
3.4）。BLIQUE PROJECTIONS. ….......…................................................…..................…..............3-8
IV
Engineering G『aphics Essentials
3 4.1) Types of oblique pictorials . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ............... . ... . 3-8

3.5) PERSPECT IVE PR。JECTIONS ..........................................................................……......... 3-11
3 5.1) Types of perspective p『ojections .......... ........ ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…... 3-11
3.6) VISUALIZATION ........…............................................................…...............…..........…........ 3-12
3.7) DRAWING ISOMETRIC P ICT。RIALS .........….................................…··…..........................3斗4
3.7.1) D『awi ng linear features in an isometric pictorial. ......................................................... 3斗 5
3 7.2) Drawing ci「cles and radii in an isometric pictorial . ............. ........ ........ ................. 3-18
3.7.3) Drawing cylinde『S in an isometric pictorial .................................................................. 3-22
3.8) DRAWING CABINET OBLIQUE PICTORIALS .............….........…........................……........ 3-27
3 8.1) D『awi ng features of a cabinet oblique pictorial .. .“ ............ ........ ........ ................. 3-27
3.9) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ........…..........…………...........................……........ 3-35
PICTORIAL DRAWINGS QUESTI。NS ................……….......….........….......….........…................ 3-39
PICTORIAL DRAWINGS PROBLEMS ...................................…................................…............. 3-41
C hapter 4: Dimens io n in g
4 .1) DETAI LED DRAWINGS ........................…….......….........…........................….........…….......... 4-2

4.2) LEARNING TO DIMENSION .................…............................................................................. 4-2
4.3) D IMENSI。N APPEARANCE ....................…..................….........…….....................................4-3
4 3.1) Lines Used in Dimensioning .. . . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ............... . ... . 4-3
4 3 2) Types of Dimensions . ..... ........ ...... ... ........ ............... ........ ........ ................... 4-4
4 3.3) Arrowheads, lettering, and symbols . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . ............... . ... . 4-5
4.4) FEATURE DIMENSIONS ...............................................….........…….........……......................4-6
4 4.1) D『awi ng Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . .............. . ..4-20
4.5) D IMENSI。N I NG RULES. ….................................................................................................4-20
4 .5.1 ) Dimension placement, spacing and readability ............................................................4-20
4 5 2) Over/Unde『 dimensioned parts .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. .. . ............... . ...4-26
4 5.3) Manufacturing .. ... . .. ..... ........ ... ........ ........ ............... ........ ........ .................4-30
4 5.4) Functional dimensioning. . . . . . . . . . .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . .............. . ..4-35
4 5.5) Tole『anci ng . . .. ... . .. ..... ........ ...... ... ........ ............... ........ ........ .................4-44
4.6) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED .........….........….............................….........…......4-49
DIMENSIONING QUESTIONS .........................................................................................….......4-53
DI MENSI。NING PROBLEMS ...............................................….........……........................…........4-57
C hapter 5 : Sectioning
5.1) SECTI。NAL V IEWS.........................….........….................…................…….......…..................5-2

51 . 1 ) C陀ati ng a section view .. . ... . . . .. .. . .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . ..... . .. ... . .. . . . . 5-2
5 1.2) Lines used in sectional views .... …….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·….....5-5
5 1.3) Rules of sectioning . .. . . . ... . . . . ... .. .. ... . .... . . .. ... . .. . .................. .. . 5-6
5.2) BASIC SECTI。NS ...........................................................….......................................…........ 5-7
5 2 1) Full section . . .. ... ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…-….•• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…....5-7
5 2 2) Half section. … … … … … . .. .. . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . 5-7
5 2 3) 0仔set section .. ... . ....…·…-….•• •.……· ........ ......….•• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·….....5-9
5.3) ADVANCED SECTIONS .................….......................................…....................................... 5-14
5 3.1) Aligned section ... . .. .................. ...... ........ ............... ........ ........ ................. 5斗4
5 3 2) Rib and web sections .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. ... . .. . . ............. . ... 5斗 5
5 3 3) Broken section . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . 5-16
5 3.4) Removed section .. … …··…-….•• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…... 5-16
5 3 5) Revolved section . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . 5-17
5 3.6) Non-sectioned parts ........ ........ ...…………………·…-….. ..……………··…... 5-17
5 3.7) Thin sections . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. . .. . ......... . .... . ... 5-17
5.4) APPLYING WHAT WE HAV E LEARNED .............….................….........….......................... 5-23
SECTIONING QUESTI。NS ........…..................…….........……….........…·…..................................5-27
SECTIONING PROBLEMS ...............................................................................................……...5-29
V
Chapter 6: Advanced Drawing Tec hniques
6.1) ADVANCED VIEW TECHNIQUES. …..........…........................….........…................................6-2

6.1.1) Removed and revolved orthog『aph ic views ................................................................. 6-2
6 1 2) Detail views . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . .. . .. ....... ... 6-2
6 1 3) Partial views ......................…·…- ….• •. ……·......…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ..•.•. •6-2
6 1 4) Auxiliary views . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .... 6-7
6 1 5) Related parts ..................…·…- ….• •. ……·......…·…-…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. . •.•. •6-7
6.2) ADVANCED PART TECHNIQUES ........…..........................................................................6-14
6 2 1) Cast and molded parts ...........................................…·…- ….• •. ……..... 6-14
6 2 2) Welded pa由．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．…·… …. •• •. …................. 6-21
ADVANCED DRAWING TECHNIQUES QUESTIONS …….................….......…............…··….... 6-23
H
ADVANCED DRAWING TECHNIQUES PROBLEMS ......…................….........….......................6-25
Chapter 7: T o lerancing
7.1) T。LERANCING AND INTERCHANGEABILITY ...........…….........……..................................7 -2

7.2) T。LERANCING STANDARDS .…...................................................................…...................7 -2
7.3) T。LE RANCE TYPES ........…………·…………........……..................………..................................7 -2
7.4) SHAFT-H。LE ASSEMBLY ........................….........…........…...............................….......….....7-4
7 .5) INCH TOLERANCES ...............................…................................….......................................7 -4
7 5 1) Types of fits ....................................................................................... 7-6
7.5.2) ANSI standa『d limits and fits (English) ....................................................................... 7-7
7.6) METRIC TOLERANCES ..............….................................…….........……·…........……............7-10
7.6.1) ANSI standa『d limits and fits (Metric) ....................................................................... 7-11
7 6 2) Tole『ance designation ......................... …… …………………· ……· …........ 7-11
7 6 3) Basic hole and basic sha由 systems .............................................................. 7-13
7.7) SELECTING TOLERANCES .................…..................…..................….........…….........…….. 7-14
7.8) T。LERANCE ACCUM U LATI。N ........…….........….........….........………..................…...........7-15
7.9) F。RMATTING TOLERANCES ....................….......................................…..........................7-17
7 9 1) Metric tolerances ............................ …… ……………··…- ….• •. …........ 7-17
792) 1nch tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... ...... ...... ... . .. . . ........ 7-18
7.10) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ........……….......…·……….......….........……........7-21
T。LERANC ING QUESTI。NS .................……….........……..................………...................…..........7-27
TOLERANCING PROBLEMS ........…..................….......................................…..........................7-31
C hapter 8: Threads and Fasteners
8.1) FASTENERS ..........................…............................................................….........….................8-2

8.2) SCREW THREAD DEFINITI。NS .............….................….........….................……·……............8-2
8.3) TYPES OF THREAD ........….........…..................…......................................................…........8-5
8.4) MANUFACTURING SCREW THREADS .....................….........….................…......................8-5
8.5) DRAWING SCREW THREADS ................……......……··……......………………………··……......8-6
8 5 1) Detailed rep「esentation . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . .. .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . 8-6
8 5 2) Schematic 『ep『esentation ..……………. .•• •. …… ……………··…- ….• •. ….......... 8-6
8 5 3) Simplified rep陀sentation . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . .. ....... ... 8-7
8.6) UNIFIED THREADS ...................................…........................……….........………·….................8-9
8 6 1) Unified th read note ..……………. . . •. ... •. .. ... . .. . . •. .. . . .. . .. ... •. . . . 8-9
8 6 2) Unified th『ead tables ............…·…-…. •• •. ……·..............…. •• •. ….• •. …......... 8-11
8.7) METRIC THREADS .….......….........……….........……….........….........…….........…….................8-12
8 7 1) Met「ic thread note . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . 8-12
8 7 2) Metric h「ead tables ...................…. •• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…- ….• •. ……..... 8-14
8.8) DRAWING B。LTS ....................…·……..........................………................…........…·…·……....8-15
8.9) B。LT AND SCREW CLEARANCES .........….........................….........….................…..........8-15
8.10) STANDARD PARTS ........…..................….........…...........................….........…….........….....8-19
vi
Engineering G『aphics Essentials
8 10 1) General fastene「 specifications . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. .. 8-19

8.刊） APPLYING WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED .................…....................................……........ 8-21
THREAD AND FASTENER QUESTIONS .......................……….........……........................……..... 8-27
THREAD AND FASTENER PROBLEMS ............................................….........…....................... 8-31
Chapter 9 : Assembly Drawings
9.1) DEFI NITI。NS ..................................................................................….................…............... 9-2

9 1.1) 0『awi ng order. .. .. .... ............ ...... ... .... .. ............... ........ ........ ................... 9-2
9.2) COMPONENTS OF AN ASSEMBLY DRAWING ................................................................. 9-3
9 2 1) Assembly drawing views .......... .... .. ... .... .. ............... ........ ........ ................... 9-3
9 2 3) Part identification ..............…. •• •.….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·…..... 9-3
9 2 4) Pa 『ts list I biII of material . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . 9-3
9 .到 SECTI。N VIEWS .................….........….............................….........….........................…..........9-6
9.4) THINGS TO INCLUDE/NOT INCLUDE. …......................................…....................................9-6
9 4.1) Hidden and cente『 l ines .................... ......…·…-…·…-… ……··........…·…..... 9-6 h
9 4.2) Dimensions. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. . 9-6

9.5) APPLYING WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED ........…….......…................…..........….................... 9-7
ASSEMBLY QUESTIONS ........……....................................…….........….........…….........…...........9-17
ASSEMBLY PROBLEMS .................…..................…...............…................................................ 9-19
Appendi x A : Limits and Fi ts
A.1 ) LIMITS AND FITS (INCH) .................................................................................................... A -2

A 1.1) Running or sliding clearance fits ...……· .......................……·….. .. .................. A-2
A 1.2) Locational clearance fits . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. A-4
A 1.3) Locational transition fits …....……·…··.......................··……. ........ ................. A-6
A 1.4) Locational interference fits ...........……· ..............…………····……. .................. A-7
A 1.5) Fo『ce and shrink fits . . . . . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. A-8
A.2) METRIC LIMITS AND FITS ...............................................……….........…….........….............. A -9
A 2 1) Hole basis clearance fits . . . . . . . . .. . ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. A-9
A 2 2) Hole basis transition and interference fits ........ ......…·…-….. ..……· ......…·….. A-10
A 2 3) Shaft basis clea『a nee fits . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . A-11
A 2 3) Shaft basis clearan但他．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．……·… .. .. ... ...... ....... A-11
A 2 4) Shaft basis transition and inte『ierence fits .... .. ......…·…-…. •• •.……. ........ ....... A-12
Appendi x B : Threads and Fastener Tables
8.1 ) UNIFIED NATIONAL THREAD FORM....................……….........…….........….........……......... B-2

8.2) METRIC THREAD F。RM ..............….........…..................…..................…............................. 8 -3
8.3) FASTENERS (INCH SERIES) .........….........….................….........….........................…......... B-4
B.3.1) Dimensions of hex bolts and heavy hex bolts .............................................................. B-4
B.3.2) Dimensions of hex nuts and hex jam nuts ... .......... .......... .......... ................................. B-5
B.3.3) Dimensions of hexagon and spline socket head 臼P SC『ews ....…… …......… …..... B-6 h 8
B.3.4) D「ill and cou nte『bo「e sizes fo『 socket head cap screws.. ..... ... ................................. B-7
B.3.5) Dimensions of hexagon and spline socket flat cou ntersunk head cap screws.…........ B-8
B.3.6) Dimensions of slo忧ed flat cou ntersunk head 臼P SC「ews .. .. . .. . .. ... .. . ....................... B-9
B.3. 7) Dimensions of slo出d round head 臼p screws .. .............……·….. .. ........ ......... B-9
B.3.8) Dimensions of prefeπed sizes of type A plain washers ... ........... ..... ... ....... ..... ..... ..... 8 -10
B.3 .9) Dimensions of 陀gu lar heli臼l sp「ing-lock washe『s .......... .......................................... B-11
8.4) METRIC FASTENERS ........……….........….........…….........……..................……·…................ 8 -12
B 4.1) Dimensions of hex bolts . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. . B斗 2
B.4.2) Dimensions of hex nuts, style 1 . ...... ... .... .. .....…·…-….. ..……· ......…·….. B-13
B.4句 Di mensions of met「ic socket head 臼P SC『ews ...... ................................................... 8 -14
VII
B.4.4) Drill and counte「bo「e sizes fo『 socket head cap screws........................................... B-15
B.4.5) Dimensions of metric counte『sunk socket head cap screws. …………......……….. B-16
B.4.6) Drill and countersink sizes for flat countersunk head cap sc陀WS …· … ...... …h …... B-17
8.5) BOLT AND SCREW CLEARANCE H。LES .........................................…......................... B-18
B.5.1) Inch clea『ance holes. …………………·· … ………………··…- ….. .. ………. B-18 h
B.5.2) Met「ic clea『a nee holes . . . .. ... .. .. . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. ... .. . . B-19
Appendix C: Referenc es
REFERENCES ..........................…..................….........…...........................….........…….................. C-1
viii
[ Chapter 1 - lntroducti。n to engineering d『awings J
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1) DESIGN ..............…….........……....................................….........…….........…….........…................ 2

1.2) C。MMUNICATING A DESIGN ......................................….........……........................................ 2
1.2 1) Sketching ... ... ... ............................. ............................... ........ ................ .. . 2
1.2 2) Technical Drawing ... ......................... ........ ............................... ................... . 2
1.2 3) Computer-Aided Drawing . ... . .. . . ... .. .. ... .. .... . . .. ... . .. . .. ... .. .. ... .. .... . . . 4
1.3) STANDARDS ........…..................…..................................................….......…............................ 4
1.4) HISTORY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING .............….........…....................................…................ 5
1.5) MANUFACTURING ..............................................................…........….......….........……·…......... 5
1.6) ENGINEERING DRAWING F。RMAT AND CONTENTS .........…........….......…....................... 6
1.6 1) Sheet Sizes. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . .. ... . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . . 7
1.6 2) Drawing . .. . ... .. .. ... . .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. ... .. .... . . .. ... . .. . .. ... .. .. ... .. .... . . . 8
1.6 3) Zoning ... ... ........ ............................... ....................................... ................... . 9
1.6 4) S臼I e . . .. . .. ...... .. ...... .........……·…··.. .....................··……. .••.•. •. .••.•. •.•.••.•. •.•. • 9
1.6 5) Notes .... ... ........ ......…·…- ….• •. ……· ......…·…-….•• •. ….• •. .••.•. •. ......…·…. •.• . • 9
1.6 6) Title Block .. ... ... .........…- ….• •. ……………··……. .•• •. … ………………··…… . . 9 h
1.6 7) Revision Hi sto「y Block ..... ....... ........... ................................ ........ .................. 10
1.6 8) Tolera nce and P叫ection Blocks .... .. ... ... ... .............….• •. ……………··……. . 11
INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS QUESTIONS .........….......….......................... 13
INTRODU CTI。N TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS PROBLEMS................................................. 17
1-1
( Chapter 1 - Introduction to engineering d用阳ngs I
CHAPTER SUMMARY
In this chapter you will learn the importance of eng的eering drawings, how they relate to
design and manufacturing, and the general arrangement and placement of the components on a
print. In addition, the information that is contained within the various blocks (e.g. title bloc均 will be
described.
1.1) DESIGN
Design is a strategic approach t o pro blem solv ing. The design process may
involve considerable research, thought, modeling, adjustments, and redesign. In the field
of Engineering , the design process leads to the creation of a plan for the construction of
an obj ect or system. These plans define things such as the specifications, parameters,
costs , processes, and constraints of the system. Designing often necessitates considering
the aesthetics, functionality, economics, and sociopolitical aspects of the system. In
mechanical engineering, the designed obj ect is most likely a manufactured part or
machine that pe斤orms a required function. In the field of electrical engineering, the design
could be a computer algorithm or a circuit. In civil engineering, the design could be
subdivision or bridge plans. No ma扰er what kind of design is required, you will be requ ired
to communicate this design to someone. You『 audience may vary from you『 cl assmates ,
instructor, boss, or potential investors.
1.2) COMMUNICATING A DESIGN
Why would you want to communicate your design? Most likely, you want to attract,
inspire, and motivate people to respond to your design. Methods of design
communications can be written or oral. Written communication could be in the form of
reports, memos, or drawings. Design communication throug h drawings may be as simple
as a sketch or as complex as a computer generated technical drawing.
1.2.1) Sketching
A sketch is a quickly executed freeha nd drawing that is not intended to be a

drawing used to manufacture a fi nished pa『t It is only used to express an idea. Sketching
is a useful skill that may be used to quickly convey an idea in a design meeting or to have
as a record of an idea for later use.
1.2.2) Technical Drawing
Technical drawing may be used as both a noun and a verb. Tec hnical drawing
is the process of C「eating an engineering drawing. Technical drawing is governed by a
set of ru les or standards that allow you to create an engineeri ng drawing that is
understandable and unambiguous.
A technical drawing is a drawing or a set of drawings that communicate an idea,
design, schematic, or model. They a「e often used to show the look and function of an
0时ect or system. Each engineering field has its own type of techn i创 drawi ngs . For
example, electrical engineers draw circuit schematics and circuit boa 「d layou怡， civil
engineers draw plans for bridges and road layouts, and mechanical engineers draw parts
and assemblies that need to be manufactu red. This book focuses on the technical
drawings of parts and systems for manufacture. This is not to say that only students in a
1-2
mechanical engineering curriculum will benefit from learning the skills necessary to read
and create part drawings. It benefits everyone from the weekend carpenter who wants to
draw plans for his/her new bookshelf to the electri创 eng ineer who wants to analyze
electri臼I component cooling using a CAE (i.e. computer aided engineering) program.
Technical drawing teaches you how to visualize and see all sides of an object in your
mind. Being able to visualize in your mind will help you in several aspects of critical
thinking.
Engineering drawings , a type of tech ni臼l drawing, are used to fully and clearly
define requirements for an engineered part or system. It communicates all the needed
information 付om the engineer who designed the part to the machinist who will make it.
The process of producing an engineering drawing is often referred to as technical drawing
or drafting. The person that generates the drawing may be called the designer or drafter.
Before the advent of computers, copies of the engineering drawing were duplicated
through the process of blueprinting. Therefore, engineering drawings are often referred
to as prints. Figure 1.2-1 shows one example of an engineering drawing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ，。 11
REVISION HISTORY
:c ZONE REV DESCRIPTION DATE APPROVED :c
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1. DIMENSIONS ANO TOLERANCES PE只 ASMEY1 4.岳2009 电：，
2. REMOVE ALL BURRS ANO SHARP EDGES
UNLESS OTHERWI S司E SPECIFIED

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APPROVALS DATE
DIMARE IN INCHES AM CO 口ESIGN INC.
X ORAFτER 口PM 2010107123
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ，。 11
Figure 1.2-1: Engineering drawing example
1-3
1.2.3) Computer-Aided Drawing
Today, the mechanics of drafting have been automated through the use of
computer-aided drawing or design (i.e. CAD) systems. Computer-aided drawing or
design refers to computer software that allows an engineer to create drawings of their
design ideas. There are two types of CAD systems used to create technical drawings.
The first type allows you to draw two-dimensional drawings from scratch. The other types,
and more prevalent today, are programs that start from a three-dimensional model and
automatically create the two-dimensional drawing from the model. Communicating ideas
is critical fo『 developing the best possible solution, and solid models allow you to show a
th『ee dimensional version of your system instead of the traditional two-dimensional
drawing. Many people are able to more quickly understand the idea if they are shown a
three-dimensional representation of the design.
Figure 1.2-2: Three-dimensional CAD model
1.3) STANDARDS
An engineering drawing is a legal document because it communicates all the

needed information about what is wanted to the people who will expend resources turning
the idea into reality. Therefore, if the resulting product is wrong, the manufacturer is
protected from liability as long as they have faithfully executed the instructions conveyed
by the drawing. Mistakes made by the designer during the drawing phase and
manufacturers misreading prints a『e costly. This is the biggest reason why the
conventions and standards of engineering drawings have evolved over decades toward a
very precise and unambiguous state.
In the pursuit of unambiguous communication, engineering drawings often follow
certain national and international standards, such as ASME Y 14.5M or a group of ISO
standards. Standa 「d ization also aids with globalization. Standards allow people from
di仔erent countries who speak di仔erent languages to share a common language of
engineering drawing .
Standards define how to create an orthographic projection, apply dimensions,
symbols use, perspectives, and layout conventions among many other things. This
enables the drafter to communicate more concisely by using a commonly understood
convention.
1 -4
1.4) HIST。RY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING
For centuries, all engineering drawings were done manually by using pencil and
paper. This process took time, precision, and a certain degree of a『tistic ability. Since the
advent of computers, an increasing number of engineering drawings are drawn within the
virtual world of a computer-aided design or drawing (i.e. CAD) program. Currently, it is
very hard to find any company that still practices manual drafting.
Some of the tools used in manual drafting include pencils, erasers, straightedges,
T-square, French curves, triangles, rulers, protractor, compass, and drawing board. The
English saying "Go back to the drawing board ” means to rethink something altogether. It
was inspired by the literal act of discovering design errors and returning to a drawing board
to revise the design.
An engineering drawing is usually reproduced multiple times. These copies are
distributed to the shop floor, vendors, supervisors, and to the company archives.
Historically, a process called blueprinting was used which produced a copy that was blue
in appearance. This is why engineering drawings a「e still referred to as blueprints or
simply prints. Drawings today a「e simply reproduced using a plo忧er or printer.
Figure 1.4-1 : Drafting implements
1.5) MANUFACTURING
Engineering drawings provide an understanding of how a product will function and

be manufactured . Historically, two-dimensional engineering drawings have served as the
sole method of transferring information from design into a manufactured pa『t However,
there are always challenges involved in trying to describe a 30 world in a 20 drawing.
Many companies are realizing that two-dimensional drawings alone are not sufficient and
often lead to design errors and higher manufacturing costs.111 Recently, 30 solid modeling
software has been developed that take the computer drawing or model information and
produce a G-code, which is executed by a CNC (i.e. computer numerical control) machine.
However, two-dimensional drawings still play an important role in the design process by
providing tolera n ci吨， annotations, pa付s lists and other information that is criti创 to
manufacturing and quality control.111
Engineering drawings transform ideas into products and communicate information
between engineering and manufacturing. Orawings originate in the engineering
department and give the manufacturing department all the information that is needed to
1-5
manufacture the part. These prints also give the inspection department all the information
that is needed to inspect the part.
1 .6) ENGINEERING DRAWING FORMAT AND CONTENTS
The drawing format, arrangement, and organization of information within a drawing

is controlled by ASME Y14.1 and Y14.1 M. A drawing sheet's main elements are the
drawing, various blocks, notes and zones as shown in Figure 1.6-1 . However, there are
other components that are optional and may be included on the drawing sheet. First and
foremost, engineering drawings contain all the information needed to make the product.
A drawing could be anything from a simple part print to a complex assembly drawing. Note
that the drawing format may vary slightly depending on the drawing size and orientation.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
Revisi。n h istory bloc k
F
Z o nes
E E
Bo「der －二二’l
D D『awi ng area D
C C
N。tes
B B
Toleranc e a nd
丁itle bl。ck
projection block s
A A
皇 7 皇呈主 2
Figure 1.6-1: Engineering drawing format
1-6
[ Chapter 1 - lntroducti。n to engineering d『awingsJ
1.6.1) Sheet Sizes
The physical size of the printed drawing is controlled by ASME Y14.1 and
ASME Y14. 1M. Each drawing size is identified by a letter or a letter number combination.
For examp怡， drawing size A is an 8.5 x 11 inch sheet. A complete list of drawing sizes
are given in Tables 1.6-1 through 1.6 - 4. Note that a flat sheet is a sheet that is usually
stored flat, and a roll or elongated sheet is rolled due to its elongated length.
Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

desianation On) On) zones
A /Horizontal) 8.50 11.00 2x2
A (Vertical) 11.00 8.50 2x2
B 11.00 17.00 2x4
C 17.00 22.00 4x4
D 22.00 34.00 4x8
E 34.00 44.00 8x8
F 28.00 40.00 6x8
Table 1.6-1: Drawing sheet flat sizes 121
Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

desianation (in) (in) zones
G 11.00 22.50- 90.00 4 X (6 - 24)
H 28.00 44.00- 143.00 Bx 8- 26
J 34.00 55.00- 176.00 Bx 10.32
K 40.00 55.00- 176.00 Bx 10.32
Table 1.6-2: Drawing sheet roll sizes 121
Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

AO 841 1189 16x24
A1 594 841 12 X 16
A2 420 594 8 X 12
A3 297 420 6x8
A4 297 210 6x4
Table 1.6-3: Basic sheet sizes (metric ) 131
Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

A1.0 594 1189 12x24
A2.1 420 841 8 X 16
A2.0 420 1189 8 X 24
A3.2 297 594 6 X 12
A3.1 297 841 6 X 16
A3.0 297 1189 6 X 24
Table 1.6-4: Elongated sheet sizes (metri c) 131
1- 7
1.6.2) Drawing
The most important part of a print is the drawing and the most important pa『t of
reading the print is the ability to visualize the part. The drawing area (see Figure 1.6-1)
may contain an orthographic projection and a pictorial of the object as shown in
Figure 1.6-2. The o同hographic projection is a two-dimensional representation of a three-
dimensional object. It usually contains three views (e.g. front view, top view, right side
view) but it may contain more or less than three. The number of views needed is
determined by the complexity of the part. A pictorial is a pseudo 3D drawing. Pictorials
are very useful in helping the reader visualize the object.
Dimensions a『e an important part of the drawing that give the size, shape and
finish of the pa『t Without the dimensions, the part would not be able to be manufactured.
Dimensions communicate more than just the size of the part, they also give the
manufacturing depa同ment an idea of the object’ s function and important surfaces.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2
F F
Orth og raphic p rojection
E R.38 E
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Figure 1.6-2: The drawing component of an engineering drawing
1-8
1.6.3) Zoning
The zone letters and numbers are located in the drawing ma 「g i ns outside the
border. The letter-number combinations allow you to indicate a specific location on an
engineering drawing. Zones are simila 「 to how cells are identified in a spread sheet
application. For example, zone B6 is located where row B and column 6 intersect (see
Figure 1.6-1 ). On inch drawings, zone sizes a「e equal, not less than 1 inch, and not more
than 5.50 inches. On metric drawings, the zone size selected is equal on the horizontal
and the ve『tical , except that the upper and far left zones may be an odd size to
accommodate the size of the sheet.
1.6.4) Scale
The drawing scale expresses the ratio of the object ’s size as pri nted to its actual
physical size. If a drawing is printed fu ll-scale, it implies that a feature dimensioned as
1 inch measures 1 inch with a ruler on the printed drawing. This is referred to as a 1 to 1
scale. Printing full scale, in most cases, is difficult to achieve unless you have access to
a la『ge plotter. In a classroom setting, most engineering drawings are printed on a
standard 8.5” X 1 1 飞heet of paper regardless of the o问ect’s size. The s臼le at which the
pa『t is printed should allow all details of the part to be seen clearly and accurately. Even
tho ugh a drawing may not be able t o be printed full scale, they sho uld always be
drawn full s cale in the CAD env iro nment.
Since it is impractical to print all drawings full scale, we employ printing to half
sca怡， quarter-scale and so on. For example, if a drawing is printed half-sca le, a feature
that is dimensioned 1 inch will measure 0 .5 inch on the printed drawing. The scale at
which the drawing is printed should be indicated in the drawing’ s title block next to the text
“ SCALE. ” On a drawing, half-scale may be denoted in the following ways.
1/2 or 1:2 or 0.5
Although it is nice to print to scale, the ASME standard states that no dimension
should be measured directly 付om the printed drawing. For drawings that are not prepared
to any scale, the word “ NONE" should be entered after “ SCALE” in the title block.
1.6.5) Notes
Drawing notes provide information that clarify a particular requirement or specifies

new information necessary to manufacture the obj ect correctly. This concept will be
discussed in the chapte『 on dimensioning.
1.6.6) Title Block
Every engineering drawing should have both a border and a title block. The border
defines the drawing a 「ea and the title block gives pertinent information about the part or
assembly being drawn . There are several d i何erent types of title blocks, but they all contain
similar information. The information that is included depends on the drawing type, field of
engineering, and viewing audience.
The title block is located in the lower right corner of the sheet as shown in
Figure 1 .6- 1. The information common to all drawings is shown in Figure 1.6-3 where the
identification letters refer to the following information. For a more complete explanation,
see ASME Y14.100.
1-9
A. Company name and address.

B. Drawing title.
C. Drawing number.
D. Sheet revision. This block may be omitted when a revision history block is
included.
E. This block may contain sub-blocks such as DRAFTER, CHECKER, and
ENGINEER.
F. This block is used for approval by the design activity when d i仔erent from the
source preparing the drawing. This block may be necessary when a
contractor-subcontractor condition exists.
G. Approval by an activity other than those described for blocks E and F.
H. Scale of the drawing sheet.
I. DAI (Design activity identification).
J. Drawing size.
K. Actual or estimated weight of the item.
L. Sheet number.
④
TITLE
①
⑤
----------------
才一－－－－－降百队1 ①
DRWNO
@
SHEET
① ①
Figure 1.6-3: Title block contents
1.6.7) Revision Hist ory Block
The revision history block is used to record changes to the drawing and is located
in the upper rig ht corner of the d『awing sheet as shown in Figure 1.6-1. The block is
extended downward as required. Revisions are necessary when the part is redesig ned.
The information contained in the revision history block is shown in Figure 1.6-4 where the
identification letters refer to the following information. For a more complete explanation,
see ASME Y1 4 .100.
A . Specifies the zone location of the revision.
B. The revision letter or number is found in this location.
C. Gives a short description of the change.
D. The revision date is given numerically in order of year-month-day. For
example, the date, May 31 , 2016, would be indicated as 2016-05-31 or
2016/05/31.
E. The initials of the person approving the change.
1 - 10
REVISION HISTORY
ZONE REV 。巨SCRIPTION DATE APPROVED
①⑤ @ ⑤ ⑤
Figure 1.6-4: Revision history block
1.6.8) To lerance and Projection Blocks
The tolerance and projection blocks are lo臼ted to the left of the title block as
shown in Figure 1.6-1. The angle of projection block shown in Figure 1.6-5 indicates the
projection method that was used to create the drawing. The two methods of projection
are third angle projection and first angle projection. What projection is and how to interpret
it will be discussed in the chapter on orthographic projection.
The dimension and tolerancing block shown in Figure 1.6-5 gives information
relating to dimensioning and tolerancing that apply to the drawing as a whole.
Dimensioning and tolerancing will be discussed in late「 chapters.
UNLESS OT HERWISE SPECIFIED

DIM ARE IN INCHES
TOL ON ANGLE ±.XX0
2 PL ±.X)< 3 PL ±.XXX
INTERPRET DIM AND TOL PER
ASME Y· 4.5 - XXXX
THIRD ANGL =PROJECTION
Figure 1.6-5: Tolerance and projection blocks
1 - 11
且♀工E豆
1 - 12
I NTR。DUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS QUESTIONS
Name: Date:
Q1-1 ) Design is ．（白II in the blank)
Q1 刽 A technical d 「awing is one way of commun i臼ting ... (circle all that apply)
a) an idea.
b) a design.
c) information used to manufacture a pa同．
d) inspection specifications.
Q1-3) The two organizations that control the content of engineering drawings.
a) ASME
b) AMCE
c) ISO
d) EAU
Q1-4) Historically, engineering drawings are also called ...
a) copies.
b) drafting.
c) prints.
d) details.
Q1-5) CAD stands for .. (circle all that apply)
a) computer achieved drafting .

b) computer aided drawing.
c) computer aided design.
d) computer aided development.
Q1-6) What are the four basic components of an engineering drawing?
Q1-7) What is the most im po同ant part of a print?
a) Title block
b) Zones
c) Drawing
d) Notes
1 - 13
Q1-8) How many views a「e generally used to describe the shape of a part?
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Q1-9) What is the function of dimensions?
Q1-10) The letters and numbers along the ma『g i ns that allow you to specify a location on
the drawing is called ...
a) referencing.
b) zoning .
c) mapping.
d) celling .
Q1-11) The area inside the border lines and outside the various blocks is called the.
a) drawing area.
b) zone
c) revision area.
d) plot.
Q1-12) The s臼le of a drawing is the ratio of the ...
a) printed size of the pa同 to its actual size.

b) actual size of the pa时 to its printed size.
c) the pa吭’s size to the sheet size.
d) sheet size to the part’s size.
Q1-1 3) What scale should a part be drawn in the CAD environment?
Q1-14) This block gives information about the drawing such as title, sheet size and scale.
a) Revision history block

b) Dimension and tolerance block
c) Angle of projection block
d) Title block
e) Note
1 - 14
Q1-15) This block gives information about the drawing's projection method .

d) Title block
e) Note
Q1-16) This block gives information about the drawing's modifications.

d) Title block
e) Note
Q1-17) This block gives information about general dimensions and tolerancing
specifications.

d) Title block
e) Note
1 - 15
且♀工E豆
1 - 16
I NTR。DUCTION TO ENGINEERING DRAWINGS PR。BL EMS
Name: Date:
P1-1 ) Given the following title block, name and briefly describe each space.
APPROVALS DATE
UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIED
DRAFTER @
DIM ARE IN INCHES
TOLONANGLE 主.xx• CHECKER
τtτLE
2PL 主 . XX
3 P L 主 .xxx
ENGINEER
INTERPRET DIM AND TOL PER
ASME Y14.5 • XXXX @
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
＠一＠
@-
M① DRWNO
w @
SCALE Q) ①
0
A
B
C
D
E
F
J
K
L
M
N
。
1 - 17
且♀工E豆
1 - 18
Name: Date:
P1-2) Given the following revision history block, name and briefly describe each space.
REVISION HISTORY
ZONE REV DESCRIPTION DATE APPROVED
①⑤ @ ⑤ ⑤
A 一B －
c －D －E
1 - 19
且♀工E豆
1 - 20
Name: Date:
P1-3) Given the print shown on the next page，们II in the following information.
Company name
Print title
Print number
Print scale
Sheet size
Number of revisions
Revision A zone location
Number of sheets
Material
Projection method
Finish requirements
Approving drafter
Approving checker
Approving engineer
Tolerance for a .XXX
dimension
Number of notes
1 - 21
斗 ’NN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
REVISION HISTORY
工工
ZONE REV DESCRIPTION DATE APPROVED
F6 A ECN 1510 2010/08/30 HJE
E3 B ECN 1511 2010/11/20 HJE
。。
①
2.75
u. U」
1.59
①
-• 1 06 - -
.75 • .50 •
w 丛』
.
‘
。
2X 0.25 一 2X 1/4 - 20 UNC - 2A 。
2X SR.39
NOTES:
()
1. DIMENSIONS AND TOLERANCES PER ASME Y14.5-2009 止J
2. REMOVE ALL BURRS AND SHARP EDGES
UNLESS OTH ER阶nsE SPECIFIED APPROVALS DATE

口I M ARE IN INCHES AMCO DESIGN INC.
.x ±.1 DRAFTER DPM 2010/07/23
∞ .xx 企.01
CHECKED DAM 2010/07/26 TITLE
国
.xx.x 立.005
xxxx 主。由)60 ENGINEER HJE 2010/07/27 STUD
ANGULAR 企3
MATERIAL SAE 4320
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION SIZE CAGE CODE DWGNO REV
FINISH B MS2344 B
< ($ E REMOVE BURRS
DO NOT SCALE DRPI叭/ING
SCALE
2:1
SHEET
1 of 1
<
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Name: Date:
P1-4) Given the print shown below, fill in the following information.
Company name
Print title
Print number
Print scale
Sheet size
Number of revisions
Revision A zone location
Sheet number
Number of sheets
Material
Projection method
Finish requirements
Approving drafter
Approving checker
Approving engineer
Tolerance for a .XX dimension
1 - 23
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DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI
Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)
The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.
NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA
I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Essentials 5th Edition by Kirstie

Chapter 1: Introduction to Engineering Drawings

1 .1) DESIGN ........….................................……….........……..................……….........…·….................. 1-2

1 6 2) Drawing ....…. .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . .. .. . . 1-8

1 6 5) Notes . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . ... .. . . .. 1-9

1 6 7) Revision History Block . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . .. ... .. . . . 1 斗 0

Chapter 2：。rthographic Projections

2.1) ORTH。GRAPHIC PROJECTION INTR。DUCTI。N .................…........................................2-2

2 5 5) Line Type Precedence......................................................................... 2-16

Chapter 3: Pictorial Drawings

3.1) PICT。RIALS INTR。DUCTI。N ........…....................................…….........…...........................3-2

3 4.1) Types of oblique pictorials . . . .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. . . . .. . . . .. . ............... . ... . 3-8

4 .1) DETAI LED DRAWINGS ........................…….......….........…........................….........…….......... 4-2

5.1) SECTI。NAL V IEWS.........................….........….................…................…….......…..................5-2

Chapter 6: Advanced Drawing Tec hniques

6.1) ADVANCED VIEW TECHNIQUES. …..........…........................….........…................................6-2

ADVANCED DRAWING TECHNIQUES PROBLEMS ......…................….........….......................6-25

7.1) T。LERANCING AND INTERCHANGEABILITY ...........…….........……..................................7 -2

C hapter 8: Threads and Fasteners

8.1) FASTENERS ..........................…............................................................….........….................8-2

8 10 1) General fastene「 specifications . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . . . .. .. . . .. .. .. 8-19

Chapter 9 : Assembly Drawings

9.1) DEFI NITI。NS ..................................................................................….................…............... 9-2

9 4.2) Dimensions. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. ... .. .. ... . .. .. .. . 9-6

Appendi x A : Limits and Fi ts

A.1 ) LIMITS AND FITS (INCH) .................................................................................................... A -2

Appendi x B : Threads and Fastener Tables

8.1 ) UNIFIED NATIONAL THREAD FORM....................……….........…….........….........……......... B-2

REFERENCES ..........................…..................….........…...........................….........…….................. C-1

1.1) DESIGN ..............…….........……....................................….........…….........…….........…................ 2

1.2) COMMUNICATING A DESIGN

A sketch is a quickly executed freeha nd drawing that is not intended to be a

1.2.2) Technical Drawing

一 E3 自 ECN 1511 201011 1120 HJE

UNLESS OTHERWI S司E SPECIFIED

Figure 1.2-1: Engineering drawing example

1.2.3) Computer-Aided Drawing

Figure 1.2-2: Three-dimensional CAD model

An engineering drawing is a legal document because it communicates all the

1.4) HIST。RY OF TECHNICAL DRAWING

Figure 1.4-1 : Drafting implements

Engineering drawings provide an understanding of how a product will function and

1 .6) ENGINEERING DRAWING FORMAT AND CONTENTS

The drawing format, arrangement, and organization of information within a drawing

1.6.1) Sheet Sizes

Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

Table 1.6-1: Drawing sheet flat sizes 121

Format size Vertical Horizontal Recommended number of

Table 1.6-2: Drawing sheet roll sizes 121

Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

Table 1.6-3: Basic sheet sizes (metric ) 131

Desianation Vertical (mm) Horizontal (mm) Recommended number of zones

Table 1.6-4: Elongated sheet sizes (metri c) 131

Figure 1.6-2: The drawing component of an engineering drawing

1/2 or 1:2 or 0.5

Drawing notes provide information that clarify a particular requirement or specifies

1.6.6) Title Block

A. Company name and address.

1.6.7) Revision Hist ory Block

1.6.8) To lerance and Projection Blocks

UNLESS OT HERWISE SPECIFIED