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Contents vii

4.3
4.4
Climate Change 99
Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect 102 6 Electricity and
Fossil Fuels 107 Magnetism 184
4.5 Liquid Fuels 108 Electric Charge 186
4.6 Natural Gas 110 6.1 Positive and Negative Charge 186
4.7 Coal 112 6.2 What Is Charge? 187
Alternative Sources 118 6.3 Coulomb’s Law 189
4.8 A Nuclear World? 118 6.4 Force on an Uncharged Object 190
4.9 Clean Energy I 121 Electricity and Matter 191
4.10 Clean Energy II 124 6.5 Matter in Bulk 191
4.11 Energy Storage 128 6.6 Conductors and Insulators 191
4.12 Biofuels 131 6.7 Superconductivity 193
Strategies For The Future 133 Electric Current 194
4.13 Conservation 134 6.8 The Ampere 194
4.14 What Governments Must Do 136 6.9 Potential Difference 195
Important Terms and Ideas 140 6.10 Ohm’s Law 198
Multiple Choice 141 6.11 Electric Power 200
Exercises 142
Magnetism 202
6.12 Magnets 203
5 Matter and Heat 144
6.13 Magnetic Field 204
6.14 Oersted’s Experiment 205
Temperature and Heat 145 6.15 Electromagnets 207
5.1 Temperature 146 Using Magnetism 208
5.2 Heat 148 6.16 Magnetic Force on a Current 208
5.3 Metabolic Energy 150 6.17 Electric Motors 209
Fluids 152 6.18 Electromagnetic Induction 210
5.4 Density 152 6.19 Transformers 213
5.5 Pressure 153 Important Terms and Ideas 216
5.6 Buoyancy 155 Important Formulas 216
5.7 The Gas Laws 157 Multiple Choice 216
Exercises 219
Kinetic Theory of Matter 162
5.8 Kinetic Theory of Gases 162
5.9 Molecular Motion and Temperature 163
5.10 Heat Transfer 164
7 Waves 222
Changes of State 165 Wave Motion 223
5.11 Liquids and Solids 165 7.1 Water Waves 224
5.12 Evaporation and Boiling 166 7.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 225
5.13 Melting 167 7.3 Describing Waves 226
7.4 Standing Waves 227
Energy Transformations 170
5.14 Heat Engines 171 Sound Waves 229
5.15 Thermodynamics 172 7.5 Sound 229
5.16 Fate of the Universe 175 7.6 Doppler Effect 230
5.17 Entropy 176 7.7 Musical Sounds 232
Important Terms and Ideas 177 Electromagnetic Waves 233
Important Formulas 177 7.8 Electromagnetic Waves 234
Multiple Choice 177 7.9 Types of EM Waves 235
Exercises 180 7.10 Light “Rays” 238
viii Contents

Wave Behavior 239 Matter Waves 306

7.11 Reflection 239 9.5 De Broglie Waves 306
7.12 Refraction 239 9.6 Waves of What? 307
7.13 Lenses 243 9.7 Uncertainty Principle 308
7.14 The Eye 247 The Hydrogen Atom 310
7.15 Color 248 9.8 Atomic Spectra 310
7.16 Interference 251 9.9 The Bohr Model 311
7.17 Diffraction 252 9.10 Electron Waves and
Important Terms and Ideas 256 Orbits 313
Important Formulas 256 9.11 The Laser 315
Multiple Choice 256
Quantum Theory of the Atom 318
Exercises 259
9.12 Quantum Mechanics 319
9.13 Quantum Numbers 320
8 The Nucleus 262 9.14 Exclusion Principle 322
Important Terms and Ideas 323
Atom And Nucleus 263 Important Formulas 323
8.1 Rutherford Model of the Atom 264 Multiple Choice 323
8.2 Nuclear Structure 265 Exercises 325
Radioactivity 267
8.3 Radioactive Decay 268
8.4 Half-Life 270
8.5 Radiation Hazards 271
10 The Periodic Law 328
Elements and Compounds 329
Nuclear Energy 274
10.1 Chemical Change 330
8.6 Units of Mass and Energy 274
10.2 Three Classes of Matter 330
8.7 Binding Energy 275
10.3 The Atomic Theory 333
8.8 Binding Energy per Nucleon 276
The Periodic Law 334
Fission And Fusion 277
10.4 Metals and Nonmetals 334
8.9 Nuclear Fission 278
10.5 Chemical Activity 335
8.10 How a Reactor Works 280
10.6 Families of Elements 336
8.11 Reactor Accidents 283
10.7 The Periodic Table 338
8.12 Plutonium 285
10.8 Groups and Periods 338
8.13 Nuclear Fusion 286
Atomic Structure 341
Elementary Particles 288
10.9 Shells and Subshells 342
8.14 Antiparticles 289
10.10 Explaining the Periodic
8.15 Fundamental Interactions 290
Table 343
8.16 Leptons and Hadrons 292
Important Terms and Ideas 294 Chemical Bonds 346
Multiple Choice 294 10.11 Types of Bond 346
Exercises 296 10.12 Covalent Bonding 347
10.13 Ionic Bonding 349
10.14 Ionic Compounds 350
9 The Atom 299 10.15 Naming Compounds 352
10.16 Chemical Equations 352
Quantum Theory of Light 300 10.17 Types of Chemical
9.1 Photoelectric Effect 301 Reactions 354
9.2 Photons 301 Important Terms and Ideas 355
9.3 What Is Light? 304 Multiple Choice 355
9.4 X-Rays 305 Exercises 357
Contents ix

11 Crystals, Ions, and 13 Organic Chemistry 421

Solutions 360
Carbon Compounds 422
Solids 361 13.1 Carbon Bonds 423
11.1 Ionic and Covalent Crystals 362 13.2 Alkanes 423
11.2 The Metallic Bond 364 13.3 Petroleum Products 424
11.3 Molecular Crystals 366 Structures of Organic Molecules 427
Solutions 370 13.4 Structural Formulas 427
11.4 Solubility 370 13.5 Isomers 428
11.5 Polar and Nonpolar Liquids 372 13.6 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 430
11.6 Ions in Solution 374 13.7 Benzene 432
11.7 Evidence for Dissociation 376 Organic Compounds 433
11.8 Water 377 13.8 Hydrocarbon Groups 433
11.9 Water Pollution 380 13.9 Functional Groups 434
Acids and Bases 382 13.10 Polymers 437
11.10 Acids 382 Chemistry of Life 443
11.11 Strong and Weak Acids 383 13.11 Carbohydrates 443
11.12 Bases 384 13.12 Photosynthesis 445
11.13 The pH Scale 385 13.13 Lipids 446
11.14 Salts 385 13.14 Proteins 447
Important Terms and Ideas 387 13.15 Soil Nitrogen 449
Multiple Choice 387 13.16 Nucleic Acids 451
Exercises 389 13.17 Origin of Life 452
Important Terms and Ideas 454
Multiple Choice 455
12 Chemical Reactions 391 Exercises 457

Quantitative Chemistry 392

12.1 Phlogiston 393
12.2 Oxygen 395
14 Atmosphere and
Hydrosphere 460
12.3 The Mole 396
12.4 Formula Units 398 The Atmosphere 461
Chemical Energy 399 14.1 Regions of the Atmosphere 461
12.5 Exothermic and Endothermic 14.2 Atmospheric Moisture 464
Reactions 401 14.3 Clouds 466
12.6 Chemical Energy and Stability 402 Weather 470
12.7 Activation Energy 405 14.4 Atmospheric Energy 470
Reaction Rates 406 14.5 The Seasons 473
12.8 Temperature and Reaction Rates 407 14.6 Winds 474
12.9 Other Factors 407 14.7 General Circulation of the Atmosphere 475
12.10 Chemical Equilibrium 409 14.8 Middle-Latitude Weather Systems 478
12.11 Altering an Equilibrium 410 Climate 486
Oxidation and Reduction 411 14.9 Tropical Climates 486
12.12 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 411 14.10 Middle- and High-Latitude Climates 486
12.13 Electrochemical Cells 413 14.11 Climate Change 487
Important Terms and Ideas 416 The Hydrosphere 490
Multiple Choice 416 14.12 Ocean Basins 491
Exercises 418 14.13 Ocean Currents 493
x Contents

Important Terms and Ideas 495 Earth History 570

Multiple Choice 496 16.13 Precambrian Time 571
Exercises 498 16.14 The Paleozoic Era 572
16.15 Coal and Petroleum 574

15 The Rock Cycle 501

16.16 The Mesozoic Era 576
16.17 The Cenozoic Era 579
16.18 Human History 581
Rocks 503
Important Terms and Ideas 584
15.1 Composition of the Crust 503
Multiple Choice 585
15.2 Minerals 504
Exercises 587
15.3 Igneous Rocks 506
15.4 Sedimentary Rocks 507
15.5 Metamorphic Rocks 509
Within the Earth 511
17 The Solar System 589
15.6 Earthquakes 511 The Family of the Sun 590
15.7 Structure of the Earth 513 17.1 The Solar System 591
15.8 The Earth’s Interior 518 17.2 Comets 594
15.9 Geomagnetism 520 17.3 Meteors 595
Erosion 520 The Inner Planets 600
15.10 Weathering 521 17.4 Mercury 600
15.11 Stream Erosion 522 17.5 Venus 601
15.12 Glaciers 525 17.6 Mars 604
15.13 Groundwater 526 17.7 Is There Life on Mars? 606
15.14 Sedimentation 527 17.8 Asteroids 608
Vulcanism 531 The Outer Planets 611
15.15 Volcanoes 531 17.9 Jupiter 611
15.16 Intrusive Rocks 535 17.10 Saturn 614
15.17 The Rock Cycle 537 17.11 Uranus, Neptune, Pluto, and More 617
Important Terms and Ideas 538 The Moon 620
Multiple Choice 538 17.12 Phases of the Moon 621
Exercises 540 17.13 Eclipses 622
17.14 Lunar Surface and Interior 624

16 The Evolving Earth 543

17.15 Evolution of the Lunar Landscape 627
17.16 Origin of the Moon 628
Important Terms and Ideas 629
Tectonic Movement 545
Multiple Choice 630
16.1 Types of Deformation 545
Exercises 632
16.2 Mountain Building 546
16.3 Continental Drift 547
Plate Tectonics 550
16.4 Lithosphere and Asthenosphere 551
18 The Stars 634
16.5 The Ocean Floors 551 Tools of Astronomy 635
16.6 Ocean-Floor Spreading 553 18.1 The Telescope 636
16.7 Plate Tectonics 554 18.2 The Spectrometer 637
Methods of Historical Geology 561 18.3 Spectrum Analysis 639
16.8 Principle of Uniform Change 561 The Sun 640
16.9 Rock Formations 564 18.4 Properties of the Sun 641
16.10 Radiometric Dating 565 18.5 The Aurora 643
16.11 Fossils 567 18.6 Sunspots 644
16.12 Geologic Time 568 18.7 Solar Energy 646
Contents xi

The Stars 648 The Expanding Universe 677

18.8 Stellar Distances 648 19.6 Red Shifts 677
18.9 Variable Stars 649 19.7 Quasars 679
18.10 Stellar Motions 650 Evolution of The Universe 680
18.11 Stellar Properties 651 19.8 Dating the Universe 681
Life Histories of the Stars 652 19.9 After the Big Bang 682
18.12 H-R Diagram 652 19.10 Origin of the Solar System 687
18.13 Stellar Evolution 654 Extraterrestrial Life 688
18.14 Supernovas 656 19.11 Exoplanets 689
18.15 Pulsars 657 19.12 Interstellar Travel 690
18.16 Black Holes 658 19.13 Interstellar Communication 691
Important Terms and Ideas 661
Important Terms and Ideas 693
Multiple Choice 661
Multiple Choice 694
Exercises 663
Exercises 696
Math Refresher A-1
19 The Universe 665 The Elements A-10
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
Galaxies 666 and Odd-Numbered Exercises A-11
19.1 The Milky Way 666 Photo Credits C-1
19.2 Stellar Populations 669
Index I-1
19.3 Radio Astronomy 670
19.4 Galaxies 671
19.5 Cosmic Rays 675
 Preface

Creating Informed Citizens

The aim of The Physical Universe is to present, as simply and clearly as possible, the
essentials of physics, chemistry, earth science, and astronomy to students whose main
interests lie elsewhere.
Because of the scope of these sciences and because we assume minimal prepara-
tion on the part of the reader, our choice of topics and how far to develop them had to
be limited. The emphasis throughout is on the basic concepts of each discipline. We
also try to show how scientists approach problems and why science is a never-ending
quest rather than a fixed set of facts.
The book concentrates on those aspects of the physical sciences most relevant to
a nonscientist who wants to understand how the universe works and to know some-
thing about the connections between science and everyday life. We hope to equip
readers to appreciate major developments in science as they arrive and to be able
to act as informed citizens on matters that involve science and public policy. In par-
ticular, there are serious questions today concerning energy supply and use and the
contribution of carbon dioxide emissions to the climate changes that are under way.
Debates on these questions require a certain amount of scientific literacy, which this
book is intended to provide, in order that sensible choices be made that will deter-
mine the welfare of generations to come. Past choices have not always benefited our
planet and its inhabitants: it is up to us to see that future choices do. There is little
time left to make some of these choices, as Chapter 4 makes clear, and there is no
Planet B to fall back on if we make the wrong ones.

Scope and Organization

There are many possible ways to organize a book of this kind. We chose the one that
provides the most logical progression of ideas, so that each new subject builds on the
ones that came before.
Our first concern in The Physical Universe is the scientific method, using as
illustration the steps that led to today’s picture of the universe and the earth’s place
in it. Next we consider motion and the influences that affect moving bodies. Grav-
ity, energy, and momentum are examined, and the theory of relativity is introduced.
Then we examine the many issues associated with the energy that today’s world
consumes in ever-increasing amounts and the accompanying environmental con-
sequences. Matter in its three states now draws our attention, and we pursue this
theme from the kinetic-molecular model to the laws of thermodynamics and the
significance of entropy. A grounding in electricity and magnetism follows, and then
an exploration of wave phenomena that includes the electromagnetic theory of light.
We go on from there to the atomic nucleus and elementary particles, followed by
a discussion of the quantum theories of light and of matter that lead to the modern
view of atomic structure.
The transition from physics to chemistry is made via the periodic table. A look
at chemical bonds and how they act to hold together molecules, solids, and liquids
is followed by a survey of chemical reactions, organic chemistry, and the chemistry
of life.

xii
Preface xiii

Our concern next shifts to the planet on which we live, and we begin by inquiring
into the oceans of air and water that cover it. From there we proceed to the materials
of the earth, to its ever-evolving crust, and to its no-longer-mysterious interior. After
a survey of the main events in the earth’s geological history (with a look at those
of its biological history) we go on to what we know about our nearest neighbors in
space—planets and satellites, asteroids, meteoroids, and comets.
Now the sun, the monarch of the solar system and the provider of nearly all
our energy, claims our notice. We go on to broaden our astronomical sights to
include the other stars, both individually and as members of the immense assem-
blies called galaxies. The evolution of the universe starting from the big bang is
the last major subject, and we end with the origin of the earth and the likelihood
that other inhabited planets exist in the universe and how we might communicate
with them.

Website
A website (www.mhhe.com/Krauskopf) has been established that contains additional
material of various kinds such as an instructor’s manual, PowerPoint lectures, test bank,
more worked examples, sidebars, and biographies.

Mathematical Level
The physical sciences are quantitative, which has both advantages and disadvantages.
On the plus side, the use of mathematics allows many concepts to be put in the form
of clear, definite statements that can be carried further by reasoning and whose predic-
tions can be tested objectively. Less welcome is the discomfort many of us feel when
faced with mathematical discussions.
The mathematical level of The Physical Universe follows Albert Einstein’s pre-
scription for physical theories: “Everything should be as simple as possible, but not sim-
pler.” A modest amount of mathematics enables the book to show how science makes
sense of the natural world and how its findings led to the technological world of today.
In general, the more complicated material supplements rather than dominates the pre-
sentation, and full mastery is not needed to understand the rest of the book. The basic
algebra needed is reviewed in the Math Refresher. Powers-of-ten notation for small and
large numbers is carefully explained there. This section is self-contained and can pro-
vide all the math background needed.
How much mathematics is appropriate for a given classroom is for each instruc-
tor to decide. To this end, a section is included in the Instructor’s Manual that lists
the slightly more difficult computational material in the text. This material can be
covered as wished or omitted without affecting the continuity or conceptual coverage
of a course.

New To This Edition

The entire book was brought up to date and new material was added where appropri-
ate. The discussions of various topics and the explanations in a number of examples
were modified for greater clarity. Nearly a thousand changes were made, including the
following:
∙ There are 123 new photographs, and new or revised drawings throughout the
text.
∙ Section 1.12 has a new subsection on converting units and the subsection on
significant figures was revised.
∙ Sections 2.4, 2.5, and 2.9 example solutions were elaborated for better under-
standing of how to deal with accelerated motion. In Section 2.14 the sidebar on
space junk was updated.
xiv Preface

∙ Section 3.10 has a new biography of Emmy Noether, who discovered the signifi-
cance of conservation principles.
∙ Chapter 4, whose 14 sections consider every aspect of the energy problem
(including population pressures, energy supply, climate change, pros and cons of
energy sources, and strategies to protect the environment), was almost entirely
rewritten with greater coverage and updated information.
∙ Section 6.11, sidebar The Grid was updated and Example 6.8 was revised. In
Section 6.16 the sidebar on maglev trains was updated.
∙ Section 7.10, the sidebar Ultraviolet and the Skin was revised.
∙ Section 8.5, the discussion of the hazards of medical x-rays was updated. In
Sections 8.9–8.11 the material on nuclear weapons, nuclear reactors, nuclear
wastes, and reactor accidents was revised and updated. In Section 8.16 the side-
bar on new accelerators was updated.
∙ Section 10.10 now introduces the concept of ionization energy with a figure show-
ing the ionization energies of the elements. In Section 10.14 the discussion of
polyatomic ions was revised. In Section 10.16 how to balance a chemical equation
is shown in more detail than before. Section 10.17 on types of chemical reactions
is new.
∙ Section 11.2 has a revised sidebar on buckyballs, nanotubes, and graphene.
Sections 11.8 and 11.9 on freshwater supply and pollution were revised and
updated. Section 11.11 now considers the acidification of the oceans.
∙ Section 12.5 now includes information on nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere and
Section 12.6 has a new table of chemical bond energies.
∙ Section 13.3 has a revised sidebar on oil spills. Sections 13.12 on photosynthesis
and 13.13 on lipids were both revised. In Section 13.15 the sidebar on cooking
was revised. Sections 13.16 and 13.17 have additional material on DNA and on
its connection with the origin of life.
∙ Section 14.1 has updates on atmospheric ozone and on smog. Section 14.11 has
been revised with more information on the Little Ice Age.
∙ Sections 16.12–16.16 on earth history were revised and include new information
on the dinosaurs. Section 16.18 on human history and on the future of life on the
earth was expanded and updated.
∙ Chapter 17 on the solar system incorporates the latest information on its mem-
bers and on the space missions that were involved in the research.
∙ Section 18.1 on telescopes (including those in space) and Section 18.14 on
supernovas were both updated.
∙ Section 19.3 on radio astronomy was revised. Section 19.4 has a new biography
of Vera Rubin whose work helped establish the existence of the mysterious dark
matter that is responsible for most of the mass of the universe. Section 19.9
on the early history of the universe was revised and now includes descriptions
of cosmic inflation and gravitational waves. Section 19.11 on exoplanets was
updated.

The Learning System

A variety of aids are provided in The Physical Universe to help the reader master
the text.
Chapter Opener An outline provides a preview of major topics, showing at a
glance what the chapter covers. Notable findings and ideas the chapter introduces are
listed in order by section.
Illustrations Almost 800 illustrations, both line drawings and photographs, are
full partners to the text and provide a visual pathway to understanding scientific
observations and principles for students unaccustomed to abstract argument.
Preface xv

Worked Examples A full grasp of physical and chemical ideas includes an abil-
ity to solve problems based on these ideas. Some students, although able to follow
the discussions in the book, nevertheless may have trouble putting their knowledge
to use in this way. To help them, detailed solutions of typical problems are provided
that show how to apply formulas and equations to real-world situations. Besides the
worked examples, answers and outline solutions for half the end-of-chapter exer-
cises are given at the end of the text. Thinking through the model solutions should
bring the unsolved even-numbered problems within reach. In addition to its role
in reinforcing the understanding of physical and chemical ideas, solving problems
can provide great pleasure, and it would be a shame to miss out on this pleasure.
The worked examples in the text are not limited to problems—nearly half of them
show how basic ideas can be used to answer serious questions that do not involve
calculations.

Bringing Science to Life

Biographies Brief biographies of major figures in the development of the physi-
cal sciences appear where appropriate throughout the text. The biographies provide
human and historical perspectives by attaching faces and stories to milestones in
these sciences.
Sidebars These are brief accounts of topics related to the main text. A sidebar
may provide additional information on a particular subject, comment on its signifi-
cance, describe its applications, consider its historical background, or present recent
findings. Twenty new ones have been added for this edition.

End-of-Chapter Features
Important Terms and Ideas Important terms introduced in the chapter are
listed together with their meanings, which serves as a chapter summary. A list of the
Important Formulas needed to solve problems based on the chapter material is also
given where appropriate.
Exercises An average of over a hundred exercises on all levels of difficulty follow
each chapter. They are of three kinds, multiple choice, questions, and problems:
∙ Multiple Choice An average chapter has 41 Multiple-Choice exercises (with
answers at the back of the book) that act as a quick, painless check on under-
standing. Correct answers provide reinforcement and encouragement; incorrect
ones identify areas of weakness.
∙ Exercises Exercises consist of both questions and problems arranged according
to the corresponding text section. Each group begins with questions and goes on
to problems. Some of the questions are meant to find out how well the reader
has understood the chapter material. Others ask the reader to apply what he or
she has learned to new situations. Answers to the odd-numbered questions are
given at the back of the book. The physics and chemistry chapters include prob-
lems that range from quite easy to moderately challenging. The ability to work
out such problems signifies a real understanding of these subjects. Outline solu-
tions (not just answers) for the odd-numbered problems are given at the back of
the book.
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time metric that is easily visible for aggregate or individual results, Connect
Insight gives the user the ability to take a just-in-time approach to teaching and Students can view
learning, which was never before available. Connect Insight presents data that their results for any
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Connect course.

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and remember key concepts, targeting gaps in knowledge
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xviii Preface

Complete Set of Assets for Instructors and Students

Presentation Tools
Build instructional materials wherever, whenever, and however you want!
Accessed from your textbook’s Connect Instructor Resources, an online digital
resource containing photos, artwork, and other images can be used to create cus-
tomized lectures, visually enhanced tests and quizzes, compelling course websites,
or attractive printed support materials. All assets are copyrighted by McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, but can be used by instructors for classroom purposes. The visual
resources in this collection include:
∙ Art Full-color digital files of all illustrations in the book can be readily incor-
porated into lecture presentations, exams, or custom-made classroom materials.
In addition, all files are pre-inserted into PowerPoint slides for ease of lecture
preparation.
∙ Photos The photos collection contains digital files of photographs from the text,
which can be reproduced for multiple classroom uses.
∙ Tables and Worked Examples Tables and Worked Examples that appear in the
text have been saved in electronic form for use in classroom presentations and/or
quizzes.
∙ Animations Numerous full-color animations illustrating important processes are
also provided. Harness the visual impact of concepts in motion by incorporating
these animated examples in classroom presentations or online course materials.
Also residing on your textbook’s Instructor Resource site are:
∙ PowerPoint Lecture Outlines Ready-made presentations that combine art and
lecture notes are provided for each chapter of the text.
∙ PowerPoint Slides For instructors who prefer to create their lectures from
scratch, illustrations, photos, tables, and worked examples from the text are pre-
inserted by chapter into PowerPoint slides.

Student Study Guide

Another helpful resource can be found in The Physical Universe Student Study Guide.
With this study guide, students will maximize their use of The Physical Universe text
package. It supplements the text with additional, self-directed activities and comple-
ments the text by focusing on the important concepts, theories, facts, and processes
presented by the authors. The Student Study Guide ISBN 125968346X can be cus-
tomized to your course and is available through McGraw-Hill Create™. Questions and
Interactive Problems from the Student Study Guide are also assignable in Connect in
an auto-gradable format.

Acknowledgments
Comments from users have always been of much help in revising The Physical Uni-
verse. Detailed reviews of its fifteenth edition by the following teachers were especially
valuable and are much appreciated:

Maryanne Angliongto, Jefferson College

Jason Barbour, Anne Arundel Community College
Charles Blatchley, Pittsburg State University
Paul Bruinsma, North Central Missouri College
Carol Chin, Northestern State University
Diondra DeMolle, Delgado Community College
Padmaja Guggilla, Alabama A&M University
Preface xix

Michael Kazarinov, Kennedy-King College

Terrence Lee, Middle Tennessee State University
Lori Mayberry, Tulsa Community College
Rahul Mehta, University of Central Arkansas
Basil Miller, Henderson State University
Marquerite Moloney, Nicholls State University
Tchao Podona, Miami Dade College
Troy Sampere, McNeese State University
Jason Self, Ozarka College
Eugene Steinruck, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania
Stephon Void, Claflin University
Azida Walker, University of Central Arkansas
Patricia Warner, Northwest Missouri State University
Latoya Whitley Cosme, Claflin University
Binyam Woldemichael, Anne Arundel Community College

Nancy Woods of Des Moines Area Community College compiled the Videolists
in the Instructor’s Manual for The Physical Universe. Linda Kondrick of Arkansas
Tech University was of great help in checking the exercises and their answers while
preparing the online homework versions of the exercises. I am grateful to all of them.
Thanks are due to the various ancillary authors. Steven Carey of the University
of Mobile wrote the Student Study Guide to accompany the text. Sylvester Allred,
Northern Arizona University; Adam I. Keller, Columbus State Community C ­ ollege;
Arthur C. Lee, Roane State Community College; Trent McDowell, University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Jessica Miles; Michael D. Stage, Mount ­Holyoke
College; Gina S. Szablewski, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee; and Erin
­
­Whitteck helped write and review learning goal-oriented content for LearnSmart for
The Physical Universe.
Finally, I want to thank my friends at McGraw-Hill, especially Mary Hurley and
Sherry Kane, for their skilled and dedicated help in producing this edition. Thanks
are also due to Jane Hoover, the eagle-eyed copy editor, for her suggested improve-
ments in the clarity of the text.
Arthur Beiser
xx Preface

Meet the Authors

Konrad B. Krauskopf was born and raised in Madison, Wisconsin, and earned a B.S.
in chemistry from University of Wisconsin in 1931. He then earned a Ph.D. in chemis-
try at the University of California in Berkeley. When the Great Depression made jobs
in chemistry scarce, Professor Krauskopf decided to study geology, which had long fas-
cinated him. Through additional graduate work at Stanford University, he earned a sec-
ond Ph.D. and eventually a position on the Stanford faculty. He remained at ­Stanford
until his retirement in 1976. During his tenure, Professor Krauskopf also worked at
various times with the U.S. Geological Survey, served with the U.S. Army in occupied
Japan, and traveled to Norway, France, and Germany on sabbatical leaves. His research
interests included field work on granites and metamorphic rocks and laboratory study
on applications of chemistry to geologic problems, especially the formation of ore
deposits. In later years, Professor Krauskopf spent time working with various gov-
ernment agencies on the problem of radioactive waste disposal. Professor K ­ rauskopf
passed away on May 8, 2003.
Arthur Beiser, a native of New York City, received B.S., M.S., and Ph.D.
degrees in physics from New York University, where he later served as Associate
Professor of Physics. He then was a Senior Research Scientist at the Lamont Geo-
logical Observatory of Columbia University. His research interests were chiefly in
cosmic rays and in magnetohydrodynamics as applied to geophysics and astrophys-
ics. In addition to theoretical work, he participated in a cosmic-ray expedition to an
Alaskan peak and directed a search for magnetohydrodynamic waves from space in
various Pacific locations. A Fellow of The Explorers Club, Dr. Beiser was the first
chairman of its Committee on Space Exploration. He is the author or coauthor of
36 books, mostly college texts on physics and mathematics, 14 of which have been
translated into a total of 27 languages. Two of his books are on sailing, The Proper
Yacht and The Sailor’s World. Figure 13-21 is a photograph of Dr. Beiser at the helm
of his 58-ft sloop; he and his wife Germaine have sailed over 150,000 miles, includ-
ing two Atlantic crossings and a rounding of Cape Horn. Germaine Beiser, who has
degrees in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and New York
University, is the author or coauthor of seven books on various aspects of physics and
has contributed to The Physical Universe. For a number of years she was the editor of
a cruising guide to the Adriatic Sea.
 C H A P T E R

The Scientific
Method
ne sphere. Pri mum M o
1
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IX C
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re of . The Z
Sphe odi a
VIII I S p h e r e o f S a tur n
c
VI
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VI Sp r
ere o f M a rs
V Sph
here of the S
IV Sp un
h e r e o f V e n
III Sp us
h e r e o f M e
II Sp rcur
y
h e r e o f th e
I Sp Mo
on
Earthly
Paradise
Purgatory
h e re
i sp ter Fire
emf wa
H
o
A ir
Hemis rth
of Ea
ph

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Hell
oo

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The

Medieval picture of the universe.

1
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND GOALS 1.4 The Ptolemaic System 1.10 The Tides
The Earth as the Center of the Universe Up and Down Twice a Day
Your chief goal in reading each section • How the ptolemaic system explains • The origin of the tides.
should be to understand the important the astronomical universe. • The difference between spring and
findings and ideas indicated (•) below. 1.5 The Copernican System neap tides and how it comes about.
How Scientists Study Nature A Spinning Earth That Circles the Sun 1.11 The Discovery of Neptune
1.1 The Scientific Method • How the copernican system explains Another Triumph for the Law of
the astronomical system. Gravity
Four Steps
1.6 Kepler’s Laws • The role of the scientific method in
• What the scientific method is.
How the Planets Actually Move finding a hitherto unknown planet.
• The difference between a law and a
theory. • The significance of Kepler’s laws. How Many of What
• The role of models in science. 1.7 Why Copernicus Was Right 1.12 The SI System
1.2 Why Science Is Successful Evidence Was Needed That All Scientists Use These Units
Science Is a Living Body of Supported His Model While
• How to go from one system of units to
Knowledge, Not a Set of Frozen Ideas Contradicting Ptolemy’s Model
another.
• Why the scientific method is so • How parallax decides which system
• The use of metric prefixes for small
successful in understanding the provides the best explanation for
and large quantities.
natural world. what we see.
• What significant figures are and how
The Solar System Universal Gravitation to calculate with them.
1.3 A Survey of the Sky 1.8 What Is Gravity?
Everything Seems to Circle the North A Fundamental Force
Star • Why gravity is a fundamental force.
• Why Polaris seems almost stationary 1.9 Why the Earth Is Round
in the sky. The Big Squeeze
• How to distinguish planets from stars • What keeps the earth from being a
without a telescope. perfect sphere.

All of us belong to two worlds, the world of people and the world of nature. As
members of the world of people, we take an interest in human events of the past
and present and find such matters as politics and economics worth knowing about.
As members of the world of nature, we also owe ourselves some knowledge of the
sciences that seek to understand this world. It is not idle curiosity to ask why the sun
shines, why the sky is blue, how old the earth is, why things fall down. These are
serious questions, and to know their answers adds an important dimension to our
personal lives.
We are made of atoms linked together into molecules, and we live on a planet
circling a star—the sun—that is a member of one of the many galaxies of stars in the
universe. It is the purpose of this book to survey what physics, chemistry, geology,
and astronomy have to tell us about atoms and molecules, stars and galaxies, and
everything in between. No single volume can cover all that is significant in this vast
span, but the basic ideas of each science can be summarized along with the raw mate-
rial of observation and reasoning that led to them.
Like any other voyage into the unknown, the exploration of nature is an adven-
ture. This book records that adventure and contains many tales of wonder and discov-
ery. The search for knowledge is far from over, with no end of exciting things still to
be found. What some of these things might be and where they are being looked for
are part of the story in the chapters to come.

HOW SCIENTISTS STUDY NATURE

Every scientist dreams of lighting up some dark corner of the natural world—or,
almost as good, of finding a dark corner where none had been suspected. The most
careful observations, the most elaborate calculations will not be fruitful unless
the right questions are asked. Here is where creative imagination enters science,
2
How Scientists Study Nature 3

which is why many of the greatest scientific advances have been made by young,
nimble minds.
Scientists study nature in a variety of ways. Some approaches are quite direct: a
geologist takes a rock sample to a laboratory and, by inspection and analysis, finds
out what it is made of and how and when it was probably formed. Other approaches
are indirect: nobody has ever visited the center of the earth or ever will, but by com-
bining a lot of thought with clues from different sources, a geologist can say with
near certainty that the earth has a core of molten iron.
No matter what the approaches to particular problems may be, however, the
work scientists do always fits into a certain pattern of steps. This pattern, a general
scheme for gaining reliable information about the universe, has become known as
the scientific method. The scientific method is the most powerful lens we have with
which to examine the natural world.

1.1 The Scientific Method

Four Steps
We can think of the scientific method in terms of four steps: (1) formulating a problem,
(2) observation and experiment, (3) interpreting the data, and (4) testing the interpre-
tation by further observation and experiment to check its predictions. These steps are
often carried out by different scientists, sometimes many years apart and not always
in this order. Whatever way it is carried out, though, the scientific method is not a
mechanical process but a human activity that needs creative thinking in all its steps.
Looking at the natural world is at the heart of the scientific method, because the results
of observation and experiment serve not only as the foundations on which scientists
build their ideas but also as the means by which these ideas are checked (Fig. 1-1).
1. Formulating a problem may mean no more than choosing a certain field to
work in, but more often a scientist has in mind some specific idea he or she
wishes to investigate. In many cases formulating a problem and interpreting the
data overlap. The scientist has a speculation, perhaps only a hunch, perhaps a
fully developed hypothesis, about some aspect of nature but cannot come to a
definite conclusion without further study.
2. Observation and experiment are carried out with great care. Facts about
nature are the building blocks of science and the ultimate test of its results. This

Figure 1-1 The scientific method.

Statement of Problem No hypothesis is ever final because
What is the question being future data may show that it is
asked of nature? Are there incorrect or incomplete. Unless it
any preliminary hypotheses?
turns out to be wrong, a hypothesis
never leaves the loop of experiment,
interpretation, testing. Of course,
the more times the hypothesis
Observation and Experiment goes around the loop successfully,
the more likely it is to be a valid
Collecting the data that
bear upon the problem
interpretation of nature. Experiment
and hypothesis thus evolve together,
with experiment having the final
word. Although a hypothesis may
occur to a scientist as he or she
Testing the Interpretation Interpretation studies experimental results, often the
Predicting the results of Explaining the data in hypothesis comes first and relevant
new experiments on the terms of a hypothesis about data are sought afterward to test it.
basis of the hypothesis how nature works
4 Chapter 1 The Scientific Method

insistence on accurate, objective data is what sets science apart from other modes
Finding the of intellectual endeavor.
3. Interpretation may lead to a general rule or law to which the data seem to con-
Royal Road form. Or it may lead to a theory, which is a more ambitious attempt to account
Hermann von Helmholtz, a for what has been found in terms of how nature works. In any case, the interpre-
nineteenth-century German physi- tation must be able to cover new data obtained under different circumstances. As
cist and biologist, summed up his put forward orginally, a scientific interpretation is usually called a hypothesis.
experience of scientific research 4. Testing the interpretation involves making new observations or performing
in these words: “I would compare new experiments to see whether the interpretation correctly predicts the results.
myself to a mountain climber who, If the results agree with the predictions, the scientist is clearly on the right track.
not knowing the way, ascends The new data may well lead to refinements of the original idea, which in turn
slowly and toilsomely and is often must be checked, and so on indefinitely.
compelled to retrace his steps
because his progress is blocked; The Laws of Nature The laws of a country tell its citizens how they are sup-
who, sometimes by reasoning posed to behave. Different countries have different laws, and even in one country
and sometimes by accident, hits laws are changed from time to time. Furthermore, though he or she may be caught
upon signs of a fresh path, which and punished for doing so, anybody can break any law at any time.
leads him a little farther; and who, The laws of nature are different. Everything in the universe, from atoms to gal-
finally, when he has reached his axies of stars, behaves in certain regular ways, and these regularities are the laws of
goal, discovers to his annoyance nature. To be considered a law of nature, a given regularity must hold everywhere at
a royal road which he might have all times within its range of applicability.
followed if he had been clever The laws of nature are worth knowing for two reasons apart from satisfying our
enough to find the right starting curiosity about how the universe works. First, we can use them to predict phenomena
point at the beginning.” not yet discovered. Thus Isaac Newton’s law of gravity was applied over a century
ago to apparent irregularities in the motion of the planet Uranus, then the farthest
known planet from the sun. Calculations not only showed that another, more distant
planet should exist but also indicated where in the sky to look for it. Astronomers
Experiment who looked there found a new planet, which was named Neptune.
Is the Test Second, the laws of nature can give us an idea of what goes on in places we can-
not examine directly. We will never visit the sun’s interior (much too hot) or the inte-
A master of several sciences, rior of an atom (much too small), but we know a lot about both regions. The evidence
Michael Faraday is best remem- is indirect but persuasive.
bered for his discoveries in
electricity and magnetism (see Theories A law tells us what; a theory tells us why. A theory explains why certain
biography in Sec. 6.18). This events take place and, if they obey a particular law, how that law originates in terms
statement appears in the entry for of broader considerations. For example, Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity
March 19, 1849 in his laboratory interprets gravity as a distortion in the properties of space and time around a body of
notebook: “Nothing is too won- matter. This theory not only accounts for Newton’s law of gravity but goes further,
derful to be true if it be consis- including the prediction—later confirmed—that light should be affected by gravity.
tent with the laws of nature, and As the French mathematician Henri Poincaré once remarked, “Science is built
. . . experiment is the best test of with facts just as a house is built with bricks, but a collection of facts is not a science
such consistency.”
any more than a pile of bricks is a house.”
Faraday was a Fellow of Brit-
ain’s Royal Society, which was Models It may not be easy to get a firm intellectual grip on some aspect of nature.
founded in 1660 to promote the Therefore a model—a simplified version of reality—is often part of a hypothesis or
use of observation and experi- theory. In developing the law of gravity, Newton considered the earth to be perfectly
ment to study the natural world. round, even though it is actually more like a grapefruit than like a billiard ball. New-
The oldest scientific organization
ton regarded the path of the earth around the sun as an oval called an ellipse, but the
in the world, the Royal Society
actual orbit has wiggles no ellipse ever had. By choosing a sphere as a model for the
has as its motto Nullus in Verba—
Latin for “Take nobody’s word for
earth and an ellipse as a model for its orbit, Newton isolated the most important fea-
it.” On its 350th anniversary, the tures of the earth and its path and used them to arrive at the law of gravity.
Royal Society held a celebration If Newton had started with a more realistic model—a somewhat squashed earth
of “the joy and vitality of science, moving somewhat irregularly around the sun—he probably would have made lit-
its importance to society and cul- tle progress. Once he had formulated the law of gravity, Newton was then able to
ture, and its role in shaping who explain how the spinning of the earth causes it to become distorted into the shape of a
we are and who we will become.” grapefruit and how the attractions of the other planets cause the earth’s orbit to differ
from a perfect ellipse.
Another random document with
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 The Morris Dance

The English Morris Dance is a sort of pageant accompanied by

dancing. It may have come from the Morisco, a Moorish dance
popular in Spain and France, or perhaps from the Matassins, also
called Buffoons, who did a dance in armor, which may have come
from the Arabs. This dance of the Buffoons, popular in France during
the 16th and 17th centuries, was performed by four men with swords,
and bells attached to their costumes, used also in the Morris Dance.
It may have come into England at the end of the 14th century, but in
the 15th it was flourishing. First it was given as a part of the May
festival and the characters who took part in it were a Lady of the
May, a Fool, a Piper, and two or more dancers. The dance then
became a part of the Robin Hood pageant, and the dancers were
called after the characters of the Robin Hood ballad: Robin Hood,
Friar Tuck, Little John, and Maid Marian. Later, a hobby-horse, a
dragon, four marshals, and other characters were added. The
Puritans stopped the Morris Dance as they thought it too frivolous,
and it was never so popular again.
 The Cushion Dance

In the Story of Minstrelsy is quoted a description of the Cushion

Dance from The Dancing Master (1686):
“This dance is begun by a single person (either a man or woman),
who, taking a cushion in hand, dances about the room, and at the
end of the tune stops and sings, ‘This dance it will no further go.’ The
musician answers, ‘I pray you, good sir, why say you so?’ Man:
‘Because Joan Sanderson will not come too.’ Musician: ‘She must
come too, and she shall come too, and she must come whether she
will or no.’ Then he lays down the cushion before the woman, on
which she kneels, and he kisses her, singing, ‘Welcome, Joan
Sanderson, welcome, welcome.’ Then she rises, takes up the cushion,
and both dance, singing, ‘Prinkum-prankum is a fine dance!’” Why
not try it?
Thomas Morley (1597) wrote of a kind of dance-part-song called
vilanelle or ballete. “These and all other kinds of light musick, saving
the madrigal, are by a general name called aires. There be also
another kind of ballets commonly called Fa-la’s....”
When printing was invented these ballads (or ballets) appeared in
such quantities, that they became a nuisance. Any subject or event
was made into a ballad. They were usually printed on single sheets so
that an instrument like the viol could play the air, and were carried
around in baskets and sold for a trifle. Ballad-singing in the streets
took the place of the older minstrels, but the newer fashion never
reached the dignity of the bards. These ballads were used as dances.
Both Henry VIII and Queen Mary issued edicts forbidding the
printing of books, ballads, and rhymes, probably because many were
political ballads uncomplimentary to them. In Elizabeth’s reign the
edict was removed, and many of these dance-songs are found in the
plays of Shakespeare and are sung today in concerts as examples of
English folk music.
Many of the better ones have been preserved for us in the
Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, which is often wrongly called Queen
Elizabeth’s Virginal Book, and in Playford’s English Dancing Master
in which there are ninety-five songs used for dancing; they are also to
be heard in the Beggar’s Opera which contains sixty-nine airs,
among which may be mentioned Sally in our Alley, Bonny Dundee,
Green Sleeves, Lilliburlero, Over the Hills and Far Away, etc. John
Gay gathered these folk songs and dances into The Beggar’s Opera
in 1727, and it was recently (1920) revived with great success in
London and New York.
Tiersot (an authority on French folk music) has shown that Adam
de la Hale probably wrote the play of Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion
and then strung together a number of popular tunes, many of far
older date, to suit his words. So this pastoral-comedy may be the
oldest collection of French folk tunes in existence.
In France, when a dance-air became popular, the rhymers made
up words to fit the music; this was called parodying it. Our use of the
word “parody” means to make fun of something, but at that time, the
word meant to adapt words to a melody. One of the early French
writers translated the Psalms for use in the Church, and these very
Psalms which were dedicated to François I, the King, were
“parodied,” so that the people sang them to their favorite dance
tunes,—courantes, sarabandes and bourrées. This happened at a
time when church music was being popularized, and one hears queer
tales of the use of popular songs in the masses and motets of the 14th
and 15th centuries. It sounds sacrilegious to us, doesn’t it?
In spite of all the mixing-up of tunes and words, the French folk
dances besides being very charming and winning were the parents of
a most important kind of musical composition. Just to keep you from
being too curious, the name of this important musical composition is
the Suite—but wait!
 (8) Funeral Songs and Songs for Mourning

All people from the savage state to the most civilized have had
their funeral songs and songs for mourning which have been
characteristic of the day and age to which they belonged and revealed
many tribal and racial beliefs, superstitions and customs.
 (9) Narratives, Ballads and Legends

We shall not tarry long on this subject for it has been covered in
the chapter on Troubadours and Minnesingers.
All primitive races used this means of teaching and preserving
their tribal history, legends, etc., of telling the news of the day and of
praising their over-lords. Many hundreds of volumes of ballads of all
countries are to be found and are most useful as well as entertaining
in the story of mankind.
Among the most famous narratives known to us are: the Sagas
and Eddas and Runes of the Northlands; the Kalevala of Finland;
the Percy Reliques of Britain; the Odyssey and Iliad of ancient
Greece; the Song of Roland of France, Beowulf of the Anglo-Saxons,
and others, many of which have been translated and simplified for
young readers.
 CHAPTER X
National Portraits in Folk Music

There is one particularly lovely thing about folk songs and dances
and that is the natural labels which they bear, marking them as
belonging to France, Spain, Germany, Russia and so on. As with
people, they all have similarities and yet no two are the same in looks
or in actions. It would not take you long to know whether you were
hearing a Spanish folk dance, an Irish Jig, a Russian Hopak, a
Norwegian Halling or an American Foxtrot, because each has its own
kind of rhythm and melody.
Some nations have gay, bright folk music, and others have sad,
mournful music. In northern countries where living is hard on
account of the long, dark, cold winters, and the people are forced to
spend much time indoors and away from neighbors, where money
and food are scarce, they are likely to be sad and lonely. In the
centuries gone by they made up songs that pictured their lives and
their surroundings. On the other hand, in countries where the sun
shines most of the time, where people live out of doors, are happy,
and have many friends and much fun, the music is gayer and usually
lighter. This is why the music of Finland, Sweden, Norway and
northern Russia is so much in the minor key, and seems grey, and
why the music of Italy Spain, France and other southern countries is
in the major key and seems rosier in color and happier in mood.
Other reasons, too, for sad folk music is oppression, harsh rulers and
harsh laws. So the Finns and Russians, the American negroes and the
Hebrew tribes sang sad songs.
“The Music Making
Boys,” by Frans
Hals, from the
Kassel Gallery,
Germany.

Boys with a Lute.

After a painting by Teniers, in
the gallery at Munich.

A Peasant Wedding.
 Russian Folk Music

Again you see history in the songs, particularly in the Russian folk
music, which shows us in musical portraits, the tragedy of their lives
under cruel czars and serfdom. They sang in ancient scales which
make the music all the more mournful to our ears.
The rhythms in these songs are different from those of romance
languages or those derived from Latin, for the Russians have a
language of Slavic birth. The Russians have some Oriental blood
from the Tartars who invaded Russia and who were descended from
Tartar, a Mogul or Mongol from Asia. When you hear Russian songs
that sound Oriental, you will agree with Rimsky-Korsakov, the
Russian composer, that the Russian, deep down below the skin is an
Oriental even though he has been living in Europe for many
centuries.
In Russia, from the Baltic Sea on the north to the Caucasus
Mountains on the south, from the sunny slopes of the Ural
Mountains on the west, to the bleak desert wastes of Kirghiz on the
east, these mixed races have a common tie in their love for folk story
and folk music.
Marvelous tales have been handed down by word of mouth about
the river gods and the wood-sprites, about the animals who talked
like men, and the ugly old witch, Baba-Yaga, whose name alone was
enough to quiet the naughtiest child! Through these folk tales you
can follow the Russians from the time they were primitive men and
pagans through all their battles and the invasions of barbarous
tribes, to the time when they became Christians and had to struggle
against the Tartars, the Turks and the Poles. All these happenings
were put into songs and are the epic, or tale-telling folk music of the
Russians.
But one of the most interesting things, we think, in all the growing
of music into maturity, is that Russia never had anything but folk
music until the 19th century! Music always belonged to the people,
and there were no musical scholars making it the possession of the
educated classes only.
Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov and other Russians took the folk
song from its humble surroundings and used it in their
compositions, for they realized its beauty and its richness.
The Russians have instruments brought down from very early
times, which are found today in no other country. Perhaps you may
have heard a Russian balalaika orchestra. The balalaika is a stringed
instrument, with a triangular body and long neck, having three or
sometimes four strings, which are plucked and sound something like
a guitar. It dates back to the end of the 13th century. They also have
an instrument like a mandolin, with three strings, that dates from
the 13th century also. It came from Asia at the time of the Mongolian
invasion.
Another instrument, a descendant of the Greek psalterion and
known to have been in Russia since the 9th century, is the gusslee. It
is something like a zither, and is composed of a hollow box, strung
with any number from seven to thirteen up to twenty-four strings. It
is held on the lap, and the strings are plucked with the fingers.
There is also a sort of lute or bandoura with many strings, dating
from the 16th century, played principally by the blind who belong to
groups of minstrels. There is also a wooden clarinet, on which one
scale can be played. Its special purpose was for use at funerals, and
its name, which comes from a word meaning tomb, is jaleika.
 Finnish Songs

The Finns, a northern people, although often dominated either by

Sweden or Russia, have their own songs and peculiar rhythms. The
Kalevala is their great epic poem, like the Iliad of Greece, Beowulf of
the Anglo-Saxons, and the Eddas of Iceland. From this narrative
poem or epic, have come many a folk-tune. Besides, they sing of their
beautiful country, often called the country of lakes.
The typical rhythm of Finland is the ⁵⁄₄ time which sounds most
attractive. They have the kantele, a plucked string instrument, and
they glory in their folk music which they use as an everyday joy and
do not “turn it on” only for “hey-days and holidays.”
 Poland’s Music

The Polish people have loved music as the Russians love it, and
although Poland has been reconquered, divided and redivided
among the surrounding kingdoms of Europe, it has always kept its
own music. So we have another set of Slav songs but with certain
rhythmical differences, not found in the music of other nations.
(Chapter IX.)
There is an Oriental strain in this music, too, and it must be very
ancient indeed, for Oriental tribes have not lived in this country for
ages.
In addition to an instrument like the Russian gusslee, and a violin
like the Arabian rebab, the Polish have a clarinet made of wood,
called by its old name of chalumeau, the lute, and an instrument
called the kobza, belonging to the bagpipe family. This is of great age,
but is still in use among the mountaineers of Carpathia, and is made
of goat skin with three pipe attachments. The kobza can replace an
entire orchestra!
 Gypsies

Gypsies! The name fires our imagination and brings up pictures of

dark-skinned, black-eyed people with glossy black hair, dressed in
gay colored shawls, with bright kerchiefs wound around their heads.
We think of them as being on “one grand picnic,” living out of doors,
cooking their meals over bonfires in the open, sleeping in their
covered wagons or tents, or under the stars, always gay, care-free and
dirty! Then, think of the Gypsy music,—the dances, the songs, and
the wonderful violin playing! So wild, so weird, so out-of-doors is it,
that we are thrilled by the very thought of it.
Where did these folk come from? Who are they? What are they?
They have spread over most of Europe, and are found in Hungary,
Bohemia, Roumania, Italy, Spain, Germany, Russia, England,
Turkey, and even America. They are a race and they have a language
of their own. Theirs is a mixture of the ancient Prakrit or Indian,
with the different languages with which they have come in contact in
the course of many centuries. Men who make a study of the history of
languages say, that in their idioms, they show traces of roving for
many centuries in Asiatic countries, before reaching Europe in or
before the 15th century. They are often called “Bohemians” because
Bohemia (Czecho-Slovakia) seems to have been their main European
camping-ground. It is generally agreed that they came from India
and that they are Asiatic, but they got their name Gypsy, a
contraction of the word Egyptian, because people at first thought
that they came from Egypt.
The Gypsies have an extraordinary gift for music. They do not
study it as an art, as we do, and cannot even read musical notes, but
they imitate and memorize, and reach a high degree of skill in
playing, particularly the violin. They have such great power of
imitation, that they rapidly learn to play the instruments, and
accustom themselves to the folk music they find wherever they
wander. However, they always keep something of their own sadness
and wildness. In Spain, they accompany themselves on the guitar,
and mark the rhythm with castanets, as do the Spaniards themselves,
borrowing the Spanish folk songs which they sing in their own way.
In Russia, England, Turkey and everywhere they do the same with
the folk music of those countries.
 The special traits, then, of the music of the Gypsies, are found
rather in the way they play, interpret and express the music of
others, than as composers of their own music. Yet they use strongly
marked rhythms, florid ornamentation, and scales that are Oriental,
which show us from where they came. Here is one of their most used
scales:

There are many kinds of scales among the Gypsies,—a mixture of

the Oriental scale with the pentatonic, and with the European major
and minor.
The Hungarian Gypsy has made more music than any other
branch of the Gypsy people. In fact, when we hear music that makes
us exclaim, “Oh, that is real Gypsy music!” it is almost always
Hungarian. At least one quarter of the inhabitants of Hungary, a
name which comes from the barbarian tribe of Huns, are Magyars,
descendants of Tartars and Mongolians of Asia, who settled in the
land of the Huns in the 9th century. In the national music of
Hungary, we find it hard to tell just what is Magyar, and what is
Gypsy, because the two have intermingled for so long.
The important thing is that this Magyar-Gypsy folk music has been
the inspiration of hundreds of trained composers, like Haydn (see
the Gypsy Rondo from his piano trio, also arranged for piano alone),
Franz Liszt who wrote many famous Hungarian Rhapsodies, Hector
Berlioz who made the Hungarian Rakoczy March famous, Johannes
Brahms who used many folk songs in his compositions and wrote a
set of Hungarian Dances. Even Bach, perhaps the greatest of all
composers, seems to have been influenced by the Gypsy music as
played on the Hungarian cembalo.
No Hungarian Gypsy orchestra is complete without a cembalo,
which looks something like an old-fashioned square piano with the
top off. This is strung with metal strings covering a range of four
octaves, and is played with two small limber hammers. The cembalo
players perform with great rapidity and agility; they are able to play
scales, arpeggios, trills, and the tricks of Gypsy music with great skill
and ease. It is not known just when this instrument came into use,
but it is a descendant of the dulcimer and psaltery, instruments we
hear of in the Bible, and in Arabia and Persia, probably brought into
Europe during the Crusades.
The czardas (pronounced chardas) is an old Hungarian dance in
which are all the national characteristics of this folk music, well
marked in syncopated rhythms (rhythms out of focus, page 144,
Chapter X), strong accents, many ornaments. The Gypsies dance the
czardas every time they get a chance, for they love it. It has two
contrasting parts, one is called lassan which is very slow and sad,
and the other called friska which is very fast and fiery.
Panna Czinka, a Gypsy Queen, who lived in the 18th century was
the daughter of the chief of a band of Gypsies and she inherited his
title when she was very young. She married a ’cellist of her tribe and
went all through Hungary, Poland and Roumania playing on a
wonderful Amati violin, in a very wonderful way. She brought the
Rakoczy March to the people, although it is not known whether or
not she composed it. She always wore men’s clothes of most
picturesque type and when she died she requested to have her
beloved violin buried with her! Long after her death she was still an
inspiration to young Gypsy fiddlers, who all longed to play as
beautifully as Panna Czinka.
 Bohemian Folk Song

Bohemia is rich in folk dances, most of which are named for places
where they originated or the occasions for which they were used, or
from songs by which they are accompanied.
The Bohemians have a bagpipe called the Dudelsack and the
player is called a Dudelsackpfeiffer!
 Spanish and Portuguese Folk Music

To the outsider, there is a national color, rhythm, and charm in

Spanish music that is unmistakable. We recognize it immediately as
Spanish, but the Spaniard will be able to tell you the province from
which it came, for there is as much difference between a Castilian
song and a Basque, as we find between the speech of a Virginian and
a Vermontian! (Chapter IX.)
Portugal, although Spain’s next door neighbor, has quite a
different music; it is peaceful, tranquil and thoughtful, but doesn’t
thrill you as does the Spanish music. The Portuguese are calmer and
less excitable than the Spaniards, so here again you see the character
and qualities of people coming out in the music or what we like to
call the musical portrait of a nation. There are no exaggerated
rhythms but instead a steady melancholy flow of melody.
 French Folk Music

The portrait of France that we get from her folk music is much like
the one we find in songs of her troubadours and trouvères. In
southern France, the folk songs are gay and filled with poetic
sentiment and religious feeling; from Burgundy come some of her
loveliest Noëls (Christmas songs) and also the drinking songs. From
Normandy, come songs of ordinary everyday doings; their mill
songs, when sung out in the open on a summer night by the peasants
are very beautiful and often show strong religious feeling. Brittany
whose inhabitants were originally Celts have a music not unlike the
Welsh, Scotch and Irish. Long ago, the famous French writer and
musician of the 18th century, Jean Jacques Rousseau, said of it, “The
airs are not snappy, they have, I know not what of an antique and
sweet mood which touches the heart. They are simple, naïve and
often sad—at any rate they are pleasing.”
 German Folk Music

The Volkslieder or folk songs of the Germans are the backbone of

the great classical and romantic periods of the 18th and 19th
centuries which made Bach, Mozart, Schubert and Schumann,
Wagner and Brahms the music masters of the world.
As early as the 14th century collections of these songs had been
made, the subjects of which were mostly historical. By the 16th
century music had grown so much that every sentiment of the
human heart and every occupation of life had its own song: students,
soldiers, pedlars, apprentices all had their songs. These are folk
songs of Class A, because their composers forgot to leave their names
and no musical archæologist has been able to dig them up. (Page
108. Chapter IX.)
These songs became melodies independent of the accompaniment.
They also put the major scale on a firm basis which took the place of
the church modes. Their spirit and power were felt in every branch of
music, and they supplied melodies for the chorales or hymns, for the
lute players and organists in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.
Every town had its own band called the Stadt Pfeifferei (town
pipers). The peasant boys played the fiddle, and the shepherds the
schalmey, (a kind of oboe). Every festivity was accompanied by song
and dance.
 Irish Folk Songs

No people in the world have more fancy and imagination, a keener

sense of humor, are more fun-loving and more superstitious than the
Irish. All these qualities come out in their vast treasure of folk music,
which is considered the most beautiful and the most varied of all the
music that has come from peasant folk. The subjects cover practically
every phase of life from the castle to the cot, and songs of every
heading we have included in the last chapter. There are reels, jigs,
marches, spinning-tunes, nurse-tunes, planxties (Irish or Welsh
melodies for the harp in the nature of a lament), plough-songs and
whistles. The Irish folk songs are rich historically as well as beautiful
musically.
The form of the Irish folk music is perfect, and is a model of what
simple song form has been for several centuries. In fact, all large
forms have been built on just such principles of balance and contrast
as are found in an Irish folk song called The Flight of the Earls.