Physics: Principles with Applications

7th Edition by Douglas C. Giancoli

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
21 AND FARADAY’S LAW 590
21–1 Induced EMF 591
21–2 Faraday’s Law of Induction; Lenz’s Law 592
21–3 EMF Induced in a Moving Conductor 596
21–4 Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an
Electric Field 597
21–5 Electric Generators 597
21–6 Back EMF and Counter Torque;
Eddy Currents 599
21–7 Transformers and Transmission of Power 601
*21–8 Information Storage: Magnetic and
Semiconductor; Tape, Hard Drive, RAM 604
*21–9 Applications of Induction: Microphone,
Seismograph, GFCI 606
*21–10
*21–11
*21–12
Inductance
Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
LR Circuit
608
610
610
24 T HE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 679
24–1 Waves vs. Particles; Huygens’ Principle
*21–13 AC Circuits and Reactance 611 and Diffraction 680
*21–14 LRC Series AC Circuit 614 *24–2 Huygens’ Principle and the Law of
*21–15 Resonance in AC Circuits 616 Refraction 681
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 617–19 24–3 Interference—Young’s Double-Slit
Problems, Search and Learn 620–24 Experiment 682

22 E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 625

24–4 The Visible Spectrum and Dispersion
24–5 Diffraction by a Single Slit or Disk
24–6 Diffraction Grating
685
687
690
22–1 Changing Electric Fields Produce
Magnetic Fields; Maxwell’s Equations 626 24–7 The Spectrometer and Spectroscopy 692
22–2 Production of Electromagnetic Waves 627 24–8 Interference in Thin Films 693
22–3 Light as an Electromagnetic Wave *24–9 Michelson Interferometer 698
and the Electromagnetic Spectrum 629 24–10 Polarization 699
22–4 Measuring the Speed of Light 632 *24–11 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) 703
22–5 Energy in EM Waves 633 *24–12 Scattering of Light by the Atmosphere 704
22–6 Momentum Transfer and Radiation Questions, MisConceptual Questions 705–7
Pressure 635 Problems, Search and Learn 707–12
22–7 Radio and Television; Wireless
Communication
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 640
Problems, Search and Learn 641–43
636
25 O PTICAL INSTRUMENTS 713
25–1 Cameras: Film and Digital 713
23 L IGHT: GEOMETRIC OPTICS 644 25–2
25–3
The Human Eye; Corrective Lenses
Magnifying Glass
719
722
23–1 The Ray Model of Light 645 25–4 Telescopes 723
23–2 Reflection; Image Formation by a 25–5 Compound Microscope 726
Plane Mirror 645 25–6 Aberrations of Lenses and Mirrors 727
23–3 Formation of Images by Spherical 25–7 Limits of Resolution; Circular Apertures 728
Mirrors 649
25–8 Resolution of Telescopes and
23–4 Index of Refraction 656 Microscopes; the l Limit 730
23–5 Refraction: Snell’s Law 657 25–9 Resolution of the Human Eye
23–6 Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics 659 and Useful Magnification 732
23–7 Thin Lenses; Ray Tracing 661 *25–10 Specialty Microscopes and Contrast 733
23–8 The Thin Lens Equation 664 25–11 X-Rays and X-Ray Diffraction 733
*23–9 Combinations of Lenses 668 *25–12 X-Ray Imaging and Computed
*23–10 Lensmaker’s Equation 670 Tomography (CT Scan) 735
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 671–73 Questions, MisConceptual Questions 738–39
Problems, Search and Learn 673–78 Problems, Search and Learn 740–43

CONTENTS vii
 THE SPECIAL THEORY OF
26 RELATIVITY 744 28 Q UANTUM MECHANICS OF ATOMS 803
26–1 Galilean–Newtonian Relativity 745 28–1 Quantum Mechanics—A New Theory 804
26–2 Postulates of the Special Theory 28–2 The Wave Function and Its Interpretation;
of Relativity 748 the Double-Slit Experiment 804
26–3 Simultaneity 749 28–3 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 806
26–4 Time Dilation and the Twin Paradox 750 28–4 Philosophic Implications;
26–5 Length Contraction 756 Probability versus Determinism 810
28–5 Quantum-Mechanical View of Atoms 811
26–6 Four-Dimensional Space–Time 758
28–6 Quantum Mechanics of the
26–7 Relativistic Momentum 759 Hydrogen Atom; Quantum Numbers 812
26–8 The Ultimate Speed 760 28–7 Multielectron Atoms; the Exclusion Principle 815
26–9 E = mc2 ; Mass and Energy 760 28–8 The Periodic Table of Elements 816
26–10 Relativistic Addition of Velocities 764 *28–9 X-Ray Spectra and Atomic Number 817
26–11 The Impact of Special Relativity 765 *28–10 Fluorescence and Phosphorescence 820
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 766–67 28–11 Lasers 820
Problems, Search and Learn 767–70 *28–12 Holography 823
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 825–26
Problems, Search and Learn 826–28

29 M OLECULES AND SOLIDS 829

*29–1 Bonding in Molecules 829
*29–2 Potential-Energy Diagrams for Molecules 832
*29–3 Weak (van der Waals) Bonds 834
*29–4 Molecular Spectra 837
*29–5 Bonding in Solids 840
*29–6 Free-Electron Theory of Metals;
Fermi Energy 841
*29–7 Band Theory of Solids 842
*29–8 Semiconductors and Doping 844
*29–9 Semiconductor Diodes, LEDs, OLEDs 845
*29–10 Transistors: Bipolar and MOSFETs 850
EARLY QUANTUM THEORY AND *29–11 Integrated Circuits, 22-nm Technology 851
27 MODELS OF THE ATOM 771 Questions, MisConceptual Questions 852–53
Problems, Search and Learn 854–56
27–1 Discovery and Properties of the Electron 772
27–2 Blackbody Radiation;
Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis
27–3 Photon Theory of Light and the
774 30 NR UCLEAR PHYSICS AND
ADIOACTIVITY 857
30–1 Structure and Properties of the Nucleus 858
Photoelectric Effect 775 30–2 Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces 860
27–4 Energy, Mass, and Momentum of a 30–3 Radioactivity 863
Photon 779 30–4 Alpha Decay 864
*27–5 Compton Effect 780 30–5 Beta Decay 866
27–6 Photon Interactions; Pair Production 781 30–6 Gamma Decay 868
27–7 Wave–Particle Duality; the Principle of 30–7 Conservation of Nucleon Number and
Complementarity 782 Other Conservation Laws 869
27–8 Wave Nature of Matter 782 30–8 Half-Life and Rate of Decay 869
27–9 Electron Microscopes 785 30–9 Calculations Involving Decay Rates
27–10 Early Models of the Atom 786 and Half-Life 872
27–11 Atomic Spectra: Key to the Structure 30–10 Decay Series 873
of the Atom 787 30–11 Radioactive Dating 874
27–12 The Bohr Model 789 *30–12 Stability and Tunneling 876
27–13 de Broglie’s Hypothesis Applied to Atoms 795 30–13 Detection of Particles 877
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 797–98 Questions, MisConceptual Questions 879–81
Problems, Search and Learn 799–802 Problems, Search and Learn 881–84

viii CONTENTS
 NUCLEAR ENERGY; ASTROPHYSICS AND
31 EFFECTS AND USES OF RADIATION 885 33 COSMOLOGY 947
31–1 Nuclear Reactions and the 33–1 Stars and Galaxies 948
Transmutation of Elements 885 33–2 Stellar Evolution: Birth and Death
31–2 Nuclear Fission; Nuclear Reactors 889 of Stars, Nucleosynthesis 951
31–3 Nuclear Fusion 894 33–3 Distance Measurements 957
31–4 Passage of Radiation Through Matter; 33–4 General Relativity: Gravity and the
Biological Damage 898 Curvature of Space 959
31–5 Measurement of Radiation—Dosimetry 899 33–5 The Expanding Universe: Redshift and
*31–6 Radiation Therapy 903 Hubble’s Law 964
*31–7 Tracers in Research and Medicine 904 33–6 The Big Bang and the Cosmic
*31–8 Emission Tomography: PET and SPECT 905 Microwave Background 967
31–9 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 33–7 The Standard Cosmological Model:
and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 906 Early History of the Universe 970
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 909–10 33–8 Inflation: Explaining Flatness,
Problems, Search and Learn 911–14 Uniformity, and Structure 973
33–9 Dark Matter and Dark Energy 975

32 E LEMENTARY PARTICLES 915

33–10 Large-Scale Structure of the Universe
33–11 Finally . . .
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 980–81
977
978
32–1 High-Energy Particles and Accelerators 916
Problems, Search and Learn 981–83
32–2 Beginnings of Elementary Particle
Physics—Particle Exchange 922
32–3 Particles and Antiparticles 924
32–4 Particle Interactions and
APPENDICES
Conservation Laws 926 A Mathematical Review A-1
32–5 Neutrinos 928 A-1 Relationships, Proportionality, and Equations A-1
32–6 Particle Classification 930 A-2 Exponents A-2
32–7 Particle Stability and Resonances 932 A-3 Powers of 10, or Exponential Notation A-3
32–8 Strangeness? Charm? A-4 Algebra A-3
Towards a New Model 932 A-5 The Binomial Expansion A-6
32–9 Quarks 933 A-6 Plane Geometry A-7
32–10 The Standard Model: QCD and A-7 Trigonometric Functions and Identities A-8
Electroweak Theory 936 A-8 Logarithms A-10
32–11 Grand Unified Theories 939 B Selected Isotopes A-12
32–12 Strings and Supersymmetry 942
Questions, MisConceptual Questions 943–44 C Rotating Frames of Reference;
Problems, Search and Learn 944–46 Inertial Forces; Coriolis Effect A-16
D Molar Specific Heats for Gases, and
the Equipartition of Energy A-19
E Galilean and Lorentz
Transformations A-22

Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-27

Index A-43
Photo Credits A-69

CONTENTS ix
Applications to Biology and Medicine (Selected)
Chapter 4 Humidity and comfort 380 Chapter 24
How we walk 82 Diffusion in living organisms 383 Spectroscopic analysis 693
Chapter 5 Chapter 14 Chapter 25
Weightlessness 124–25 Working off Calories 392 Human eye 719
Chapter 6 Convection by blood 402 Corrective lenses 719–21
Cardiac treadmill 168 Human radiative heat loss 404 Contact lenses 721
Chapter 7 Room comfort and metabolism 404 Seeing under water 721
Body parts, center of mass 186–87 Medical thermography 405 Light microscopes 726
Impulse, don’t break a leg 193 Chapter 15 Resolution of eye 730, 732
Energy in the human body 418–19 X-ray diffraction in biology 735
Chapter 8
Bird of prey 200 Biological evolution, development 430–31 Medical imaging: X-rays, CT 735–37
Centrifuge 204, 222 Trees offset CO2 emission 442 Cones in fovea 740
Torque with muscles 207, 223 Chapter 16 Chapter 27
Chapter 9 Cells: electric forces, kinetic theory 460–62 Electron microscope images:
Teeth straightening 231 DNA structure, replication 460–61 blood vessel, blood clot,
Forces in muscles and joints 238–39, 255 Chapter 17 retina, viruses 771, 785–86
Human body stability 240 Photosynthesis 779
Heart-beat scan (ECG or EKG) 473
Leg stress in fall 259 Measuring bone density 780
Dipoles in molecular biology 482
Chapter 10 Capacitor burn or shock 487 Chapter 28
Pressure in cells 264 Heart defibrillator 487, 559 Laser surgery 823
Blood flow 274, 278, 280 Electrocardiogram (ECG) 493 Chapter 29
Blood loss to brain, TIA 278 Chapter 18 Cell energy—ATP 833–34
Underground animals, air circulation 278 Electrical conduction in the human Weak bonds in cells, DNA 834–35
Blood flow and heart disease 280 nervous system 517–19 Protein synthesis 836–37
Walking on water (insect) 281 Pulse oximeter 848
Chapter 19
Heart as a pump 282 Chapter 31
Blood pressure 283 Blood sugar phone app 526
Pacemaker, ventricular fibrillation 543 Biological radiation damage 899
Blood transfusion 288 Radiation dosimetry 899–903
Electric shock, grounding 544–45
Chapter 11 Radon 901
Spider web 298 Chapter 20 Radiation exposure; film badge 901
Echolocation by animals 309 Blood flow rate 584 Radiation sickness 901
Electromagnetic pump 589 Radon exposure calculation 902–3
Chapter 12
Ear and hearing range 331, 334–35 Chapter 21 Radiation therapy 903
Doppler, blood speed; bat EM blood-flow measurement 596 Proton therapy 904
position 347, 358 Ground fault interrupter (GFCI) 607 Tracers in medicine and biology 904–5
Ultrasound medical imaging 350–51 Pacemaker 608 Medical imaging: PET, SPECT 905–6
Chapter 13 Chapter 22 NMR and MRI 906–8
Life under ice 366–67 Optical tweezers 636 Radiation and thyroid 912
Molecules in a breath 373 Chapter 23 Chapter 32
Evaporation cools 379, 400 Medical endoscopes 660 Linacs and tumor irradiation 920

Applications to Other Fields and Everyday Life (Selected)

Chapter 1 Determining the Sun’s mass 127 Chapter 8
The 8000-m peaks 11 Moon’s orbit, phases, periods, diagram 129 Rotating carnival rides 198, 201, 202
Estimating volume of a lake 13 Simulated gravity 130, 132 Bicycle 205, 227, 229
Height by triangulation 14 Near-Earth orbit 134 Rotating skaters, divers 216
Measuring Earth’s radius 15 Comets 135 Neutron star collapse 217
Chapter 2 Asteroids, moons 135, 136, 196, 228 Strange spinning bike wheel 218
Braking distances 32 Rings of Saturn, galaxy 136 Tightrope walker 220
Rapid transit 47 GPS, Milky Way 136 Hard drive 222
Total solar eclipses 229
Chapter 3 Chapter 6
Sports 49, 58, 67, 68, 69, 73, 74 Work done on a baseball, skiing 138 Chapter 9
Kicked football 62, 64 Car stopping distance r v2 145 Tragic collapse 231, 246
Roller coaster 152, 158 Lever’s mechanical advantage 233
Chapter 4 Cantilever 235
Rocket acceleration 82 Pole vault, high jump 153, 165
Architecture: columns, arches,
What force accelerates car? 82 Stair-climbing power output 159 domes 243, 246–49
Elevator and counterweight 91 Horsepower, car needs 159–61 Fracture 245–46
Mechanical advantage of pulley 92 Lever 164 Concrete, prestressed 246
Skiing 97, 100, 138 Spiderman 167 Tower crane 252
Bear sling 100, 252 Chapter 7 Chapter 10
City planning, cars on hills 105 Billiards 170, 179, 183 Glaciers 260
Chapter 5 Tennis serve 172, 176 Hydraulic lift, brakes, press 265, 286
Not skidding on a curve 116 Rocket propulsion 175, 188–89 Hydrometer 271
Antilock brakes 116 Rifle recoil 176 Continental drift, plate tectonics 272
Banked highways 117 Nuclear collisions 180, 182 Helium balloon lift 272
Artificial Earth satellites 122–23, 134 Ballistic pendulum 181 Airplane wings, dynamic lift 277
Free fall in athletics 125 High jump 187 Sailing against the wind 277
Planets 125–28, 134, 137, 189, 197, 228 Distant planets discovered 189 Baseball curve 278

x
Smoke up a chimney 278 Digital compression 489 Magnifying and wide-view
Surface tension, capillarity 280–82 CRT, TV and computer monitors 490 mirrors 649, 655, 656
Pumps 282 Flat screens, addressing pixels 491–92 Where you can see yourself in a
Siphon 284, 290 Digital TV, matrix, refresh rate 491–92 concave mirror 654
Hurricane 287 Oscilloscope 492 Optical illusions 657
Reynolds number 288 Photocell 499 Apparent depth in water 658
Chapter 11 Lightning bolt (Pr90, S&L3) 499, 500 Fiber optics in telecommunications 660
Car springs 295 Chapter 18 Where you can see a lens image 663
Unwanted floor vibrations 299 Electric cars 504 Chapter 24
Pendulum clock 302 Resistance thermometer 510 Soap bubbles and
Car shock absorbers, building dampers 303 Heating element 510 oil films 679, 693, 696–97
Child on a swing 304 Why bulbs burn out at turn on 511 Mirages 682
Shattering glass via resonance 304 Lightning bolt 512 Rainbows and diamonds 686
Resonant bridge collapse 304 Household circuits 512–13 Colors underwater 687
Tsunami 306, 327 Fuses, circuit breakers, shorts 512–13 Spectroscopy 692–93
Earthquake waves 309, 311, 318, 324 Extension cord danger 513 Colors in thin soap film, details 696–97
Chapter 12 Hair dryer 515 Lens coatings 697–98
Count distance from lightning 329 Superconductors 517 Polaroids, sunglasses 699–700
Autofocus camera 330 Halogen incandescent lamp 525 LCDs—liquid crystal displays 703–4
Loudspeaker response 332 Strain gauge 525 Sky color, cloud color, sunsets 704
Musical scale 335 Chapter 19 Chapter 25
Stringed instruments 336–37 Car battery charging 536–37 Cameras, digital and film; lenses 713–18
Wind instruments 337–40 Jump start safety 537 Pixel arrays, digital artifacts 714
Tuning with beats 343 RC applications: flashers, wipers 542–43 Pixels, resolution, sharpness 717–18
Doppler: speed, weather Electric safety 543–45 Magnifying glass 713, 722–23
forecasting 347–48 Proper grounding, plugs 544–45 Telescopes 723–25, 730, 731
Sonic boom, sound barrier 349 Leakage current 545 Microscopes 726–27, 730, 731
Sonar: depth finding, Earth soundings 349 Downed power lines 545 Telescope and microscope
Chapter 13 Meters, analog and digital 546–48 resolution, the l rule 730–32
Hot-air balloon 359 Meter connection, corrections 547–48 Radiotelescopes 731
Potentiometers and bridges 556, 559 Specialty microscopes 733
Expansion joints 361, 365, 367 X-ray diffraction 733–35
Opening a tight lid 365 Car battery corrosion 558
Gas tank overflow 366 Digital-to-analog converter 559 Chapter 26
Mass (and weight) of air in a room 371 Chapter 20 Space travel 754
Cold and hot tire pressure 372 Declination, compass 562 Global positioning system (GPS) 755
Temperature dependent chemistry 377 Aurora borealis 569 Chapter 27
Humidity and weather 381 Solenoids and electromagnets 572–73 Photocells, photodiodes 776, 778
Thermostat 384 Solenoid switch: car starter, doorbell 573 Electron microscopes 785–86
Pressure cooker 388 Magnetic circuit breaker 573 Chapter 28
Chapter 14 Motors, loudspeakers 576–77 Neon tubes 803
Effects of water’s high specific heat 393 Mass spectrometer 578 Fluorescence and phosphorescence 820
Thermal windows 401 Relay 582 Lasers and their uses 820–23
How clothes insulate 401, 403 Chapter 21 DVD, CD, bar codes 822–23
R-values of thermal insulation 402 Generators, alternators 597–99 Holography 823–24
Convective home heating 402 Motor overload 599–600 Chapter 29
Astronomy—size of a star 406 Magnetic damping 600, 618 Integrated circuits (chips), 22-nm
Loft of goose down 407 Airport metal detector 601 technology 829, 851
Chapter 15 Transformers, power transmission 601–4 Semiconductor diodes, transistors 845–50
Steam engine 420–21 Cell phone charger 602 Solar cells 847
Internal combustion engine 421 Car ignition 602 LEDs 847–48
Refrigerators 425–26 Electric power transmission 603–4 Diode lasers 848
Air conditioners, heat pump 426–27 Power transfer by induction 604 OLEDs 849–50
SEER rating 427 Information storage 604–6 Transistors 850–51
Thermal pollution, global warming 434 Hard drives, tape, DVD 604–5 Chapter 30
Energy resources 435 Computer DRAM, flash 605–6 Smoke detectors 866
Chapter 16 Microphone, credit card swipe 606 Carbon-14 dating 874–75
Static electricity 443, 444 Seismograph 607 Archeological, geological
Photocopy machines 454, 462 Ground fault interrupter (GFCI) 607 dating 875, 876, 882, 883
Electrical shielding, safety 459 Capacitors as filters 613 Oldest Earth rocks and earliest life 876
Laser printers and inkjet printers 463 Loudspeaker cross-over 613 Chapter 31
Chapter 17 Shielded cable 617 Nuclear reactors and power 891–93
Capacitor uses in backups, surge Sort recycled waste 618 Manhattan Project 893–94
protectors, memory 482, 484 Chapter 22 Fusion energy reactors 896–98
Very high capacitance 484 TV from the Moon 625, 639 Radon gas pollution 901
Condenser microphone 484 Coaxial cable 631 Chapter 32
Computer key 484 Phone call time lag 632 Antimatter 925–26, 941
Camera flash 486–87 Solar sail 636 Chapter 33
Signal and supply voltages 488 Wireless: TV and radio 636–38 Stars and galaxies 947, 948–51
Digital, analog, bits, bytes 488–89 Satellite dish 638 Black holes 956, 962–63
Digital coding 488–89 Cell phones, remotes 639 Big Bang 966, 967–70
Analog-to-digital converter 489, 559 Chapter 23 Evolution of universe 970–73
Sampling rate 488–89 How tall a mirror do you need 648 Dark matter and dark energy 975–77

Applications xi
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xii
Preface
What’s New?
Lots! Much is new and unseen before. Here are the big four:
1. Multiple-choice Questions added to the end of each Chapter. They are not the
usual type. These are called MisConceptual Questions because the responses
(a, b, c, d, etc.) are intended to include common student misconceptions.
Thus they are as much, or more, a learning experience than simply a testing
experience.

2. Search and Learn Problems at the very end of each Chapter, after the other
Problems. Some are pretty hard, others are fairly easy. They are intended to
encourage students to go back and reread some part or parts of the text,
and in this search for an answer they will hopefully learn more—if only
because they have to read some material again.

3. Chapter-Opening Questions (COQ) that start each Chapter, a sort of

“stimulant.” Each is multiple choice, with responses including common
misconceptions—to get preconceived notions out on the table right at the
start. Where the relevant material is covered in the text, students find an
Exercise asking them to return to the COQ to rethink and answer again.

4. Digital. Biggest of all. Crucial new applications. Today we are surrounded by

digital electronics. How does it work? If you try to find out, say on the
Internet, you won’t find much physics: you may find shallow hand-waving
with no real content, or some heavy jargon whose basis might take months or
years to understand. So, for the first time, I have tried to explain
• The basis of digital in bits and bytes, how analog gets transformed into
digital, sampling rate, bit depth, quantization error, compression, noise
(Section 17–10).
• How digital TV works, including how each pixel is addressed for each frame,
data stream, refresh rate (Section 17–11).
• Semiconductor computer memory, DRAM, and flash (Section 21–8).
• Digital cameras and sensors—revised and expanded Section 25–1.
• New semiconductor physics, some of which is used in digital devices,
including LED and OLED—how they work and what their uses are—plus
more on transistors (MOSFET), chips, and technology generation as in
22-nm technology (Sections 29–9, 10, 11).

Besides those above, this new seventh edition includes

5. New topics, new applications, principal revisions.
• You can measure the Earth’s radius (Section 1–7).
• Improved graphical analysis of linear motion (Section 2–8).
• Planets (how first seen), heliocentric, geocentric (Section 5–8).
• The Moon’s orbit around the Earth: its phases and periods with diagram
(Section 5–9).
• Explanation of lake level change when large rock thrown from boat
(Example 10–11).

xiii
 • Biology and medicine, including:
• Blood measurements (flow, sugar)—Chapters 10, 12, 14, 19, 20, 21;
• Trees help offset CO2 buildup—Chapter 15;
• Pulse oximeter—Chapter 29;
• Proton therapy—Chapter 31;
• Radon exposure calculation—Chapter 31;
• Cell phone use and brain—Chapter 31.
• Colors as seen underwater (Section 24–4).
• Soap film sequence of colors explained (Section 24–8).
• Solar sails (Section 22–6).
• Lots on sports.
• Symmetry—more emphasis and using italics or boldface to make visible.
• Flat screens (Sections 17–11, 24–11).
• Free-electron theory of metals, Fermi gas, Fermi level. New Section 29–6.
• Semiconductor devices—new details on diodes, LEDs, OLEDs, solar cells,
compound semiconductors, diode lasers, MOSFET transistors, chips, 22-nm
technology (Sections 29–9, 10, 11).
• Cross section (Chapter 31).
• Length of an object is a script l rather than normal l, which looks like 1 or
I (moment of inertia, current), as in F = IlB. Capital L is for angular
momentum, latent heat, inductance, dimensions of length [L].
6. New photographs taken by students and instructors (we asked).
7. Page layout: More than in previous editions, serious attention to how each
page is formatted. Important derivations and Examples are on facing pages:
no turning a page back in the middle of a derivation or Example. Throughout,
readers see, on two facing pages, an important slice of physics.
8. Greater clarity: No topic, no paragraph in this book was overlooked in the
search to improve the clarity and conciseness of the presentation. Phrases
and sentences that may slow down the principal argument have been
eliminated: keep to the essentials at first, give the elaborations later.
9. Much use has been made of physics education research. See the new
powerful pedagogic features listed first.
10. Examples modified: More math steps are spelled out, and many new
Examples added. About 10% of all Examples are Estimation Examples.
11. This Book is Shorter than other complete full-service books at this level.
Shorter explanations are easier to understand and more likely to be read.
12. Cosmological Revolution: With generous help from top experts in the field,
readers have the latest results.

See the World through Eyes that Know Physics

I was motivated from the beginning to write a textbook different from the others
which present physics as a sequence of facts, like a catalog: “Here are the facts
and you better learn them.” Instead of beginning formally and dogmatically,
I have sought to begin each topic with concrete observations and experiences
students can relate to: start with specifics, and after go to the great generalizations
and the more formal aspects of a topic, showing why we believe what we believe.
This approach reflects how science is actually practiced.

xiv PREFACE
 The ultimate aim is to give students a thorough understanding of the basic
concepts of physics in all its aspects, from mechanics to modern physics. A second
objective is to show students how useful physics is in their own everyday lives and
in their future professions by means of interesting applications to biology, medicine,
architecture, and more.
Also, much effort has gone into techniques and approaches for solving
problems: worked-out Examples, Problem Solving sections (Sections 2–6, 3–6,
4–7, 4–8, 6–7, 6–9, 8–6, 9–2, 13–7, 14–4, and 16–6), and Problem Solving
Strategies (pages 30, 57, 60, 88, 115, 141, 158, 184, 211, 234, 399, 436, 456, 534,
568, 594, 655, 666, and 697).
This textbook is especially suited for students taking a one-year introduc-
tory course in physics that uses algebra and trigonometry but not calculus.†
Many of these students are majoring in biology or premed, as well as architecture,
technology, and the earth and environmental sciences. Many applications to
these fields are intended to answer that common student query: “Why must I study
physics?” The answer is that physics is fundamental to a full understanding of
these fields, and here they can see how. Physics is everywhere around us in the
everyday world. It is the goal of this book to help students “see the world through
eyes that know physics.”
A major effort has been made to not throw too much material at students
reading the first few chapters. The basics have to be learned first. Many aspects can
come later, when students are less overloaded and more prepared. If we don’t
overwhelm students with too much detail, especially at the start, maybe they can
find physics interesting, fun, and helpful—and those who were afraid may lose
their fear.
Chapter 1 is not a throwaway. It is fundamental to physics to realize that every
measurement has an uncertainty, and how significant figures are used. Converting
units and being able to make rapid estimates are also basic.
Mathematics can be an obstacle to students. I have aimed at including all steps
in a derivation. Important mathematical tools, such as addition of vectors and
trigonometry, are incorporated in the text where first needed, so they come with
a context rather than in a scary introductory Chapter. Appendices contain a review
of algebra and geometry (plus a few advanced topics).
Color is used pedagogically to bring out the physics. Different types of vectors
are given different colors (see the chart on page xix).
Sections marked with a star * are considered optional. These contain slightly
more advanced physics material, or material not usually covered in typical
courses and/or interesting applications; they contain no material needed in later
Chapters (except perhaps in later optional Sections).
For a brief course, all optional material could be dropped as well as significant
parts of Chapters 1, 10, 12, 22, 28, 29, 32, and selected parts of Chapters 7, 8, 9,
15, 21, 24, 25, 31. Topics not covered in class can be a valuable resource for later
study by students. Indeed, this text can serve as a useful reference for years because
of its wide range of coverage.

†
It is fine to take a calculus course. But mixing calculus with physics for these students may often
mean not learning the physics because of stumbling over the calculus.

PREFACE xv
 Thanks
Many physics professors provided input or direct feedback on every aspect of this
textbook. They are listed below, and I owe each a debt of gratitude.
Edward Adelson, The Ohio State University Bruce Mason, University of Oklahoma
Lorraine Allen, United States Coast Guard Academy Mark Mattson, James Madison University
Zaven Altounian, McGill University Dan Mazilu, Washington and Lee University
Leon Amstutz, Taylor University Linda McDonald, North Park College
David T. Bannon, Oregon State University Bill McNairy, Duke University
Bruce Barnett, Johns Hopkins University Jo Ann Merrell, Saddleback College
Michael Barnett, Lawrence Berkeley Lab Raj Mohanty, Boston University
Anand Batra, Howard University Giuseppe Molesini, Istituto Nazionale di Ottica Florence
Cornelius Bennhold, George Washington University Wouter Montfrooij, University of Missouri
Bruce Birkett, University of California Berkeley Eric Moore, Frostburg State University
Steven Boggs, University of California Berkeley Lisa K. Morris, Washington State University
Robert Boivin, Auburn University Richard Muller, University of California Berkeley
Subir Bose, University of Central Florida Blaine Norum, University of Virginia
David Branning, Trinity College Lauren Novatne, Reedley College
Meade Brooks, Collin County Community College Alexandria Oakes, Eastern Michigan University
Bruce Bunker, University of Notre Dame Ralph Oberly, Marshall University
Grant Bunker, Illinois Institute of Technology Michael Ottinger, Missouri Western State University
Wayne Carr, Stevens Institute of Technology Lyman Page, Princeton and WMAP
Charles Chiu, University of Texas Austin Laurence Palmer, University of Maryland
Roger N. Clark, U. S. Geological Survey Bruce Partridge, Haverford College
Russell Clark, University of Pittsburgh R. Daryl Pedigo, University of Washington
Robert Coakley, University of Southern Maine Robert Pelcovitz, Brown University
David Curott, University of North Alabama Saul Perlmutter, University of California Berkeley
Biman Das, SUNY Potsdam Vahe Peroomian, UCLA
Bob Davis, Taylor University Harvey Picker, Trinity College
Kaushik De, University of Texas Arlington Amy Pope, Clemson University
Michael Dennin, University of California Irvine James Rabchuk, Western Illinois University
Karim Diff, Santa Fe College Michele Rallis, Ohio State University
Kathy Dimiduk, Cornell University Paul Richards, University of California Berkeley
John DiNardo, Drexel University Peter Riley, University of Texas Austin
Scott Dudley, United States Air Force Academy Dennis Rioux, University of Wisconsin Oshkosh
Paul Dyke John Rollino, Rutgers University
John Essick, Reed College Larry Rowan, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill
Kim Farah, Lasell College Arthur Schmidt, Northwestern University
Cassandra Fesen, Dartmouth College Cindy Schwarz-Rachmilowitz, Vassar College
Leonard Finegold, Drexel University Peter Sheldon, Randolph-Macon Woman’s College
Alex Filippenko, University of California Berkeley Natalia A. Sidorovskaia, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
Richard Firestone, Lawrence Berkeley Lab James Siegrist, University of California Berkeley
Allen Flora, Hood College Christopher Sirola, University of Southern Mississippi
Mike Fortner, Northern Illinois University Earl Skelton, Georgetown University
Tom Furtak, Colorado School of Mines George Smoot, University of California Berkeley
Edward Gibson, California State University Sacramento David Snoke, University of Pittsburgh
John Hardy, Texas A&M Stanley Sobolewski, Indiana University of Pennsylvania
Thomas Hemmick, State University of New York Stonybrook Mark Sprague, East Carolina University
J. Erik Hendrickson, University of Wisconsin Eau Claire Michael Strauss, University of Oklahoma
Laurent Hodges, Iowa State University Laszlo Takac, University of Maryland Baltimore Co.
David Hogg, New York University Leo Takahashi, Pennsylvania State University
Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale Community College Richard Taylor, University of Oregon
Andy Hollerman, University of Louisiana at Lafayette Oswald Tekyi-Mensah, Alabama State University
Russell Holmes, University of Minnesota Twin Cities Franklin D. Trumpy, Des Moines Area Community College
William Holzapfel, University of California Berkeley Ray Turner, Clemson University
Chenming Hu, University of California Berkeley Som Tyagi, Drexel University
Bob Jacobsen, University of California Berkeley David Vakil, El Camino College
Arthur W. John, Northeastern University Trina VanAusdal, Salt Lake Community College
Teruki Kamon, Texas A&M John Vasut, Baylor University
Daryao Khatri, University of the District of Columbia Robert Webb, Texas A&M
Tsu-Jae King Liu, University of California Berkeley Robert Weidman, Michigan Technological University
Richard Kronenfeld, South Mountain Community College Edward A. Whittaker, Stevens Institute of Technology
Jay Kunze, Idaho State University Lisa M. Will, San Diego City College
Jim LaBelle, Dartmouth College Suzanne Willis, Northern Illinois University
Amer Lahamer, Berea College John Wolbeck, Orange County Community College
David Lamp, Texas Tech University Stanley George Wojcicki, Stanford University
Kevin Lear, SpatialGraphics.com Mark Worthy, Mississippi State University
Ran Li, Kent State University Edward Wright, UCLA and WMAP
Andreí Linde, Stanford University Todd Young, Wayne State College
M.A.K. Lodhi, Texas Tech William Younger, College of the Albemarle
Lisa Madewell, University of Wisconsin Hsiao-Ling Zhou, Georgia State University
Michael Ziegler, The Ohio State University
xvi PREFACE Ulrich Zurcher, Cleveland State University
New photographs were offered by Professors Vickie Frohne (Holy Cross Coll.),
Guillermo Gonzales (Grove City Coll.), Martin Hackworth (Idaho State U.),
Walter H. G. Lewin (MIT), Nicholas Murgo (NEIT), Melissa Vigil (Marquette U.),
Brian Woodahl (Indiana U. at Indianapolis), and Gary Wysin (Kansas State U.).
New photographs shot by students are from the AAPT photo contest: Matt
Buck, (John Burroughs School), Matthew Claspill (Helias H. S.), Greg Gentile
(West Forsyth H. S.), Shilpa Hampole (Notre Dame H. S.), Sarah Lampen (John
Burroughs School), Mrinalini Modak (Fayetteville–Manlius H. S.), Joey Moro
(Ithaca H. S.), and Anna Russell and Annacy Wilson (both Tamalpais H. S.).
I owe special thanks to Prof. Bob Davis for much valuable input, and especially
for working out all the Problems and producing the Solutions Manual for all
Problems, as well as for providing the answers to odd-numbered Problems at the
back of the book. Many thanks also to J. Erik Hendrickson who collaborated with
Bob Davis on the solutions, and to the team they managed (Profs. Karim Diff,
Thomas Hemmick, Lauren Novatne, Michael Ottinger, and Trina VanAusdal).
I am grateful to Profs. Lorraine Allen, David Bannon, Robert Coakley, Kathy
Dimiduk, John Essick, Dan Mazilu, John Rollino, Cindy Schwarz, Earl Skelton,
Michael Strauss, Ray Turner, Suzanne Willis, and Todd Young, who helped with
developing the new MisConceptual Questions and Search and Learn Problems,
and offered other significant clarifications.
Crucial for rooting out errors, as well as providing excellent suggestions, were
Profs. Lorraine Allen, Kathy Dimiduk, Michael Strauss, Ray Turner, and David
Vakil. A huge thank you to them and to Prof. Giuseppe Molesini for his sugges-
tions and his exceptional photographs for optics.
For Chapters 32 and 33 on Particle Physics and Cosmology and Astrophysics,
I was fortunate to receive generous input from some of the top experts in the field,
to whom I owe a debt of gratitude: Saul Perlmutter, George Smoot, Richard
Muller, Steven Boggs, Alex Filippenko, Paul Richards, James Siegrist, and William
Holzapfel (UC Berkeley), Andreí Linde (Stanford U.), Lyman Page (Princeton
and WMAP), Edward Wright (UCLA and WMAP), Michael Strauss (University
of Oklahoma), Michael Barnett (LBNL), and Bob Jacobsen (UC Berkeley; so
helpful in many areas, including digital and pedagogy).
I also wish to thank Profs. Howard Shugart, Chair Frances Hellman, and many
others at the University of California, Berkeley, Physics Department for helpful
discussions, and for hospitality. Thanks also to Profs. Tito Arecchi, Giuseppe
Molesini, and Riccardo Meucci at the Istituto Nazionale di Ottica, Florence, Italy.
Finally, I am grateful to the many people at Pearson Education with whom I
worked on this project, especially Paul Corey and the ever-perspicacious Karen
Karlin.
The final responsibility for all errors lies with me. I welcome comments, correc-
tions, and suggestions as soon as possible to benefit students for the next reprint.
email: [email protected] D.C.G.
Post: Jim Smith
1301 Sansome Street
San Francisco, CA 94111

About the Author

Douglas C. Giancoli obtained his BA in physics (summa cum laude) from UC
Berkeley, his MS in physics at MIT, and his PhD in elementary particle physics back
at UC Berkeley. He spent 2 years as a post-doctoral fellow at UC Berkeley’s Virus
lab developing skills in molecular biology and biophysics. His mentors include
Nobel winners Emilio Segrè and Donald Glaser.
He has taught a wide range of undergraduate courses, traditional as well as
innovative ones, and continues to update his textbooks meticulously, seeking
ways to better provide an understanding of physics for students.
Doug’s favorite spare-time activity is the outdoors, especially climbing peaks.
He says climbing peaks is like learning physics: it takes effort and the rewards are
great.
xvii
 To Students
HOW TO STUDY
1. Read the Chapter. Learn new vocabulary and notation. Try to respond to
questions and exercises as they occur.
2. Attend all class meetings. Listen. Take notes, especially about aspects you do not
remember seeing in the book. Ask questions (everyone wants to, but maybe you
will have the courage). You will get more out of class if you read the Chapter first.
3. Read the Chapter again, paying attention to details. Follow derivations and
worked-out Examples. Absorb their logic. Answer Exercises and as many of
the end-of-Chapter Questions as you can, and all MisConceptual Questions.
4. Solve at least 10 to 20 end of Chapter Problems, especially those assigned. In
doing Problems you find out what you learned and what you didn’t. Discuss
them with other students. Problem solving is one of the great learning tools.
Don’t just look for a formula—it might be the wrong one.
NOTES ON THE FORMAT AND PROBLEM SOLVING
1. Sections marked with a star (*) are considered optional. They can be omitted
without interrupting the main flow of topics. No later material depends on
them except possibly later starred Sections. They may be fun to read, though.
2. The customary conventions are used: symbols for quantities (such as m for
mass) are italicized, whereas units (such as m for meter) are not italicized.
B
Symbols for vectors are shown in boldface with a small arrow above: F.
3. Few equations are valid in all situations. Where practical, the limitations of
important equations are stated in square brackets next to the equation. The
equations that represent the great laws of physics are displayed with a tan
background, as are a few other indispensable equations.
4. At the end of each Chapter is a set of Questions you should try to answer.
Attempt all the multiple-choice MisConceptual Questions. Most important
are Problems which are ranked as Level I, II, or III, according to estimated
difficulty. Level I Problems are easiest, Level II are standard Problems, and
Level III are “challenge problems.” These ranked Problems are arranged by
Section, but Problems for a given Section may depend on earlier material
too. There follows a group of General Problems, not arranged by Section or
ranked. Problems that relate to optional Sections are starred (*). Answers to
odd-numbered Problems are given at the end of the book. Search and Learn
Problems at the end are meant to encourage you to return to parts of the text
to find needed detail, and at the same time help you to learn.
5. Being able to solve Problems is a crucial part of learning physics, and provides
a powerful means for understanding the concepts and principles. This book
contains many aids to problem solving: (a) worked-out Examples, including
an Approach and Solution, which should be studied as an integral part of
the text; (b) some of the worked-out Examples are Estimation Examples,
which show how rough or approximate results can be obtained even if
the given data are sparse (see Section 1–7); (c) Problem Solving Strategies
placed throughout the text to suggest a step-by-step approach to problem
solving for a particular topic—but remember that the basics remain the
same; most of these “Strategies” are followed by an Example that is solved
by explicitly following the suggested steps; (d) special problem-solving
Sections; (e) “Problem Solving” marginal notes which refer to hints within
the text for solving Problems; (f) Exercises within the text that you should
work out immediately, and then check your response against the answer
given at the bottom of the last page of that Chapter; (g) the Problems them-
selves at the end of each Chapter (point 4 above).
6. Conceptual Examples pose a question which hopefully starts you to think
and come up with a response. Give yourself a little time to come up with
your own response before reading the Response given.
7. Math review, plus additional topics, are found in Appendices. Useful data, con-
xviii PREFACE version factors, and math formulas are found inside the front and back covers.
 USE OF COLOR

Vectors
A general vector
resultant vector (sum) is slightly thicker
components of any vector are dashed
B
Displacement ( D, Br )
Velocity (vB)
B
Acceleration (a )
B
Force ( F )
Force on second object
or third object in same figure
B
Momentum (p or m vB)
B
Angular momentum ( L)
Angular velocity (VB)
Torque (T
B
)
B
Electric field ( E)
B
Magnetic field ( B)

Electricity and magnetism Electric circuit symbols

Electric field lines Wire, with switch S
S
Equipotential lines Resistor

Magnetic field lines Capacitor

Electric charge (+) + or + Inductor

Electric charge (–) – or – Battery

Ground

Optics Other
Light rays Energy level
Object (atom, etc.)
Measurement lines 1.0 m
Real image
(dashed) Path of a moving
object
Virtual image Direction of motion
(dashed and paler) or current

PREFACE xix
This page intentionally left blank
 Image of the Earth from a NASA satellite.
The sky appears black from out in space
because there are so few molecules
to reflect light. (Why the sky
appears blue to us on
Earth has to do with
scattering of light by
molecules of the
atmosphere, as
discussed in
Chapter 24.)
Note the
storm off
the coast
of Mexico.

A P T E
H

1 R
C

Introduction,
Measurement, Estimating
CHAPTER-OPENING QUESTIONS—Guess now! CONTENTS
1. How many cm3 are in 1.0 m3? 1–1 The Nature of Science
(a) 10. (b) 100. (c) 1000. (d) 10,000. (e) 100,000. (f) 1,000,000. 1–2 Physics and its Relation to
Other Fields
2. Suppose you wanted to actually measure the radius of the Earth, at least
1–3 Models, Theories, and Laws
roughly, rather than taking other people’s word for what it is. Which response
1–4 Measurement and Uncertainty;
below describes the best approach? Significant Figures
(a) Use an extremely long measuring tape. 1–5 Units, Standards, and
(b) It is only possible by flying high enough to see the actual curvature of the Earth. the SI System
(c) Use a standard measuring tape, a step ladder, and a large smooth lake. 1–6 Converting Units
(d) Use a laser and a mirror on the Moon or on a satellite. 1–7 Order of Magnitude:
(e) Give up; it is impossible using ordinary means. Rapid Estimating
*1–8 Dimensions and Dimensional
[We start each Chapter with a Question—sometimes two. Try to answer right away. Don’t worry about
Analysis
getting the right answer now—the idea is to get your preconceived notions out on the table. If they
are misconceptions, we expect them to be cleared up as you read the Chapter. You will usually get
another chance at the Question(s) later in the Chapter when the appropriate material has been covered.
These Chapter-Opening Questions will also help you see the power and usefulness of physics.]
1
 P
hysics is the most basic of the sciences. It deals with the behavior and
structure of matter. The field of physics is usually divided into classical
physics which includes motion, fluids, heat, sound, light, electricity, and
magnetism; and modern physics which includes the topics of relativity, atomic
structure, quantum theory, condensed matter, nuclear physics, elementary particles, and
cosmology and astrophysics. We will cover all these topics in this book, beginning
with motion (or mechanics, as it is often called) and ending with the most recent
results in fundamental particles and the cosmos. But before we begin on the
physics itself, we take a brief look at how this overall activity called “science,”
including physics, is actually practiced.

1–1 The Nature of Science

The principal aim of all sciences, including physics, is generally considered to be
the search for order in our observations of the world around us. Many people
think that science is a mechanical process of collecting facts and devising
theories. But it is not so simple. Science is a creative activity that in many
respects resembles other creative activities of the human mind.
One important aspect of science is observation of events, which includes
the design and carrying out of experiments. But observation and experiments
require imagination, because scientists can never include everything in a
description of what they observe. Hence, scientists must make judgments about
what is relevant in their observations and experiments.
Consider, for example, how two great minds, Aristotle (384–322 B.C.;
Fig. 1–1) and Galileo (1564–1642; Fig. 2–18), interpreted motion along a hori-
zontal surface. Aristotle noted that objects given an initial push along the ground
(or on a tabletop) always slow down and stop. Consequently, Aristotle argued,
the natural state of an object is to be at rest. Galileo, the first true experimen-
talist, reexamined horizontal motion in the 1600s. He imagined that if friction
could be eliminated, an object given an initial push along a horizontal surface
would continue to move indefinitely without stopping. He concluded that for an
object to be in motion was just as natural as for it to be at rest. By inventing a
new way of thinking about the same data, Galileo founded our modern view of
motion (Chapters 2, 3, and 4), and he did so with a leap of the imagination.
Galileo made this leap conceptually, without actually eliminating friction.

FIGURE 1;1 Aristotle is the central

figure (dressed in blue) at the top of
the stairs (the figure next to him is
Plato) in this famous Renaissance
portrayal of The School of Athens,
painted by Raphael around 1510.
Also in this painting, considered
one of the great masterpieces in art,
are Euclid (drawing a circle at the
lower right), Ptolemy (extreme
right with globe), Pythagoras,
Socrates, and Diogenes.

2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Measurement, Estimating

 Observation, with careful experimentation and measurement, is one side of
the scientific process. The other side is the invention or creation of theories to
explain and order the observations. Theories are never derived directly from
observations. Observations may help inspire a theory, and theories are accepted
or rejected based on the results of observation and experiment.
Theories are inspirations that come from the minds of human beings. For
example, the idea that matter is made up of atoms (the atomic theory) was not
arrived at by direct observation of atoms—we can’t see atoms directly. Rather,
the idea sprang from creative minds. The theory of relativity, the electromag-
netic theory of light, and Newton’s law of universal gravitation were likewise
the result of human imagination.
The great theories of science may be compared, as creative achievements,
with great works of art or literature. But how does science differ from these
other creative activities? One important difference is that science requires
testing of its ideas or theories to see if their predictions are borne out by exper-
iment. But theories are not “proved” by testing. First of all, no measuring
instrument is perfect, so exact confirmation is not possible. Furthermore, it is
not possible to test a theory for every possible set of circumstances. Hence a
theory cannot be absolutely verified. Indeed, the history of science tells us that
long-held theories can sometimes be replaced by new ones, particularly when
new experimental techniques provide new or contradictory data.
A new theory is accepted by scientists in some cases because its predictions
are quantitatively in better agreement with experiment than those of the older
theory. But in many cases, a new theory is accepted only if it explains a greater
range of phenomena than does the older one. Copernicus’s Sun-centered theory
of the universe (Fig. 1–2b), for example, was originally no more accurate than
Ptolemy’s Earth-centered theory (Fig. 1–2a) for predicting the motion of heav-
enly bodies (Sun, Moon, planets). But Copernicus’s theory had consequences
that Ptolemy’s did not, such as predicting the moonlike phases of Venus. A
simpler and richer theory, one which unifies and explains a greater variety of
phenomena, is more useful and beautiful to a scientist. And this aspect, as well
as quantitative agreement, plays a major role in the acceptance of a theory.

FIGURE 1;2 (a) Ptolemy’s geocentric view of the universe. Note at the center the four elements of the
ancients: Earth, water, air (clouds around the Earth), and fire; then the circles, with symbols, for the Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the fixed stars, and the signs of the zodiac. (b) An early
representation of Copernicus’s heliocentric view of the universe with the Sun at the center. (See Chapter 5.)

(a) (b)

SECTION 1–1 The Nature of Science 3

 An important aspect of any theory is how well it can quantitatively predict
phenomena, and from this point of view a new theory may often seem to be only
a minor advance over the old one. For example, Einstein’s theory of relativity
gives predictions that differ very little from the older theories of Galileo and
Newton in nearly all everyday situations. Its predictions are better mainly in the
extreme case of very high speeds close to the speed of light. But quantitative
prediction is not the only important outcome of a theory. Our view of the world
is affected as well. As a result of Einstein’s theory of relativity, for example, our
concepts of space and time have been completely altered, and we have come to
see mass and energy as a single entity (via the famous equation E = mc2).

1–2 Physics and its Relation to

Other Fields
For a long time science was more or less a united whole known as natural
philosophy. Not until a century or two ago did the distinctions between physics
and chemistry and even the life sciences become prominent. Indeed, the sharp
distinction we now see between the arts and the sciences is itself only a few
centuries old. It is no wonder then that the development of physics has both
influenced and been influenced by other fields. For example, the notebooks
(Fig. 1–3) of Leonardo da Vinci, the great Renaissance artist, researcher, and
engineer, contain the first references to the forces acting within a structure, a
subject we consider as physics today; but then, as now, it has great relevance to
architecture and building.
Early work in electricity that led to the discovery of the electric battery and
electric current was done by an eighteenth-century physiologist, Luigi Galvani
(1737–1798). He noticed the twitching of frogs’ legs in response to an electric spark
and later that the muscles twitched when in contact with two dissimilar metals
(Chapter 18). At first this phenomenon was known as “animal electricity,” but it
shortly became clear that electric current itself could exist in the absence of an animal.
Physics is used in many fields. A zoologist, for example, may find physics useful
in understanding how prairie dogs and other animals can live underground without
suffocating. A physical therapist will be more effective if aware of the principles
of center of gravity and the action of forces within the human body. A know-
FIGURE 1;3 Studies on the forces ledge of the operating principles of optical and electronic equipment is helpful in a
in structures by Leonardo da Vinci variety of fields. Life scientists and architects alike will be interested in the nature
(1452–1519). of heat loss and gain in human beings and the resulting comfort or discomfort.
Architects may have to calculate the dimensions of the pipes in a heating system
or the forces involved in a given structure to determine if it will remain standing
(Fig. 1–4). They must know physics principles in order to make realistic designs
and to communicate effectively with engineering consultants and other specialists.

FIGURE 1;4 (a) This bridge over the River Tiber in Rome was built 2000 years ago and still stands.
(b) The 2007 collapse of a Mississippi River highway bridge built only 40 years before.

(a) (b)

4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction, Measurement, Estimating

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
AMERICAN POLITICS.
 BOOK II.
POLITICAL PLATFORMS.

THE FIRST POLITICAL PLATFORM ENUNCIATED IN THE

UNITED STATES TO COMMAND GENERAL ATTENTION WAS
DRAWN BY MR. MADISON IN 1798, WHOSE OBJECT WAS TO
PRONOUNCE THE ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS
UNCONSTITUTIONAL, AND TO DEFINE THE RIGHTS OF
THE STATES.
 Virginia Resolutions of 1798.

Pronouncing the Alien and Sedition Laws to be unconstitutional,

and Defining the rights of the States.—Drawn by Mr. Madison.

In the Virginia House of Delegates,

Friday, Dec. 21, 1798.

Resolved, That the General Assembly of Virginia doth

unequivocally express a firm resolution to maintain and defend the
Constitution of the United States, and the constitution of this state,
against every aggression either foreign or domestic; and that they
will support the government of the United States in all measures
warranted by the former.
That this Assembly most solemnly declares a warm attachment to
the Union of the states, to maintain which it pledges its powers; and,
that for this end, it is their duty to watch over and oppose every
infraction of those principles which constitute the only basis of that
Union, because a faithful observance of them can alone secure its
existence and the public happiness.
That this Assembly doth explicitly and peremptorily declare, that it
views the powers of the federal government, as resulting from the
compact to which the states are parties, as limited by the plain sense
and intention of the instrument constituting that compact, as no
farther valid than they are authorized by the grants enumerated in
that compact; and that in case of a deliberate, palpable, and
dangerous exercise of other powers, not granted by the said compact,
the states, who are parties thereto, have the right, and are in duty
bound, to interpose, for arresting the progress of the evil, and for
maintaining within their respective limits the authorities, rights, and
liberties appertaining to them.
 That the General Assembly doth also express its deep regret, that a
spirit has, in sundry instances, been manifested by the federal
government, to enlarge its powers by forced constructions of the
constitutional charter which defines them; and, that indications have
appeared of a design to expound certain general phrases (which,
having been copied from the very limited grant of powers in the
former Articles of Confederation, were the less liable to be
misconstrued) so as to destroy the meaning and effect of the
particular enumeration which necessarily explains, and limits the
general phrases, and so as to consolidate the states by degrees into
one sovereignty, the obvious tendency and inevitable result of which
would be, to transform the present republican system of the United
States into an absolute, or at best, a mixed monarchy.
That the General Assembly doth particularly protest against the
palpable and alarming infractions of the Constitution, in the two late
cases of the “Alien and Sedition Acts,” passed at the last session of
Congress; the first of which exercises a power nowhere delegated to
the federal government, and which, by uniting legislative and judicial
powers to those of executive, subverts the general principles of free
government, as well as the particular organization and positive
provisions of the Federal Constitution; and the other of which acts
exercises, in like manner, a power not delegated by the Constitution,
out on the contrary, expressly and positively forbidden by one of the
amendments thereto; a power which, more than any other, ought to
produce universal alarm, because it is levelled against the right of
freely examining public characters and measures, and of free
communication among the people thereon, which has ever been
justly deemed the only effectual guardian of every other right.
That this state having by its Convention, which ratified the Federal
Constitution, expressly declared, that among other essential rights,
“the liberty of conscience and the press cannot be cancelled,
abridged, restrained, or modified by any authority of the United
States,” and from its extreme anxiety to guard these rights from
every possible attack of sophistry and ambition, having with other
states recommended an amendment for that purpose, which
amendment was, in due time, annexed to the Constitution, it would
mark a reproachful inconsistency, and criminal degeneracy, if an
indifference were now shown to the most palpable violation of one of
the rights, thus declared and secured; and to the establishment of a
precedent which may be fatal to the other.
That the good people of this commonwealth, having ever felt, and
continuing to feel the most sincere affection for their brethren of the
other states; the truest anxiety for establishing and perpetuating the
Union of all: and the most scrupulous fidelity to that Constitution,
which is the pledge of mutual friendship, and the instrument of
mutual happiness; the General Assembly doth solemnly appeal to the
like dispositions in the other States, in confidence that they will
concur with this commonwealth, in declaring, as it does hereby
declare, that the acts aforesaid are unconstitutional; and, that the
necessary and proper measures will be taken by each for co-
operating with this state, in maintaining unimpaired the authorities,
rights, and liberties, reserved to the states, respectively, or to the
people.
That the governor be desired to transmit a copy of the foregoing
resolutions to the executive authority of each of the other states, with
a request that the same may be communicated to the legislature
thereof; and that a copy be furnished to each of the Senators and
Representatives representing this state in the Congress of the United
States.

Attest, John Stewart.

1798, December 24th. Agreed to by the Senate.

H. Brooke.

A true copy from the original deposited in the office of the General
Assembly.

John Stewart, Keeper of Rolls.

Extracts from the Address to the People, which accompanied the

foregoing resolutions:—
Fellow-Citizens: Unwilling to shrink from our representative responsibility,
conscious of the purity of our motives, but acknowledging your right to supervise
our conduct, we invite your serious attention to the emergency which dictated the
subjoined resolutions. Whilst we disdain to alarm you by ill-founded jealousies, we
recommend an investigation, guided by the coolness of wisdom, and a decision
bottomed on firmness but tempered with moderation.
It would be perfidious in those intrusted with the guardianship of the state
sovereignty, and acting under the solemn obligation of the following oath: “I do
swear, that I will support the Constitution of the United States,” not to warn you of
encroachments, which, though clothed with the pretext of necessity, or disguised
by arguments of expediency, may yet establish precedents, which may ultimately
devote a generous and unsuspicious people to all the consequences of usurped
power.
Encroachments, springing from a government whose organization cannot be
maintained without the co-operation of the states, furnish the strongest
incitements upon the state legislatures to watchfulness, and impose upon them the
strongest obligation to preserve unimpaired the line of partition.
The acquiescence of the states under infractions of the federal compact, would
either beget a speedy consolidation, by precipitating the state governments into
impotency and contempt; or prepare the way for a revolution, by a repetition of
these infractions, until the people are aroused to appear in the majesty of their
strength. It is to avoid these calamities, that we exhibit to the people the
momentous question, whether the Constitution of the United States shall yield to a
construction which defies every restraint and overwhelms the best hopes of
republicanism.
Exhortations to disregard domestic usurpations until foreign danger shall have
passed, is an artifice which may be for ever used; because the possessors of power,
who are the advocates for its extension, can ever create national embarrassments,
to be successively employed to soothe the people into sleep, whilst that power is
swelling silently, secretly, and fatally. Of the same character are insinuations of a
foreign influence, which seize upon a laudable enthusiasm against danger from
abroad, and distort it by an unnatural application, so as to blind your eyes against
danger at home.
The sedition act presents a scene which was never expected by the early friends
of the Constitution. It was then admitted that the state sovereignties were only
diminished by powers specifically enumerated, or necessary to carry the specified
powers into effect. Now federal authority is deduced from implication, and from
the existence of state law it is inferred that Congress possesses a similar power of
legislation; whence Congress will be endowed with a power of legislation in all
cases whatsoever, and the states will be stript of every right reserved by the
concurrent claims of a paramount legislature.
The sedition act is the offspring of these tremendous pretensions, which inflict a
death wound on the sovereignty of these states.
For the honor of American understanding, we will not believe that the people
have been allured into the adoption of the Constitution by an affectation of
defining powers, whilst the preamble would admit a construction which would
erect the will of Congress into a power paramount in all cases, and therefore
limited in none. On the contrary, it is evident that the objects for which the
Constitution was formed were deemed attainable only by a particular enumeration
and specification of each power granted to the federal government; reserving all
others to the people, or to the states. And yet it is in vain we search for any
specified power, embracing the right of legislation against the freedom of the press.
Had the states been despoiled of their sovereignty by the generality of the
preamble, and had the federal government been endowed with whatever they
should judge to be instrumental towards union, justice, tranquillity, common
defence, general welfare, and the preservation of liberty nothing could have been
more frivolous than an enumeration of powers.
All the preceding arguments rising from a deficiency of constitutional power in
Congress, apply to the alien act, and this act is liable to other objections peculiar to
itself. If a suspicion that aliens are dangerous constitute the justification of that
power exercised over them by Congress, then a similar suspicion will justify the
exercise of a similar power over natives. Because there is nothing in the
Constitution distinguishing between the power of a state to permit the residence of
natives and aliens. It is therefore a right originally possessed, and never
surrendered by the respective states, and which is rendered dear and valuable to
Virginia, because it is assailed through the bosom of the Constitution, and because
her peculiar situation renders the easy admission of artisans and laborers an
interest of vast importance.
But this bill contains other features, still more alarming and dangerous. It
dispenses with the trial by jury; it violates the judicial system; it confounds
legislative, executive, and judicial powers; it punishes without trial; and it bestows
upon the President despotic power over a numerous class of men. Are such
measures consistent with our constitutional principles? And will an accumulation
of power so extensive in the hands of the executive, over aliens, secure to natives
the blessings of republican liberty?
If measures can mould governments, and if an uncontrolled power of
construction is surrendered to those who administer them, their progress may be
easily foreseen and their end easily foretold. A lover of monarchy, who opens the
treasures of corruption, by distributing emolument among devoted partisans, may
at the same time be approaching his object, and deluding the people with
professions of republicanism. He may confound monarchy and republicanism, by
the art of definition. He may varnish over the dexterity which ambition never fails
to display, with the pliancy of language, the seduction of expediency, or the
prejudices of the times. And he may come at length to avow that so extensive a
territory as that of the United States can only be governed by the energies of
monarchy; that it cannot be defended, except by standing armies; and that it
cannot be united, except by consolidation.
Measures have already been adopted which may lead to these consequences.
They consist:
In fiscal systems and arrangements, which keep a host of commercial and
wealthy individuals, embodied and obedient to the mandates of the treasury.
 In armies and navies, which will, on the one hand, enlist the tendency of man to
pay homage to his fellow-creature who can feed or honor him; and on the other,
employ the principle of fear, by punishing imaginary insurrections, under the
pretext of preventive justice.
In swarms of officers, civil and military, who can inculcate political tenets
tending to consolidation and monarchy, both by indulgences and severities; and
can act as spies over the free exercise of human reason.
In restraining the freedom of the press, and investing the executive with
legislative, executive, and judicial powers, over a numerous body of men.
And, that we may shorten the catalogue, in establishing by successive precedents
such a mode of construing the Constitution as will rapidly remove every restraint
upon federal power.
Let history be consulted; let the man of experience reflect; nay, let the artificers
of monarchy be asked what farther materials they can need for building up their
favorite system?
These are solemn, but painful truths; and yet we recommend it to you not to
forget the possibility of danger from without, although danger threatens us from
within. Usurpation is indeed dreadful, but against foreign invasion, if that should
happen, let us rise with hearts and hands united, and repel the attack with the zeal
of freemen, who will strengthen their title to examine and correct domestic
measures by having defended their country against foreign aggression.
Pledged as we are, fellow-citizens, to these sacred engagements, we yet humbly
and fervently implore the Almighty Disposer of events to avert from our land war
and usurpation, the scourges of mankind; to permit our fields to be cultivated in
peace; to instill into nations the love of friendly intercourse; to suffer our youth to
be educated in virtue; and to preserve our morality from the pollution invariably
incident to habits of war; to prevent the laborer and husbandman from being
harassed by taxes and imposts; to remove from ambition the means of disturbing
the commonwealth; to annihilate all pretexts for power afforded by war; to
maintain the Constitution; and to bless our nation with tranquillity, under whose
benign influence we may reach the summit of happiness and glory, to which we are
destined by Nature and Nature’s God.

Attest, John Stewart, C.H.D.

1799, Jan. 23. Agreed to by the Senate.

H. Brooke, C.S.

A true copy from the original, deposited in the office of the General Assembly.
John Stewart, Keeper of Rolls.
 Answers of the several State Legislatures.

State of Delaware.—In the House of Representatives, Feb. 1,

1799. Resolved, By the Senate and House of Representatives of the
state of Delaware, in General Assembly met, that they consider the
resolutions from the state of Virginia as a very unjustifiable
interference with the general government and constituted authorities
of the United States, and of dangerous tendency, and therefore not fit
subject for the further consideration of the General Assembly.
Isaac Davis, Speaker of the Senate.
Stephen Lewis, Speaker of the H. of R’s. Test—

John Fisher, C.S.

John Caldwell, C.H.R.

State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.—In

General Assembly, February, A. D. 1799. Certain resolutions of the
Legislature of Virginia, passed on 21st of December last, being
communicated to this Assembly,
1. Resolved, That in the opinion of this legislature, the second
section of third article of the Constitution of the United States in
these words, to wit: The judicial power shall extend to all cases
arising under the laws of the United States, vests in the federal
courts, exclusively, and in the Supreme Court of the United States
ultimately, the authority of deciding on the constitutionality of any
act or law of the Congress of the United States.
2. Resolved, That for any state legislature to assume that authority,
would be,
1st. Blending together legislative and judicial powers.
2d. Hazarding an interruption of the peace of the states by civil
discord, in case of a diversity of opinions among the state
legislatures; each state having, in that case, no resort for vindicating
its own opinions, but to the strength of its own arm.
3d. Submitting most important questions of law to less competent
tribunals; and
4th. An infraction of the Constitution of the United States,
expressed in plain terms.
3. Resolved, That although for the above reasons, this legislature,
in their public capacity, do not feel themselves authorized to consider
and decide on the constitutionality of the sedition and alien laws (so
called); yet they are called upon by the exigency of this occasion, to
declare, that in their private opinions, these laws are within the
powers delegated to Congress, and promotive of the welfare of the
United States.
4. Resolved, That the governor communicate these resolutions to
the supreme executive of the state of Virginia, and at the same time
express to him that this legislature cannot contemplate, without
extreme concern and regret, the many evil and fatal consequences
which may flow from the very unwarrantable resolutions aforesaid,
of the legislature of Virginia, passed on the twenty-first day of
December last.

A true copy. Samuel Eddy, Sec.

Commonwealth of Massachusetts.—In Senate, Feb. 9, 1799. The

legislature of Massachusetts having taken into serious consideration
the resolutions of the State of Virginia, passed the 21st day of
December last, and communicated by his excellency the governor,
relative to certain supposed infractions of the Constitution of the
United States, by the government thereof, and being convinced that
the Federal Constitution is calculated to promote the happiness,
prosperity, and safety of the people of these United States, and to
maintain that union of the several states, so essential to the welfare
of the whole; and being bound by solemn oath to support and defend
that Constitution, feel it unnecessary to make any professions of
their attachment to it, or of their firm determination to support it
against every aggression, foreign or domestic.
 But they deem it their duty solemnly to declare, that while they
hold sacred the principle, that consent of the people is the only pure
source of just and legitimate power, they cannot admit the right of
the state legislatures to denounce the administration of that
government to which the people themselves, by a solemn compact,
have exclusively committed their national concerns: That, although a
liberal and enlightened vigilance among the people is always to be
cherished, yet an unreasonable jealousy of the men of their choice,
and a recurrence to measures of extremity, upon groundless or trivial
pretexts, have a strong tendency to destroy all rational liberty at
home, and to deprive the United States of the most essential
advantages in their relations abroad: That this legislature are
persuaded that the decision of all cases in law and equity, arising
under the Constitution of the United States, and the construction of
all laws made in pursuance thereof, are exclusively vested by the
people in the judicial courts of the United States.
That the people in that solemn compact, which is declared to be
the supreme law of the land, have not constituted the state
legislatures the judges of the acts or measures of the federal
government, but have confided to them the power of proposing such
amendments of the Constitution, as shall appear to them necessary
to the interests, or conformable to the wishes of the people whom
they represent.
That by this construction of the Constitution, an amicable and
dispassionate remedy is pointed out for any evil which experience
may prove to exist, and the peace and prosperity of the United States
may be preserved without interruption.
But, should the respectable state of Virginia persist in the
assumption of the right to declare the acts of the national
government unconstitutional, and should she oppose successfully
her force and will to those of the nation, the Constitution would be
reduced to a mere cipher, to the form and pageantry of authority,
without the energy of power. Every act of the federal government
which thwarted the views or checked the ambitious projects of a
particular state, or of its leading and influential members, would be
the object of opposition and of remonstrance; while the people,
convulsed and confused by the conflict between two hostile
jurisdictions, enjoying the protection of neither, would be wearied
into a submission to some bold leader, who would establish himself
on the ruins of both.
The legislature of Massachusetts, although they do not themselves
claim the right, nor admit the authority of any of the state
governments, to decide upon the constitutionality of the acts of the
federal government, still, lest their silence should be construed into
disapprobation, or at best into a doubt of the constitutionality of the
acts referred to by the State of Virginia; and, as the General Assembly
of Virginia has called for an expression of their sentiments, do
explicitly declare, that they consider the acts of Congress, commonly
called “the alien and sedition acts,” not only constitutional, but
expedient and necessary: That the former act respects a description
of persons whose rights were not particularly contemplated in the
Constitution of the United States, who are entitled only to a
temporary protection, while they yield a temporary allegiance; a
protection which ought to be withdrawn whenever they become
“dangerous to the public safety,” or are found guilty of “treasonable
machination” against the government: That Congress having been
especially intrusted by the people with the general defence of the
nation, had not only the right, but were bound to protect it against
internal as well as external foes. That the United States, at the time of
passing the act concerning aliens, were threatened with actual
invasion, had been driven by the unjust and ambitious conduct of the
French government into warlike preparations, expensive and
burthensome, and had then, within the bosom of the country,
thousands of aliens, who, we doubt not, were ready to co-operate in
any external attack.
It cannot be seriously believed, that the United States should have
waited till the poignard had in fact been plunged. The removal of
aliens is the usual preliminary of hostility, and is justified by the
invariable usages of nations. Actual hostility had unhappily long
been experienced, and a formal declaration of it the government had
reason daily to expect. The law, therefore, was just and salutary, and
no officer could, with so much propriety, be intrusted with the
execution of it, as the one in whom the Constitution has reposed the
executive power of the United States.
The sedition act, so called, is, in the opinion of this legislature,
equally defensible. The General Assembly of Virginia, in their resolve
under consideration, observe, that when that state by its convention
ratified the Federal Constitution, it expressly declared, “That, among
other essential rights, the liberty of conscience and of the press
cannot be cancelled, abridged, restrained, or modified by any
authority of the United States,” and from its extreme anxiety to
guard these rights from every possible attack of sophistry or
ambition, with other states, recommend an amendment for that
purpose: which amendment was, in due time, annexed to the
Constitution; but they did not surely expect that the proceedings of
their state convention were to explain the amendment adopted by
the Union. The words of that amendment, on this subject, are,
“Congress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech or of
the press.”
The act complained of is no abridgment of the freedom of either.
The genuine liberty of speech and the press, is the liberty to utter and
publish the truth; but the constitutional right of the citizen to utter
and publish the truth, is not to be confounded with the licentiousness
in speaking and writing, that is only employed in propagating
falsehood and slander. This freedom of the press has been explicitly
secured by most, if not all, the state constitutions; and of this
provision there has been generally but one construction among
enlightened men; that it is a security for the rational use and not the
abuse of the press; of which the courts of law, the juries, and people
will judge; this right is not infringed, but confirmed and established
by the late act of Congress.
By the Constitution, the legislative, executive, and judicial
departments of government are ordained and established; and
general enumerated powers vested in them respectively, including
those which are prohibited to the several states. Certain powers are
granted in general terms by the people to their general government,
for the purposes of their safety and protection. The government is
not only empowered, but it is made their duty to repel invasions and
suppress insurrections; to guaranty to the several states a republican
form of government; to protect each state against invasion, and,
when applied to, against domestic violence; to hear and decide all
cases in law and equity, arising under the Constitution, and under
any treaty or law made in pursuance thereof; and all cases of
admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, and relating to the law of
nations. Whenever, therefore, it becomes necessary to effect any of
the objects designated, it is perfectly consonant to all just rules of
construction, to infer, that the usual means and powers necessary to
the attainment of that object, are also granted: But the Constitution
has left no occasion to resort to implication for these powers; it has
made an express grant of them, in the 8th section of the first article,
which ordains, “That Congress shall have power to make all laws
which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the
foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by the Constitution in
the government of the United States or in any department or officer
thereof.”
This Constitution has established a Supreme Court of the United
States, but has made no provisions for its protection, even against
such improper conduct in its presence, as might disturb its
proceedings, unless expressed in the section before recited. But as no
statute has been passed on this subject, this protection is, and has
been for nine years past, uniformly found in the application of the
principles and usages of the common law. The same protection may
unquestionably be afforded by a statute passed in virtue of the
before-mentioned section, as necessary and proper, for carrying into
execution the powers vested in that department. A construction of
the different parts of the Constitution, perfectly just and fair, will, on
analogous principles, extend protection and security against the
offences in question, to the other departments of government, in
discharge of their respective trusts.
The President of the United States is bound by his oath “to
preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution,” and it is expressly
made his duty, “to take care that the laws be faithfully executed;” but
this would be impracticable by any created being, if there could be no
legal restraint of those scandalous misrepresentations of his
measures and motives, which directly tend to rob him of the public
confidence. And equally impotent would be every other public
officer, if thus left to the mercy of the seditious.
It is holden to be a truth most clear, that the important trusts
before enumerated cannot be discharged by the government to which
they are committed, without the power to restrain seditious practices
and unlawful combinations against itself, and to protect the officers
thereof from abusive misrepresentations. Had the Constitution
withheld this power, it would have made the government responsible
for the effects without any control over the causes which naturally
produce them, and would have essentially failed of answering the
great ends for which the people of the United States declare, in the
first clause of that instrument, that they establish the same, viz: “To
form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic
tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general
warfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and
posterity.”
Seditious practices and unlawful combinations against the federal
government, or any officer thereof, in the performance of his duty, as
well as licentiousness of speech and of the press, were punishable on
the principles of common law in the courts of the United States,
before the act in question was passed. This act then is an
amelioration of that law in favor of the party accused, as it mitigates
the punishment which that authorizes, and admits of any
investigation of public men and measures which is regulated by
truth. It is not intended to protect men in office, only as they are
agents of the people. Its object is to afford legal security to public
offices and trusts created for the safety and happiness of the people,
and therefore the security derived from it is for the benefit of the
people, and is their right.
The construction of the Constitution and of the existing law of the
land, as well as the act complained of, the legislature of
Massachusetts most deliberately and firmly believe results from a
just and full view of the several parts of the Constitution: and they
consider that act to be wise and necessary, as an audacious and
unprincipled spirit of falsehood and abuse had been too long
unremittingly exerted for the purpose of perverting public opinion,
and threatened to undermine and destroy the whole fabric of
government.
The legislature further declare, that in the foregoing sentiments
they have expressed the general opinion of their constituents, who
have not only acquiesced without complaint in those particular
measures of the federal government, but have given their explicit
approbation by re-electing those men who voted for the adoption of
them. Nor is it apprehended, that the citizens of this state will be
accused of supineness or of an indifference to their constitutional
rights; for while, on the one hand, they regard with due vigilance the
conduct of the government, on the other, their freedom, safety and
happiness require, that they should defend that government and its
constitutional measures against the open or insidious attacks of any
foe, whether foreign or domestic.
And, lastly, that the legislature of Massachusetts feel a strong
conviction, that the several United States are connected by a
common interest which ought to render their union indissoluble, and
that this state will always co-operate with its confederate states in
rendering that union productive of mutual security, freedom, and
happiness.
Sent down for concurrence.

Samuel Philips, President.

In the House of Representatives, Feb. 13, 1799.

Read and concurred.

Edward H. Robbins, Speaker.

A true copy. Attest,

John Avery, Secretary.

State of New York.—In Senate, March 5, 1799.—Whereas, the

people of the United States have established for themselves a free
and independent national government: And whereas it is essential to
the existence of every government, that it have authority to defend
and preserve its constitutional powers inviolate, inasmuch as every
infringement thereof tends to its subversion: And whereas the
judicial power extends expressly to all cases of law and equity arising
under the Constitution and the laws of the United States whereby the
interference of the legislatures of the particular states in those cases
is manifestly excluded: And whereas our peace, prosperity, and
happiness, eminently depend on the preservation of the Union, in
order to which, a reasonable confidence in the constituted
authorities and chosen representatives of the people is
indispensable: And whereas every measure calculated to weaken that
confidence has a tendency to destroy the usefulness of our public
functionaries, and to excite jealousies equally hostile to rational
liberty, and the principles of a good republican government: And
whereas the Senate, not perceiving that the rights of the particular
states have been violated, nor any unconstitutional powers assumed
by the general government, cannot forbear to express the anxiety and
regret with which they observe the inflammatory and pernicious
sentiments and doctrines which are contained in the resolutions of
the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky—sentiments and doctrines,
no less repugnant to the Constitution of the United States, and the
principles of their union, than destructive to the Federal government
and unjust to those whom the people have elected to administer it:
wherefore, Resolved, That while the Senate feel themselves
constrained to bear unequivocal testimony against such sentiments
and doctrines, they deem it a duty no less indispensable, explicitly to
declare their incompetency, as a branch of the legislature of this
state, to supervise the acts of the general government.
Resolved, That his Excellency, the Governor, be, and he is hereby
requested to transmit a copy of the foregoing resolution to the
executives of the states of Virginia and Kentucky, to the end that the
same may be communicated to the legislatures thereof.
A true copy.

Abm. B. Baucker, Clerk.

State of Connecticut.—At a General Assembly of the state of

Connecticut, holden at Hartford, in the said state, on the second
Thursday of May, Anno Domini 1799, his excellency the governor
having communicated to this assembly sundry resolutions of the
legislature of Virginia, adopted in December, 1798, which relate to
the measures of the general government; and the said resolutions
having been considered, it is
Resolved, That this Assembly views with deep regret, and explicitly
disavows, the principles contained in the aforesaid resolutions; and
particularly the opposition to the “Alien and Sedition Acts”—acts
which the Constitution authorized; which the exigency of the country
rendered necessary; which the constituted authorities have enacted,
and which merit the entire approbation of this Assembly. They,
therefore, decidedly refuse to concur with the legislature of Virginia,
in promoting any of the objects attempted in the aforesaid
resolutions.
And it is further resolved, That his excellency the governor be
requested to transmit a copy of the foregoing resolution to the
governor of Virginia, that it may be communicated to the legislature
of that state.
Passed in the House of Representatives unanimously.

Attest, John C. Smith, Clerk.

Concurred, unanimously, in the upper House.

Teste, Sam. Wyllys, Sec’y.

State of New Hampshire.—In the House of Representatives, June

14, 1799.—The committee to take into consideration the resolutions
of the General Assembly of Virginia, dated December 21, 1798; also
certain resolutions of the legislature of Kentucky, of the 10th of
November, 1798; report as follows:—
The legislature of New Hampshire, having taken into
consideration certain resolutions of the General Assembly of
Virginia, dated December 21, 1798; also certain resolutions of the
legislature of Kentucky, of the 10th of November, 1798,—
Resolved, That the legislature of New Hampshire unequivocally
express a firm resolution to maintain and defend the Constitution of
the United States, and the constitution of this state, against every
aggression, either foreign or domestic, and that they will support the
government of the United States in all measures warranted by the
former.
That the state legislatures are not the proper tribunals to
determine the constitutionality of the laws of the general
government; that the duty of such decision is properly and
exclusively confided to the judicial department.
That if the legislature of New Hampshire, for mere speculative
purposes, were to express an opinion on the acts of the general
government, commonly called “the Alien and Sedition Bills,” that
opinion would unreservedly be, that those acts are constitutional
and, in the present critical situation of our country, highly expedient.
That the constitutionality and expediency of the acts aforesaid
have been very ably advocated and clearly demonstrated by many
citizens of the United States, more especially by the minority of the
General Assembly of Virginia. The legislature of New Hampshire,
therefore, deem it unnecessary, by any train of arguments, to attempt
further illustration of the propositions, the truth of which, it is
confidently believed, at this day, is very generally seen and
acknowledged.
Which report, being read and considered, was unanimously
received and accepted, one hundred and thirty-seven members being
present.
Sent up for concurrence.

John Prentice, Speaker.

In Senate, same day, read and concurred in unanimously.

Amos Shepard, President.

Approved June 15, 1799.

J. T. Gilman, Governor.

A true copy.

Attest, Joseph Pearson, Sec’y.

State of Vermont.—In the House of Representatives, October 30,

A. D. 1799.—The House proceeded to take under their consideration
the resolutions of the General Assembly of Virginia, relative to
certain measures of the general government, transmitted to the
legislature of this state for their consideration; whereupon,
Resolved, that the General Assembly of the state of Vermont do
highly disapprove of the resolutions of the General Assembly of the
state of Virginia, as being unconstitutional in their nature and