Sociology A Down To Earth Approach 13th Edition by James M Henslin Ebook PDF

Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach
13th Edition by James M. Henslin

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Contents vii
3. Reviewing the Literature 130 Leadership 167

4. Formulating a Hypothesis 130 Who Becomes a Leader? 167 • Types of Leaders 167
• Leadership Styles 168 • Leadership Styles in
5. Choosing a Research Method 130
Changing Situations 168
6. Collecting the Data 130
The Power of Peer Pressure: The Asch Experiment 169
7. Analyzing the Results 131
The Power of Authority: The Milgram Experiment 170
8. Sharing the Results 131
Global Consequences of Group Dynamics:
Research Methods (Designs) 131
Groupthink 171
Surveys 133
Preventing Groupthink 172
Selecting a Sample 133 • Asking Neutral
Summary and Review 172
Questions 134 • Questionnaires and
Interviews 134 • Establishing Rapport 136 Thinking Critically about Chapter 6 173
Participant Observation (Fieldwork) 136
Case Studies 137
Secondary Analysis 137
Analysis of Documents 137 7 Bureaucracy and Formal
Experiments 139 Organizations 174
Unobtrusive Measures 141 The Rationalization of Society 176
Deciding Which Method to Use 141 Why Did Society Make a Deep Shift in Human
Controversy in Sociological Research 141 Relationships? 176
Gender in Sociological Research 143 Life in Traditional Societies 176 • The Shift
Ethics in Sociological Research 143 to Rationality AS SOCIETIES Industrialized 176
Protecting the Subjects: The Brajuha Research 144 Marx: Capitalism Broke Tradition 178
Misleading the Subjects: The Humphreys Research 144 Weber: Religion Broke Tradition 178
How Research and Theory Work Together 145 The Two Views Today 178
The Real World: When the Ideal Meets the Real 145 Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies 179
Summary and Review 147 Formal Organizations 179
Thinking Critically about Chapter 5 147 The Characteristics of Bureaucracies 179
“Ideal” versus “Real” Bureaucracy 181
6 Societies to Social Networks 148 Goal Displacement and the Perpetuation of
Bureaucracies 183
Societies and Their Transformation 150
Dysfunctions of Bureaucracies 184
Hunting and Gathering Societies 150
Red Tape: A Rule Is a Rule 184 • Lack of
Pastoral and Horticultural Societies 152 Communication between Units 184
Agricultural Societies 152 • Bureaucratic Incompetence 184
Industrial Societies 153 Alienation of Workers 185
Postindustrial (Information) Societies 154 Causes of Alienation 185 • The Alienated
Biotech Societies: Is a New Type of Bureaucrat 186 • Resisting Alienation 186
Society Emerging? 154 Voluntary Associations 187
Groups within Society 156 Functions of Voluntary Associations 187
Primary Groups 158 Motivations for Joining 188
Producing a Mirror Within 158 The Inner Circle and the “Iron Law” of Oligarchy 188
Secondary Groups 158 The Inner Circle 188 • The Iron Law of
In-Groups and Out-Groups 158 Oligarchy 188
Shaping Perception and Morality 159 Working for the Corporation 189
Reference Groups 159 Humanizing the Work Setting 189
Evaluating Ourselves 160 • Exposure to Worker Empowerment 189 • Corporate Child
Contradictory Standards in a Socially Diverse Care 190 • The Conflict Perspective 190 • Workers’
Society 160 Attempts to Humanize Work 190
Social Networks 160 Fads in Corporate Culture 190
Applied Network Analysis 161 • The Small World Self-Fulfilling Stereotypes in the “Hidden”
Phenomenon 161 • Is the Small World Phenomenon Corporate Culture 192
an Academic Myth? 162 • Building Unintentional Self-Fulfilling Stereotypes and Promotions 192
Barriers 162
Diversity in the Workplace 192
Group Dynamics 162
Technology and the Maximum-Security Society 193
Effects of Group Size on Stability and Intimacy 163
Effects of Group Size on Attitudes and Behavior 164
Thinking Critically about Chapter 7 195
Laboratory Findings and the Real World 165
viii Contents
8 Deviance and Social Control 196

Causes of Slavery 231 • Conditions of
Slavery 231 • Bonded Labor in the New
World 232 • Slavery in the New
What Is Deviance? 198 World 232 • Slavery Today 232
The Relativity of Deviance 198 • A Neutral
Caste 233
Term 198 • Stigma 199
India’s Religious Castes 233 • South Africa 234
How Norms Make Social Life Possible 199 • A U.S. Racial Caste System 235
Sanctions 200 Estate 236
Competing Explanations of Deviance: Sociobiology, Women in the Estate System 236
Psychology, and Sociology 200
Class 236
Biosocial Explanations 201 • Psychological
Explanations 201 • Sociological
Global Stratification and the Status of Females 237
Explanations 201 The Global Superclass 237
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 201 What Determines Social Class? 238
Differential Association Theory 202 Karl Marx: The Means of Production 238
The Theory 202 • Families 202 • Friends, Max Weber: Property, Power, and Prestige 239
Neighborhoods, and Subcultures 202
Why Is Social Stratification Universal? 240
• Differential Association in the Cyber
Age 203 • Prison or Freedom? 203 The Functionalist View: Motivating Qualified People 240
Davis and Moore’s Explanation 240 • Tumin’s
Control Theory 203
Critique of Davis and Moore 240
The Theory 203 • Applying Control Theory 204
The Conflict Perspective: Class Conflict and
Labeling Theory 204
Scarce Resources 241
Rejecting Labels: How People Neutralize
Mosca’s Argument 241 • Marx’s Argument 242
Deviance 204 • Applying Neutralization 206 •
• Current Applications of Conflict Theory 242
Embracing Labels: The Example of
Outlaw Bikers 206 • Labels Can Be Lenski’s Synthesis 242
Powerful 207 • How Do Labels Work? 208 How Do Elites Maintain Stratification? 243
The Functionalist Perspective 208 Soft Control versus Force 243
Can Deviance Really Be Functional for Society? 208 Controlling People’s Ideas 243
Strain Theory: How Mainstream Values • Controlling Information 244 • Stifling
Criticism 244 • Big Brother
Produce Deviance 209
Technology 244
Four Deviant Paths 210
Comparative Social Stratification 245
Illegitimate Opportunity Structures: Social
Class and Crime 211 Social Stratification in Great Britain 245
Street Crime 211 • White-Collar Social Stratification in the Former
Crime 211 • Gender and Crime 213 Soviet Union 245
The Conflict Perspective 214 Global Stratification: Three Worlds 246
Class, Crime, and the Criminal Justice System 214 The Problem with Terms 247
The Criminal Justice System as an Instrument The Most Industrialized Nations 247
of Oppression 214 The Industrializing Nations 250
Reactions to Deviance 216 The Least Industrialized Nations 251
Street Crime and Prisons 216 Modifying the Model 251
The Decline in Violent Crime 218 How Did the World’s Nations Become
Recidivism 219 Stratified? 254
The Death Penalty and Bias 220 Colonialism 254
Geography 220 • Social Class 220 • World System Theory 254
Gender 220 • Race–Ethnicity 222
Culture of Poverty 256
The Trouble with Official Statistics 223
Evaluating the Theories 256
The Medicalization of Deviance:
Maintaining Global Stratification 257
Mental Illness 224
Neither Mental Nor Illness? 224 • The Homeless
Neocolonialism 257
Mentally Ill 225 Relevance Today 257
The Need for a More Humane Approach 226 Multinational Corporations 257
Summary and Review 226 Buying Political Stability 258 • Unanticipated
Consequences 258
Technology and Global Domination 258
9 Global Stratification 228 Strains in the Global System

259
Systems of Social Stratification 230 Thinking Critically about Chapter 9 260 260
Slavery 231
Contents ix
10 Social Class in the United States 261

A Medical Accident 298 • The Vietnam Veterans
Study 299 • More Research on Humans 299
What Is Social Class? 263 Gender Inequality in Global Perspective 300

Property 263 How Did Females Become a Minority Group? 301
Distinguishing Between Wealth and Income 263 Human Reproduction 301 • Hand-to-Hand Combat 303
• Distribution of Property 264 • Distribution • Which One? 303 • Continuing Dominance 303
of Income 264 Sex Typing of Work 303
Power 266 Gender and the Prestige of Work 304
The Democratic Facade 266 • The Power Elite 266 Other Areas of Global Discrimination 304
Prestige 268 The Global Gap in Education 304 • The Global
Occupations and Prestige 268 • Displaying Gap in Politics 304 • The Global Gap in Pay 307
Prestige 268 • Global Violence against Women 307
Status Inconsistency 269 Gender Inequality in the United States 308

Sociological Models of Social Class 270 Fighting Back: The Rise of Feminism 308
Updating Marx 270 Gender Inequality in Everyday Life 311
Updating Weber 272 Devaluation of Things Feminine 311
The Capitalist Class 273 • The Upper-Middle Gender Inequality in Health Care 311
Class 273 • The Lower-Middle Class 274 • The Gender Inequality in Education 313
Working Class 274 • The Working Poor 274 •
the past 313 • A Fundamental Change 313 • Gender
The Underclass 275
Tracking 314 • Graduate School and Beyond 314
Consequences of Social Class 275 Gender Inequality in the Workplace 316
Physical Health 276 The Pay Gap 316
Mental Health 276 Historical Background 316 • Geographical
Family Life 276 Factors 317 • The “Testosterone Bonus” 317
Choice of Husband or Wife 277 • Reasons for the Gender Pay Gap 319 • The CEO
• Divorce 277 • Child Rearing 277 Power Gap 320
Education 277 Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking? 320

Religion 277 The Women Who Break Through 320
• And the Future? 320
Politics 278
Sexual Harassment—and Worse 321
Crime and Criminal Justice 278
Labels and Perception 321 • Not Just a
Social Mobility 279 “Man Thing” 321 • Sexual Orientation 321
Three Types of Social Mobility 279 Gender and Violence 321
Women in Studies of Social Mobility 280 Violence against Women 321
The Pain of Social Mobility 280 Forcible Rape 321 • Date (Acquaintance)
Poverty 283 Rape 322 • Murder 323 • Violence in
the Home 323 • Feminism and Gendered
Drawing the Poverty Line 283
Violence 323 • Solutions 323
Who Are the Poor? 284
The Changing Face of Politics 323
The Geography of Poverty 284
Race–Ethnicity 286 • Education 286
Glimpsing the Future—with Hope 324
• The Feminization of Poverty 286 • Old Age 287 Summary and Review 324
Children of Poverty 287 Thinking Critically about Chapter 11 325
The Dynamics of Poverty versus the Culture of Poverty

Why Are People Poor?
287
289
12 Race and Ethnicity 326
Deferred Gratification 289 Laying the Sociological Foundation 328
Where Is Horatio Alger? The Social Functions of a Myth 290 Race: Myth and Reality 328
Peering into the Future: Will We Live in a The Reality of Human Variety 328 • The Myth of Pure
Three-Tier Society? 291 Races 328 • The Myth of a Fixed Number of Races 328
• The Myth of Racial Superiority 328 • The Myth
Summary and Review 292 Continues 331
Ethnic Groups 331
Minority Groups and Dominant Groups 332
11 Sex and Gender 294 Not Size, But Dominance and Discrimination 332
• Emergence of Minority Groups 332
Issues of Sex and Gender 296
Ethnic Work: Constructing Our Racial–Ethnic Identity 332
The Sociological Significance of Gender 296
Prejudice and Discrimination 333
Gender Differences in Behavior: Biology or Culture? 296
Learning Prejudice 333
The Dominant Position in Sociology 298
Distinguishing between Prejudice and
Opening the Door to Biology 298 Discrimination 333 • Learning Prejudice
x Contents
from Associating with Others 335 • The Changing Perceptions as You Age 372 •
Far-Reaching Nature of Prejudice 336 Four Factors in Our Decision 372
• Internalizing Dominant Norms 336 Changing Perceptions of the Elderly 373
Individual and Institutional Discrimination 338 Shifting Meanings 373
Home Mortgages 338 • Health Care 338 The Influence of the Mass Media 375
Theories of Prejudice 339 The Functionalist Perspective 376
Psychological Perspectives 339 Disengagement Theory 376
Frustration and Scapegoats 339 • The Authoritarian Evaluation of the Theory 376
Personality 340
Activity Theory 377
Sociological Perspectives 340
Evaluation of the Theory 377
Functionalism 340 • Conflict Theory 341
• Symbolic Interactionism 342 • How Labels
Continuity Theory 377
Create Prejudice 342 • Labels and Self-Fulfilling Evaluation of the Theory 377
Stereotypes 342 The Conflict Perspective 378
Global Patterns of Intergroup Relations 343 Fighting for Resources: Social Security Legislation 378
Genocide 343 Intergenerational Competition and Conflict 380
Population Transfer 344 Fighting Back 382
Internal Colonialism 345 The Gray Panthers 382 • The American Association
Segregation 345 of Retired Persons 383
Assimilation 345 Recurring Problems 383

Multiculturalism (Pluralism) 346 Gender and Living Arrangements of the Elderly 383
Racial–Ethnic Relations in the United States 346 Nursing Homes 383
Understaffing, Dehumanization, and Death 384
European Americans 346
Latinos (Hispanics) 348 Elder Abuse 386
Umbrella Term 348 • Countries of Origin 348 The Elderly Poor 386
• Unauthorized Immigrants 349 • Residence 351 Race–Ethnicity and Poverty 386 • Gender
• Spanish 351 • Economic Well-Being 351 and Poverty 386
• Politics 351 The Sociology of Death and Dying 387
African Americans 352 Industrialization and the New Technology 387
Rising Expectations and Civil Strife 353
Death as a Process 387
• Continued Gains 354 • Current Losses 354 •
Race or Social Class? A Sociological Debate 354 Hospices 388
• Racism as an Everyday Burden 355 Suicide and Age 389
Asian Americans 355 Adjusting to Death: The Importance of “Closure” 389
A Background of Discrimination 356 • Diversity 356 Looking toward the Future 390
• Reasons for Financial Success 356 • Politics 357
New Views of Aging 390
Native Americans 357 Creative Aging 390
Diversity of Groups 357 • From Treaties to
The Impact of Technology 391
Genocide and Population Transfer 358 • The
Invisible Minority and Self-Determination 358 • The Summary and Review 392
Casinos 359 • Determining Identity and Goals 359 Thinking Critically about Chapter 13 393
Looking toward the Future 359
The Immigration Controversy 360 14 The Economy 394
The Affirmative Action Controversy 360 The Transformation of Economic Systems 396
Less Racism 362 Preindustrial Societies: The Birth of Inequality 396
Toward a True Multicultural Society 362 Industrial Societies: The Birth of the Machine 396
Summary and Review 363 Postindustrial Societies: The Birth of the Information Age 397
Biotech Societies: The Merger of Biology and Economics 397
Implications for Your Life 397
13 The Elderly 365 The Transformation of the Medium of Exchange 398
Earliest Mediums of Exchange 399
Aging in Global Perspective 367
Medium of Exchange in Agricultural Societies 399
The Social Construction of Aging 367
Medium of Exchange in Industrial Societies 399
Industrialization and the Graying of the Globe 368
Medium of Exchange in Postindustrial Societies 401
The Graying of America 369
Race–Ethnicity and Aging 370 • The Life Span 371
World Economic Systems 401
Capitalism 401
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 372
What Capitalism Is 401 • What State Capitalism
When Are You “Old”? 372 Is 401 • The Development of State Capitalism 402
Contents xi
Socialism 403 Contrast with Democratic Systems in Europe 438

What Socialism Is 403 • Socialism in Practice 403 Voting Patterns 438
• Democratic Socialism 404 Social Integration 441 • Alienation 441
Ideologies of Capitalism and Socialism 404 • Apathy 441 • The Gender and Racial–Ethnic
Criticisms of Capitalism and Socialism 404 Gaps in Voting 441
The Convergence of Capitalism and Socialism 405 Lobbyists and Special-Interest Groups 441
Changes in Socialist Countries 405 • Changes in Lobbying by Special-Interest Groups 442
Capitalism 406 • Possible Transmergence 407 • The Money 442
The Functionalist Perspective on the Globalization of Who Rules the United States? 443
Capitalism 407 The Functionalist Perspective: Pluralism 443
The New Global Division of Labor 407 The Conflict Perspective: The Power Elite 444
Capitalism in a Global Economy 408 Which View Is Right? 444
Corporate Capitalism 408 • Separation of War and Terrorism: Implementing Political
Ownership and Management 408 Objectives446
Functions and Dysfunctions on a Global Scale 410 Is War Universal? 446
The Conflict Perspective on the Globalization of Capitalism 410 How Common Is War? 446
Making Capitalism Flourish: Profits and Self-Interests 410 Why Countries Go to War 447
Corporate–Political Connections 410 • Corporate The War Machine and the Profits of War 447
Power and Conspiracies 413 • Multiplying Power:
Costs of War 447
Interlocking Directorships 413
A Special Cost of War: Dehumanization 449
The Global Superclass 413
Success and Failure of Dehumanization 449
Shifting Dominance and Power 414
Terrorism 451
Global Investing 414
Targeted Killings 454
Work in U.S. Society 417
Sowing the Seeds of Future Violence 455
The Transition to Postindustrial Society 417
Selling War Technology 455 • Alignments
Women and Work 417 and Disalignments 455
The Quiet Revolution 417 • FEMALE-MALE Work Styles 418
A New World Order? 456
The Underground Economy 419 Trends toward Unity 456
Stagnant Paychecks 421 Inevitable Changes 456
Patterns of Work and Leisure 421 Summary and Review 457
WORK AND LEISURE AND THE TRANSFORMATION
OF ECONOMIES 422 • Trends in
Leisure 422 • Telecommuting 422 • The Mobile Shift 423
Global Capitalism and Our Future 423 16 Marriage and Family 459
The New Economic System and the Old Divisions
of Wealth 424 Marriage and Family in Global Perspective 461
Summary and Review 425 What Is a Family? 461
Thinking Critically about Chapter 14 426 What Is Marriage? 462
Common Cultural Themes 462
15 Politics 427 Mate Selection 462 • Descent 462 • Inheritance 463
• Authority 463
Micropolitics and Macropolitics 429
Marriage and Family in Theoretical Perspective 463
Power, Authority, and Violence 429 The Functionalist Perspective: Functions
Authority and Legitimate Violence 430 and Dysfunctions464
The Collapse of Authority 430 Why the Family Is Universal 465 • Functions of the
Traditional Authority 431 Incest Taboo 465 • Isolation and Emotional
Overload 465
Rational–Legal Authority 431
Charismatic Authority 432 The Conflict Perspective: Struggles between
Husbands and Wives 465
The Threat Posed by Charismatic Leaders 432
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective: Gender,
Authority as Ideal Type 432
Housework, and Child Care 466
The Transfer of Authority 433
Changes in Traditional Gender Orientations 466
Types of Government 433 • Paid Work and Housework 466 • More Child
Monarchies: The Rise of the State 433 Care 467 • Total Hours 467 • A Gender Division
of Labor 467
Democracies: Citizenship as a Revolutionary Idea 434
Dictatorships and Oligarchies: The Seizure of Power 436 The Family Life Cycle 467
Love and Courtship in Global Perspective 467
The U.S. Political System 436
Marriage 469
Political Parties and Elections 436
The Social Channels of Love and Marriage 469
Slices from the Center 437 • Third Parties 437
xii Contents
Childbirth 470 Education in Global Perspective 498

Ideal Family Size 470 • Marital Satisfaction 471 Education in the Most Industrialized Nations: Japan 498
Child Rearing 472 Education in the Industrializing Nations: Russia 499
Married Couples and Single Mothers 472 • Single
Education in the Least Industrialized Nations: Egypt 500
Fathers 473 • Day Care 474 • Nannies 474 • Uber
as a Parent Substitute 474 • Social Class 474 The Functionalist Perspective: Providing Social Benefits 501
Family Transitions 475 Teaching Knowledge and Skills 501
Transitional Adulthood and the Not-So-Empty Cultural Transmission of Values 502
Nest 475 • Widowhood 475 Social Integration 502
Diversity in U.S. Families 476 Integrating Immigrants 502 • Stabilizing Society:
African American Families 476 Maintaining the Status Quo 502 • Integrating
People with Disabilities 502
Latino Families 477
Gatekeeping (Social Placement) 503
Asian American Families 478
Replacing Family Functions 503
Native American Families 478
Other Functions 503
One-Parent Families 479
A Surprising Latent Function 505
Couples without Children 479
The Conflict Perspective: Perpetuating Social Inequality 505
Blended Families 479
The Hidden Curriculum: Reproducing the Social
Gay and Lesbian Families 480
Class Structure 505
Adoption by Gay and Lesbian Couples 480
Tilting the Tests: Discrimination by IQ 506
Trends in U.S. Families 481
Stacking the Deck: Unequal Funding 507
The Changing Timetable of Family Life: Marriage
The Correspondence Principle 508
and Childbirth 481
The Bottom Line: Family Background 508
Cohabitation 481
Reproducing the Social Class Structure 508
Cohabitation and Marriage: The Essential
• Reproducing the Racial–Ethnic Structure 508
Difference 482 • Cohabitation and Health 482
• Does Cohabitation Make Marriage Stronger? 482 The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective:
The “Sandwich Generation” and Elder Care 483 Teacher Expectations 509
Divorce and Remarriage 483 The Rist Research 509
Ways of Measuring Divorce 483 The Rosenthal–Jacobson Experiment 510
Divorce and Mixed Racial–Ethnic Marriages 485 How Do Teacher Expectations Work? 511
Children of Divorce 486 Self-Expectations 511
Negative Effects 486 • What Helps Children Adjust Problems in U.S. Education—and Their Solutions 512
to Divorce? 486 • Perpetuating Divorce 487 Mediocrity 513
Grandchildren of Divorce: Ripples to the Future 487 The Rising Tide of Mediocrity 513 •
Fathers’ Contact with Children after Divorce 487 The SATs 513 • Grade Inflation, Social
Promotion, and Functional Illiteracy 514
The Ex-Spouses 487
Remarriage 488 Raising Standards 514
Raising Standards for Teachers 514 • A Warning
Two Sides of Family Life 488 about Higher Standards 514
The Dark Side of Family Life: Battering, Child Abuse, Cheating 515
Marital Rape, and Incest 488
The Solution to Cheating 515
Spouse Battering 488 • CHILD ABUSE 488 • Marital and
Intimacy Rape 489 • Incest 489
Violence 516
The Bright Side of Family Life: Successful Marriages 490 Technology and Education 517
Successful Marriages 490 Summary and Review 518
Symbolic Interactionism and the Misuse of Statistics 490
The Future of Marriage and Family 491
18 Religion 520
What Is Religion? 522
17 Education 493 The Functionalist Perspective 523
Functions of Religion 523
The Development of Modern Education 495
Meaning and Purpose 523 • Emotional
Education in Earlier Societies 495 Comfort 523 • Social Solidarity 523 • Guidelines
Industrialization and Universal Education 495 for Everyday Life 523 • Social Control 525 •
Hodge-podge Education and National Adaptation 525 • Support for the Government 525
Disunity 495 • Industrialization and Mandatory • Social Change 525
Education 496 • The Expansion of Education 496 Functional Equivalents of Religion 525
Contents xiii
Dysfunctions of Religion 526 The Conflict Perspective 559

Religion as Justification for Persecution 526 Global Stratification and Health Care 559
• War and Terrorism 526
Establishing a Monopoly on U.S. Health Care 560
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 528 The Professionalization of Medicine 561 • The
Religious Symbols 528 Monopoly of Medicine 562
Rituals 529 Historical Patterns of Health 563
Beliefs 529 Physical Health 563
Religious Experience 529 Leading Causes of Death 563 • Were Americans
Healthier in the Past? 564
Community 529
Unity 529 • Exclusion 532 Mental Health 564
The Conflict Perspective 532 Issues in Health Care 564
Opium of the People 532 Medical Care: A Right or a Commodity? 565
Legitimating Social Inequalities 532 Skyrocketing Costs 565
Religion and the Spirit of Capitalism 533 Social Inequality 565
Reducing Inequalities: Health Care Reform 566
The World’s Major Religions 534
Malpractice Lawsuits and Defensive Medicine 566
Judaism 534
Medical Incompetence 567
Christianity 536
Death by Doctors 567 • Using a Checklist 567
Islam 536 • Federal Center for Patient Safety 568
Hinduism 538 Depersonalization: The Medical Cash Machine 568
Buddhism 539 Conflict of Interest 569
Confucianism 539 Medical Fraud 569
Types of Religious Groups 540 Sexism and Racism in Medicine 570
Cult 541 The Medicalization of Society 570
Sect 542 Theoretical Perspectives 570
Church 542 Medically Assisted Suicide 570
Ecclesia 543 Reducing the Costs of Medical Care 571
Variations in Patterns 543 Health Maintenance Organizations 571
When Religion and Culture Conflict 543 • Diagnosis-Related Groups 572 • Pay-as-You-
Go Clinics 572 • Group Care 572 • Workplace
Religion in the United States 544 Care 572 • Retail Health Clinics 572
Characteristics of Members 544 • Telemedicine 572 • Dumping 573 • Rationing
Social Class and Religious Participation 544 Medical Care 573
• Race–Ethnicity 545 Threats to Health 574
Characteristics of Religious Groups 545 HIV/AIDS 574
Diversity 545 • Pluralism and Freedom 546 Origin 575 • The Transmission of HIV/AIDS 575
• Competition and Recruitment 546 • Gender, Circumcision, and Race–Ethnicity 575
• Commitment 546 • Toleration 547 • The Stigma of AIDS 576 • Is There a Cure
• Fundamentalist Revival 547 for AIDS? 576
• The Electronic Church 547
Weight: Too Much and Too Little 577
Secularization of Religion and Culture 549
Alcohol and Nicotine 577
The Secularization of Religion 549
AlcohoL 577 • Nicotine 578
• The Secularization of Culture 550
Disabling Environments 580
The Future of Religion 551
Medical Experiments: Callous and Harmful 580
The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment 580 • The
Guatemalan Experiment 580 • The Cold War
19
Experiments 580 • Playing God 581
Medicine and Health 555 Chicken Bones and the Globalization of Disease 581
Sociology and the Study of Medicine and Health 557 Rubbing Chicken Bones Together 582
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 557 Treatment or Prevention? 582

The Role of Culture in Defining Health and Illness 557 The Future of Medicine 582
The Components of Health 558 Alternative Medicine 583
The Functionalist Perspective 558 Technology 584
Digital Medicine 584
The Sick Role 558
Elements of the Sick Role 558 • Ambiguity Summary and Review 585
in the Sick Role 558 • Gatekeepers to the Sick Thinking Critically about Chapter 19 586
Role 559 • Gender Differences in the Sick Role 559
xiv Contents
20 Population and Urbanization 587 21 Collective Behavior and Social

Population in Global Perspective 589 Movements 622
A Planet with No Space for Enjoying Life? 589 Collective Behavior 624
The New Malthusians 589 Early Explanations: The Transformation of People 624
The Anti-Malthusians 591 How Crowds Change People 624
Who Is Correct? 592 The Acting Crowd 625
Why Are People Starving? 593 The Contemporary View: The Rationality of the Crowd 626
Population Growth 595 The Minimax Strategy 626
Why the Least Industrialized Nations Have So Emergent Norms 626
Many Children 596 How Sociologists Study Collective Behavior 627
Consequences of Rapid Population Growth 597 Forms of Collective Behavior 627
Population Pyramids as a Tool Riots 627
for Understanding 598 Participants in Riots 628
The Three Demographic Variables 598 Rumors 629
Fertility 598 • Mortality 599 • Migration 599
Panics 630
Problems in Forecasting Population Growth 600 The Classic Panic 630
Urbanization 604 Mass Hysteria 632
The Development of Cities 605 Moral Panics 632
Urbanization 605 Fads and Fashions 634
The Appeal of Cities 605 • Forced Urban Legends 635
Urbanization 608 • Metropolises 608
• Megalopolises 608 • Megacities 608
Social Movements 636
• Megaregions 608 Types and Tactics of Social Movements 637
U.S. Urban Patterns 608 Types of Social Movements 637
From Country to City 608 • From City to Tactics of Social Movements 638
City 609 • Between Cities 610 • Levels of Membership 638 • The Publics 638
Within the City 610 • From City to Suburb and • Relationship to Authorities 639
Back 610 • Smaller Centers 610
Multiple Realities and Social Movements 639
Models of Urban Growth 612
Propaganda and the Mass Media 639
The Concentric Zone Model 612 Gatekeepers to Social Movements 641
The Sector Model 612
Why People Join Social Movements 641
The Multiple-Nuclei Model 613
Relative Deprivation Theory: Improving
The Peripheral Model 613 Status and Power 641
Critique of the Models 614 Relativity of Deprivation 641 • Relative Deprivation
City Life 615 and the Civil Rights Movement 642
Alienation in the City 615 Declining Privilege Theory: Protecting Status

Community in the City 616 and Power 642
Who Lives in the City? 616 Moral Issues and Ideological Commitment 642
The Cosmopolites 616 • The Singles 616 • The When Social Movements Pose a Threat to the Government 643
Ethnic Villagers 616 • The Deprived 617 • The On the Success and Failure of Social Movements 643
Trapped 617 • Critique 617
The Rocky Road to Success 643
The Norm of Noninvolvement and the Diffusion
The Stages of Social Movements 644
of Responsibility 617
Resurgence 645
Tuning Out: The Norm of Noninvolvement 617
Urban Problems and Social Policy 618
Suburbanization 618
City versus Suburb 618 • Suburban
Flight 619 • Living at the Mall 619
22 Social Change and the Environment 648
Disinvestment and Deindustrialization 619 How Social Change Transforms Social Life 650
The Potential of Urban Revitalization 619 The Four Social Revolutions 650
Public Sociology 620 From Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft 650
Summary and Review 620 The Industrial Revolution and Capitalism 651
Thinking Critically about Chapter 20 621 Social Movements 652
Contents xv
Conflict, Power, and Global Politics 652 Computers in Education 662 • Computers in
A Brief History of Geopolitics 652 • G7 Plus 652 • Business and Finance 663 • Computers in
Dividing Up the World 652 • International Conflict 663
Four Threats to This Coalition Cyberspace and Social Inequality 664
of Powers 653 • The Growing Relevance of Africa 654
The Growth Machine versus the Earth 665
Theories and Processes of Social Change 654 The Globalization of Capitalism and the Race for
Evolution from Lower to Higher 654 Economic Growth 666 • A Sustainable
Environment 666
Natural Cycles 655
Conflict over Power and Resources 655 Environmental Problems and Industrialization 666
Toxic Wastes 666 • Fossil Fuels and Climate
Ogburn’s Theory 656
Change 667 • The Energy Shortage
Invention 656 • Discovery 657 • Diffusion 657 and Internal Combustion Engines 669
• Cultural Lag 657 • Evaluation of Ogburn’s • The Rain Forests 669
Theory 657
The Environmental Movement 669
How Technology Is Changing Our Lives 658
Environmental Sociology 672
Extending Human Abilities 658
Technology and the Environment: The Goal
The Sociological Significance of Technology: How of Harmony 673
Technology Changes Social Life 659
Changes in Production 659 • Changes in Worker–Owner
Relations 659 • Changes in Ideology 659 • Changes
in Conspicuous Consumption 659 • Changes in Family
Relationships 660 Epilogue: Why Major in Sociology? 676
When Old Technology Was New: The Impact GlossaryG-1
of the Automobile 660 ReferencesR-1
Displacement of Existing Technology 660 • Effects on
Cities 660 • Changes in Architecture 661 • Changed
Name Index N-1
Courtship Customs and Sexual Norms 661 • Effects on Subject Index S-1
Women’s Roles 661
CreditsCR-1
The New Technology: The Microchip and Social Life 662
Special Features
Down-to-Earth Sociology Who Are the Suicide Terrorists? Testing Your Stereotypes 452
Child Soldiers 453
An Updated Version of the Old Elephant Story 7 Health Benefits of Marriage: Living Longer 471
Enjoying a Sociology Quiz—Testing Your Common Sense 8 “What Are Your Chances of Getting Divorced?” 485
Testing Your Common Sense—Answers to the Sociology Community Colleges: Facing Old and New Challenges 497
Quiz 10 Home Schooling: The Search for Quality and Values 504
Harriet Martineau and U.S. Customs: Listening to an Early How I Became a Fairy: Education and the Perpetuation
Feminist 18 of Social Inequality 506
W. E. B. Du Bois: The Souls of Black Folk 19 You Want to Get Through College? Let’s Apply Sociology
Careers in Sociology: What Applied Sociologists Do 22 512
Heredity or Environment? The Case of Jack and Oskar, Religion and Health: What We Know and Don’t Know 524
Identical Twins 66 Terrorism and Access to the Mind of God 527
Gossip and Ridicule to Enforce Adolescent Norms 87 José’s Old Kidney: The International Black Market in Human
Boot Camp as a Total Institution 89 Body Parts 561
College Football as Social Structure 100 Having Babies Is Men’s Work 563
Beauty May Be Only Skin Deep, But Its Effects Go On BioFoods: What’s in Your Future? Threats to Scientific
Forever: Stereotypes in Everyday Life 112 Research 594
Loading the Dice: How Not to Do Research 135 Reclaiming Harlem: A Twist in the Invasion–Succession
Gang Leader for a Day: Adventures of a Rogue Sociologist 138 Cycle 611
The McDonaldization of Society 182 Rumors and Riots: An Eyewitness Account of the Tulsa
Shaming: Making a Comeback? 205 Riot 629
Running Naked with Pumpkins on Their Heads: Deviance Dancing, Sex, and Monkey Men 633
or Freedom of Self-Expression? 209 “Tricks of the Trade”—Deception and Persuasion in
Islands in the Street: Urban Gangs in the United States 212 Propaganda 640
Sexting: Getting on the Phone Isn’t What It Used to Be 216
The Killer Next Door: Serial Murderers in Our Midst 221
Inequality? What Inequality? 246 Cultural Diversity in the
How the Super-Rich Live 267
The Big Win: Life after the Lottery 271
United States
“The American Dream”: Social Mobility Today 281 Unanticipated Public Sociology: Studying Job
What Do You Know about Poverty? A Reality Check 285 Discrimination 23
Poverty: A Personal Journey 290 Miami—Continuing Controversy over Language 45
Cold-Hearted Surgeons and Their Women Victims 312 Race and Language: Searching for Self-Labels 47
Affirmative Action for Men? 315 Immigrants and Their Children: Caught between Two
Applying Sociology: How to Get a Higher Salary 319 Worlds 86
Can a Plane Ride Change Your Race? 330 The Amish: Gemeinschaft Community in a Gesellschaft
Living in the Dorm: Contact Theory 335 Society 108
The Racist Mind 337 Do Your Social Networks Perpetuate Social Inequality?
The Man in the Zoo 342 163
Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack: Exploring Cultural Social Class and the Upward Social Mobility of African
Privilege 349 Americans 282
The New Centenarians 382 Tiger Woods: Mapping the Changing Ethnic Terrain 329
Feisty to the End: Gender Roles among the Elderly 384 The Illegal Travel Guide 350
What Do You Think about the Red Sock? Sex in Nursing Glimpsing the Future: The Shifting U.S. Racial–Ethnic
Homes 385 Mix 361
Women in Business: Maneuvering the Male Culture 420 The Politics of Immigrants: Power, Ethnicity, and Social
The Revolving Door of Power 445 Class 440
The Rape of Nanking: A Report on Dehumanization 450
xvi
Special Features xvii
Human Heads and Animal Blood: Testing the Limits of New Masculinities and Femininities Are on Their Way 300
Tolerance 541 Social Security: The Magical Money Machine 378
The New Face of Religion: Pentecostals and Spanish- Would You Like to Live to 200? 391
Speaking Immigrants 548 Targeted Killings 454
Will Traditional College Education Disappear? 518
Your Vote, Please: Should Doctors Be Allowed to Kill
Cultural Diversity around Patients? 571
the World How Will Your Lifestyle Affect Your Health? 583
Which Side of the Barricades? Prochoice and Prolife as a
Why the Dead Need Money 39 Social Movement 645
You Are What You Eat? An Exploration in Cultural Cyberwar and Cyber Defense 663
Relativity 40 Climate Controversy, the Island Nations, and You 668
When Women Become Men: The Sworn Virgins 79 Eco-sabotage 671
Human Sexuality in Cross-Cultural Perspectives 199
Female Circumcision (Genital Cutting) 307
China: Changing Sentiment about the Elderly 374 Sociology and the New
The Child Workers 398
The New Competitor: The Chinese Capitalists 406 Technology
Doing Business in the Global Village 409
How Smart Is Your Clothing? 59
East Is East and West Is West: Love and Arranged Marriage
Avatar Fantasy Life: The Blurring Lines of Reality 155
in India 468
“So, You Want to Be Yourself?” Cloning and the Future of
Killing Little Girls: An Ancient and Thriving Practice 602
Society 156
Why City Slums Are Better Than the Country: Urbanization
Social Networking as the New Contender to Bureaucracies 185
in the Least Industrialized Nations 614
Surfing at Work 191
The Rain Forests: Lost Tribes, Lost Knowledge 670
Welcome to the Memory Hole: Enjoy the Security State 194
Online Dating: Risks and Rewards 464
Thinking Critically What Color Eyes? How Tall? Designer Babies on the
Way 473
Are We Prisoners of Our Genes? 57 Who Should Live, and Who Should Die? The Dilemma of
Doing Controversial Research—Counting the Homeless 142 Rationing Medical Care 573
Are Rapists Sick? A Close-Up View of Research 146 The Coming Star Wars 665
If Hitler Asked You to Execute a Stranger, Would You?
The Milgram Experiment 170
Diversity in the Workplace 193
The Saints and the Roughnecks: Labeling in Everyday
Mass Media in Social Life
Life 207 Lara Croft, Tomb Raider: Changing Images of Women in the
What Should We Do About Repeat Offenders? “Three Strikes” Mass Media 82
Laws 219 “Nothing Tastes as Good as Thin Feels”: Body Images and
Vigilantes: When the State Breaks Down 222 the Mass Media 117
Open Season: Children as Prey 250 Women in Iran: The Times Are Changing, Ever So
When Globalization Comes Home: Maquiladoras South of Slowly 302
the Border 255 The Cultural Lens: Shaping Our Perceptions of the Elderly 375
The Nation’s Shame: Children in Poverty 288 The Propaganda and Profits of War 448
The Coming Three-Tier Society and the Militarization of the School Shootings: Exploding a Myth 516
Police 292 God on the Net: The Online Marketing of Religion 552
Guide to Social Maps
Figure 8.1 How Safe Is Your State? Violent Crime in the United States 213
Figure 8.5 Executions in the United States 220
Figure 9.3 Global Stratification: Income of the World’s Nations 248
Figure 10.9 Patterns of Poverty 286
Figure 11.6 Women in the Workforce 317
Figure 12.6 The Distribution of Dominant and Minority Groups 348
Figure 13.1 The Graying of the Globe 368
Figure 13.6 As Florida Goes, So Goes the Nation 371
Figure 14.3 The Globalization of Capitalism: U.S. Ownership in Other
Countries 416
Figure 14.4 The Globalization of Capitalism: U.S. Workers Who Work for
Foreign-Owned Businesses 416
Figure 15.1 Which Political Party Dominates? 437
Figure 16.14 The “Where” of U.S. Divorce 484
Figure 17.2 Not Making It: Dropping Out of High School 499
Figure 17.3 The Unequal Funding of Education 507
Figure 18.2 U.S. Church Membership: Dominant Religion, by County 537
FIGURE 18.3 The Second Most Popular Religion in the United States, by
State 537
FIGURE 20.12 The World’s 10 Largest Megacities 609
Figure 20.13 How Urban Is Your State? The Rural–Urban Makeup of the
United States 609
Figure 22.2 The Worst Hazardous Waste Sites 667
xviii
To the Student … from the Author
W
ELCOME TO SOCIOLOGY! I’ve loved sociol- We aren’t born with instincts. Nor do we come into this
ogy since I was in my teens, and I hope you enjoy world with preconceived notions of what life should be like.
it, too. Sociology is fascinating because it is about At birth, we have no concepts of race–ethnicity, gender, age,
human behavior, and many of us find that it holds the key to or social class. We have no idea, for example, that people
understanding social life. “ought” to act in certain ways because they are male or fe-
If you like to watch people and try to figure out why they male. Yet we all learn such things as we grow up in our soci-
do what they do, you will like sociology. Sociology pries open ety. Uncovering the “hows” and the “whys” of this process is
the doors of society so you can see what goes on behind them. also part of what makes sociology so fascinating.
Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach stresses how profoundly One of sociology’s many pleasures is that as we study
our society and the groups to which we belong influence us. life in groups (which can be taken as a definition of sociol-
Social class, for example, sets us on a particular path in life. For ogy), whether those groups are in some far-off part of the
some, the path leads to more education, more interesting jobs, world or in some nearby corner of our own society, we gain
higher income, and better health, but for others it leads to drop- new insights into who we are and how we got that way. As
ping out of school, dead-end jobs, poverty, and even a higher we see how their customs affect them, the effects of our own
risk of illness and disease. These paths are so significant that society on us become more visible.
they affect our chances of making it to our first birthday, as well This book, then, can be part of an intellectual adventure,
as of getting in trouble with the police. They even influence our for it can lead you to a new way of looking at your social
satisfaction in marriage, the number of children we will have— world and, in the process, help you to better understand
and whether or not we will read this book in the first place. both society and yourself.
When I took my first course in sociology, I was “hooked.” I wish you the very best in college—and in your career
Seeing how marvelously my life had been affected by these afterward. It is my sincere desire that Sociology: A Down-
larger social influences opened my eyes to a new world, one to-Earth Approach will contribute to that success.
that has been fascinating to explore. I hope that you will have
this experience, too.
From how people become homeless to how they be-
come presidents, from why people commit suicide to why
women are discriminated against in every society around the
world—all are part of sociology. This breadth, in fact, is what James M. Henslin
makes sociology so intriguing. We can place the sociological Department of Sociology
lens on broad features of society, such as social class, gender,
Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville
and race–ethnicity, and then immediately turn our focus on
the smaller, more intimate level. If we look at two people in- P.S. I enjoy communicating with students, so feel free to com-
teracting—whether quarreling or kissing—we see how these ment on your experiences with this text. You can write me at
broad features of society are being played out in their lives. [email protected].
xix
To the Instructor … from the Author
R
EMEMBER WHEN YOU FIRST GOT “HOOKED” In short, this text is designed to make your teaching eas-
on sociology, how the windows of perception opened ier. There simply is no justification for students to have to
as you began to see life-in-society through the socio- wade through cumbersome approaches to sociology. I am
logical perspective? For most of us, this was an eye-opening firmly convinced that the introduction to sociology should
experience. This text is designed to open those windows be enjoyable and that the introductory textbook can be an
onto social life, so students can see clearly the vital effects essential tool in sharing the discovery of sociology with
of group membership on their lives. Although few students students.
will get into what Peter Berger calls “the passion of sociol-
ogy,” we at least can provide them the opportunity.
To study sociology is to embark on a fascinating process
of discovery. We can compare sociology to a huge jigsaw
The Organization of
puzzle. Only gradually do we see how the smaller pieces fit
together. As we begin to see the interconnections, our per-
This Text
The text is laid out in five parts. Part I focuses on the socio-
spective changes as we shift our eyes from the many small,
logical perspective, which is introduced in the first chapter.
disjointed pieces to the whole that is being formed. Of all the
We then look at how culture influences us (Chapter 2), exam-
endeavors we could have entered, we chose sociology be-
ine socialization (Chapter 3), and compare macrosociology
cause of the ways in which it joins the “pieces” of society to-
and microsociology (Chapter 4). After this, we look at how
gether and the challenges it poses to “ordinary” thinking. It
sociologists do research (Chapter 5). Placing research meth-
is our privilege to share with students this process of aware-
ods in the fifth chapter does not follow the usual sequence,
ness and discovery called the sociological perspective.
but doing so allows students to first become immersed in the
As instructors of sociology, we have set ambitious goals
captivating findings of sociology—then, after their interest is
for ourselves: to teach both social structure and social inter-
awakened, they learn how sociologists gather their data. Stu-
action and to introduce students to the sociological litera-
dents respond very well to this approach, but if you prefer
ture—both the classic theorists and contemporary research.
the more traditional order, simply teach this chapter as the
As we accomplish this, we would also like to enliven the
second chapter. No content will be affected.
classroom, encourage critical thinking, and stimulate our
Part II, which focuses on groups and social control, adds
students’ sociological imagination. Although formidable,
to the students’ understanding of how far-reaching society’s
these goals are attainable. This book is designed to help you
influence is—how group membership penetrates even our
reach them. Based on many years of frontline (classroom)
thinking, attitudes, and orientations to life. We first examine
experience, its subtitle, A Down-to-Earth Approach, was not
the different types of groups that have such profound influ-
proposed lightly. My goal is to share the fascination of so-
ences on us and then look at the fascinating area of group
ciology with students and in doing so to make your teach-
dynamics (Chapter 6). We then examine the impact of bu-
ing more rewarding.
reaucracy and formal organizations (Chapter 7). After this,
Over the years, I have found the introductory course es-
we focus on how groups “keep us in line” and sanction those
pecially enjoyable. It is singularly satisfying to see students’
who violate their norms (Chapter 8).
faces light up as they begin to see how separate pieces of
In Part III, we turn our focus on social inequality, exam-
their world fit together. It is a pleasure to watch them gain
ining how it pervades society and how it has an impact on
insight into how their social experiences give shape to even
our own lives. Because social stratification is so significant, I
their innermost desires. This is precisely what this text is de-
have written two chapters on this topic. The first (Chapter 9),
signed to do—to stimulate your students’ sociological imagi-
with its global focus, presents an overview of the principles
nation so they can better perceive how the “pieces” of society
of stratification. The second (Chapter 10), with its emphasis
fit together—and what this means for their own lives.
on social class, focuses on stratification in the United States.
Filled with examples from around the world as well as
After establishing this broader context of social stratifica-
from our own society, this text helps to make today’s multi-
tion, we examine gender, the most global of the inequalities
cultural, global society come alive for students. From learn-
(Chapter 11). Then we focus on inequalities of race–ethnicity
ing how the international elite carve up global markets to
(Chapter 12) and those of age (Chapter 13).
studying the intimacy of friendship and marriage, students
Part IV helps students to become more aware of how
can see how sociology is the key to explaining contemporary
social institutions encompass their lives. We first look at
life—and their own place in it.
xx
To the Instructor … from the Author xxi
economy, the social institution that has become dominant • what applied sociologists do (Chapter 2)
in U.S. society (Chapter 14) and then at politics, our second • how gossip and ridicule enforce adolescent norms
overarching social institution (Chapter 15). We then place the (Chapter 3)
focus on marriage and family (Chapter 16), and education
• how football can help us understand social structure
(Chapter 17). After this, we look at the significance of reli-
(Chapter 4)
gion (Chapter 18) and, finally, that of medicine (Chapter 19).
One of the emphases in this part of the book is how our so- • beauty and success (Chapter 4)
cial institutions are changing and how their changes, in turn, • fraudulent social research (Chapter 5)
have an impact on our own lives. • serial killers (Chapter 8)
With its focus on broad social change, Part V provides an • sexting (Chapter 8)
appropriate conclusion for the book. Here we examine why
• the lifestyles of the super-rich (Chapter 10)
our world is changing so rapidly, as well as catch a glimpse
of what is yet to come. We first analyze trends in population • the American dream and actual social mobility ( Chapter 10)
and urbanization, those sweeping forces that affect our lives • how to get a higher salary by applying sociology (Chapter 11)
so significantly but that ordinarily remain below our level • living in the dorm: contact theory (Chapter 12)
of awareness (Chapter 20). Our focus on collective behavior
• sex in nursing homes (Chapter 13)
and social movements (Chapter 21) and social change and
• women navigating male-dominated corporations
the environment (Chapter 22) takes us to the “cutting edge”
(Chapter 14)
of the vital changes that engulf us all.
• the life of child soldiers (Chapter 15)
• the health benefits of marriage (Chapter 16)
Themes and Features • how to get through college by applying sociology
Six central themes run throughout this text: down-to-earth (Chapter 17)
sociology, globalization, cultural diversity, critical thinking, • terrorism in the name of God (Chapter 18)
the new technology, and the influence of the mass media • the international black market in human body parts
on our lives. For each of these themes, except globalization, (Chapter 19)
which is incorporated throughout the text, I have written a
• biofoods (Chapter 20)
series of boxes. These boxed features are one of my favorite
components of the book. They are especially useful for intro- • mass hysteria (Chapter 21)
ducing the controversial topics that make sociology such a • the coming Star Wars (Chapter 22)
lively activity.
This first theme is actually a hallmark of the text, as
Let’s look at these six themes.
my goal is to make sociology “down to earth.” To help stu-
dents grasp the fascination of sociology, I continuously stress
Down-to-Earth Sociology sociology’s relevance to their lives. To reinforce this theme, I
As many years of teaching have shown me, all too often text- avoid unnecessary jargon and use concise explanations and
books are written to appeal to the adopters of texts rather clear and simple (but not reductive) language. I also use stu-
than to the students who will learn from them. In writing this dent-relevant examples to illustrate key concepts, and I base
book, my central concern has been to present sociology in a several of the chapters’ opening vignettes on my own experi-
way that not only facilitates understanding but also shares ences in exploring social life. That this goal of sharing sociol-
its excitement. During the course of writing other texts, I of- ogy’s fascination is being reached is evident from the many
ten have been told that my explanations and writing style comments I receive from instructors and students alike that
are “down-to-earth,” or accessible and inviting to students— the text helps make sociology “come alive.”
so much so that I chose this phrase as the book’s subtitle.
The term is also featured in my introductory reader, Down- Globalization
to-Earth Sociology: Introductory Readings, to appear in its 15th
In the second theme, globalization, we explore the impact of
edition (New York: The Free Press, 2016).
global issues on our lives and on the lives of people around
This first theme is highlighted by a series of boxed fea-
the world. All of us are feeling the effects of an increasingly
tures that explore sociological processes that underlie every-
powerful and encompassing global economy, one that inter-
day life. The topics that we review in these Down-to-Earth
twines the fates of nations. The globalization of capitalism
Sociology boxes are highly diverse. Here are some of them.
influences the kinds of skills and knowledge we need, the
• the experiences of W.E.B. Du Bois in studying U.S. race types of work available to us—and whether work is avail-
relations (Chapter 1) able at all. Globalization also underlies the costs of the goods
xxii To the Instructor … from the Author
and services we consume and whether our country is at war of people who form the U.S. population. The boxes I have
or peace—or in some uncharted middle ground between the written with this subtheme review such topics as
two, some sort of perpetual war against unseen, sinister, and
• the language of race (Chapter 2)
ever-threatening enemies lurking throughout the world. In
addition to the strong emphasis on global issues that runs • the controversy over the use of Spanish or English
throughout this text, I have written a separate chapter on (Chapter 2)
global stratification (Chapter 9). I also feature global issues in • how the Amish resist social change (Chapter 4)
the chapters on social institutions and the final chapters on • how our social networks produce social inequality
social change: population, urbanization, social movements, (Chapter 6)
and the environment.
• the upward social mobility of African Americans
What occurs in Russia, Germany, and China, as well as
(Chapter 10)
in much smaller nations, such as Afghanistan and Iraq, has
far-reaching consequences on our own lives. Consequently, • how Tiger Woods represents a changing racial–ethnic
in addition to the global focus that runs throughout the text, identity (Chapter 12)
the next theme, cultural diversity, also has a strong global • the author’s travels with a Mexican who transports un-
emphasis. documented workers to the U.S. border (Chapter 12)
• Pentecostalism among Latino immigrants (Chapter 18)
Cultural Diversity around the World • human heads, animal sacrifices, and religious freedom
and in the United States (Chapter 18)
• our shifting racial–ethnic mix (Chapter 20)
The third theme, cultural diversity, has two primary empha-
ses. The first is cultural diversity around the world. Gaining Seeing that there are so many ways of “doing” social life
an understanding of how social life is “done” in other parts can remove some of our cultural smugness, making us more
of the world often challenges our taken-for-granted assump- aware of how arbitrary our own customs are—and how our
tions about social life. At times, when we learn about other taken-for-granted ways of thinking are rooted in culture.
cultures, we gain an appreciation for the life of other peoples; The stimulating contexts of these contrasts can help students
at other times, we may be shocked or even disgusted at some develop their sociological imagination. They encourage stu-
aspect of another group’s way of life (such as female circum- dents to see connections among key sociological concepts,
cision) and come away with a renewed appreciation of our such as culture, socialization, norms, race–ethnicity, gender,
own customs. and social class. As your students’ sociological imagination
To highlight this first subtheme, I have written a series of grows, they can attain a new perspective on their experiences
boxes called Cultural Diversity around the World. Among in their own corners of life—and a better understanding of
the topics with this subtheme are the social structure of U.S. society.
• food customs that shock people from different cultures
(Chapter 2) Critical Thinking
• why the dead need money (Chapter 2) In our fourth theme, critical thinking, we focus on controver-
• where virgins become men (Chapter 3) sial social issues, inviting students to examine various sides
• human sexuality in Mexico and Kenya (Chapter 8) of those issues. In these sections, titled Thinking Critically, I
• how blaming the rape victim protects India’s caste system present objective, fair portrayals of positions and do not take
(Chapter 8) a side—although occasionally I do play the “devil’s advocate”
in the questions that close each of the topics. Like the boxed
• female circumcision (Chapter 11)
features, these sections can enliven your classroom with a vi-
• the life of child workers (Chapter 14) brant exchange of ideas. Among the social issues we tackle are
• China’s new capitalism (Chapter 14)
• whether rapists are sick (Chapter 5)
• the globalization of capitalism (Chapter 14)
• our tendency to conform to authority, even though evil,
• love and arranged marriage in India (Chapter 16) as uncovered by the Milgram experiments (Chapter 6)
• female infanticide in China and India (Chapter 20) • how labeling keeps some people down and helps others
• the destruction of the rain forests and indigenous peoples move up (Chapter 8)
of Brazil (Chapter 22) • how vigilantes fill in when the state breaks down
In the second subtheme, Cultural Diversity in the United (Chapter 8)
States, we examine groups that make up the fascinating array • the three-strikes-and-you’re-out laws (Chapter 8)
To the Instructor … from the Author xxiii
• bounties paid to kill homeless children in Brazil (Chapter 9) • might make social networking the dominant form of
• children in poverty (Chapter 10) social organization (Chapter 7)
• biology versus culture (Chapter 11) • is leading to an overwhelming security state (Chapter 7)
• emerging masculinities and femininities (Chapter 11) • is being used to organize family life (Chapter 16)
• targeted killings (Chapter 15) • is changing the way people find mates (Chapter 16)
• medically assisted suicide (Chapter 19) • is leading to designer babies (Chapter 16)
• abortion as a social movement (Chapter 21) • is changing education through distance learning
(Chapter 17)
• cyberwar and cyber defense (Chapter 22)
• leads to dilemmas of rationing medical care (Chapter 19)
These Thinking Critically sections are based on contro-
versial social issues that either affect the student’s own life or
focus on topics that have intrinsic interest for students. B
ecause The Mass Media and Social Life
of their controversial nature, these sections stimulate both crit- In the sixth theme, we stress how the mass media affect our
ical thinking and lively class discussions. These sections also behavior and permeate our thinking. We consider how the
provide provocative topics for in-class debates and small dis- media penetrate our consciousness to such an extent that
cussion groups, effective ways to enliven a class and present they even influence how we perceive our own bodies. As
sociological ideas. In the Instructor’s Manual, I describe the your students consider this theme, they may begin to grasp
nuts and bolts of using small groups in the classroom, a highly how the mass media shape their attitudes. If so, they will
effective way of engaging students in sociological topics. come to view the mass media in a different light which,
should further stimulate their sociological imagination.
Sociology and the New Technology To make this theme more prominent for students, I have
The fifth theme, sociology and the new technology, explores written a series of boxed features called Mass Media in
an aspect of social life that has come to be central in our lives. Social Life. Among these are
We welcome these new technological tools, for they help us to • the presentation of gender in computer games (Chapter 3)
be more efficient at performing our daily tasks, from making
• the worship of thinness—and how this affects our body
a living to communicating with others—whether those peo-
images (Chapter 4)
ple are nearby or on the other side of the globe. The signif-
icance of our new technology, however, extends far beyond • the issue of censoring high-tech pornography (Chapter 8)
the tools and the ease and efficiency they bring to our lives. • the reemergence of slavery in today’s world (Chapter 9)
The new technology is better envisioned as a social revolution • the slowly changing status of women in Iran (Chapter 11)
that will leave few aspects of our lives untouched. Its effects
• the profits and propaganda of war (Chapter 15)
are so profound that it even changes the ways we view life.
This theme is introduced in Chapter 2, where technol- • God on the Net (Chapter 18)
ogy is defined and presented as a major aspect of culture.
The impact of technology is then discussed throughout the
text. Examples include how technology is related to cultural
What’s New in This Edition?
change (Chapter 2), the control of workers (Chapter 7), the Because sociology is about social life and we live in a chang-
maintenance of global stratification (Chapter 9), social class ing global society, an introductory sociology text must reflect
(Chapter 10), and social inequality in early human history the national and global changes that engulf us, as well as
(Chapter 14). We also look at the impact of technology on represent the new sociological research. An indication of the
dating (Chapter 16), family life (Chapter 16), education thoroughness of incorporating recent sociological research is
(Chapter 17), religion (Chapter 18), medicine (Chapter 19), the text’s hundreds of new citations. This edition of Sociology:
and war (Chapter 22). The final chapter (Chapter 22), “Social A Down-to-Earth Approach also has more than 300 new in-
Change and the Environment,” concludes the book with a structional photos. I have either selected or taken each of the
focus on the effects of technology. photos, which are tied directly into the content of the text.
To highlight this theme, I have written a series of boxes I have designed it so that the photos and their captions are
called Sociology and the New Technology. In these boxes, part of the students’ learning experience.
we explore how technology affects our lives as it changes so- I won’t bother listing the numerous changes that run
ciety. We examine how technology throughout the text. Instead, on the two pages that follow
this Note to the Instructor (pp. xxvi and xxvii) I have listed
• is making our clothing smart (Chapter 2) just the new topics, boxed features, and tables and figures
• blurs the distinction between reality and fantasy that are new in this edition. This gives you the best idea of
(Chapter 6) how extensively this edition is revised.
xxiv To the Instructor … from the Author
Visual Presentations of Sociology portrays the cop coming toward me to question why I was
taking photos of the accident. It fits the sequence perfectly.
Showing Changes over Time In presenting social
data, many of the figures and tables show how data change The Dump People of Phnom Penh, Cambodia
over time. This feature allows students to see trends in Among the culture shocks I experienced in Cambodia was
social life and to make predictions on how these trends not to discover that people scavenge at Phnom Penh’s huge
might c ontinue—and how the trends even affect their own city dump—this I knew about—but that they also live there.
lives. Examples include With the aid of an interpreter, I was able to interview these
people, as well as photograph them as they went about their
• Figure 1.4 U.S. Marriage, U.S. Divorce (Chapter 1) everyday lives. An entire community lives in the city dump,
• Figure 3.2 Transitional Adulthood: A New Stage in Life complete with restaurants amid the smoke and piles of gar-
(Chapter 3) bage. This photo essay reveals not just these people’s activi-
• Figure 8.2 How Much Is Enough? The Explosion in the ties but also their social organization (Chapter 9).
Number of Prisoners (Chapter 8)
Work and Gender: Women at Work in India As
• Figure 10.3 The More Things Change, the More They Stay the I traveled in India, I took photos of women at work in pub-
Same: Dividing the Nation’s Income (Chapter 10) lic places. The more I traveled in this country and the more
• Figure 16.2 In Two-Paycheck Marriages, How Do Husbands photos I took, the more insight I gained into gender relations.
and Wives Divide Their Responsibilities? (Chapter 16) Despite the general dominance of men in India, women’s
• Figure 16.4 The Number of Children Americans Think Are worlds are far from limited to family and home. Women are
Ideal (Chapter 16) found at work throughout the society. What is even more re-
markable is how vastly different “women’s work” is in India
• Figure 16.9 The Decline of Two-Parent Families (Chapter 16)
than it is in the United States. This, too, is an intellectually
• Figure 16.11 Cohabitation in the United States (Chapter 16) provocative photo essay (Chapter 11).
• Figure 17.1 Educational Achievement in the United States
(Chapter 17) Small Town USA: Struggling to Survive To take
the photos for this essay, on a road trip from California to
• Figure 20.11 How the World Is Urbanizing (Chapter 20)
Florida I went off the beaten path. Instead of following the
interstates, I followed those “little black lines” on the map.
Through the Author’s Lens Using this format, stu- They took me to out-of-the-way places that the national
dents are able to look over my shoulder as I experience other transportation system has bypassed. Many of these little
cultures or explore aspects of this one. These eight photo es- towns are putting on a valiant face as they struggle to sur-
says should expand your students’ sociological imagination vive, but, as the photos show, the struggle is apparent, and,
and open their minds to other ways of doing social life, as in some cases, so are the scars (Chapter 14).
well as stimulate thought-provoking class discussions.
Holy Week in Spain, in Chapter 18, features proces-
Vienna: Social Structure and Social Interac-
sions in two cities in Spain: Malaga, a provincial capital, and
tion in a V ibrant City appears in Chapter 4. The
Almuñecar, a smaller city in Granada. The Roman Catho-
photos I took in this city illustrate how social structure sur-
lic heritage of Spain runs so deeply that the La Asunción de
rounds us, setting the scene for our interactions, limiting and
María (The Assumption of Mary) is a national holiday, with
directing them.
the banks and post offices closing. City streets carry such
When a Tornado Strikes: Social Organization names as (translated) Conception, Piety, Humility, Calvary,
Following a Natural Disaster When a tornado hit Crucifixion, The Blessed Virgin. In large and small towns
a small town just hours from where I lived, I photographed throughout Spain, elaborate processions during Holy Week
the aftermath of the disaster. The police let me in to view feature tronos that depict the biblical account of Jesus’ suf-
the neighborhood where the tornado had struck, destroying fering, death, and resurrection. I was allowed to photograph
homes and killing several people. I was impressed by how the preparations for one of the processions, so this essay also
quickly people were putting their lives back together, the includes “behind-the-scenes” photos.
topic of this photo essay (Chapter 4). During the processions, the participants walk slowly for
one or two minutes; then because of the weight of the tronos,
Community in the City, in Chapter 6, is also from
they rest for one or two minutes. This process repeats for
ienna. This sequence of four photos focuses on strangers
V
about six hours. As you will see, some of the most interesting
who are helping a man who has just fallen. This event casts
activities occur during the rest periods.
doubt on the results of Darley and Latane’s laboratory experi-
ments. This short sequence was serendipitous in my research. A Walk Through El Tiro in Medellin, Colombia
One of my favorite photos is the last in the series, which One of the most significant social changes in the world is
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
10, more highly magnified pairing of gametes of different origin; 11, 12,
zygote developing into "A" form. (After Schaudinn.)
Several genera have tests of siliceous or chitinous plates, formed in

the cytoplasm in the neighbourhood of the nucleus, and connected
by chitinous cement. Among these Quadrula (Fig. 10, A) is Lobose,
with square plates, Euglypha (Fig. 8, p. 29), and Paulinella[69] are
Filose, with hexagonal plates. In the latter they are in five longitudinal
rows, with a pentagonal oral plate, perforated by the oval pylome. In
other genera again, such as Cyphoderia (Filosa), the plates are
merely chitinous. Again, the shell may be encrusted with sand-grains
derived directly from without, or from ingested particles, as shown in
Centropyxis, Difflugia (Fig. 10, D), Heleopera, and Campascus when
supplied with powdered glass instead of sand. The cement in
Difflugia is a sort of organic mortar, infiltrated with ferric oxide (more
probably ferric hydrate). In Lecqueureusia spiralis (formerly united
with Difflugia) the test is formed of minute sausage-shaped granules,
in which may be identified the partly dissolved valves of Diatoms
taken as food; it is spirally twisted at the apex, as if it had enlarged
after its first formation, a very rare occurrence in this group. The
most frequent mode of fission in the testaceous Rhizopods (Figs. 8,
10) is what Schaudinn aptly terms "bud-fission," where half the
protoplasm protrudes and accumulates at the mouth of the shell, and
remains till a test has formed for it, while the other half retains the
test of the original animal. The materials for the shell, whether sand-
granules or plates, pass from the depths of the original shell
outwards into the naked cell, and through its cytoplasm to the
surface, where they become connected by cementing matter into a
continuous test. The nucleus now divides into two, one of which
passes into the external animal; after this the two daughter-cells
separate, the one with the old shell, the other, larger, with the new
one.
Fig. 10.—Test-bearing Rhizopods. A, Quadrula symmetrica: B, Hyalosphenia
lata; C, Arcella vulgaris; D, Difflugia pyriformis. (From Lang's Comparative
Anatomy.)
If two individuals of the shelled species undergo bud-fission in close

proximity, the offspring may partially coalesce, so that a monstrous
shell is produced having two pylomes.
Reproduction by fission has been clearly made out in most members

of the group; some of the multinucleate species often abstrict a
portion, sometimes at several points simultaneously, so that fission
here passes into budding[70] (Fig. 9, 2, 6).
Brood-division, either by resolution in the multinucleate species, or

preceded by multiple nuclear division in the habitually 1-nucleate,
though presumably a necessary incident in the life-history of every
species, has only been seen, or at least thoroughly worked out, in a
few cases, where it is usually preceded by encystment, and mostly
by the extrusion into the cyst of any undigested matter.[71]
In Trichosphaerium (Fig. 9) the cycle described by Schaudinn is very

complex, and may be divided into two phases, which we may term
the A and the B subcycles. The members of the A cycle are
distinguished by the gelatinous investment being armed with radial
spicules, which are absent from the B form. The close of the A cycle
is marked by the large multinucleate body resolving itself into
amoeboid zoospores (3), which escape from the gelatinous test, and
develop into the large multinucleate adults of the B form. These, like
the A form, may reproduce by fission or budding. At the term of
growth, however, they retract their pseudopodia, expel the excreta,
and multiply their nuclei by mitosis (7). Then the body is resolved
into minute 2-flagellate microzoospores (8), which are exogamous
gametes, i.e. they will only pair with similar zoospores from another
cyst. The zygote (9-11) resulting from this conjugation is a minute
amoeboid; its nucleus divides repeatedly, a gelatinous test is formed
within which the spicules appear, and so the A form is reconstituted.
In many of the test-bearing forms, whether Lobose or Filose,
plastogamic unions occur, and the two nuclei may remain distinct,
leading to plurinucleate monsters in their offspring by fission, or they
may fuse and form a giant nucleus, a process which has here no
relation to normal syngamy, as it is not associated with any marked
change in the alternation of feeding and fission, etc. In
Trichosphaerium also plastogamic unions between small individuals
have for their only result the increase of size, enabling the produce
to deal with larger prey. Temporary encystment in a "hypnocyst" is
not infrequent in both naked and shelled species, and enables them
to tide over drought and other unfavourable conditions.
Schaudinn has discovered and worked out true syngamic processes,

some bisexual, some exogamous, in several other Rhizopods. In
Chlamydophrys stercorea the pairing-cells are equal, and are formed
by the aggregation of the chromidia into minute nuclei around which
the greater part of the cytoplasm aggregates, while the old nucleus
(with a little cytoplasm) is lost. These brood-cells are 2-flagellate
pairing-cells, which are exogamous: the zygote is a brown cyst; if
this be swallowed by a mammal, the original Chlamydophrys
appears in its faeces.[72]
Centropyxis aculeata, a species very common in mud or moss, allied

to Difflugia, also forms a brood by aggregation around nuclei derived
from chromidia. The brood-cells are amoeboid, and secrete
hemispherical shells like those of Arcella; some first divide into four
smaller ones, before secreting the shell. Pairing takes place between
the large and the small forms; and the zygote encysts. Weeks or
months afterwards the cyst opens and its contents creep out as a
minute Centropyxis. Finally, Amoeba coli produces its zygote in a
way recalling that of Actinosphaerium (pp. 73-75, Fig. 21): the cell
encysts; its nucleus divides, and each daughter divides again into
two, which fuse reciprocally. Thus the cyst contains two zygote
nuclei. After a time each of these divides twice, so that the mature
cyst contains eight nuclei. Probably when swallowed by another
animal they liberate a brood of eight young amoebae. Thus in
different members of this group we have exogamy, both equal and
bisexual, and endogamy.
Most of the Rhizopoda live among filamentous Algae in pools,

ponds, and in shallow seas, etc.; some are "sapropelic" or mud-
dwellers (many species of Amoeba, Pelomyxa, Difflugia, etc.), others
frequent the roots of mosses. Amoeba coli is often found as a
harmless denizen of the large intestine of man. Amoeba histolytica,
lately distinguished therefrom by Schaudinn, is the cause of tropical
dysentery. It multiplies enormously in the gut, and is found extending
into the tissues, and making its way into the abscesses that so
frequently supervene in the liver and other organs. Chlamydophrys
stercorea is found in the faeces of several mammals. The best
monograph of this group is that of Penard.[73]
2. Foraminifera[74]
Sarcodina with no central capsule or distinction of ectosarc; the
pseudopodia fine, branching freely, and fusing where they meet to
form protoplasmic networks, or the outermost in the pelagic forms
radiating, but without a central or axial filament: sometimes
dimorphic, reproducing by fission and by rhizopod or flagellate germs
in the few cases thoroughly investigated: all marine (with the
exception of some of the Allogromidiaceae), and usually provided
with a test of carbonate of lime ("vitreous" calcite, or "porcellanous"
aragonite?), or of cemented particles of sand ("arenaceous"); test-
wall continuous, or with the walls perforated by minute pores or
interstices for the protrusion of pseudopodia.
The classification of Carpenter (into Vitreous or Perforate,

Porcellanous or Imperforate, and Arenaceous), according to the
structure of the shell, had proved too artificial to be used by Brady in
the great Monograph of the Foraminifera collected by the
"Challenger" Expedition,[75] and has been modified by him and
others since then. We reproduce Lister's account of Brady's
classification.[76] We must, however, warn the tyro that its
characterisations are not definitions (a feature of all other recent
systems), for rigid definitions are impossible: here as in the case, for
instance, of many Natural Orders of Plants, transitional forms making
the establishment of absolute boundaries out of the question. In the
following classification we do not think it, therefore, necessary to
complete the characterisations by noting the extremes of variation
within the orders:—
1. Allogromidiaceae: simple forms, often fresh-water and similar to

Rhizopoda; test 0, or chitinous, gelatinous, or formed of cemented particles,
whether secreted platelets or ingested granules. Biomyxa, Leidy =
Gymnophrys, Cienk.; Diaphorodon, Archer; Allogromia, Rhumbl. (= Gromia,
auctt.[77] nec Duj.) (Fig. 14, 1); Lieberkühnia, Cl. and Lachm. (Fig. 12);
Microgromia, R. Hertw. (Fig. 11); Pamphagus, Bailey.
2. Astrorhizidaceae: test arenaceous, often large, never truly chambered, or if
so, asymmetrical. Astrorhiza, Sandahl; Haliphysema, Bowerb.; Saccammina,
M. Sars (Fig. 13, 1); Loftusia, Brady.
3. Lituolidaceae: test arenaceous, often symmetrical or regularly spiral,
isomorphous with calcareous forms: the chambers when old often
"labyrinthine" by the ingrowth of wall-material. Lituola, Lam.; Reophax, Montf.;
Ammodiscus, Reuss; Trochammina, Parker and Jeffreys.
4. Miliolidaceae: test porcellanous, imperforate, spirally coiled or cyclic, often
chambered except in Cornuspira: simple in Squamulina. Cornuspira, Max
Sch.; Peneroplis, Montf.; Miliolina, Lam. (incl. Biloculina (Fig. 15), Triloculina,
Quinqueloculina (Figs. 14, 4; 15, B), Spiroloculina (Fig. 13, 5) of d'Orb.);
Alveolina, d'Orb.; Hauerina, d'Orb.; Calcituba, Roboz; Orbitolites, Lam.;
Orbiculina, Lam.; Alveolina, Park. and Jeffr.; Nubecularia, Def.; Squamulina,
Max Sch. (Fig. 14, 3).
5. Textulariaceae: test calcareous, hyaline, perforated; chambers increasing
in size in two alternating rows, or three, or passing into a spiral. Textularia,
Def.; Bulimina, d'Orb.; Cassidulina, d'Orb.
6. Cheilostomellaceae: test vitreous, delicate, finely perforated, chambered,
isomorphic with the spiral forms of the Miliolidaceae. Cheilostomella, Reuss.
7. Lagenaceae: Test vitreous, very finely perforate, chambers with a distinct
pylome projecting (ectosolenial), or turned in (entosolenial), often succeeding
to form a necklace-like shell. Lagena, Walker and Boys (Fig. 13, 2);
Nodosaria, Lam. (Fig. 13, 3); Cristellaria, Lam.; Frondicularia, Def. (Fig. 13, 4);
Polymorphina, Lam.; Ramulina, Wright.
8. Globigerinidae: test vitreous, perforate; chambers few, dilated, and
arranged in a flat or conical spiral, usually with a crescentic pylome to the
last. Globigerina, d'Orb. (Figs. 13, 6; 16, 2); Hastigerina, Wyv. Thoms.;
Orbulina, d'Orb. (Fig. 16, 1).
9. Rotaliaceae; test vitreous, perforate, usually a conical spiral (like a snail),
chambers often subdivided into chamberlets, and with a proper wall, and
intermediate skeleton traversed by canals. Rotalia, Lam. (Fig. 14, 2);
Planorbulina, d'Orb. (Fig. 13, 9); Polytrema, Risso; Spirillina, Ehr. (non-
septate); Patellina, Will.; Discorbina, P. and J. (Fig. 13, 7).
10. Nummulitaceae: test usually a complex spiral, the turns completely
investing their predecessors: wall finely tubular, often with a proper wall and
intermediate skeleton. Fusulina, Fisch.; Polystomella, Lam.; Nummulites,
d'Orb. (Fig. 13, 11); Orbitoides, d'Orb.
The Allogromidiaceae are a well-marked and distinct order, on the

whole resembling the Rhizopoda Filosa, and are often found with
them in fresh water, while all other Foraminifera are marine. The type
genus, Allogromia (Fig. 14, 1), has an oval chitinous shell.
Microgromia socialis (Fig. 11) is often found in aggregates, the
pseudopodia of neighbours fusing where they meet into a common
network. This is due to the fact that one of the two daughter-cells at
each fission, that does not retain the parent shell, remains in
connexion with its sister that does: sometimes, however, it retracts
its pseudopodia, except two which become flagella, wherewith it can
swim off. The test of Pamphagus is a mere pellicle. In Lieberkühnia
(Fig. 12) it is hardly that; though the body does not give off the fine
pseudopodia directly, but emits a thick process or "stylopodium"[78]
comparable to the protoplasm protruded through the pylome of its
better protected allies; and from this, which often stretches back
parallel to the elongated body, the reticulum of pseudopodia is
emitted. Diaphorodon has a shell recalling that of Difflugia (Fig. 10,
D, p. 55), formed of sandy fragments, but with interstices between
them through which as well as through the two pylomes the
pseudopodia pass. In all of these the shell is formed as in the
Rhizopods once for all, and does not grow afterwards; and the fresh-
water forms, which are the majority, have one or more contractile
vacuoles; in Allogromia they are very numerous, scattered on the
expanded protoplasmic network.
Fig. 11.—Microgromia socialis. A, entire colony; B, single zooid; C, zooid which

has undergone binary fission, with one of the daughter-cells creeping out of
the shell; D, flagellula. c.vac, Contractile vacuole; nu, nucleus; sh, shell.
(From Parker and Haswell, after Hertwig and Lesser.)
Fig. 12.—Lieberkühnia, a fresh-water Rhizopod, from the egg-shaped shell of
which branched pseudopodial filaments protrude. (From Verworn.)
The remaining marine families may all be treated of generally, before

noting their special characters. Their marine habitat is variable, but in
most cases restricted. A few extend up the brackish water of
estuaries: a large number are found between tide-marks, or on the
so-called littoral shelf extending to deep water; they are for the most
part adherent to seaweeds, or lie among sand or on the mud. Other
forms, again, are pelagic, such as Globigerina (Figs. 13, 6, 16, 17)
and its allies, and float as part of the plankton, having the surface of
their shells extended by delicate spines, their pseudopodia long and
radiating, and the outer part of their cytoplasm richly vacuolated
("alveolate"), and probably containing a liquid lighter than sea water,
as in the Radiolaria. Even these, after their death and the decay of
the protoplasm, must sink to the bottom (losing the fine spines by
solution as they fall); and they accumulate there, to form a light oozy
mud, the "Globigerina-ooze" of geographers, at depths where the
carbonic acid under pressure is not adequate to dissolve the more
solid calcareous matter. Grey Chalk is such an ooze, consolidated by
the lapse of time and the pressure of superincumbent layers. Some
Foraminifera live on the sea bottom even at the greatest depths, and
of course their shell is not composed of calcareous matter.
Foraminifera may be obtained for examination by carefully washing
sand or mud, collected on the beach at different levels between tide-
marks, or from dredgings, or by carefully searching the surface of
seaweeds, or by washing their roots, or, again, by the surface or
deep-sea tow-net. The sand used to weight sponges for sale is the
ready source of a large number of forms, and may be obtained for
the asking from the sponge-dealers to whom it is a useless waste
product. If this sand is dried in an oven, and then poured into water,
the empty shells, filled with air, will float to the surface, and may be
sorted by fine silk or wire gauze.
From the resemblance of the shells of many of them to the Nautilus

they were at first described as minute Cephalopods, or Cuttlefish, by
d'Orbigny,[79] and their true nature was only elucidated in the last
century by the labours of Williamson, Carpenter, Dujardin, and Max
Schultze. At first they possess only one nucleus, but in the adult
stage may become plurinucleate without dividing, and this is
especially the case in the "microsphaeric" states exhibited by many
of those with a complex shell; the nucleus is apt to give off fragments
(chromidia) which lie scattered in the cytoplasm. At first, too, in all
cases, the shell has but a single chamber, a state that persists
through life in some. When the number of chambers increases, their
number has no relation to that of the nuclei, which remains much
smaller till brood-formation sets in.
The shell-substance, if calcareous, has one of the two types,

porcellanous or vitreous, that we have already mentioned, but
Polytrema, a form of very irregular shape, though freely perforated,
is of a lovely pink colour. In the calcareous shells sandy particles
may be intercalated, forming a transition to the Arenacea. In these
the cement has an organic base associated with calcareous or
ferruginous matter; in some, however, the cement is a phosphate of
iron. The porcellanous shells are often deep brown by transmitted
light.
Fig. 13.—Shells of Foraminifera. In 3, 4, and 5, a shows the surface view, and b
a section; 8a is a diagram of a coiled cell without supplemental skeleton; 8b
of a similar form with supplemental skeleton (s.sk); and 10 of a form with
overlapping whorls; in 11a half the shell is shown in horizontal section; b is
a vertical section; a, aperture of the shell; 1-15, successive chambers, 1
being always the oldest or initial chamber. (From Parker and Haswell, after
other authors.)
Despite the apparent uniformity of the protoplasmic body in this

group, the shell is infinitely varied in form. As Carpenter writes, in
reference to the Arenacea, "There is nothing more wonderful in
nature than the building up of these elaborate and symmetrical
structures by mere jelly-specks, presenting no traces whatever of
that definite organisation which we are accustomed to regard as
necessary to the manifestations of conscious life.... The tests (shells)
they construct when highly magnified bear comparison with the most
skilful masonry of man. From the same sandy bottom one species
picks up the coarsest quartz grains, unites them together with a
ferruginous cement, and thus constructs a flask-shaped test, having
a short neck and a single large orifice; another picks up the finer
grains and puts them together with the same cement into perfectly
spherical tests of the most extraordinary finish, perforated with
numerous small pores disposed at pretty regular intervals. Another
species selects the minutest sand grains and the terminal portions of
sponge-spicules, and works them up together—apparently with no
cement at all, but by the mere laying of the spicules—into perfect
white spheres like homoeopathic globules, each showing a single-
fissured orifice. And another, which makes a straight, many-
chambered test, the conical mouth of each chamber projecting into
the cavity of the next, while forming the walls of its chambers of
ordinary sand grains rather loosely held together, shapes the conical
mouths of the chambers by firmly cementing together the quartz
grains which border it." The structure of the shell is indeed variable.
The pylome may be single or represented by a row of holes
(Peneroplis, Orbitolites), or, again, there may be several pylomes
(Calcituba); and, again, there are in addition numerous scattered
pores for the protrusion of pseudopodia elsewhere than from the
stylopodium, in the whole of the "Vitrea" and in many "Arenacea";
and, as we shall see, this may exercise a marked influence on the
structure of the shell.
In some cases the shell is simple, and in Cornuspira and Spirillina

increases so as to have the form of a flat coiled tube. In Calcituba
the shell branches irregularly in a dichotomous way, and the older
parts break away as the seaweed on which they grow is eaten away,
and fall to the bottom, while the younger branches go on growing
and branching. The fallen pieces, if they light on living weed, attach
themselves thereto and repeat the original growth; if not, the
protoplasm crawls out and finds a fresh weed and forms a new tube.
In the "Polythalamia" new chambers are formed by the excess of the
protoplasm emerging and surrounding itself with a shell, organically
united with the existing chamber or chambers, and in a space-
relation which follows definite laws characteristic of the species or of
its stage of growth, so as to give rise to circular, spiral, or irregular
complexes (see Fig. 13).
Fig. 14.—Various forms of Foraminifera. In 4, Miliola, a, shows the living animal;
b, the same killed and stained; a, aperture of shell; f, food particles; nu,
nucleus; sh, shell. (From Parker and Haswell, after other authors.)
In most cases the part of the previously existing chamber next the
pylome serves as the hinder part of the new chamber, and the old
pylome becomes the pore of communication. But in some of the
"Perforata" each new chamber forms a complete wall of its own
("proper wall," Fig. 13, 8b), and the space between the two adjacent
walls is filled with an intermediate layer traversed by canals
communicating with the cavities of the chambers ("intermediate
skeleton"), while an external layer of the same character may form a
continuous covering. The shell of the Perforata may be adorned with
pittings or fine spines, which serve to increase the surface of support
in such floating forms as Globigerina, Hastigerina, and the like (Fig.
17). In the "Imperforata" the outer layer is often ornamented with
regular patterns of pits, prominences, etc., which are probably
formed by a thin reflected external layer of protoplasm. In some of
the "Arenacea" a "labyrinthine" complex of laminae is formed.
A very remarkable point which has led to great confusion in the study
of the Foraminifera, is the fact that the shell on which we base our
characters of classification, may vary very much, even within the
same individual. Thus in the genus Orbitolites the first few chambers
of the shell have the character of a Milioline, in Orbiculina of a
Peneroplis. The arrangements of the Milioline shell, known as
Triloculine, Quinqueloculine, and Biloculine respectively, may
succeed one another in the same shell (Figs. 14 4, 15). A shell may
begin as a spiral and end by a straight continuation: again, the
spherical Orbulina (Fig. 16 1) is formed as an investment to a shell
indistinguishable from Globigerina, which is ultimately absorbed. In
some cases, as Rhumbler has pointed out, the more recent and
higher development shows itself in the first formed chambers, while
the later, younger chambers remain at a lowlier stage, as in the case
of the spiral passing into a straight succession; but the other cases
we have cited show that this is not always the case. In Lagena (Fig.
13 2) the pylome is produced into a short tube, which may protrude
from the shell or be turned into it, so that for the latter form the genus
Entosolenia was founded. Shells identical in minute sculpture are,
however, found with either form of neck, and, moreover, the
polythalamial shells (Nodosaria, Fig. 13 3), formed of a nearly
straight succession of Lagena-like chambers, may have these
chambers with their communications on either type. Rhumbler goes
so far as to suggest that all so-called Lagena shells are either the
first formed chamber of a Nodosaria which has not yet become
polythalamian by the formation of younger ones, or are produced by
the separation of an adult Nodosaria into separate chambers.
Fig. 15.—A, Megalospheric; B, microspheric shell of Biloculina. c, The initial
chamber. The microspheric form begins on the Quinqueloculina type. (From
Calkins' Protozoa.)
Many of the chambered species show a remarkable dimorphism, first

noted by Schlumberger, and finally elucidated by J. J. Lister and
Schaudinn. It reveals itself in the size of the initial chamber;
accordingly, the two forms may be distinguished as "microspheric"
and "megalospheric" respectively (Fig. 15), the latter being much the
commoner. The microspheric form has always a plurality of nuclei,
the megalospheric a single one, except at the approach of
reproduction. Chromidial masses are, however, present in both
forms. The life-history has been fully worked out in Polystomella by
Schaudinn, and in great part in Polystomella, Orbitolites, etc., by
Lister; and the same scheme appears to be general in the class, at
least where the dimorphism noted occurs. The microspheric form
gives birth only to the megalospheric, but the latter may reproduce
megalospheric broods, or give rise to swarmers, which by their
(exogamous) conjugation produce the microspheric young. The
microspheric forms early become multinucleate, and have also
numerous chromidia detached from the nuclei, which they ultimately
replace. These collect in the outer part of the shell and aggregate
into new nuclei, around which the cytoplasm concentrates, to
separate into as many amoeboid young "pseudopodiospores" as
there are nuclei. These escape from the shell or are liberated by its
disintegration, and invest themselves with a shell to form the initial
large central chamber or megalosphere.
Fig. 16.—1, Orbulina universa. Highly magnified. 2, Globigerina bulloides. Highly
magnified. (From Wyville Thomson, after d'Orbigny.)
In the ordinary life of the megalospheric form the greater part of the
chromatic matter is aggregated into a nucleus, some still remaining
diffused. At the end of growth the nucleus itself disintegrates, and
the chromidia concentrate into a number of small vesicular nuclei,
each of which appropriates to itself a small surrounding zone of thick
plasm and then divides by mitosis twice; and the 4-nucleate cells so
formed are resolved into as many 1-nucleate, 2-flagellate swarmers,
which conjugate only exogamously.[80] The fusion of their nuclei
takes place after some delay: ultimately the zygote nucleus divides
into two, a shell is formed, and we have the microsphere, which is
thus pluri-nucleate ab initio. As we have seen, the nuclei of the
microsphere are ultimately replaced by chromidia, and the whole
plasmic body divides into pseudopodiospores, which grow into the
megalospheric form.
Fig. 17.—Shell of Globigerina bulloides, from tow-net, showing investment of

spines. (From Wyville Thomson.)
In the Perforate genera, Patellina and Discorbina, plastogamy
precedes brood formation, the cytoplasms of the 2-5 pairing
individuals contracting a close union; and then the nuclei proceed to
break up without fusion, while the cytoplasm aggregates around the
young nuclei to form amoebulae, which acquire a shell and separate.
In both cases it is the forms with a single nucleus, corresponding to
megalospheric forms that so pair, and the brood-formation is, mutatis
mutandis, the same as in these forms. Similar individuals may
reproduce in the same way, in both genera, without this plastogamic
pairing, which is therefore, though probably advantageous, not
essential. If pseudopodiospores form their shells while near one
another, they may coalesce to form monsters, as often happens in
Orbitolites.[81]
The direct economic uses of the Foraminifera are perhaps greater

than those of any other group of Protozoa. The Chalk is composed
largely of Textularia and allied forms, mixed with the skeletons of
Coccolithophoridae (pp. 113-114), known as Coccoliths, etc. The
Calcaire Grossier of Paris, used as a building stone, is mainly
composed of the shells of Miliolines of Eocene age; the Nummulites
of the same age of the Mediterranean basin are the chief constituent
of the stone of which the Pyramids of Egypt are built. Our own Oolitic
limestones are composed of concretions around a central nucleus,
which is often found to be a minute Foraminiferous shell.
The palaeontology of the individual genera is treated of in

Chapman's and Lister's recent works. They range from the Lower
Cambrian characterised by perforated hyaline genera, such as
Lagena, to the present day. Gigantic arenaceous forms, such as
Loftusia, are among the Tertiary representatives; but the limestones
formed principally of their shells commence at the Carboniferous.
The so-called Greensands contain greenish granules of "glauconite,"
containing a ferrous silicate, deposited as a cast in the chambers of
Foraminifera, and often left exposed by the solution of the
calcareous shell itself. Such granules occur in deep-sea deposits of
the present day.[82]
3. Heliozoa
Sarcodina with radiate non-anastomosing pseudopodia of granular
protoplasm, each with a stiff axial rod passing into the body plasma;
no central capsule, nor clear ectoplasm; skeleton when present
siliceous; nucleus single or multiple; contractile vacuole (or vacuoles)
in fresh-water species, superficial and prominent at the surface in
diastole; reproduction by fission or budding in the active condition, or
by brood-formation in a cyst, giving rise to resting spores;
conjugation isogamous in the only two species fully studied; habitat
floating or among weeds, mostly fresh water.
1. Naked or with an investment only when encysted.

Aphrothoraca.—Actinolophus F.E. Sch.; Myxastrum Haeck.;
Gymnosphaera Sassaki; Dimorpha (Fig. 37, 5, p. 112) Gruber;
Actinomonas Kent; Actinophrys Ehrb.; Actinosphaerium St.; Camptonema
Schaud; Nuclearia Cienk.
2. Invested with a gelatinous layer, sometimes traversed by a firmer elastic

network.
Chlamydophora.—Heterophrys Arch.; Mastigophrys Frenzel;
Acanthocystis, Carter.
3. Ectoplasm with distinct siliceous spicules.

Chalarothoraca.—Raphidiophrys Arch.
4. Skeleton a continuous, fenestrated shell, sometimes stalked.

Desmothoraca.—Myriophrys Penard; Clathrulina Cienk.; Orbulinella Entz.
This class were at first regarded and described as fresh-water

Radiolaria, but the differences were too great to escape the greatest
living specialist in this latter group, Ernst Haeckel, who in 1866
created the Heliozoa for their reception. We owe our knowledge of it
mainly to the labours of Cienkowsky, the late William Archer, F. E.
Schulze, R. Hertwig, Lesser, and latterly to Schaudinn, who has
monographed it for the "Tierreich" (1896); and Penard has published
a more recent account.
Fig. 18.—Actinophrys sol. a, Axial filament of pseudopod; c.v, contractile

vacuole; n, nucleus. (From Lang's Comparative Anatomy, after Grenacher.)
Actinophrys sol Ehrb. (Fig. 18) is a good and common type. It owes
its name to its resemblance to a conventional drawing of the sun,
with a spherical body and numerous close-set diverging rays. The
cytoplasm shows a more coarsely vacuolated outer layer, sometimes
called the ectosarc, and a denser internal layer the endosarc. In the
centre of the figure is the large nucleus, to which the continuations of
the rays may be seen to converge; the pseudopodia contain each a
stiffish axial filament,[83] which is covered by the fine granular plasm,
showing currents of the granules. The axial filament disappears
when the pseudopodia are retracted or bent, and is regenerated
afterwards. This bending occurs when a living prey touches and
adheres to a ray, all its neighbours bending in like the tentacles of a
Sundew. The prey is carried down to the surface of the ectoplasm,
and sinks into it with a little water, to form a nutritive vacuole. Fission
is the commonest mode of reproduction, and temporary plastogamic
unions are not uncommon. Arising from these true conjugations
occur, two and two, as described by Schaudinn. A gelatinous cyst
wall forms about the two which are scarcely more than in contact
with their rays withdrawn. Then in each the nucleus divides into two,
one of which passes to the surface, and is lost (as a "polar body"),
while the other approaches the corresponding nucleus of the mate,
and unites with it, while at the same time the cytoplasms fuse. Within
the gelatinous cyst the zygote so formed divides to produce two
sister resting spores, from each of which, after a few days, a young
Actinophrys escapes, as may take place indeed after encystment of
an ordinary form without conjugation.
Fig. 19.—Actinosphaerium eichornii. A, entire animal with two contractile

vacuoles (c.vac); B, a portion much magnified, showing alveolate
cytoplasm, pseudopodia with axial rods, non-nucleate cortex (cort), multiple
nuclei (nu) of endoplasm (med), and food-vacuole (chr). (From Parker and
Haswell.)
The axial rods of the pseudopodia may pass either to the

circumference of the nucleus or to a central granule, corresponding,
it would appear, to a centrosome or blepharoplast; or again, in the
plurinucleate marine genus Camptonema, each rod abuts on a
separate cap on the outer side of each nucleus. The nucleus is
single in all but the genera Actinosphaerium, Myxastrum,
Camptonema, and Gymnosphaera. The movements of this group
are very slow, and are not well understood. A slow rolling over on the
points of the rays has been noted, and in Camptonema they move
very decidedly to effect locomotion, the whole body also moving
Amoeba-fashion; but of the distinct movements of the species when
floating no explanation can be given. The richly vacuolate ectoplasm
undoubtedly helps to sustain the cell, and the extended rays must
subserve the same purpose by so widely extending the surface.
Dimorpha (Fig. 37, 5, p. 112) has the power of swimming by
protruding a pair of long flagella from the neighbourhood of the
eccentric nucleus; and Myriophrys has an investment of long
flagelliform cilia. Actinomonas has a stalk and a single flagellum in
addition to the pseudopodia; these genera form a transition to the
Flagellata.
Several species habitually contain green bodies, which multiply by

bipartition, and are probably Zoochlorellae, Chlamydomonadidae of
the same nature as we shall find in certain Ciliata (pp. 154, 158) in
fresh-water Sponges (see p. 175), in Hydra viridis (p. 256), and the
marine Turbellarian Convoluta (Vol. II. p. 43).
Reproduction by fission is not rare, and in some cases

(Acanthocystis) the cell becomes multinuclear, and buds off 1-
nucleate cells. In such cases the buds at first lack a centrosome, and
a new one is formed first in the nucleus, and passes out into the
cytoplasm. These buds become 2-flagellate before settling down. In
Clathrulina the formation of 2-flagellate zoospores has long been
known (Fig. 20, 3). In Actinosphaerium (Figs. 19, 21), a large
species, differing from Actinophrys only in the presence of numerous
nuclei in its endoplasm, a peculiar process, which we have
characterised as endogamy, results in the formation of resting
spores. The animal retracts its rays and encysts; and the number of
nuclei is much reduced by their mutual fusion, or by the solution of
many of them, or by a combination of the two processes. The body
then breaks up into cells with a single nucleus, and each of these
surrounds itself with a wall to form a cyst of the second order.

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Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach

13th Edition by James M. Henslin

3. Reviewing the Literature 130 Leadership 167

8 Deviance and Social Control 196

9 Global Stratification 228 Strains in the Global System

10 Social Class in the United States 261

What Is Social Class? 263 Gender Inequality in Global Perspective 300

Status Inconsistency 269 Gender Inequality in the United States 308

Education 277 Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking? 320

The Dynamics of Poverty versus the Culture of Poverty

Assimilation 345 Recurring Problems 383

Socialism 403 Contrast with Democratic Systems in Europe 438

Childbirth 470 Education in Global Perspective 498

Dysfunctions of Religion 526 The Conflict Perspective 559

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 557 Treatment or Prevention? 582

20 Population and Urbanization 587 21 Collective Behavior and Social

Alienation in the City 615 Declining Privilege Theory: Protecting Status

Several genera have tests of siliceous or chitinous plates, formed in

If two individuals of the shelled species undergo bud-fission in close

Reproduction by fission has been clearly made out in most members

Brood-division, either by resolution in the multinucleate species, or

In Trichosphaerium (Fig. 9) the cycle described by Schaudinn is very

Schaudinn has discovered and worked out true syngamic processes,

Centropyxis aculeata, a species very common in mud or moss, allied

Most of the Rhizopoda live among filamentous Algae in pools,

The classification of Carpenter (into Vitreous or Perforate,

1. Allogromidiaceae: simple forms, often fresh-water and similar to

The Allogromidiaceae are a well-marked and distinct order, on the

Fig. 11.—Microgromia socialis. A, entire colony; B, single zooid; C, zooid which

The remaining marine families may all be treated of generally, before

From the resemblance of the shells of many of them to the Nautilus

The shell-substance, if calcareous, has one of the two types,

Despite the apparent uniformity of the protoplasmic body in this

In some cases the shell is simple, and in Cornuspira and Spirillina

Many of the chambered species show a remarkable dimorphism, first

Fig. 17.—Shell of Globigerina bulloides, from tow-net, showing investment of

The direct economic uses of the Foraminifera are perhaps greater

The palaeontology of the individual genera is treated of in

1. Naked or with an investment only when encysted.

2. Invested with a gelatinous layer, sometimes traversed by a firmer elastic

3. Ectoplasm with distinct siliceous spicules.

4. Skeleton a continuous, fenestrated shell, sometimes stalked.

This class were at first regarded and described as fresh-water

Fig. 18.—Actinophrys sol. a, Axial filament of pseudopod; c.v, contractile

Fig. 19.—Actinosphaerium eichornii. A, entire animal with two contractile

The axial rods of the pseudopodia may pass either to the

Several species habitually contain green bodies, which multiply by

Reproduction by fission is not rare, and in some cases

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3. Reviewing the Literature 130 Leadership 167

8 Deviance and Social Control 196

9 Global Stratification 228 Strains in the Global System

10 Social Class in the United States 261

What Is Social Class? 263 Gender Inequality in Global Perspective 300

Status Inconsistency 269 Gender Inequality in the United States 308

Education 277 Is the Glass Ceiling Cracking? 320

The Dynamics of Poverty versus the Culture of Poverty

Assimilation 345 Recurring Problems 383

Socialism 403 Contrast with Democratic Systems in Europe 438

Childbirth 470 Education in Global Perspective 498

Dysfunctions of Religion 526 The Conflict Perspective 559

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 557 Treatment or Prevention? 582

20 Population and Urbanization 587 21 Collective Behavior and Social

Alienation in the City 615 Declining Privilege Theory: Protecting Status