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Carpentry & Other
General Construction Trades

BASIC BUILDING &

CONSTRUCTION SKILLS
viii

FOREWORD

This Fifth edition of Basic Building and Construction Skills has been updated to support the
revised General Construction Training Package (CPC08 Construction, Plumbing and Services
Integrated Framework Training Package). The book is also now filled with colour photographs
and illustrations with a totally new format, making it more dynamic and visually appealing. As
with previous editions, this fifth edition continues to address the first eight Units of Competence
(UoC) contained within the Carpentry, Shopfitting and Construction Carpentry qualifications. The
exception being ‘Work Safely in the Construction Industry’ – a compulsory unit in the
qualification Certificate I and Certificate II in Construction. This Unit has been integrated within
Chapters 1, 2 and 4, which reflect the Performance Criteria and Range Statements for this Unit.
Each chapter is based on the relevant competencies providing building trade apprentices,
trainees and school students undertaking VET courses with the materials required to satisfy the
learning to be undertaken.
More than in previous editions, the learning material has a stronger focus on the requirements,
regulations, practices and terminologies used Australia-wide.
Other changes have been:
1 The placement within the text of ‘Student Activities’ allowing for greater connection between
theory and practice
2 The retention of ‘Worksheets’ at the end of each chapter, with amended and updated
questions, in order to be current in today’s changing building industry.
It is furthermore expected that the Worksheets will continue to remain a useful resource for
teachers and trainers in providing formative assessment and feedback on the learner’s
progression.
The main aim of this text has not altered from its original intent. Not only does it bestow a firm
foundation for lifelong learning, but it is still an extremely useful resource for providing learners
with the underpinning knowledge, skills and awareness necessary for conducting practical and
administrative tasks on and off the job. It is anticipated that the outcomes of this learning will lead
to the development of qualified tradespersons who are able to work safely, efficiently and
prolifically in the building and construction industry for many years to come.
Paul Kubisch
Teacher of Carpentry and Joinery
South Western Sydney Institute
TAFE New South Wales
 ix

PREFACE

The Building and Construction industry within Australia provides employment across a wide
range of vocations and services, as well as the infrastructure that enables all sectors of our
community to function. The industry can be divided into three main sectors: residential, non-
residential and engineering (civil) construction. It is one of the most diverse single industries and
contributes a large percentage to Australia’s annual GDP, helping to make this country
competitive on the global stage.
For Australian building and construction enterprises to remain competitive within both the
global and national market place, Australian building and construction companies need well-
trained team members. This means that the vocational education and training (VET) sector
involved in providing high quality and effective training must respond quickly and efficiently to
the ever-changing needs of these enterprises.
This text is a starting point, designed to meet the needs of the latest national training package
(CPC08) by providing information and activities that reflect basic vocational and employability
skills. The knowledge and skills derived from this text will provide a strong foundation for future
learning, and will prepare new construction workers for a long and rewarding career in the
industry.
I wish to thank all the teachers of building and construction who have contributed their time,
knowledge and expertise over many years to ensure this text remains current, and that it provides
the essential underpinning information to enhance the knowledge and skill of workers around the
country in such an important industry.
Edward Hawkins
Teacher – Carpentry, Building and Construction
South Western Sydney Institute
TAFE New South Wales
x

Guide to the text

As you read this text you will find a number of features
in every chapter to enhance your study of carpentry and help
you understand how the theory is applied in the real world.

CHAPTER OPENING FEATURES

A list of key competencies

gives you a clear sense of what
topics and competencies each
chapter will cover, and what
you should be able to do after
reading the chapter.

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS

STUDENT ACTIVITY
COMPLETE WORKSHEET 3
Student activities encourage you to
practically apply the knowledge and Worksheet icons indicate when it is appropriate to
skills that you have just read about. stop reading and complete a worksheet at the end
of the chapter.
 GUIDE TO THE TEXT xi

END OF CHAPTER FEATURES

At the end of each chapter you will find several tools to help review,
practise and extend your knowledge of the key learning outcomes

1 3

1 Chapter summaries highlight the 3 Worksheets help assess your

important concepts covered in each understanding of the theory and
chapter as well as link back to the key concepts in each chapter.
competencies.

2 The references and further reading

sections provide you with a list of each
chapter’s references, as well as links to
important text and web-based resources,
including the Australian Standards
xii

Guide to the online resources

FOR THE INSTRUCTOR

Cengage Learning is pleased to provide you with a selection of

resources that will help you prepare your lectures and assessments.
These teaching tools are accessible via http://login.cengage.com.

SOLUTIONS MANUAL TEST BANK

The Solutions Manual includes solutions to The Test Bank is specifically formatted
end-of-chapter worksheets. for you to create, customise and deliver
tests in minutes for both print and online
applications.

POWERPOINT TM PRESENTATIONS ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

Use the chapter-by-chapter PowerPoint files Add the digital files of graphs, pictures and
to enhance your lecture presentations and flowcharts into your course management
handouts, and to reinforce the key principles system, use them within student handouts or
of your subject. copy them into lecture presentations.

COMPETENCY MAPPING GRID

The downloadable Competency Mapping Grid demonstrates
how the text aligns to the Certificate III in Carpentry.
 GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES xiii

FOR THE STUDENT

Visit http://www.cengagebrain.com and search for this

book to access the bonus study tools available on the
Basic Building and Construction companion website.

The website contains resources for each chapter, including:

• printable PDF worksheets from the text
• glossaries, crosswords and flashcards.
xiv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors and Cengage Learning would like to thank the many reviewers whose incisive
feedback helped shape this new edition.
Edward Hawkins would like to thank the following companies for generously providing access
to their equipment for the new photographs in this edition:
n Coates Hire
n Kennards Hire
n Waverly Forklifts
n ARC Pty Ltd
n Hayters Timber and Paving.

Cengage Learning would like to extend special thanks to Edward Hawkins for his numerous
contributed photos, as well as to Shayne Fagan and Paul Kubisch from South Western Sydney
Institute for their numerous contributions to this exciting new edition.

Every attempt has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright holders. Where the attempt has
been unsuccessful, the publishers welcome information that would redress the situation.
 xv

COLOUR PALETTE FOR TECHNICAL DRAWINGS

Colour name Colour Material
Chrome Yellow Timber (sawn), Timber stud

Cadmium Orange Granite, Natural stones

Fill sand, Brass, Particleboard, Highly moisture resistant particleboard
Yellow Ochre
(Particleboard HMR), Timber boards
Burnt Sienna Timber – Dressed All Round (DAR), Plywood

Vermilion Red Copper pipe

Indian Red Silicone sealant

Light Red Brickwork

Cadmium Red Roof tiles

Crimson Lake Wall and floor tiles

Very Light Mauve Plaster, Closed cell foam

Mauve Marble, Fibrous plasters

Very Light Violet Cake Fibreglass

Violet Cake Plastic

Cerulean Blue Insulation

Cobalt Blue Glass, Water, Liquids

Paynes Grey Hard plaster, Plasterboard

Prussian Blue Metal, Steel, Galvanised iron, Lead flashing

Lime Green Fibre-cement sheets

Terra Verte Cement render, Mortar

Olive Green Concrete block

Emerald Green Terrazzo and artificial stones

Hookers Green Light Grass

Hookers Green Deep Concrete

Raw Umber Fill

Sepia Earth

Van Dyke Brown Rock, Cut stone and masonry, Hardboard

Very Light Raw Umber Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF), Veneered MDF

Very Light Van Dyke Brown Timber mouldings

Light Shaded Grey Aluminium

Neutral Tint Bituminous products, Chrome plate, Alcore

Shaded Grey Tungsten, Tool steel, High-speed steel

Black Polyurethane, Rubber, Carpet

White PVC pipe, Electrical wire, Vapour barrier, Waterproof membrane

xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Typical code of practice – ‘How to safely 1.41 Asbestos removal signage 25
remove asbestos’ (front cover) 5 1.42 Tools not to use on ACM 25
1.2 Construction Induction Card sample as 1.43 Typical SWMS format 27
issued in Victoria (post 1 July 2008) 5 1.44 Evacuation diagram 29
1.3 White Card sample as issued in 1.45 Type B first aid kit 30
Queensland 5 1.46 Stored contents of the kit 31
1.4 White Card sample as issued in New South 1.47 The elements necessary for a fire 31
Wales 6 1.48 Portable fire extinguisher guide 33
1.5 White Card sample as issued in South 1.49 Using a fire extinguisher – PASS 33
Australia 6 1.50 A typical fire blanket packet 34
1.6 Risk matrix diagram 7 1.51 A fire blanket in use 34
1.7 Hazard categories and subgroups 8 1.52 Hose reel 34
1.8 Hierarchy of hazard controls 9 1.53 Sample accident report form 36
1.9 Circular saw fitted with a guard 10 2.1 Home under construction 62
1.10 Safety helmet 11 2.2 Factory unit under construction 63
1.11 Fabric sun brim accessory for a safety cap 2.3 Roadway under construction 63
and bucket hat 12 2.4 Early road-making in Canberra — Keystone
1.12 Clear wide-vision goggles 12 steam shovel with horse and dray 64
1.13 Clear-framed spectacles 12 2.5 Modern-day excavator 64
1.14 Full-face welding mask 12 2.6 Waffle pod slab construction 65
1.15 Face shield 12 2.7 Sydney Harbour Bridge under
1.16 Hearing protection 13 construction 65
1.17 Mini dust mask warning: For nuisance dust 2.8 Melbourne’s Eureka Tower – The tallest
only 13 building in Australia to roof (2006) 66
1.18 P1 and P2 disposable masks 13 2.9 Sydney Opera House – designed by
1.19 Half-face respirator with P2 class dust Danish architect Jørn Utzon and built
filters fitted 14 from 1959 to 1973 66
1.20 Gloves 14 2.10 Concrete being collected for testing 68
1.21 Barrier cream 14 2.11 Work site toilet 72
1.22 Foot protection 15 2.12 Sample evacuation plan 72
1.23 Picture signs – smoking prohibited 15 2.13 Typical Gantt or bar chart for a brick
1.24 Word-only messages 16 veneer cottage on a concrete slab 73
1.25 Combined picture and word signs 16 2.14 Hierarchy chart showing on-site
1.26 Digging prohibited 16 organisation 76
1.27 No pedestrian access 16 2.15 Two working as one 77
1.28 Eye protection must be worn 16 2.16 Toolbox talk record sheet 79
1.29 Hearing protection must be worn 18 2.17 Aspects of sustainability 85
1.30 Fire hazard warning signs 18 2.18 Energy rating label 86
1.31 Toxic hazard 18 2.19 Rainwater tanks 87
1.32 Electric shock hazard 18 2.20 Waste minimisation hierarchy
1.33 Danger signs 18 diagram 87
1.34 First aid 18 2.21 A simple erosion and sediment
1.35 Emergency (safety) eye wash 18 control plan 92
1.36 Fire alarm call point 18 2.22 Sediment fence 92
1.37 Electrical safety signs and tags 19 2.23 Sediment fence 93
1.38 Page 1 of a sample SDS 21 2.24 Stockpiled material 93
1.39 Location of asbestos in a 1970s home 24 2.25 Grass filter strip 93
1.40 PPE that must be worn when removing 3.1 Result of poor planning 108
non-friable asbestos sheeting 24 3.2 Writing down key points 109
 LIST OF FIGURES xvii

3.3 Typical chain wire fence type – Type A 5.13 Example 7: Calculate the area of paving
hoarding 110 for a triangle-shaped courtyard 164
3.4 Plastic water-filled barrier 110 5.14 Example 8: Calculate the total area that
3.5 Board and trestle barricade 111 needs to be painted 165
3.6 Plan, south elevation and north elevation of 5.15 Trapezoid 165
a small shed 111 5.16 Quadrilateral 165
3.7 East elevation and west elevation of 5.17 Irregular polygon 166
a small shed 112 5.18 Polygon 166
3.8 Identify material placement on the site plan 112 5.19 Polygon 166
3.9 Tools required for job 113 5.20 The prism 167
3.10 Transporting tools to and around the site 113 5.21 The cylinder 167
3.11 Double-check details before you start 114 5.22 The cone 168
3.12 A building is like a huge jigsaw puzzle 115 5.23 The pyramid 168
3.13 Example of a Gantt chart 116 5.24 Surface area formulae 168
3.14 Clean the work area daily 116 5.25 Irregular-shaped concrete slab 170
3.15 Clean, maintain and store tools and 5.26 Single skin of brickwork 170
equipment 116 6.1 Plans and specifications 184
3.16 Australia total waste generation by waste 6.2 A typical site or contour plan 184
stream, management and jurisdiction 6.3 Perspective views: (a) 1-point,
(excluding ACT), 2010–11 117 (b) 2-point, (c) 3-point 185
3.17 Good and accurate formwork – resulting 6.4 Pictorial representation 185
in good and accurate concrete finish 119 6.5 Isometric projection 185
3.18 Poor formwork – resulting formwork 6.6 Oblique projection 185
collapses, concrete is wasted 119 6.7 Typical site plan 186
3.19 Preparing the wall frame ready for the 6.8 Typical floor plan 187
brick veneer 119 6.9 Typical details of elevations 187
3.20 Rough-in the services before fitting linings 119 6.10 Typical section taken through kitchen
4.1 Communicating by talking 132 and living/dining areas 188
4.2 Communicating = creating understanding 132 6.11 Slab edge detail 188
4.3 The feedback process 134 6.12 Common reduction scales 188
4.4 The communication process 135 6.13 Examples of dimension lines 189
4.5 Communication using facial expressions 135 6.14 Typical title block showing required
4.6 Communication through body posture 136 information 189
4.7 Mobile phone in use 136 6.15 Symbols for sections in-ground 190
4.8 Communicating by sketching a detail 139 6.16 Symbolic representations of windows for
4.9 Typical team meeting 141 elevations 191
4.10 Typical example of a meeting agenda 142 6.17 Graphics for use on site plans 191
4.11 Typical examples of meeting documents – 6.18 Symbolic representations for floor plans
(i) Formal agenda, (ii) Minutes of the and details 191
meeting 143 6.19 Symbolic representations of fixtures and
4.12 An example of an informal meeting in fittings 192
progress 143 6.20 Symbolic representation of doors for
5.1 Accurate measuring and marking is critical 158 elevation 193
5.2 Select the correct measuring tools 158 6.21 Symbolic representation for sections (a) 193
5.3 A typical scale rule 158 6.22 Symbolic representation for sections (b) 193
5.4 The four-fold rule 159 6.23 Symbolic representations for floor plans
5.5 A typical retractable metal tape 159 and horizontal sections 193
5.6 Open reel and closed-case long tapes 159 6.24 Symbolic representations for floor plans
5.7 A trundle wheel 160 and horizontal sections 193
5.8 A laser distance-measuring device 160 6.25 Site plan 195
5.9 Incorrect measuring technique 161 6.26 Extract from a standard Department of
5.10 Example 1: Fencing an enclosed site 163 Housing specification 196
5.11 Example 2: Find the total linear metres of 6.27 Cavity brick cottage 198
screed boarding for circular paving 163 6.28 Typical detail of a reinforced concrete
5.12 Example 6: Calculate the area of strip footing 199
a gable roof 164 6.29 Slab edge detail in stable soil 199
xviii LIST OF FIGURES

6.30 Typical waffle-pod slab system 199 7.26 Diamond-dust blade wet-cutting brick saw 228
6.31 Slab-on-ground for masonry, veneer and 7.27 Front-end loader – bobcat 228
clad frames 200 7.28 Typical brick barrow 228
6.32 Typical blob/pad footing with a minimum 7.29 Preferred method of stacking bricks
depth of 200 mm 200 on the ground 229
6.33 Vertical section through external walls of 7.30 Materials used for coarse aggregate in
brick veneer and timber-frame construction 201 concrete 230
6.34 Suspended concrete floor with balcony 7.31 Deformed reinforcement bars 230
projection at first floor level 201 7.32 Trench mesh reinforcement 231
6.35 Vertical section through an external timber 7.33 Sheet reinforcement 232
frame wall and timber awning window 202 7.34 Storage of aggregates 232
6.36 Vertical section through an external brick 7.35 Tools and/or equipment used for paint
veneer wall and horizontally sliding application 234
aluminium window 202 7.36 Cleaning and proper storage of brushes 234
6.37 Vertical section through an external 7.37 Some of the many steel products 236
cavity brick wall and timber door jamb 203 7.38 Various tools used to cut steel
6.38 Vertical section through a conventional roof 204 (a) Hacksaw
6.39 Details A and B from Figure 6.38 204 (b) Straight-blade tin snips
7.1 Contemporary residential building, (c) Bolt cutters 236
using a variety of materials 216 7.39 Typical heat loss of an uninsulated brick
7.2 Section through a log 216 veneer cottage in temperate regions of
7.3 Diagram of a cube of hardwood Australia 238
(magnification  250). The pits in the cell 7.40 Setting plasterboard sheets with base
walls have been omitted. 217 coat 239
7.4 Tallowwood tree and timber 217 7.41 Tools used for plasterboard work
7.5 Diagram of a cube of softwood (a) Flat steel trowel (e) Corner tool
(magnification  250). The pits in the (b) Keyhole saw (f) Small tool
cell walls have been omitted. 218 (c) Broad knife (g) Utility knife
7.6 Radiata pine tree and timber 218 (d) Hand sander 239
7.7 Cross-cutting timber with a hand saw 219 7.42 Always handle plasterboard at the edges
7.8 Safe use of a power saw to rip timber 219 to avoid sheet breakage 240
7.9 Wear leather gloves to prevent splinters 220 7.43 Crane lifting trusses 241
7.10 Lift correctly to prevent back injury 220 7.44 All-terrain forklift trucks 242
7.11 Carrying timber safely and comfortably 220 7.45 Rubber-tyred pallet trolley with
7.12 Hiab lifting a sling of timber 220 hydraulic lift 242
7.13 Bowing and bending caused by poorly 7.46 Metal-framed trolley with rubber-tyred
aligned gluts 221 wheels 242
7.14 A sling of framing timber stored out of the 7.47 Correct manual lifting techniques 243
weather 221 8.1 Timber mallet: Mallet head may be made
7.15 Typical plywood composition 222 of brush box and the handle of spotted
7.16 ‘hyJOIST¤’ 222 gum 265
7.17 Correct method for manual cutting of 8.2 Claw hammer: head sizes available from
sheet material 223 225 g to 910 g 265
7.18 Mechanical handling of sheets stacked 8.3 Small Warrington hammer for light
on a pallet 224 nailing 265
7.19 Manual handling of sheet material 224 8.4 Small heavy hammer for masonry work
7.20 Typical forms of modern kiln-fired metric (up to 1.36 kg) 265
bricks 225 8.5 A long handle makes the sledge hammer
7.21 Concrete blocks stacked ready for easier to swing (available in 1.8 kg to
transporting 226 12.7 kg) 265
7.22 Typical stone wall configuration 226 8.6 A selection of chisels that may be used to
7.23 Faux stone wall construction 227 cut into timber 265
7.24 Commonly used joints for brickwork and 8.7 (a) Jointer or try plane, (b) jack plane,
blockwork 227 (c) smoother plane and (d) block plane 266
7.25 Common hand tools used to cut bricks and 8.8 (a) pad saw, (b) tennon saw, (c) panel
masonry 228 saw, (d) crosscut saw and (e) rip saw 266
 LIST OF FIGURES xix

8.9 Round or hexagonal steel shank with 8.44 Reading the bubble of a spirit level 275
specialist ends 266 8.45 Use of a spirit level with a straight edge 275
8.10 Pincers – a useful tool for extracting 8.46 Method of adjustment for a spirit level 276
fasteners 267 8.47 Use of line and surface level 276
8.11 Rule folds out to a straight 1.0 m length 267 8.48 Hydrostatic level in use 277
8.12 Marking gauge being used 267 8.49 A plumb rule in use and different types of
8.13 Utility knife 267 plumb bob 278
8.14 Typical timber plank 267 8.50 An RCD protected portable power board 278
8.15 Typical aluminium planks 268 8.51 Clamped electrical tag 278
8.16 Typical timber saw stool 268 8.52 Circular saw 279
8.17 (a) G clamp, (b) quick action clamp, 8.53 Drop saw 280
(c) sash clamp, (d) spring clamp 268 8.54 Compound mitre saw set to cut a
8.18 Drop-forged single open-end spanner 269 compound mitre cut 280
8.19 Chrome vanadium double open-end 8.55 Cutting action of a jig saw 280
spanner 269 8.56 Jig saw cutting a piece of ply 281
8.20 Podger for scaffolding and formwork centre 8.57 Sabre saw in action 281
adjustments – may be used for levering 269 8.58 Pistol-grip drill with side handle drilling
8.21 Double-end ring spanner 269 steel 281
8.22 Ring and open end combination 269 8.59 Tungsten carbide-tipped drill bit
8.23 Half-moon ring spanner 269 (masonry bit) 282
8.24 Square-drive ratchet handle and socket 269 8.60 Battery-powered impact driver 282
8.25 Adjustable or shifting spanner 269 8.61 Chuck operated with a key 282
8.26 (a) Insulated combination pliers, 8.62 Keyless chuck type 282
(b) insulated diagonal cutters, 8.63 Angle grinder fitted with a guard and disc 283
(c) needle-nose pliers and (d) external 8.64 Belt sander showing main parts 283
straight circlip pliers 270 8.65 Sander actions 283
8.27 Straight-edge blade for general cutting 270 8.66 Typical orbital sander 284
8.28 Jewellers’ snips for curved work 270 8.67 Nails being loaded into nailer 284
8.29 Long handles for leverage with centre 8.68 Compressed air nailer 285
cut jaws for general cutting 270 8.69 Gas nailer, generally referred to as a gas
8.30 Bolster – available with a 65 mm, nail gun 285
100 mm and 110 mm blade 270 8.70 A stripped down indirect acting EPT 285
8.31 Wood float – available in various lengths 8.71 A direct acting EPT 285
and widths 271 8.72 Explosive powered tool danger warning
8.32 Steel float – available in a variety of sign 286
shapes and sizes 271 8.73 Typical builder’s temporary power pole
8.33 Typical section through a reinforced and board 287
water hose 271 8.74 Portable site generator 287
8.34 Putty knife 271 8.75 Trailer-mounted diesel generator 288
8.35 A filling knife and a broad knife 272 8.76 Portable site compressor 288
8.36 Hacking knife 272 8.77 Trailer-mounted site compressor 288
8.37 Shave hooks 272 8.78 Electric demolition hammer with
8.38 Standard-type brush 272 moil point 289
8.39 Roller, roller frame and metal or plastic 8.79 Air breaker used for heavy work 289
tray 273 8.80 Tilting drum mixer 290
8.40 Abrasive papers 273 8.81 Mobile horizontal drum mixer 290
8.41 Hand tools for breaking, cutting and 8.82 Inclined drum mixer with a capacity of
grubbing. (a) Crowbar, (b) Fork, (c) Mattock, up to 8.0 m3 290
(d) Pick, (e) Spade, (f) Long-handled 8.83 Mobile pan mixer with capacities of
round-mouth shovel, (g) Spud bar 273 0.2 m3 to 1.5 m3 291
8.42 Light digging, shovelling, cleaning-out 8.84 Section through the vibrating head of the
and spreading tools. (a) Short-handled poker vibrator 291
square-mouth, (b) Long-handled square- 8.85 Portable immersion vibrator
mouth, (c) Short-handled round-mouth, (petrol-driven) 291
(d) Long-handled round-mouth 274 8.86 Portable immersion vibrator
8.43 Special-purpose digging/shovelling tools 274 (petrol-driven) 292
xx LIST OF FIGURES

8.87 Petrol engine mounted on twin 8.95 Extension ladder 295

screedboards 292 8.96 Step ladder 296
8.88 Standard builder’s barrow 292 8.97 Platform-type step ladder 296
8.89 The ball barrow 293 8.98 Dual-purpose step/extension 296
8.90 The two-wheeled barrow with tilt-forward 8.99 Trestles – used with a plank to create a
tray 293 working platform 296
8.91 Various types of industrial vacuum 8.100 Labelling faulty equipment 298
cleaners 293 8.101 (a) Stiff straw or millet broom,
8.92 Mobile cherry picker work platform for (b) Stiff yard broom of straw or
safe access to difficult locations 294 polypropylene, (c) Broad soft-bristle floor
8.93 Light-weight mobile scaffolding 295 broom of animal hair or polypropylene 299
8.94 Single ladder 295
WORK HEALTH AND SAFETY 1

This chapter covers the outcomes required by the unit of competency ‘Apply WHS
requirements, policies and procedures in the construction industry’. These outcomes are:
n work in a safe manner through identifying and assessing and controlling risks and hazards
n work in a safe manner through identifying, assessing and controlling hazardous materials
n planning and performance of safe work practices with concern for personal safety and the
safety of others.
The term ‘work health and safety (WHS)’, or occupational health and safety (OHS), is
used to describe a broad range of workplace practices covered under federal and state
laws. These aim to improve the standards of workplace health and safety. The ultimate goal
of these practices is to reduce the number of work-related injuries and to bring about a
healthier and safer working environment for everyone.
Building construction workers must be familiar with these workplace practices and
must understand their responsibilities; whether they are workers, employers or persons
conducting a business or undertaking (PCBUs).

1
2 BASIC BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION SKILLS

Work-related injuries In Australia, prior to the implementation of the

model Work Health and Safety Act 2011, each
The Work-related traumatic injury fatalities, state and territory had separate responsibility
Australia 2013 report from Safe Work Australia for making and enforcing laws concerning WHS.
(2014) shows that from 2003 to 2013, 2806 By and large, each principal WHS Act sets out
Australians died while working. This means the requirements for ensuring that workplaces
approximately 255 people died each year from are safe and healthy. These requirements spell
work-related accidents. The construction industry out the duties of different groups of people who
is the third-highest killer after agriculture and play a role in workplace health and safety (see
logistics. Construction accounted for 402 people Table 1.3).
from 2003 to 2013, which is approximately 14 per n South Australia was the first state to introduce
cent of the total number of people killed (Table legislation. In 1972 it introduced the Industrial
1.1). Safety and Welfare Act. In 1986 it enacted the
In addition, almost 1700 persons a day suffer Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Act,
some type of work-related injury, illness or disease. following the general form of Victorian state
The importance of work health and safety (WHS) is legislation. Finally, on 1 January 2013, South
demonstrated by these statistics. Australia adopted the model Work Health and
The prevention of accidents in industry is not Safety Act 2012.
only the concern of experts, but of all workers, n In New South Wales, the Occupational Health
employers and persons conducting a business or and Safety Act was proclaimed in 1983. It was
undertaking (PCBUs). Employees must learn how enacted following the Williams Inquiry into
to work without hurting themselves or health and safety practices in the workplace.
endangering their colleagues. In 1987 major changes were made to that Act.
In 2001, that legislation gave way to the
Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000, No
Origins of modern WHS 40. Later, New South Wales enacted the Work
legislation Health and Safety Act 2011.
n Victoria introduced legislation in 1985 that
To fully understand any piece of legislation, it is became the model for the rest of the country at
important to appreciate the origins and reasons for the time. Far-reaching social and industrial
the law first being introduced. There were five concepts were incorporated into the legislation.
main reasons for the development of WHS laws Victoria currently uses the Occupational Health
and these are outlined in Table 1.2. and Safety Act 2004.

TABLE 1.1 Industry fatalities 2003–2013

Workers killed in the Total workers killed Construction industry as a
YEAR construction industry for the year percentage
2003 43 258 17%
2004 35 284 12%
2005 30 257 12%
2006 43 284 15%
2007 46 311 15%
2008 38 282 13%
2009 36 258 25%
2010 41 228 18%
2011 41 224 18%
2012 30 228 13%
2013 19 191 10%
TOTAL 402 2806 14%
Source: Safe Work Australia, licenced under Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia Licence (CC BY 3.0) ª Commonwealth of Australia 2015
 CHAPTER 1 WORK HEALTH AND SAFETY 3

TABLE 1.2 Five reasons for the development of WHS laws

Self-regulation not working Allowing organisations to regulate their own WHS programs was not working;
at one stage, over 500 people nationally were dying each year due to work-
related accidents, injuries and diseases.
National and overseas legal There were efforts internationally as well as nationally to produce and then
developments update existing WHS legislation, to bring it into line with the twentieth-century
working environment.
Many workers not covered When WHS legislation began only approximately one-third of the workforce
was covered. Today all workers are covered.
Too much legislation Although only one-third of the workforce was covered by any WHS
legislation, at all there were up to 26 different Acts in one state alone relating
to occupational/work health and safety. Enforcement procedures for these
Acts were a legal nightmare.
Cost of compensation Every year billions of dollars were spent on workplace compensation and
rehabilitation for those who had been injured at work. WHS legislation was
introduced in conjunction with worker’s compensation to provide for injured
workers who were unable to work.

n Western Australia introduced the Occupational between the three groups involved – governments,
Health, Safety and Welfare Act in 1984. business and unions – to bring them together to
Currently the Work Health and Safety Bill 2014 create strategies and decide on policy.
is before parliament and this bill will eventually
result in a new Act being created. Regulations, codes of practice and
n Tasmania first introduced legislation in 1977. guidelines
The current Act is the Work Health and Safety Some workplace hazards have the potential to
Act 2012. cause so much injury or disease that specific
n Queensland first introduced legislation in 1989. regulations or codes of practice are warranted.
The current Act is the Work Health and Safety These regulations and codes, adopted under state
Act 2011. and territory WHS Acts, explain the duties of
n Northern Territory first introduced legislation particular groups of people in controlling the risks
in 1989. The current Act is the Work Health associated with specific hazards. Note that:
and Safety Act 2011. n regulations are legally enforceable
n ACT first introduced the Occupational Health n codes of practice and guidelines provide advice
and Safety Act 1989. The current Act is the on how to meet regulatory requirements. As
Work Health and Safety Act 2011. such, codes are not legally enforceable, but
they can be used in courts as evidence that
Current WHS Acts legal requirements have or have not been met.
Today the industrial workplace in Australia is The basic purpose of these codes and
governed by both federal and state legislation, guidelines is to provide workers in any
followed by regulations and then codes of practice industry with practical, common-sense, industry-
(see also Table 1.3). The main piece of legislation acceptable ways by which to work safely.
for all of Australia is the model Work Health and They are now generally written and
Safety Act 2011 (WHS Act). Laws and regulations published by Safe Work Australia as ‘Model
provide a set of minimum standards for the Codes of Practice’. They are adopted by each
protection and the health and safety of workers. state and territory’s regulating authority, and
Codes of practice demonstrate practical methods cover such areas as ‘Managing the risk of falls
for undertaking the work safely. at workplaces’, ‘How to safely remove asbestos’,
Safe Work Australia is the national body that ‘Labelling of workplace hazardous chemicals’,
works to coordinate and develop policy, and ‘Demolition work’ and ‘Excavation work’ just
assists in the implementation of the model Act. to name a few. A typical example is shown
Safe Work Australia seeks to build cooperation in Figure 1.1.
4 BASIC BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION SKILLS

TABLE 1.3 Current state and territory WHS Acts and Regulations
State/ Current WHS Current WHS WHS regulating
territory act regulation authority Website and contact number
WA* Occupational Occupational Safety WorkCover WA Website: http://www.commerce.wa.gov.au/
Safety and and Health WorkSafe/
Health Act Regulations 1996 Contact: 08 9327 8777
1984
VIC* Occupational Occupational WorkSafe Website: http://www.worksafe.vic.gov.au
Health and Health and Safety Victoria Contact: 1800 136 089
Safety Act Regulations 2007
2004
QLD Work Health Work Health and WorkCover Website: http://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/
and Safety Act Safety Regulations Queensland Contact: 1300 362 128
2011 2011
NSW Work Health Work Health and SafeWork NSW Website: http://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/
and Safety Act Safety Regulations Contact: 13 10 50
2011 2011
SA Work Health Work Health and WorkCover SA Website: http://www.workcover.com
and Safety Act Safety Regulations Contact: 13 18 55
2012 2012
TAS Work Health Work Health and WorkCover TAS Website: http://www.workcover.tas.gov.au
and Safety Act Safety Regulations Contact: 1300 366 322
2012 2012
ACT Work Health Work Health and WorkSafe ACT Website: http://www.worksafe.gov.au
and Safety Act Safety Regulations Contact: 02 6207 3000
2011 2011
NT Work Health Work Health and NT WorkSafe Website: http://www.worksafe.nt.gov.au/
and Safety Act Safety Regulations Contact: 1800 019 115
2011 2011
*Western Australia and Victoria have not yet implemented the model Work Health and Safety Act 2011. Western Australia is currently
consulting on options for implementing elements of the model Act.

General construction induction training show the cardholder’s name, the date training was
completed, the number of the registered training
The Work Health and Safety Regulations 2011
organisation (RTO) providing the training, the
(Commonwealth) requires workers to complete
general construction induction training before they jurisdiction in which it was issued and a unique
can carry out construction work. identifying number.
General construction induction training provides As each state/territory provides their own card
basic knowledge of construction work, the WHS laws (see Figures 1.2–1.5), there has been a mutual
that apply, common hazards likely to be encountered agreement between the applicable state and territory
in construction work and how the associated risks can regulating authorities to accept WHS induction
be controlled. cards from other states and territories; as long as the
Source: Comcare, 2015
training meets existing standards for currency.
On completion of a WHS general construction The card should be carried on-site at all times
induction training session, a worker will be issued and produced on demand for inspection.
with a statement that outlines the training they Note: A statement of WHS general construction
have received, identifies the training body, induction training may cease to be valid when a
identifies the training assessor and the date of the person has not carried out construction work for a
assessment. specific consecutive period of time; for example,
Although introducing a nationally consistent two years. This means that if an individual has not
construction induction card has been discussed, carried out construction work for the period
each jurisdiction or state/territory differs and stipulated, they must undergo general
provides their own particular card. All cards must construction induction training again.
 CHAPTER 1 WORK HEALTH AND SAFETY 5

Source: Safe Work Australia, ª Commonwealth of Australia 2015 / CC BY 3.0 AU

STUDENT ACTIVITY 1.1

Group activity – licences

Using the information in Table 1.3, visit the website
of the regulating authority for your state or territory
and search for ‘Code of practice – asbestos’. Using
this document, complete the following three
(3) questions.
1 What type of licence is required to remove
‘any amount of friable and non-friable
asbestos or Asbestos-Containing Material
(ACM)’?

..........................................................................
2 What type of licence is required to remove ‘any
amount of non-friable asbestos ONLY or Asbestos-
Containing Material (ACM)’?

..........................................................................
3 If your state or territory allows: What is
the maximum amount of non-friable asbestos
or associated Asbestos-Containing Material
(ACM) that may be removed without
a licence?
................................................................. m2.

FIGURE 1.1 Typical code of practice – ‘How to safely

remove asbestos’ (front cover)
Source: WorkSafe Victoria

Cardholder Signature:
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
CONSTRUCTION
Work Safe
INDUCTION Victoria
The cardholder is registered under the Occupational Health
VICTORIA

and Safety (OHS) Regulations 2007 to perform construction

work, having completed general OHS induction training for
the construction industry.
Registration No.: DOB:
State Government

Issued: Victoria
Issuing Authoriy WorkSafe Victoria
SAMPLE Issued under the Victorian Occupational Health and Safety Regulations 2007
Report lost or stolen cards, or change of address to WorkSafe. Tel: 1800 136 089 worksafe.vic.gov.au

FIGURE 1.2 Construction Induction Card sample as issued in Victoria (post 1 July 2008)
Source: Workplace Health & Safety Qld

FIGURE 1.3 White Card sample as issued in Queensland

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 The Project Gutenberg eBook of A woman's
wanderings and trials during the Anglo-Boer War
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: A woman's wanderings and trials during the Anglo-Boer

War

Author: Jacoba Elizabeth De la Rey

Translator: Lucy Hotz

Release date: November 22, 2023 [eBook #72195]

Language: English

Original publication: London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1903

Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A WOMAN'S

WANDERINGS AND TRIALS DURING THE ANGLO-BOER WAR ***
A Woman’s Wanderings and
Trials during the Anglo-Boer
War
 TWO GREAT
SOUTH AFRICAN
BOOKS

THE
MEMOIRS OF
PAUL KRUGER,
Four Times
President of the
South African
Republic. Told
by Himself.
Translated by A.
Teixeira de
Mattos. With
Portraits. Two
Volumes. Demy
8vo, cloth gilt,
32s.
THE ANGLO-
BOER WAR.
Edited by
Commandant
Bresler. With
Introductory
Chapters by
Generals De
Wet, Kritzinger,
Fouché, Jean
Joubert, and the
 Rev. J. D.
Kestell. Demy
8vo, cloth. With
30 Maps. 21s.

London: T. FISHER UNWIN

The Wanderers.
 A

WOMAN’S WANDERINGS AND

TRIALS
DURING THE

Anglo-Boer War
BY
Mrs (General) DE LA REY

Translated by Lucy Hotz

ILLUSTRATED

LONDON
T. FISHER UNWIN
Paternoster Square
MDCDIII
All Rights reserved
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
The Wanderers Frontispiece
General De la Rey and His Staff 17
Mrs De la Rey beside Her Waggon 36
“The Picture of My Wandering Life” 63
“Our People” 96
Mesdames Ferreira and Bezuidenhout 134
Four of Mrs De la Rey’s Children, with Two 137
Little Girl Friends
Three of Mrs De la Rey’s Children 139
 A Woman’s Wanderings and Trials
during the Anglo-Boer War

On the 4th of October 1899 my husband left for the western

border. I wondered what would be the outcome for me, and I thought
of the many now leaving, some of whom might never come back.
After a short time my husband returned and spent one day at home,
then he left again on commando.
A few days later I went to pay him a visit. I found that all was going
well, and I met many friends, for the laager was a very big one.
I was in good spirits, but the same day came the order to move to
Kraaipan with 1200 men. This was not very pleasant news for me.
All was soon ready for the start. It was a lovely evening, the moon
shone brightly, and the 1200 horsemen rode out, the cannon
clattering as they went.
I had to spend the night in the laager. Next morning I went home to
wait there anxiously for what was to happen. That day I heard
nothing. Next day there was a report that some prisoners of war had
been brought by train to Kraaipan, and no one on our side was hurt
in this first fight. A day or two later I returned to the laager, which had
been moved some distance farther back.
There I found all of good cheer and courage. The same day an
order came to trek for Kimberley, and I went on for two days with the
laager, in which were many odd sights. When I had to return I felt it
hard that all my people must go so far away. That afternoon it had
been warm near the waggon, and my dear son had taken on himself
to prepare our dinner. We ate it there all together, and Field-Cornet
H. Coetzee, who was with us, said he must learn from my son how
to make such good things to eat. My son had done it very well,
though it was the first time that he had ever tried to act as cook.
We then took up our journey again. It was curious to me to see so
many horsemen. That night I had to return; my husband came a little
way with me and the laager trekked on.
I had now to take leave of my two sons, who were going with the
laager. My heart was torn, for I did not know if I should see them
again.
But time was passing; they had to go on, and I to go back; the
waggons must be inspanned and the horses saddled.
Then I said to my two sons, “Adrian and Jacobus, let your ways be
in the fear of the Lord. If I do not see you again upon earth, let me
find you again in heaven.” And my beloved Adrian, when I said these
words, looked at me.
We went to spend the night at Mr Du Toit’s house, where we had a
welcome rest. Next morning my husband went back to the laager
and I returned home, where I found all well. We kept hearing always
of fighting. The commando trekked to Freiburg, and from there to
Kimberley. I had a telegram saying that my husband had gone to the
Modder River, and I thought of the dangerous work that he had to
do. Then he had to go farther and farther away. News came of the
fight at Rooilaagte; it was terrible to hear how many “khakis” had
been there and how hard our men had had to fight. There were
many from the Lichtenburg district among them, so that everyone
was anxious.
Sunday, the 26th of December, was the nineteenth birthday of my
son Adrian Johannes. When I went to the village in the morning I met
my sisters on their way to church. Then we all began to speak of him
and of how he would fare on his birthday; and we all grew heavy-
hearted.
On Monday we were without news. On Tuesday evening a
telegram came that all was well, which filled me with joy. Yet that
night I sat on my bed, and could not sleep for anxiety and sorrow till I
had earnestly begged of the Lord to make me fit to bear the burden
He should lay upon me, and to let me sleep.
Early next morning I was awake, but the same feeling remained. I
got out of bed quickly and then saw it was going to rain. On going
out it felt pleasant after the rain. Suddenly someone cried out, “There
is Juffrouw Martens.” She came from the village, and my first words
were, “What am I going to hear?” She came through the house and
met me in the backyard with these words, “Nonne,[1] I have sorrowful
tidings. Your husband has sent me a telegram for you, and it says,
‘This morning our dearly-beloved son Adrian passed away in my
arms from a wound received yesterday in a heavy fight, and to-day
we shall lay him in the ground at Jacobsdaal.’”
[1] Nonne. A Dutch-Indian term meaning Mrs or mistress.
It was heartrending for me, but there is comfort to be found at the
feet of Jesus. All Lichtenburg knew him and loved him. I had not only
lost my son, but many had lost their friend.
The Sunday after he died, Dominie Du Toit of Lichtenburg chose
as his text Revelations xxi., verse 7:—“And I will be his God, and he
shall be my son”—and he said that the Lord had more need of him
than we.

“I give him to the goodness of God.

Ransomed by the Saviour
He rises towards Heaven.
All shall contemplate him there
On the beautiful borders of Heaven
By the crystal waters.
 “Yes, my son is gone away
Over the crystal waters.
Saviour, wilt thou receive him
At Thy side for evermore?
Take this son, unto Thee he is given,
Take him in Thy Father’s house;
Some day we shall find each other
Among the jubilant host.

“God said, This son is mine,

Zealous in the work of the Lord.
Barely the space of nineteen years
Did he spend as man upon earth.
Some day I also shall come there
To reign by my Saviour’s might
Unto the last generation.
Thou, my son, naught can harm thee,
Thou hadst to die for the right.

“The Lord is trusty and strong,

E’er long shall He in His might,
Watching the deeds of His people,
Teach them to understand.
Rest on thou Afrikander son;
We shall all one day stand before Jesus,
Zealous in the work of the Lord.”

A fortnight after my son’s death I went to join his father and

brother. After travelling four days I came near the Vaal River. That
morning we heard a terrible roar of cannon; a great fight was taking
place at Maggersfontein. I thought then, “Whose turn shall it be to-
day to give up his life?” When I came to the laager they had already
come out to meet me, but we missed each other. Just then I met my
brother, Jan Greef, and as I had heard nothing more about the death
of my son I asked him to tell me everything. He told me what a great
fight it had been all day, and how my son had been all day in the
thick of the fighting and no hurt had come to him. At sunset he was
walking with his father; suddenly a bomb burst between them. He
asked his father if the bomb had touched him and his father
answered “No.” He said nothing more, but went on 150 steps farther
before he sat down, saying to his father, “The bomb that burst over
there struck me.” Then they saw that a bullet had entered his right
side. They carried him a little way, and placed him in a carriage to
bring him to the hospital. At four o’clock in the morning they reached
Jacobsdaal; they bore him into the hospital, and the doctor said he
would come and take the bullet out after breakfast.
All night he had tasted only a little water; now they brought him
some coffee. He told his father that he must help him to take it; his
father raised him up in bed and he saw that he was near death. He
asked him if he did not want to say anything. His answer was, “Nay,
father, only lay me down.” With these words he drew his last breath.
All was over with our son. This I heard from my brother.
Then my husband returned, and I heard for the first time how he
too had been wounded in the arm, and how very ill he also had been
before I arrived.
From there we went to Maggersfontein and then to the village of
Jacobsdaal. I had so longed to see my son’s grave, but when I came
there I found only a mound of earth. Yet, knowing that his dust was
resting there, it did me good to see it.
Then I went to the hospital. I thought, “If only I could find the
clothes which he was wearing the last day!” They brought me to the
room where the clothes of the dead were lying. His father found the
trousers. We could tell them by the hole that the bullet had made. I
saw the nurse who had looked after him; she said how patient and
contented he had been.
There were many of our wounded lying there.
I went back to Maggersfontein. A little way from it was an empty
house; I went into it as I did not wish to live in the laager. Every
morning we could hear the firing at Maggersfontein.
 Christmas was drawing near. From all sides people sent us
dainties and anything that they thought would give us pleasure. I
used often to go to General Cronje’s laager.
In the beginning of the new year 1900 General De la Rey had to
retire to Colesberg. I went with him to Bloemfontein, and the evening
we arrived there he had to go on to Colesberg. I went back home,
where I found our children safe and well.
Every day we kept hearing of battles. I went on with my work on
the farm, and that made the time pass less slowly. Two months later
I went to Kroonstad and found my husband there. All the week he
had not been well, but he got better quickly and started anew on
commando.
I went home again, and had not been there long when General De
la Rey was sent to Mafeking; but while on his way the siege of
Mafeking was raised.
Then all the commandoes were ordered to Pretoria. My husband
came home on the 23rd of May, and on the 25th of May the march to
Pretoria began. That was a hurried trek, for the enemy were in great
force.
We did not know now what their next movements would be, so the
best thing for me to do was to wait for the coming of the enemy.
Five days after the Boers had left the district the Kaffirs came in
such numbers that they stripped the whole border of cattle, and
acted abominably towards the women and children.
A week after the Boers left Lichtenburg the troops[2] entered the
village. I was then on my farm, which lies a quarter-of-an-hour’s
distance outside.
[2] Troops.—When an Afrikander speaks of “troops” he always
means those of the English, probably from having heard so much
about “troopers.”
Seven horsemen came to my house. I was then in the garden, but
on seeing them I hastened to the house. Four armed men stood
outside; the other three had come in and were turning everything
upside down.
When I was at the door one of them came towards me with the
question, “Whose place is this?”
I answered, “De la Rey’s.”
“The General’s?” he asked.
I said, “Yes.”
Then he told me that I must bring my husband out of the house.
I answered, “You have been inside, why don’t you bring him out
yourself? I cannot do so, because he is on commando.”
“When did he go from here?” he asked me.
“A week since,” I answered.
After asking a few more questions and taking whatever he wanted
he went away.
I went to the village; I could not remain on the farm alone with the
children.
From that moment the troops did whatever they liked. I had two
horses; the Kaffirs had taken all the cattle. I saw now that they were
taking the horses out of the stable and were going to ride away on
them. The hardest thing was that one of the horses had belonged to
my dead son, and I could not bear to part with it. I asked to see
General Hunter, and I told him about the farm and about my horses.
He said he knew nothing about the horses, but would make inquiries.
The next day my two horses were brought back, and I was told that
no damage would be done to the farm; but all the same they did
whatever they liked there, and I had to put a good face upon
everything.
Every day more troops came past, and the only news I could get
from them about my people was that they had driven General De la
Rey into such a tight corner that he would never be able to escape.
 I used to say to them then, “Very well. I hope that when you have
got hold of him you will treat him kindly. Remember, he is only
fighting for his lawful rights and property.”

General De la Rey and his staff.

Then again I heard that no, he had not been taken prisoner. (This
was in June 1902.)
When General De la Rey and his staff were in the east, after they
had been driven out of Pretoria by the superior numbers of the
enemy, the people in the west country had a terrible time. The
women were for the greater part alone on their farms, and their cattle
were at the mercy of the cruel Kaffirs, who used to come and steal
them away, generally at night. They would burst into the houses and
make their way to the women, and tell them that they must have their
money, using such threats and such violence that many a one fled in
the night with her children, and often wandered for hours before she
could find shelter. It was bitter enough for them then; but little could
they think that all this was but a drop in the cup of their suffering.
Many of the burghers returned home on this account to see what
they could do to save their families. Three burghers from this
neighbourhood were killed during the war—Adriaan Mussman,
Adrian De la Rey and Petrus Biel. All three were still young, but they
fought like the bravest for freedom and the right.
Adriaan Mussman was only twenty-two; he did not know the name
of fear. In the thick of a fierce fight he saw that our guns were in
danger. He rushed forward with the others who tried to save them.
Bullets were raining all round him, but nothing could keep him back
but death. He drew his last breath like a brave hero.

“Rude storms may wage round me

And darkness prevail,
God’s grace shall surround me,
His help shall not fail.
How long I may suffer
His love still shines bright,
And leads me through darkness
To live in His light.”

“The darker the night may be, the more do we pant for the
sunshine;
The denser the mist may close, the more do we yearn for
brightness;
The deeper the chasm before me, the more do I sigh for the
plains;
The darker the future may seem, the greater shall be my
redemption.”

As each day drew to a close I was dreading what should happen

on the next.