Original PDF Differential Equations With Boundary Value Problems 9tdownload Original PDF Differential Equations With Boundary Value Problems 9th PDF

(Original PDF) Differential Equations
with Boundary-Value Problems 9th

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/original-pdf-differential-equations-with-boundary-v
alue-problems-9th/
Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Preface
TO THE STuDENT
Authors of books live with the hope that someone actually reads them. Contrary to
what you might believe, almost everything in a typical college-level mathematics text
is written for you and not the instructor. True, the topics covered in the text are chosen
to appeal to instructors because they make the decision on whether to use it in their
classes, but everything written in it is aimed directly at you, the student. So I want
to encourage you—no, actually I want to tell you—to read this textbook! But do not
read this text as you would a novel; you should not read it fast and you should not skip
anything. Think of it as a workbook. By this I mean that mathematics should always
be read with pencil and paper at the ready because, most likely, you will have to work
your way through the examples and the discussion. Before attempting any problems in
the section exercise sets, work through all the examples in that section. The examples
are constructed to illustrate what I consider the most important aspects of the section,
and therefore, reflect the procedures necessary to work most of the problems. When
reading an example, copy it down on a piece of paper and do not look at the solution in
the book. Try working it, then compare your results against the solution given, and, if
necessary resolve any differences. I have tried to include most of the important steps in
each example, but if something is not clear you should always try—and here is where
the pencil and paper come in again—to fill in the details or missing steps. This may not
be easy, but it is part of the learning process. The accumulation of facts followed by
the slow assimilation of understanding simply cannot be achieved without a struggle.
Specifically for you, a Student Resource Manual (SRM) is available as an op-
tional supplement. In addition to containing solutions of selected problems from the
exercises sets, the SRM contains hints for solving problems, extra examples, and a
review of those areas of algebra and calculus that I feel are particularly important
to the successful study of differential equations. Bear in mind you do not have to
purchase the SRM; you can review the appropriate mathematics from your old pre-
calculus or calculus texts.
In conclusion, I wish you good luck and success. I hope you enjoy the text and
the course you are about to embark on—as an undergraduate math major it was one
of my favorites because I liked mathematics that connected with the physical world.
If you have any comments, or if you find any errors as you read/work your way
through the text, or if you come up with a good idea for improving either it or the
SRM, please feel free to contact me through Cengage Learning:
[email protected].
TO THE INSTRuCTOR
In case you are examining this text for the first time, Differential Equations with
Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth Edition, can be used for either a one- or two-
semester course that covers ordinary and partial differential equations. The shorter
version of the text, A First Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applica-
tions, Eleventh Edition, is intended for either a one-semester or one-quarter course
in ordinary differential equations. This text ends with Chapter 9. For a one-semester
course, it is assumed that the students have successfully completed at least two semes-
ters of calculus. Since you are reading this, undoubtedly you have already examined
vii
viii PrefaCe
the table of contents for the topics that are covered. You will not find a “suggested
syllabus” in this preface; I will not pretend to be so wise as to tell other teachers
what to teach. I feel that there is plenty of material here to choose from and to form
a course to your liking. The text strikes a reasonable balance between the analytical,
qualitative, and quantitative approaches to the study of differential equations. As far
as my “underlying philosophy” goes, it is this: An undergraduate text should be writ-
ten with the students’ understanding kept firmly in mind, which means to me that
the material should be presented in a straightforward, readable, and helpful manner,
while keeping the level of theory consistent with the notion of a “first course.”
For those who are familiar with the previous editions, I would like to mention a
few improvements made in this edition.
● Many exercise sets have been updated by the addition of new problems. Some
of these problems involve new and, I think, interesting mathematical models.
● Additional examples, figures, and remarks have been added to many sections.
● Throughout the text I have given a greater emphasis to the concepts of
piecewise-linear differential equations and solutions that involve
nonelementary integrals.
● Appendix A, Integral-Defined Functions, is new to the text.
● The superposition principle has been added to the discussion in Section 12.4,
Wave Equation.
● Section 12.6, Nonhomogeneous Boundary-Value Problems, has been rewritten.
● Modified Bessel functions are given a greater emphasis in Section 13.6, Polar
and Cylindrical Coordinates.
Student Resources
● Student Resource Manual (SRM), prepared by Warren S. Wright and
Roberto Martinez (ISBN 978-1-305-96573-7, accompanies A First Course
in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Eleventh Edition, and
ISBN 978-1-305-96581-2 accompanies Differential Equations with Boundary-
Value Problems, Ninth Edition) provides important review material from
algebra and calculus, the solution of every third problem in each exercise
set (with the exception of the Discussion Problems and Computer Lab
Assignments), relevant command syntax for the computer algebra systems
Mathematica and Maple, and lists of important concepts, as well as helpful
hints on how to start certain problems.
● MindTap for Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth
Edition, is a digital representation of your course that provides you with the tools
you need to better manage your limited time, stay organized, and be successful.
You can complete assignments whenever and wherever you are ready to learn
with course material specially customized for you by your instructor and
streamlined in one proven, easy-to-use interface. With an array of study tools, you
will get a true understanding of course concepts, achieve better grades, and set the
groundwork for your future courses. Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
Instructor Resources
● Instructor’s Solutions Manual (ISM), prepared by Warren S. Wright and Roberto
Martinez, provides complete worked-out solutions for all problems in the text. It is
available through the Instructor Companion website at cengage.com.
● Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online system
that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content, create multiple
test versions in an instant, and deliver tests from your learning management
system (LMS), your classroom, or wherever you want. This is available online
at www.cengage.com/login.
● Turn the light on with MindTap for Differential Equations with Boundary
Value Problems, Ninth Edition. Through personalized paths of dynamic
PrefaCe ix
assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution and

representation of your course.
The Right Content: With MindTap’s carefully curated material, you get the
precise content and groundbreaking tools you need for every course you teach.
Personalization: Customize every element of your course—from
rearranging the Learning Path to inserting videos and activities.
Improved Workflow: Save time when planning lessons with all of the
trusted, most current content you need in one place in MindTap.
Tracking Students’ Progress in Real Time: Promote positive outcomes
by tracking students in real time and tailoring your course as needed based on
the analytics.
Learn more at www.cengage.com/mindtap.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Compiling a mathematics textbook such as this and making sure that its thousands of
symbols and hundreds of equations are accurate is an enormous task, but since I am
called “the author,” that is my job and responsibility. But many people besides myself
have expended enormous amounts of time and energy in working toward its eventual
publication. So I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincerest apprecia-
tion to everyone—most of them unknown to me—at Cengage Learning and at MPS
North America who were involved in the publication of this edition. A special word
of thanks goes to Spencer Arritt, Kathryn Schrumpf, Jennifer Risden, Vernon Boes,
and Jill Traut for their guidance in the labyrinth of the production process.
Finally, over the years, this text has been improved in a countless number of
ways through the suggestions and criticisms of the reviewers. Thus it is fitting to
conclude with an acknowledgement of my debt to the following generous people for
sharing their expertise and experience.
REVIEWERS OF PAST EDITIONS

William Atherton, Cleveland State University
Philip Bacon, University of Florida
Bruce Bayly, University of Arizona
William H. Beyer, University of Akron
R. G. Bradshaw, Clarkson College
Bernard Brooks, Rochester Institute of Technology
Allen Brown, Wabash Valley College
Dean R. Brown, Youngstown State University
David Buchthal, University of Akron
Nguyen P. Cac, University of Iowa
T. Chow, California State University–Sacramento
Dominic P. Clemence, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
Pasquale Condo, University of Massachusetts–Lowell
Vincent Connolly, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Philip S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University
Bruce E. Davis, St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley
Paul W. Davis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Richard A. DiDio, La Salle University
James Draper, University of Florida
James M. Edmondson, Santa Barbara City College
John H. Ellison, Grove City College
Raymond Fabec, Louisiana State University
Donna Farrior, University of Tulsa
Robert E. Fennell, Clemson University
W. E. Fitzgibbon, University of Houston
Harvey J. Fletcher, Brigham Young University
Paul J. Gormley, Villanova
Layachi Hadji, University of Alabama
Ruben Hayrapetyan, Kettering University
x PrefaCe
Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

Zdzislaw Jackiewicz, Arizona State University
S. K. Jain, Ohio University
Anthony J. John, Southeastern Massachusetts University
David C. Johnson, University of Kentucky–Lexington
Harry L. Johnson, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Kenneth R. Johnson, North Dakota State University
Joseph Kazimir, East Los Angeles College
J. Keener, University of Arizona
Steve B. Khlief, Tennessee Technological University
Helmut Knaust, The University of Texas at El Paso
C. J. Knickerbocker, Sensis Corporation
Carlon A. Krantz, Kean College of New Jersey
Thomas G. Kudzma, University of Lowell
Alexandra Kurepa, North Carolina A&T State University
G. E. Latta, University of Virginia
Cecelia Laurie, University of Alabama
Mulatu Lemma, Savannah State University
James R. McKinney, California Polytechnic State University
James L. Meek, University of Arkansas
Gary H. Meisters, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Stephen J. Merrill, Marquette University
Vivien Miller, Mississippi State University
George Moss, Union University
Gerald Mueller, Columbus State Community College
Philip S. Mulry, Colgate University
Martin Nakashima, California State Polytechnic University–Pomona
C. J. Neugebauer, Purdue University
Tyre A. Newton, Washington State University
Brian M. O’Connor, Tennessee Technological University
J. K. Oddson, University of California–Riverside
Carol S. O’Dell, Ohio Northern University
Bruce O’Neill, Milwaukee School of Engineering
A. Peressini, University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
J. Perryman, University of Texas at Arlington
Joseph H. Phillips, Sacramento City College
Jacek Polewczak, California State University Northridge
Nancy J. Poxon, California State University–Sacramento
Robert Pruitt, San Jose State University
K. Rager, Metropolitan State College
F. B. Reis, Northeastern University
Brian Rodrigues, California State Polytechnic University
Tom Roe, South Dakota State University
Kimmo I. Rosenthal, Union College
Barbara Shabell, California Polytechnic State University
Seenith Sivasundaram, Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University
Don E. Soash, Hillsborough Community College
F. W. Stallard, Georgia Institute of Technology
Gregory Stein, The Cooper Union
M. B. Tamburro, Georgia Institute of Technology
Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College
Jianping Zhu, University of Akron
Jan Zijlstra, Middle Tennessee State University
Jay Zimmerman, Towson University
Dennis G. Zill
Los Angeles, CA
Differential Equations
with Boundary-Value Problems
1
Introduction to Differential Equations
Kevin George/Shutterstock.com
1.1 Definitions and Terminology
1.2 Initial-Value Problems
1.3 Differential Equations as Mathematical Models
Chapter 1 in review
T
he words differential and equations suggest solving some kind of
equation that contains derivatives y9, y0, Á . Analogous to a course in
algebra, in which a good amount of time is spent solving equations such
2
as x 1 5x 1 4 5 0 for the unknown number x, in this course one of our tasks
will be to solve differential equations such as y0 1 2y9 1 y 5 0 for an unknown
function y 5 (x). As the course unfolds, you will see there is more to the study of
differential equations than just mastering methods that mathematicians over past
centuries devised to solve them. But first things first. In order to read, study, and be
conversant in a specialized subject you have to learn some of the terminology of that
discipline. This is the thrust of the first two sections of this chapter. In the last section
we briefly examine the link between differential equations and the real world.
1.1 DEFINITIONs aND TERmINOlOgy 3
1.1 Definitions and Terminology

INTRODUCTION The derivative dyydx of a function y 5 (x) is itself another
2
function 9(x) found by an appropriate rule. The exponential function y 5 e0.1x is
differentiable on the interval (2`, `) and by the Chain Rule its first derivative is
2 2
dyydx 5 0.2xe0.1x . If we replace e0.1x on the right-hand side of the last equation by
the symbol y, the derivative becomes
dy
5 0.2xy. (1)
dx
Now imagine that a friend of yours simply hands you equation (1)—you have no idea
how it was constructed—and asks, What is the function represented by the symbol y?
You are now face to face with one of the basic problems in this course:
How do you solve an equation such as (1) for the function y = (x)?
A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

equation. Before proceeding any further, let us consider a more precise definition
of this concept.
DEFINITION 1.1.1 Differential Equation

An equation containing the derivatives of one or more unknown functions (or
dependent variables), with respect to one or more independent variables, is
said to be a differential equation (DE).
To talk about them, we shall classify differential equations according to type, order,
and linearity.
ClAssifiCAtion by type If a differential equation contains only ordinary

derivatives of one or more unknown functions with respect to a single independent
variable, it is said to be an ordinary differential equation (ODE). An equation
involving partial derivatives of one or more unknown functions of two or more inde-
pendent variables is called a partial differential equation (PDE). Our first example
illustrates several of each type of differential equation.
ExamplE 1 Types of Differential Equations

(a) The equations
an ODE can contain more
than one unknown function
p p
dy d 2 y dy dx dy
1 5y 5 e x, 2 1 6y 5 0, and 1 5 2x 1 y (2)
dx dx 2 dx dt dt
are examples of ordinary differential equations.
(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

−2u −2u −2u −2u −u −u −v
1 5 0, 5 2 22 , 52 . (3)
−x2 −y2 −x2 −t −t −y −x
*Except for this introductory section, only ordinary differential equations are considered in A First Course
in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Eleventh Edition. In that text the word equation
and the abbreviation DE refer only to ODEs. Partial differential equations or PDEs are considered in the
expanded volume Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, Ninth Edition.
4 CHapTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIal EqUaTIONs
Notice in the third equation that there are two unknown functions and two indepen-
dent variables in the PDE. This means u and v must be functions of two or more
independent variables. .
notAtion Throughout this text ordinary derivatives will be written by using

either the Leibniz notation dyydx, d 2yydx 2, d 3yydx 3, . . . or the prime notation y9, y0,
y-, . . . . By using the latter notation, the first two differential equations in (2) can be
written a little more compactly as y9 + 5y = e x and y0 − y9 + 6y = 0. Actually, the
prime notation is used to denote only the first three derivatives; the fourth derivative
is written y (4) instead of y00. In general, the nth derivative of y is written d nyydx n or
y (n). Although less convenient to write and to typeset, the Leibniz notation has an
advantage over the prime notation in that it clearly displays both the dependent and
independent variables. For example, in the equation
unknown function
or dependent variable
d 2x
–––2 1 16x 5 0
dt
independent variable
it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable,

whereas the independent variable is t. You should also be aware that in physical
sciences and engineering, Newton’s dot notation (derogatorily referred to by some
as the “flyspeck” notation) is sometimes used to denote derivatives with respect
to time t. Thus the differential equation d 2sydt 2 = −32 becomes s̈ = −32. Partial
derivatives are often denoted by a subscript notation indicating the indepen-
dent variables. For example, with the subscript notation the second equation in (3)
becomes u xx = u tt − 2u t.
ClAssifiCAtion by orDer The order of a differential equation (either ODE

or PDE) is the order of the highest derivative in the equation. For example,
second order first order

d 2y
( )
dy 3
––––2 1 5 ––– 2 4y 5 e x
dx dx
is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

equations in (2) are first-order ODEs, whereas in (3) the first two equations are
second-order PDEs. A first-order ordinary differential equation is sometimes written
in the differential form
M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0.
ExamplE 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

If we assume that y is the dependent variable in a first-order ODE, then recall from
calculus that the differential dy is defined to be dy 5 y9dx.
(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0 is given by
dy dy
y 2 x 1 4x 5 0 or equivalently 4x 1 y 5 x.
dx dx
(b) By multiplying the differential equation

dy
6xy 1 x2 1 y2 5 0
dx
by dx we see that the equation has the alternative differential form
(x2 1 y2) dx 1 6xy dy 5 0. .
In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

dependent variable by the general form
F(x, y, y9, . . . , y(n)) 5 0, (4)
where F is a real-valued function of n + 2 variables: x, y, y9, . . . , y (n). For both
practical and theoretical reasons we shall also make the assumption hereafter that
it is possible to solve an ordinary differential equation in the form (4) uniquely
for the highest derivative y (n) in terms of the remaining n + 1 variables. The dif-
ferential equation
d ny
5 f (x, y, y9, . . . , y (n21)), (5)
dx n
where f is a real-valued continuous function, is referred to as the normal form of (4).
Thus when it suits our purposes, we shall use the normal forms
dy d 2y
5 f (x, y) and 5 f (x, y, y9)
dx dx2
to represent general first- and second-order ordinary differential equations.
ExamplE 3 Normal Form of an ODE

(a) By solving for the derivative dyydx the normal form of the first-order differential
equation
dy dy x 2 y
4x 1 y 5 x is 5 .
dx dx 4x
(b) By solving for the derivative y0 the normal form of the second-order differential
equation
y0 2 y9 1 6 5 0 is y0 5 y9 2 6y. .
ClAssifiCAtion by lineArity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4)

is said to be linear if F is linear in y, y9, . . . , y(n). This means that an nth-order ODE
is linear when (4) is an(x)y(n) + an−1(x)y(n−1) + Á + a1(x)y9 + a0(x)y − g(x) = 0 or
d ny d n21y dy
an(x) n 1 an21(x) 1 Á 1 a1(x) 1 a0 (x)y 5 g(x). (6)
dx dx n21 dx
Two important special cases of (6) are linear first-order (n 5 1) and linear second-
order (n = 2) DEs:
dy d 2y dy
a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x) and a2(x) 2 1 a1(x) 1 a0(x)y 5 g(x). (7)
dx dx dx
In the additive combination on the left-hand side of equation (6) we see that the char-
acteristic two properties of a linear ODE are as follows:
● The dependent variable y and all its derivatives y9, y0, . . . , y (n) are of the
first degree, that is, the power of each term involving y is 1.
● The coefficients a 0, a1, . . . , a n of y, y9, . . . , y (n) depend at most on the
independent variable x.
A nonlinear ordinary differential equation is simply one that is not linear. Nonlinear
functions of the dependent variable or its derivatives, such as sin y or ey9, cannot
appear in a linear equation.
ExamplE 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(a) The equations
d 3y dy
(y 2 x) dx 1 4x dy 5 0, y0 2 2y 1 y 5 0, x3 1x 2 5y 5 ex
dx3 dx
are, in turn, linear first-, second-, and third-order ordinary differential equations. We
have just demonstrated in part (a) of Example 2 that the first equation is linear in the
variable y by writing it in the alternative form 4xy9 + y = x.
(b) The equations
nonlinear term: nonlinear term: nonlinear term:

coefficient depends on y nonlinear function of y power not 1
d 2y d 4y
(1 2 y)y9 1 2y 5 ex, ––––2 1 sin y 5 0, and ––––4 1 y 2 5 0
dx dx
are examples of nonlinear first-, second-, and fourth-order ordinary differential equa-
tions, respectively. .
solutions As was stated on page 2, one of the goals in this course is to solve,
or find solutions of, differential equations. In the next definition we consider the con-
cept of a solution of an ordinary differential equation.
DEFINITION 1.1.2 solution of an ODE

Any function f, defined on an interval I and possessing at least n derivatives
that are continuous on I, which when substituted into an nth-order ordinary
differential equation reduces the equation to an identity, is said to be a solution
of the equation on the interval.
In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

function f that possesses at least n derivatives and for which
F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.
We say that f satisfies the differential equation on I. For our purposes we shall also
assume that a solution f is a real-valued function. In our introductory discussion we
2
saw that y 5 e0.1x is a solution of dyydx = 0.2xy on the interval (−`, `).
Occasionally, it will be convenient to denote a solution by the alternative
symbol y(x).
intervAl of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

equation without simultaneously thinking interval. The interval I in Definition 1.1.2
is variously called the interval of definition, the interval of existence, the interval
of validity, or the domain of the solution and can be an open interval (a, b), a closed
interval [a, b], an infinite interval (a, `), and so on.
ExamplE 5 Verification of a Solution

Verify that the indicated function is a solution of the given differential equation on
the interval (−`, `).
dy 1 4
(a) 5 xy1/2; y 5 16 x (b) y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 0; y 5 xex
dx
sOlUTION One way of verifying that the given function is a solution is to see, after
substituting, whether each side of the equation is the same for every x in the interval.
(a) From
dy 1 1
left { hand side: 5 (4 ? x 3) 5 x 3,
dx 16 4
1 2 114 x 2 5 41 x ,
1/2
1 4
right { hand side: xy1/2 5 x ? x 5x? 2 3
16
we see that each side of the equation is the same for every real number x. Note that
y1/2 5 14 x2 is, by definition, the nonnegative square root of 16
1 4
x.
(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real

number x,
left { hand side: y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 (xe x 1 2e x ) 2 2(xe x 1 e x ) 1 xe x 5 0,

right { hand side: 0. .
Note, too, that each differential equation in Example 5 possesses the constant
solution y 5 0, −` < x < `. A solution of a differential equation that is identically
zero on an interval I is said to be a trivial solution.
y solution Curve The graph of a solution f of an ODE is called a solution

curve. Since f is a differentiable function, it is continuous on its interval I of defini-
tion. Thus there may be a difference between the graph of the function f and the
1 graph of the solution f. Put another way, the domain of the function f need not
be the same as the interval I of definition (or domain) of the solution f. Example 6
x
1 illustrates the difference.
ExamplE 6 Function versus Solution

(a) function y 5 1/x, x ? 0
(a) The domain of y = 1yx, considered simply as a function, is the set of all
y
real numbers x except 0. When we graph y = 1yx, we plot points in the xy-plane
corresponding to a judicious sampling of numbers taken from its domain. The
rational function y = 1yx is discontinuous at 0, and its graph, in a neighborhood
1 of the origin, is given in Figure 1.1.1(a). The function y = 1yx is not differen-
tiable at x = 0, since the y-axis (whose equation is x = 0) is a vertical asymptote
1 x of the graph.
(b) Now y = 1yx is also a solution of the linear first-order differential equation
xy9 + y = 0. (Verify.) But when we say that y = 1yx is a solution of this DE, we
mean that it is a function defined on an interval I on which it is differentiable and
(b) solution y 5 1/x, (0, ∞)
satisfies the equation. In other words, y = 1yx is a solution of the DE on any interval
FIgURE 1.1.1 In Example 6 the function that does not contain 0, such as (−3, −1), _12, 10+, (−`, 0), or (0, `). Because the
y = 1yx is not the same as the solution solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −3 < x < −1 and 12 , x , 10 are simply
y = 1yx segments, or pieces, of the solution curves defined by y = 1yx for −` < x < 0 and
0 < x < `, respectively, it makes sense to take the interval I to be as large as pos-
sible. Thus we take I to be either (−`, 0) or (0, `). The solution curve on (0, `) is
shown in Figure 1.1.1(b). .
expliCit AnD impliCit solutions You should be familiar with the terms
explicit functions and implicit functions from your study of calculus. A solution
in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms of the independent
variable and constants is said to be an explicit solution. For our purposes, let us
think of an explicit solution as an explicit formula y = f(x) that we can manipulate,
evaluate, and differentiate using the standard rules. We have just seen in the last
1 4
two examples that y 5 16 x , y = xex, and y = 1yx are, in turn, explicit solutions
1/2
of dyydx = xy , y0 − 2y9 + y = 0, and xy9 + y = 0. Moreover, the trivial solu-
tion y = 0 is an explicit solution of all three equations. When we get down to the
business of actually solving some ordinary differential equations, you will see that
methods of solution do not always lead directly to an explicit solution y = f(x).
This is particularly true when we attempt to solve nonlinear first-order differential
equations. Often we have to be content with a relation or expression G(x, y) = 0 that
defines a solution f implicitly.
DEFINITION 1.1.3 Implicit solution of an ODE

A relation G(x, y) = 0 is said to be an implicit solution of an ordinary differen-
tial equation (4) on an interval I, provided that there exists at least one function
f that satisfies the relation as well as the differential equation on I.
It is beyond the scope of this course to investigate the conditions under which a
relation G(x, y) = 0 defines a differentiable function f. So we shall assume that if
the formal implementation of a method of solution leads to a relation G(x, y) = 0,
then there exists at least one function f that satisfies both the relation (that is,
G(x, f(x)) = 0) and the differential equation on an interval I. If the implicit solution
G(x, y) = 0 is fairly simple, we may be able to solve for y in terms of x and obtain
one or more explicit solutions. See (iv) in the Remarks.
ExamplE 7 Verification of an Implicit Solution

The relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 is an implicit solution of the differential equation
dy x
52 (8)
dx y
on the open interval (−5, 5). By implicit differentiation we obtain
d 2 d 2 d dy
x 1 y 5 25 or 2x 1 2y 5 0. (9)
dx dx dx dx
Solving the last equation in (9) for the symbol dyydx gives (8). Moreover, solving
x2 + y2 = 25 for y in terms of x yields y 5 6Ï25 2 x2. The two functions
y 5 1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and y 5 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 satisfy the relation (that is,
x2 + 21 = 25 and x2 + 22 = 25) and are explicit solutions defined on the interval
(−5, 5). The solution curves given in Figures 1.1.2(b) and 1.1.2(c) are segments of the
graph of the implicit solution in Figure 1.1.2(a).
y y y
5 5 5
5 5 5
x x x
25
(a) implicit solution (b) explicit solution (c) explicit solution

x 1 y 5 25
2 2 y1 5 Ï25 2 x , 2 5 , x , 5
2
y2 5 2Ï25 2 x 2, 25 , x , 5
FIgURE 1.1.2 An implicit solution and two explicit solutions of (8) in Example 7 .
Because the distinction between an explicit solution and an implicit solution

should be intuitively clear, we will not belabor the issue by always saying, “Here is
an explicit (implicit) solution.”
fAmilies of solutions The study of differential equations is similar to

that of integral calculus. When evaluating an antiderivative or indefinite integral
in calculus, we use a single constant c of integration. Analogously, we shall see
in Chapter 2 that when solving a first-order differential equation F(x, y, y9) 5 0
we usually obtain a solution containing a single constant or parameter c. A solu-
tion of F(x, y, y9) 5 0 containing a constant c is a set of solutions Gsx, y, cd 5 0
called a one-parameter family of solutions. When solving an nth-order differen-
tial equation F(x, y, y9, Á , y(n)) 5 0 we seek an n-parameter family of solutions
G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0. This means that a single differential equation can possess
an infinite number of solutions corresponding to an unlimited number of choices for
the parameter(s). A solution of a differential equation that is free of parameters is
called a particular solution.
The parameters in a family of solutions such as G(x, y, c1, c2, Á , cn) 5 0 are
arbitrary up to a point. For example, proceeding as in (9) a relation x2 1 y2 5 c
y
formally satisfies (8) for any constant c. However, it is understood that the relation
c.0 should always make sense in the real number system; thus, if c 5 225 we cannot say
c50 that x2 1 y2 5 225 is an implicit solution of the differential equation.
x
c,0
ExamplE 8 Particular Solutions
(a) For all real values of c, the one-parameter family y 5 cx 2 x cos x is an explicit
solution of the linear first-order equation
FIgURE 1.1.3 Some solutions of DE in
xy9 2 y 5 x2 sin x
part (a) of Example 8
on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) Figure 1.1.3 shows the graphs of some particular
solutions in this family for various choices of c. The solution y = −x cos x, the blue
y
graph in the figure, is a particular solution corresponding to c = 0.
(b) The two-parameter family y = c1e x + c 2xe x is an explicit solution of the linear
second-order equation
x y0 − 2y9 + y = 0
in part (b) of Example 5. (Verify.) In Figure 1.1.4 we have shown seven of the “dou-
ble infinity” of solutions in the family. The solution curves in red, green, and blue
FIgURE 1.1.4 Some solutions of DE in are the graphs of the particular solutions y = 5xe x (cl = 0, c2 = 5), y = 3e x (cl = 3,
part (b) of Example 8 c2 = 0), and y = 5ex − 2xex (c1 = 5, c2 = 2), respectively. .
Sometimes a differential equation possesses a solution that is not a member of

a family of solutions of the equation—that is, a solution that cannot be obtained by
specializing any of the parameters in the family of solutions. Such an extra solution
1 4
is called a singular solution. For example, we have seen that y 5 16 x and y = 0
1/2
are solutions of the differential equation dyydx = xy on (−`, `). In Section 2.2
we shall demonstrate, by actually solving it, that the differential equation dyydx = xy1/2
2
possesses the one-parameter family of solutions y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ , c $ 0. When c = 0,
1 4
the resulting particular solution is y 5 16 x . But notice that the trivial solution y = 0
2
is a singular solution since it is not a member of the family y 5 _14 x2 1 c+ ; there is
no way of assigning a value to the constant c to obtain y = 0.
In all the preceding examples we used x and y to denote the independent and
dependent variables, respectively. But you should become accustomed to seeing
and working with other symbols to denote these variables. For example, we could
denote the independent variable by t and the dependent variable by x.
ExamplE 9 Using Different Symbols

The functions x = c1 cos 4t and x = c2 sin 4t, where c1 and c2 are arbitrary constants
or parameters, are both solutions of the linear differential equation
x0 1 16x 5 0.
For x = c1 cos 4t the first two derivatives with respect to t are x9 = −4c1 sin 4t
and x0 = −16c1 cos 4t. Substituting x0 and x then gives
x0 1 16x 5 216c1 cos 4t 1 16(c1 cos 4t) 5 0.
In like manner, for x = c 2 sin 4t we have x0 = −16c 2 sin 4t, and so
x0 1 16x 5 216c2 sin 4t 1 16(c2 sin 4t) 5 0.
Finally, it is straightforward to verify that the linear combination of solutions, or the
two-parameter family x = c1 cos 4t + c 2 sin 4t, is also a solution of the differential
equation. .
The next example shows that a solution of a differential equation can be a

y piecewise-defined function.
c51
ExamplE 10 Piecewise-Defined Solution
x
c 5 21 The one-parameter family of quartic monomial functions y = cx 4 is an explicit solu-
tion of the linear first-order equation
xy9 − 4y = 0
(a) two explicit solutions on the interval (−`, `). (Verify.) The blue and red solution curves shown in
Figure 1.1.5(a) are the graphs of y = x4 and y = −x4 and correspond to the choices
y c = 1 and c = −1, respectively.
The piecewise-defined differentiable function
c 5 1,
5
x$0 2x4, x , 0
y5
x x4, x . 0
c 5 21,
x,0 is also a solution of the differential equation but cannot be obtained from the family
y = cx4 by a single choice of c. As seen in Figure 1.1.5(b) the solution is constructed
from the family by choosing c = −1 for x < 0 and c = 1 for x $ 0. .
(b) piecewise-defined solution
FIgURE 1.1.5 Some solutions of DE in systems of DifferentiAl equAtions Up to this point we have been dis-
Example 10 cussing single differential equations containing one unknown function. But often
in theory, as well as in many applications, we must deal with systems of differ-

ential equations. A system of ordinary differential equations is two or more
equations involving the derivatives of two or more unknown functions of a single
independent variable. For example, if x and y denote dependent variables and
t denotes the independent variable, then a system of two first-order differential
equations is given by
dx
5 f (t, x, y)
dt
(10)
dy
5 g(t, x, y).
dt
A solution of a system such as (10) is a pair of differentiable functions x = f 1(t),

y = f 2(t), defined on a common interval I, that satisfy each equation of the system
on this interval.
REmaRks
(i) It might not be apparent whether a first-order ODE written in differential
form M(x, y) dx 1 N(x, y) dy 5 0 is linear or nonlinear because there is
nothing in this form that tells us which symbol denotes the dependent variable.
See Problems 9 and 10 in Exercises 1.1.
(ii) We will see in the chapters that follow that a solution of a differential equa-
tion may involve an integral-defined function. One way of defining a function
F of a single variable x by means of a definite integral is:
# g(t) dt.
x
F(x) 5 (11)
a
If the integrand g in (11) is continuous on an interval [a, b] and a # x # b, then

the derivative form of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states that F is
differentiable on (a, b) and
# g(t) dt 5 g(x)
d x
F9(x) 5 (12)
dx a
The integral in (11) is often nonelementary, that is, an integral of a function g

that does not have an elementary-function antiderivative. Elementary functions
include the familiar functions studied in a typical precalculus course:
constant, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

and inverse trigonometric functions,
as well as rational powers of these functions; finite combinations of these func-
tions using addition, subtraction, multiplication, division; and function com-
2
positions. For example, even though e2t ,Ï1 1 t3, and cos t2 are elementary
2
functions, the integrals ee2t dt, eÏ1 1 t3 dt, and e cos t2 dt are nonelementary.
See Problems 25–28 in Exercises 1.1. Also see Appendix A.
(iii) Although the concept of a solution of a differential equation has been
emphasized in this section, you should be aware that a DE does not necessarily
have to possess a solution. See Problem 43 in Exercises 1.1. The question of
whether a solution exists will be touched on in the next section.
(continued)
(iv) A few last words about implicit solutions of differential equations are in
order. In Example 7 we were able to solve the relation x 2 + y 2 = 25 for y in terms
of x to get two explicit solutions, 1(x) 5 Ï25 2 x2 and 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2,
of the differential equation (8). But don’t read too much into this one example.
Unless it is easy or important or you are instructed to, there is usually no need
to try to solve an implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 for y explicitly in terms of x. Also
do not misinterpret the second sentence following Definition 1.1.3. An implicit
solution G(x, y) = 0 can define a perfectly good differentiable function f that is
a solution of a DE, yet we might not be able to solve G(x, y) = 0 using analyti-
cal methods such as algebra. The solution curve of f may be a segment or piece
of the graph of G(x, y) = 0. See Problems 49 and 50 in Exercises 1.1. Also,
read the discussion following Example 4 in Section 2.2.
(v) It might not seem like a big deal to assume that F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n) ) = 0
can be solved for y (n), but one should be a little bit careful here. There
are exceptions, and there certainly are some problems connected with this
assumption. See Problems 56 and 57 in Exercises 1.1.
(vi) If every solution of an nth-order ODE F(x, y, y9, . . . , y (n)) = 0 on an inter-
val I can be obtained from an n-parameter family G(x, y, c1, c 2, . . . , cn ) = 0 by
appropriate choices of the parameters ci, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we then say that the
family is the general solution of the DE. In solving linear ODEs, we shall im-
pose relatively simple restrictions on the coefficients of the equation; with these
restrictions one can be assured that not only does a solution exist on an interval
but also that a family of solutions yields all possible solutions. Nonlinear ODEs,
with the exception of some first-order equations, are usually difficult or impos-
sible to solve in terms of elementary functions. Furthermore, if we happen to
obtain a family of solutions for a nonlinear equation, it is not obvious whether
this family contains all solutions. On a practical level, then, the designation
“general solution” is applied only to linear ODEs. Don’t be concerned about
this concept at this point, but store the words “general solution” in the back
of your mind —we will come back to this notion in Section 2.3 and again in
Chapter 4.
ExErcIsEs 1.1 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.
In Problems 1 – 8 state the order of the given ordinary differential 7. (sin u)y- − (cos u)y9 = 2
equation. Determine whether the equation is linear or nonlinear by
x?2 ?
matching it with (6).
1. (1 − x)y0 − 4xy9+ 5y = cos x
$
1
8. x 2 1 2
3 2
x1x50
2. x
d 3y
dx 3
2 SD
dy
dx
4
1y50 In Problems 9 and 10 determine whether the given first-order dif-
ferential equation is linear in the indicated dependent variable by
matching it with the first differential equation given in (7).
3. t5y(4) − t 3y0 + 6y = 0
9. (y2 − 1) dx + x dy = 0; in y; in x
d 2u du
4. 2 1 1 u 5 cos(r 1 u) 10. u dv + (v + uv − ueu) du = 0; in v; in u
dr dr
5.
d 2y
dx 2
5 Î 11 1dx2
dy 2
In Problems 11–14 verify that the indicated function is an explicit
solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate
interval I of definition for each solution.
d 2R k
6. 52 2
dt 2
R 11. 2y9 + y = 0; y = e−x/2
1.1 Definitions anD terminology 13
dy 6 6 29. Verify that the piecewise-defined function

12. 1 20y 5 24; y 5 2 e220t
dt 5 5
52xx ,,
2
x,0
3x y5
13. y0 − 6y9 + 13y = 0; y = e cos 2x 2
x$0
14. y0 + y = tan x; y = −(cos x) ln(sec x + tan x) is a solution of the differential equation xy9 − 2y = 0 on
(−`, `).
In Problems 15–18 verify that the indicated function y = f(x) is an 30. In Example 7 we saw that y = f1(x) = Ï25 2 x2 and
explicit solution of the given first-order differential equation. Pro- y 5 2(x) 5 2Ï25 2 x2 are solutions of dyydx = −xyy on the
ceed as in Example 6, by considering f simply as a function and give interval (−5, 5). Explain why the piecewise-defined function
its domain. Then by considering f as a solution of the differential
5Ï2Ï252522x x ,
2
equation, give at least one interval I of definition. 25 , x , 0
y5 2
0#x,5
15. (y 2 x)y9 5 y 2 x 1 8; y 5 x 1 4Ïx 1 2
is not a solution of the differential equation on the interval (−5, 5).
16. y9 = 25 + y2; y = 5 tan 5x
17. y9 = 2xy2; y = 1y(4 − x2) In Problems 31–34 find values of m so that the function y = emx is a
solution of the given differential equation.
18. 2y9 = y3 cos x; y = (1 − sin x)−1/2
31. y9 + 2y = 0 32. 5y9 = 2y
In Problems 19 and 20 verify that the indicated expression is an im- 33. y0 − 5y9 + 6y = 0 34. 2y0 + 7y9 − 4y = 0
plicit solution of the given first-order differential equation. Find at
least one explicit solution y = f(x) in each case. Use a graphing util- In Problems 35 and 36 find values of m so that the function y = xm is
ity to obtain the graph of an explicit solution. Give an interval I of a solution of the given differential equation.
definition of each solution f. 35. xy0 + 2y9 = 0
2X 2 1
1 2
dX 36. x2y0 − 7xy9 + 15y = 0
19. 5 (X 2 1)(1 2 2X); ln 5t
dt X21
In Problems 37–40 use the concept that y = c, −` < x < `, is a
20. 2xy dx + (x2 − y) dy = 0; −2x2y + y2 = 1 constant function if and only if y9 = 0 to determine whether the given
differential equation possesses constant solutions.
In Problems 21–24 verify that the indicated family of functions is a
37. 3xy9 + 5y = 10 38. y9 = y2 + 2y − 3
solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate
interval I of definition for each solution. 39. (y − 1)y9 = 1 40. y0 + 4y9 + 6y = 10
dP c1et In Problems 41 and 42 verify that the indicated pair of functions is a

21. 5 P(1 2 P); P 5 solution of the given system of differential equations on the interval
dt 1 1 c1et
(−`, `).
dy 2
22. 1 4xy 5 8x3; y 5 2x2 2 1 1 c1e22x dx d 2x
dx 41. 5 x 1 3y 42. 5 4y 1 et
dt dt 2
d 2y dy dy d 2y
23. 24 1 4y 5 0; y 5 c1e 2x 1 c2xe 2x 5 5x 1 3y; 5 4 x 2 et;
dx 2 dx dt dt 2
d3y d 2y dy x 5 e22t 1 3e6t, x 5 cos 2t 1 sin 2t 1 15 et,
24. x 3 1 2x 2 2x 1 y 5 12x 2;
dx 3 dx 2 dx y 5 2e22t 1 5e6t y 5 2cos 2t 2 sin 2t 2 15 et
y 5 c1x21 1 c2x 1 c3x ln x 1 4x2

Discussion Problems
In Problems 25–28 use (12) to verify that the indicated function is 43. Make up a differential equation that does not possess any real
a solution of the given differential equation. Assume an appropriate solutions.
interval I of definition of each solution.
44. Make up a differential equation that you feel confident
possesses only the trivial solution y = 0. Explain your
# et
dy x 23t
25. x 2 3xy 5 1; y 5 e3x dt reasoning.
dx 1
45. What function do you know from calculus is such that its first
#
dy x cos t
26. 2x 2 y 5 2x cos x; y 5 Ïx dt derivative is itself? Its first derivative is a constant multiple k of
dx 4 Ït itself? Write each answer in the form of a first-order differential
equation with a solution.
# sint t dt
dy 5 10 x
27. x2 1 xy 5 10 sin x; y 5 1
dx x x 1 46. What function (or functions) do you know from calculus is such
that its second derivative is itself? Its second derivative is the
# e dt
dy 2 2
x
t2 negative of itself? Write each answer in the form of a second-
28. 1 2xy 5 1; y 5 e2x 1 e2x
dx 0 order differential equation with a solution.
47. The function y 5 sin x is an explicit solution of the first-order 57. The normal form (5) of an nth-order differential equation
dy is equivalent to (4) whenever both forms have exactly the
dx Ï
differential equation 5 1 2 y2. Find an interval I of
same solutions. Make up a first-order differential equation
definition. [Hint: I is not the interval (−`, `).] for which F(x, y, y9) = 0 is not equivalent to the normal form
48. Discuss why it makes intuitive sense to presume that the linear dyydx = f (x, y).
differential equation y0 + 2y9 + 4y = 5 sin t has a solution of 58. Find a linear second-order differential equation F(x, y, y9, y0) = 0
the form y = A sin t + B cos t, where A and B are constants. for which y = c1x + c2x2 is a two-parameter family of solutions.
Then find specific constants A and B so that y = A sin t + B cos t Make sure that your equation is free of the arbitrary parameters
is a particular solution of the DE. c1 and c2.
In Problems 49 and 50 the given figure represents the graph Qualitative information about a solution y = f(x) of a
of an implicit solution G(x, y) = 0 of a differential equation differential equation can often be obtained from the equation
dyydx = f (x, y). In each case the relation G(x, y) = 0 implicitly de- itself. Before working Problems 59–62, recall the geometric
fines several solutions of the DE. Carefully reproduce each figure significance of the derivatives dyydx and d2yydx2.
on a piece of paper. Use different colored pencils to mark off seg- 2
ments, or pieces, on each graph that correspond to graphs of so- 59. Consider the differential equation dyydx 5 e2x .
lutions. Keep in mind that a solution f must be a function and (a) Explain why a solution of the DE must be an increasing
differentiable. Use the solution curve to estimate an interval I of function on any interval of the x-axis.
definition of each solution f.
y
(b) What are lim dyydx and lim dyydx? What does this
x S 2` xS`
49. y 50. suggest about a solution curve as x S 6`?
(c) Determine an interval over which a solution curve is
1
concave down and an interval over which the curve is
x concave up.
1
1 (d) Sketch the graph of a solution y = f(x) of the differential
equation whose shape is suggested by parts (a) – (c).
1 x
60. Consider the differential equation dyydx = 5 − y.
FIgURE 1.1.6 Graph for FIgURE 1.1.7 Graph for (a) Either by inspection or by the method suggested in
Problem 49 Problem 50 Problems 37– 40, find a constant solution of the DE.
(b) Using only the differential equation, find intervals on the
51. The graphs of members of the one-parameter family y-axis on which a nonconstant solution y = f(x) is
x3 + y3 = 3cxy are called folia of Descartes. Verify that this increasing. Find intervals on the y-axis on which y = f(x)
family is an implicit solution of the first-order differential is decreasing.
equation 61. Consider the differential equation dyydx = y(a − by), where
dy y( y3 2 2x3) a and b are positive constants.
5 .
dx x(2y3 2 x3)
(a) Either by inspection or by the method suggested in
52. The graph in Figure 1.1.7 is the member of the family of folia in Problems 37– 40, find two constant solutions of the DE.
Problem 51 corresponding to c = 1. Discuss: How can the DE in
(b) Using only the differential equation, find intervals on the
Problem 51 help in finding points on the graph of x3 + y3 = 3xy
y-axis on which a nonconstant solution y = f(x) is increas-
where the tangent line is vertical? How does knowing where
ing. Find intervals on which y = f(x) is decreasing.
a tangent line is vertical help in determining an interval I of
definition of a solution f of the DE? Carry out your ideas (c) Using only the differential equation, explain why
and compare with your estimates of the intervals in Problem 50. y = ay2b is the y-coordinate of a point of inflection of the
graph of a nonconstant solution y = f(x).
53. In Example 7 the largest interval I over which the explicit
solutions y = f1(x) and y = f2(x) are defined is the open (d) On the same coordinate axes, sketch the graphs of the
interval (−5, 5). Why can’t the interval I of definition be the two constant solutions found in part (a). These constant
closed interval [−5, 5]? solutions partition the xy-plane into three regions. In
each region, sketch the graph of a nonconstant solution
54. In Problem 21 a one-parameter family of solutions of the DE
y = f(x) whose shape is suggested by the results in
P9 = P(1 − P) is given. Does any solution curve pass through
parts (b) and (c).
the point (0, 3)? Through the point (0, 1)?
62. Consider the differential equation y9 = y2 + 4.
55. Discuss, and illustrate with examples, how to solve differential
equations of the forms dyydx = f (x) and d 2yydx 2 = f (x). (a) Explain why there exist no constant solutions of the DE.
2 3
56. The differential equation x(y9) − 4y9 − 12x = 0 has the form (b) Describe the graph of a solution y = f(x). For example,
given in (4). Determine whether the equation can be put into the can a solution curve have any relative extrema?
normal form dyydx = f (x, y).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
America it may apply to the students in the graduate school. Some
American colleges have tried the extreme theory of mental and
moral freedom for the college student, and have learned from an
unsatisfactory experience the lesson of a wise conservatism.
The old struggle between science and the humanities still goes on.
We must adopt a view of education which regards the nature of man
and its adaptation to the whole environment, including its historical
element. In a keen analysis of the nature of things we shall not find
Greek and Latin, but we shall find them historically in our language
and literature, and in the generic concepts of our civilization. Hence
they are a necessary part of any extended study of language,
literature, or art.
We do not believe that the practical tendency of American
education will destroy our reverence for what the Germans call the
philosophical faculty in the university. The liberal arts, including pure
science, are the gems of human culture, and are given a high value
even in the imagination of the ignorant. The editor of “The
Cosmopolitan” draws a bold and somewhat original outline for
modern education, and it is in many ways suggestive. But the author
overlooks what every true scholar knows, that thorough scientific
knowledge of principles must remain the fundamental work of
education and the substantial ground of progress in civilization. A
university course may not consist chiefly of lectures upon prudential
maxims, such as all must learn partly from experience. Such a
theory would award the palm, not to Socrates, but to the Sophists.
The truth in all the clamor for practical work in the college is that the
culture studies must be vivified by closer relation to the real world
and to modern life.
Little has been said of what is called the graduate school.
Germany credits us with eleven institutions that have either reached
the standard of a genuine university or are rapidly approaching it. Of
these eleven, five are state universities. This estimate, of course, is
made in accord with the plan and standard of the German university.
It appears certain that in time the name university in America will be
applied only to those institutions which maintain the graduate school
and raise the dignity of the professional schools. The university
system will develop freely in this country only after a somewhat
important reorganization of our higher education. The line must be
drawn more sharply between foundation education and university
work, the whole period of education must be somewhat shortened,
and, in most of our universities, the graduate faculty must be
strengthened. That these changes will be wrought, and that we shall
have a rapid development of the genuine university is certain. Much
is to be expected from our higher scholarship in many lines of
investigation. In America, men are solving problems the existence of
which has only been dimly conceived by the masses of people in the
Old World. Inspired by our advanced conceptions of government and
society, and by the free, inventive, truth-seeking spirit characteristic
of our people, the American scholar will make leading contributions
to the world’s literature of sociology, politics, and science. And when
the spirit of reality, now superficial, gains a deeper insight into the
nature of things, America may yet lead the world in those
investigations which belong to the sphere of philosophy.
FOOTNOTES:
[5] Read at the National Council of Education, Milwaukee, July
6, 1897. This is one of three papers on “University Ideals” there
presented, the other two representing respectively Princeton and
Leland Stanford, Jr. The author was requested to write on “State
University Ideals.”
GENERAL EDUCATION PRACTICAL.
The possibilities of education depend upon inborn capacities, but

the unfolding of them is education. A man of large capacity, born
among savages, remains a savage, an Arab is a Mohammedan, an
Englishman is a Christian, a child among thieves is a thief, a child in
a home of culture imbibes refinement and truth. Tennyson, in the
interior of Africa, would not have developed his exquisite rhyme and
rhythm, metaphor and verse, and polish and sparkle of expression,
would not have conceived thoughts that penetrate the earth and the
nature of man, and shoot upward to the quivering stars; he would
have mused under his palm tree, and have fed, perhaps somewhat
daintily, upon unlucky missionaries. An African of natural ability in the
homes of Massachusetts, under the influence of Harvard, would
become a man of vigorous thought and fine feeling, possibly of
genius.
Since education is so potent, what shall the nature of it be? Shall
knowledge of mountain and forest and the seasons, and the
common sense that grows from experience, and the practical power
to read and compute be sufficient? If all minds were equal, if the
stores of wisdom were valueless, if special investigators found
nothing worth revealing, if thoughts of master minds did not inspire, if
men, like brutes, were governed by instincts and had no possibilities
beyond a certain physical skill, the education of nature might suffice.
This is a practical age, and no picture too bright can be drawn of
the advantages of a high material civilization for bettering the
condition of all classes of men. The necessity of being an active
factor in the world of usefulness cannot be too strongly urged. But
our material progress is dependent upon soul activity. This activity is
nourished by general education. Soul activity finds expression in a
thousand practical ways. We educate highly that the man may have
more power, that he may have many resources, that he may do
better what he has to do, and may not be dependent on one means
of support or one set of conditions. It is not so much labor with the
hands as intelligent directive power which is needed, and this power
is largely derived from general education. Intelligent men are
intelligent laborers. An educated man will learn more quickly, work
more successfully, and attain a higher standard than the ignorant
artisan. Theory teaches and practice proves that in business and
manual pursuits educated men bring an intelligence to their work and
accomplish results impossible for the ignorant man; that, as a class,
they average high in all practical activities. There should be no haste
to enter a trade. Life is long enough to accomplish all that may be
done, and all the preparation made for its duties is a wise economy.
It is hardly necessary here to state the inference that general
education is practical education.
The demand for less of general education before the special is
prominent. This demand does not necessarily imply that its authors
believe there is too much preparation for life work; indeed, few of
them would wish that preparation to be less; they would simply
change the ratio between general and special training. We believe
that a critical examination of rational courses of study in the schools
would show that little of the work could well be omitted; that nearly all
contributes toward the end of a well-rounded education, indeed is
necessary to that end; and that the training of faculty is only well
begun at the end of the high-school course. Even the study of the
classics, besides other incidental advantages, trains the critical
powers, refines the taste, and is in an important sense a subjective
study. The inference is that, with less of general education, the
forces of one’s being would not be properly trained and marshalled
for active service in life.
If we define practical education as that which is capable of being
turned to use or account, a high degree of general education before
the special is eminently practical, inasmuch as it broadens and
heightens a man’s possibilities. Moreover, it is of service to all that
even a few should be educated ideally. Such education places ideals
before men which tend to elevate them. We cannot easily estimate
the value to the world of a genius, one of those men who stand on
nature’s heights and see with clear vision, and proclaim the glories of
their view to listening men, who picture at least feebly the things
described. They are the heralds of new events, the inspirers of
progress. A highly educated man, though not a genius, in a way may
occupy a similar place, and may repay by his influence, many times,
in practical ways, the expense of his education. Societies of laborers
are already beginning to ascribe their troubles in part to lack of
education, and are looking to education as a means of improving
their condition. General education is practical education.
While every boy should be taught to earn a living, this should not
be done needlessly at the expense of the higher development of the
faculties. Too much attention to the practical dwarfs the powers,
limits the horizon, and will result in the destruction of that spirit which
makes a strong national character. There is little need to urge the
practical; the more immediate and obvious motives constantly draw
men toward it. The refinements of the soul are at first less inviting;
they are hard to gain and easy to lose. Carlyle says: “By our skill in
Mechanism, it has come to pass that, in the management of external
things, we excel all other ages, while in whatever respects the pure
moral nature, in true dignity of soul and character, we are, perhaps,
inferior to most civilized ages.... The infinite, absolute character of
Virtue has passed into a finite, conditioned one; it is no longer a
worship of the Beautiful and Good, but a calculation of the
profitable.... Our true deity is Mechanism. It has subdued external
nature for us, and we think it will do all other things.” Carlyle
possessed a true insight when he penned these words. Popular
demands tend to make the age more unpoetic than it is. In this age
the tourney has been converted into a fair; the vision of the poet is
obscured by the smoke of factories; Apollo no longer leads the
Immortal Nine upon Parnassus; and we would dethrone the gods
from Olympus.
Men and peoples have made permanent contributions to the

world’s progress, not by military achievement or accumulation of
wealth, but by the something better called culture. The glory of the
Greeks lay not in their civil wars, but in the spirit brought to the
defence of their country at Thermopylæ; not in the cost and use of
their temples and statuary, but in the art that found expression in
them; not in their commerce, but in the lofty views of their
philosophers and the skill of their poets. Men admire that which
ennobles, without thought of price or utility, and the world still
demands liberal education. Literature and philosophy have much
more in them for the average student than has yet been gained from
them. The æsthetic side of literature is too often condemned or
neglected. There is genuine education in all æsthetic power, even in
the lower form of appreciation of the ludicrous, the power to observe
fine distinctions of incongruity. We say a thing is perfectly ludicrous,
perfectly grotesque, and thereby recognize the art idea, namely,
perfection in execution. Man is always striving to attain the perfect in
some form, and the art idea is one of the highest in the field of
education. Art leans toward the side of feeling, but is none the less
rich and valuable for that. Shakespeare furnishes some of the
highest types of art in literature. The flow of his verse, the light
beauty of his sonnets, the boldness and wonderful aptness of his
metaphors, the skill of his development, the ever-varying types, the
humor, the joys, the sorrows, the wisdom, the folly of men, the
condensation of events and traits and experiences in individual
types, the philosophical and prophetic insight, the artistic whole of
his plays, constitute a rich field of education.
The Gothic cathedral, with its pointed arch, its mullioned window,
tapering spire, and upward-running lines, indicating the hope and
aspiration of the middle ages, with its cruciform shape, typical of the
faith of the Christian, is more than the stone and mortar of which it is
constructed. The truly educated man in art perceives the adaptation,
polish, and perfection in literature; discovers the grace, the just
proportions, the ideal form and typical idea in sculpture; views the
expression, grouping, sentiment, coloring, and human passion in
painting; enjoys the harmonies, movements, and ideas in music, that
combination of effects that makes subtile and evasive metaphors;
discovers the conventionalized forms and mute symbols, the “frozen
music” of architecture; finds grandeur in the mountains, glory in the
sunset, metaphors of thought in every form of nature; laughs with the
morning breeze, finds strength in the giant oak, and sorrow in the
drooping willow.
We need the ideal. Let us not permit the mortal body to lord it too
much over the immortal spirit. The ideal man is the purpose of
education and the aim of existence, or life is not worth living. All
material prosperity is naught except as contributing to that end.
Sympathetic spirits are calling for more enlightenment and
enjoyment, and leisure for the laboring classes. They believe that
men should be men as well as machines, and that, if they are
educated ideally, the practical will take care of itself. If we retain our
belief in the high possibilities of the human soul, we shall have faith
in ideal education, and shall confidently offer every opportunity for
the highest development possible of the child’s power for knowledge,
enjoyment, and action. And let his development be full and rounded.
Let the roar of ocean and the sough of the pines make music for his
ears as well as the whir of factories; let the starry heavens speak to
his soul as vividly as the electric lamp to his eye. Let us evolve from
the material present ideals that shall stand in place of the vanished
ones.
ELEMENTS OF AN IDEAL LIFE.
ELEMENTS OF AN IDEAL LIFE.
THE MODERN GOSPEL OF WORK.
A gentleman who had resided some years in Central and South

America, conversing one evening with friends upon a doctrine of
happiness, illustrated his argument with an anecdote. A Yankee
living in South America observed that the native bees had no care
for the morrow. He thought to make a fortune by bringing hard-
working honey bees from the North to this land of perennial flowers,
where they could store up honey the year around, and he tried the
experiment. The bees worked eagerly for a time, but soon
discovered that there was no winter in this paradise, and they
perched on the flowers and trees and dozed the livelong day. Our
philosopher assumed that the indolent, improvident life of the
ignorant natives of sunny climes is the one of real happiness, and
that a life of great activity is not to be desired. If his theory holds,
then the savage under his palm tree is happier than the civilized man
of the temperate zone, the monkey in the tropical jungle is better off
than the savage, and the clam is happiest of all.
An observant traveller, returning by the southern route from
California, studies Indians of various tribes at successive stages of
the journey. Near the Mohave desert he sees abject beings loafing
about the railway station to beg from the curious passengers; further
east he sees self-respecting red people offering for sale pottery or
blankets—their own handiwork; later he notes members of another
tribe working on railroad construction by the side of white laborers;
as he approaches the settled region he observes yet others who
have homes and farms and engage in civilized industry, and his
thought runs along the ascending scale of being until he
contemplates the highest energy of the most cultured and forceful
minds of our best civilization. He instinctively decides that the
desirable life is on the upper scale of intelligence, feeling, and action.
Happiness through work is the creed of the dawning century. The
romance of chivalry gives place to the poetry of steam; democracy is
teaching wealth and position the dignity of labor; evolution and
psychology show action to be the consummate flower of thought and
feeling; recent literature illustrates the gospel of effort; and religion
reaffirms the doctrine that faith without works is dead.
Herbert Spencer’s philosophy defines life to be “the continuous
adjustment of internal relations to external relations.” This
adjustment implies self-activity. If man has been evolved through a
long period of change, he is a survival of the fittest in the struggle for
existence. His ancestral history is one of exertion, his powers have
been developed by use, he maintains himself by striving, his normal
state is in the field of labor, and logically it is there his welfare and
happiness are found.
Max Nordau wrote a book on “Degeneration.” It contains much
interesting matter, many wholesome suggestions, and considerable
false theory. He claims that the demands of modern civilization place
men under too great a strain, that the human race is tending toward
insanity, and that by and by we shall stop our daily newspapers,
remove the telephones from our homes, and return to a life of
greater simplicity. It is true that tension never relaxed loses its spring,
and worry kills, but the most potent causes of degeneration are false
pleasures and lack of healthful work. Evolution’s most important
ethical maxim is that deadheads in society degenerate as do
parasites in the lower animal kingdom. Every idler violates a great
law of his being, which demands that thought and feeling shall
emerge in action. Every class of people has its idlers, men who
desire to possess without earning. The aimless son of wealth and
the tramp tread the same path. Universal interest in honest, healthful
employment would cure nearly all the evils of society and state.
Manual labor is the first moral lesson for the street Arab and the
criminal, and the best cure for some species of insanity. True charity
does not give when it can provide the chance to earn. Idlers, lacking
the normal source of happiness, seek harmful pleasures, and learn
sooner or later that for every silver joy they must pay in golden
sorrow. False stimuli, false excitement, purposeless activities, take
the place of vocation. Tramps are not the only vagabonds; there are
mental and moral vagabonds whom a fixed purpose, a definite
interest and principles of conduct would turn from degeneration to
regeneration. Balzac, with his keen analysis, describes the career of
a graceless spendthrift who, finally weary of himself, one day
resolved to give himself some reason for living. Under good
influences he took up a life of regularity, simplicity, and usefulness,
and learned that men’s happiness and saneness of mind are
proportionate to their labors. This is the great lesson of Goethe’s
“Faust,” set in imperishable drama for the instruction of the ages.
Balzac’s Curé of Montegnac speaks to a repentant criminal: “There
is no sin beyond redemption through the good works of repentance.
For you, work must be prayer. The monasteries wept, but acted too;
they prayed, but they civilized. Be yourself a monastery here.”
Repentance, prayer, work—these are the way of salvation.
Every man of broad mind has full regard for the problems of labor
and has faith in a progress that shall mean better conditions for the
less fortunate, but Edwin Markham’s “Man With the Hoe,” as applied,
not to special and extreme conditions of hardship, but in general to
the problems of the human race, is wrong at the foundation; it is
neither correct science, good philosophy, nor accurate history. It is
the doctrine of the fall of man rather than of the ascent of man; it is
the doctrine that labor is a curse. Without the hoe the human race
would be chimpanzees, savages, tramps and criminals. In human
development no useful labor ever “loosened and let down the brutal
jaw” or “slanted back the brow” or “blew out the light within the brain”
or deprived man of his birthright. At a stage of his progress, by
cultivating the soil man of necessity cultivates his soul. The hoe has
been an indispensable instrument to the growth of intelligence and
morals, has been the great civilizer—a means of advance toward
Plato and the divine image. Hardship may arrest development, but
seldom causes degeneration. Our problem is not to free from
bondage to work, but to relieve of burdens that are too heavy, and
place a larger part on the shoulders of the strong and selfish.
Our educational philosophy at times wanders in dangerous
bypaths, but there is a recent return to the plain highway. Some late
notable utterances maintain that character must be formed by
struggle, that a good impulse must prove its quality by a good act,
that education is self-effort, and that passive reception of knowledge
and rules of conduct may make mental and moral paupers. Here is
an apt thrust from a trenchant pen: “Soft pedagogics have taken the
place of the old steep and rocky path to learning. But from this
lukewarm air the bracing oxygen of effort is left out. It is nonsense to
suppose that every step in education can be interesting. The fighting
impulse must often be appealed to.”
I like to discover philosophy in the literature of the day, literature
which does not rank as scientific, but contains half-conscious,
incidental expression of deep perceptions of human nature. Kipling
at his best sounds great moral depths, and teaches the lesson of
life’s discipline. He has a plain message for America as she takes
her new place in the congress of the world. Civilized nations must
take up the burden of aiding less favored peoples, not for glory or
gain, but as an uncompromising duty without hope of appreciation or
reward. We must expect the untaught races will weigh our God, our
religion, and us by our every word and act in relation to them. We, as
a nation, may no longer wear the lightly proffered laurel, but must
expect the older, civilized nations will judge us by our wisdom, equity,
and success in discharge of our new responsibilities. In Kipling’s
“McAndrew’s Hymn” many years of hardship, sternly borne in
obedience to duty, atone for misspent days under the influence of
the soft stars in the velvet skies of the Orient. In “The ’Eathen” the
author refers to the native inhabitants of India, whose most familiar
household words are “not now,” “to-morrow,” “wait a bit,” and whose
chief traits are dirtiness, laziness, and “doin’ things rather-more-or-
less.” He describes the raw English recruit, picked out of the gutter,
recounts the stages of discipline that make him a good soldier, and
finally a reliable non-commissioned officer—a man that, returned to
his country, would prove a good and useful citizen.
“The ’eathen in ’is blindness bows down to wood ’an stone.

’E don’t obey no orders unless they is ’is own;
’E keeps ’is side arms awful: ’e leaves ’em all about,
An’ then comes up the regiment an’ pokes the ’eathen out.
The ’eathen in ’is blindness must end where ’e began,
But the backbone of the Army is the non-commissioned man.”
“L’Envoi” of “The Seven Seas” suggests the creed of a healthy soul:

to accept true criticism; to find joy in work; to be honest in the search
for truth; to believe that all our labor is under God, the Source of all
knowledge and all good.
Robert Louis Stevenson is great as a novelist; he is greater in his
brief writings and his letters. He presents some plain truths with
attractive vigor. He says: “To have suffered, nay, to suffer, sets a
keen edge on what remains of the agreeable. This is a great truth,
and has to be learned in the fire.... In almost all circumstances the
human soul can play a fair part.... To me morals, the conscience, the
affections, and the passions are, I will own frankly and sweepingly,
so infinitely more important than the other parts of life, that I
conceive men rather triflers who become immersed in the latter. To
me the medicine bottles on my chimney and the blood in my
handkerchief are accidents; they do not color my view of life.... We
are not put here to enjoy ourselves; it was not God’s purpose; and I
am prepared to argue it is not our sincere wish.... Men do not want,
and I do not think they would accept, happiness; what they live for is
rivalry, effort, success. Gordon was happy in Khartoum, in his worst
hours of danger and fatigue.”
A cartoon of Gladstone, appearing soon after he had ostensibly

retired from public life, showed him, with eager look and keen eye,
writing vigorous essays upon current political questions. It recalled
the grandeur of a life filled with great interests, sane purposes, and
perpetual action. Biography is the best source of practical ideals; it is
philosophy teaching by example; the personal element gives force to
abstract truths. Luther’s Titanic power and courage under the
inspiration of a faith that could remove mountains has served the
purpose of millions of men in great crises.
Were I to seek an epic for its power to influence, I would go to real
history and choose the life of William the Silent. For thirty years this
Prince of Orange stood for civil and religious liberty in the
Netherlands, in an age when men little understood the meaning of
liberty. He sacrificed wealth and honors for his country. In spite of
reverses, of the cowardice and disloyalty of his followers, of
ignorance of the very motives of his action, he persevered.
Throughout the long struggle he was hopeful, cheerful, and
courageous. When the celebrated ban appeared, barring him from
food, water, fire, shelter, and human companionship, setting a price
on his head, in reply he painted in vivid colors a terrible picture of the
oppressors of his people and held it up to the view of the civilized
world. The motives which sustained him were faith in God, a strong
sense of duty, and a deep feeling of patriotism. His biographer says:
“As long as he lived he was the guiding-star of a whole brave nation,
and when he died the little children cried in the streets.”
Heine, the poet and philosopher, was dying in an obscure attic in
Paris. He was wasted to a skeleton and was enduring the extremity
of human suffering. He could see only dimly, as through a screen. As
he himself said, there was nothing left of him except his voice. Under
these almost impossible conditions, he was still laboriously writing,
that he might leave a competence to his wife. A friend of his earlier
days visited him, and through a long conversation his words sparkled
with wit, humor, poetry, and philosophy. Surely the active spirit is
more than the body! There was a feudal knight who went about
saying to all despondent wayfarers, “Courage, friend; the devil is
dead!” and he always spoke with such cheerful confidence that his
listeners accepted the announcement as good news, and gained
fresh hope.
In this Philosophy of Work is there no place for romance? Shall

there be no thrilling adventure, nothing but dull duty and drudgery?
Shall we have only dead monotony—no color, light, or shadow?
Shall Carlyle’s “splendors high as Heaven” and “terrors deep as Hell”
no longer give a zest to life? Stevenson’s “Lantern Bearers” has an
answer for this natural and ever recurrent question. In a little village
in England, along the sands by the sea, some schoolboys were
accustomed to spend their autumn holidays. At the end of the
season, when the September nights were black, the boys would
purchase tin bull’s-eye lanterns. These they wore buckled to their
waists and concealed under topcoats. In the cold and darkness of
the night, in the wind and under the rain, they would gather in a
hollow of the lonely sand drifts, and, disclosing their lanterns, would
engage in inconsequential talk. In his words: “The essence of this
bliss was to walk by yourself in the black night; the slide shut, the
topcoat buttoned; not a ray escaping, whether to conduct your
footsteps or to make your glory public: a mere pillar of darkness in
the dark; and all the while, deep down in the privacy of your fool’s
heart, to know that you had a bull’s-eye at your belt, and to exult and
sing over the knowledge.... Justice is not done to the versatility and
the unplumbed childishness of man’s imagination. His life from
without may seem but a rude mound of mud; there will be some
golden chamber at the heart of it, in which he dwells delighted; and
for as dark as his pathway seems to the observer, he will have some
kind of a bull’s-eye at his belt.... The ground of a man’s joy is often
hard to hit. The observer (poor soul, with his documents!) is all
abroad. For to look at the man is but to court deception. We shall
see the trunk from which he draws his nourishment; but he himself is
above and abroad in the green dome of foliage, hummed through by
winds and nested in by nightingales. And the true realism were that
of the poets, to climb up after him like a squirrel, and catch some
glimpse of the heaven for which he lives. And the true realism,
always and everywhere, is that of the poets: to find out where joy
resides and give it a voice far beyond singing. For to miss the joy is
to miss all. In the joy of the actors lies the sense of any action, that is
the explanation, that the excuse. To one who has not the secret of
the lanterns, the scene upon the links is meaningless. And hence the
haunting and truly spectral unreality of realistic books.” This
quotation needs no excuse. The mould of human nature from which
this copy was taken is forever broken, and can never be reproduced.
To be a lantern-bearer on the lonely heath, to rejoice in work and
struggle—this is the romance, real, attainable, and apt for the world
as it is and for the work we must do. If irrational pastime, attended
with endurance, may be a joy, surely rational effort toward some
desired result may have its poetry. Sacrifice and heroism are found
in humble homes; commonplace labor has its dangers and its
victories; and many a man at his work, in knowledge of the light
concealed, the interest he makes of his vocation, his romance, exults
and sings.
The world is as we regard it. Many look at the world as Doctor
Holmes’ squint-brained member of the tea-table views the plant
kingdom. He makes the underground, downward-probing life of the
tree the real life. The spreading roots are a great octopus, searching
beneath instinctively for food, while the branches and leaves are
mere terminal appendages swaying in the air. It is a horrible
conception, and we are pained at standing on our heads. The tree
roots itself to the earth and draws its nourishment therefrom that it
may spring heavenward, and bear rich fruit and be a thing of beauty,
a lesson and a promise. Man is rooted to the earth, but his real life
springs into the free air and bathes in the glad sunlight.
The purpose of our labor determines its qualities of truth and

healthfulness. Satisfaction must be sought by employing our
faculties in the useful arts and in the search for truth. Perfection of
self is the ultimate good for each individual, but this is attained, not in
isolation, but in social life with its mutual obligations. The lesson of
civil and religious liberty, taught by the great reformers, has been
only partly learned. Individualism, rightly understood, is the true
political doctrine, but the selfishness of individual freedom is the first
quality to develop. Concerning great public questions often the
attitude is as expressed in Balzac’s words: “What is that to me?
Each for himself! Let each man mind his own business!” Democracy
is the way of social and political progress, but we have not yet
reached the height of clear vision. We are struggling up the difficult
and dangerous path, looking hopefully upward, thinking we see the
summit, only to find at each stage that the ultimate heights are still
beyond. When kings are dethroned, the hope of democracy is to
enthrone public conscience. Here is a picture of a condition
occasionally possible in any state of America to-day. We will say
there is some great public interest, not a party problem, involving the
financial prosperity and the essential welfare of the state, and
affecting its credit, honor, and reputation abroad. And—with some
noble exceptions—perhaps not a minister in his pulpit, not an orator
on his platform, not a newspaper with its great opportunity for
enlightening the people and exerting influence, not an educator, not
a college graduate, not a high-school graduate, not a business man,
not a politician arises and says: Here is a common good imperilled,
and I for one will give of my time, my energy, and, if need be,
according to my ability, of my money in its support. So long as such
a state of apathy concerning public questions may exist, there is
something still to be desired for the ideals of democracy and for our
methods of education.
The Platonic philosophy has largely inspired educational work, and
must still furnish its best ideals. But emphasizing the worth of the
individual to himself has created a false conception of social
obligation. Culture for culture’s sake has been the maxim, but I have
come to believe that a culture which does not in some way reach out
to benefit others is not of much value to the individual himself. Some
one has aptly illustrated this view: probably the drone in the bee-
hive, when he is about to be destroyed, would say, “I would like to
live for life’s sake, and would like to buzz a while longer for buzz’s
sake.”
I would see young men and women go out into the world with a
true democratic spirit, with a ready sympathy for all classes of
people, and with a helpful attitude toward all problems of state and
society. The work of any public institution of higher learning is a
failure in so far as its graduates fail to honor the state’s claim on
them as citizens. The great principle of evolution is the struggle for
life; there is another equally important principle, namely, the struggle
for the life of others. Altruism, dimly disclosed away down on the
scale of being, finally shines forth in the family and home in all of
those social sentiments that make human character beautiful and
noble. Society is the mirror in which each one sees himself reflected,
by which each attains self-consciousness, and becomes a human
being. From coöperation spring industries, commerce, science,
literature, art—all that makes life worth living. If the individual owes
everything to society, he should be willing in some small ways to
repay part of the debt.
The great Bismarck, that man of iron and blood, not given to
sentimentality, in fireside conversation repeatedly proclaimed that
during his long and arduous struggle for the unification of Germany
he was sustained by a sense of duty and faith in God. “If I did not
believe in a Divine Providence which has ordained this German
nation to something good and great, I would at once give up my
trade as a statesman. If I had not the wonderful basis of religion, I
should have turned my back to the whole court.” Some one has said
that the essence of pessimism is disbelief in God and man. Fear is a
kind of atheism. Heine once said: “God was always the beginning
and end of my thought. When I hear His existence questioned I feel
a ghastly forlornness in a mad world.” The inspiration of labor is faith
in God, faith in man, faith in the moral order of the world, faith in
progress. The religious man should have a sane view of life, should
have convictions, and the courage of his convictions. He should
believe that his work all counts toward some great purpose.
The impulse to reverence and prayer is an essential fact, as real
as the inborn tendency to physical and mental action. Its
development is necessary to the complete man. The religious nature
obeys the great law of power through effort, and increases strength
by use. He who by scientific analysis comes to doubt the value of his
ethical feeling has not learned the essential truth of philosophy,
namely, that a thing’s origin must not be mistaken for its character.
Some tendencies of the best scientific thought of to-day, seen here
and there, confirm this view of man’s nature. Here are some
fragments, expressed, not literally, but in substance: It is the
business of science to analyze the entire content of human
consciousness into atomic sensations, but there its work ends. The
man of history, of freedom and responsibility, whose deeds we
approve or disapprove, is the real man, a being of transcendent
worth, aspiring toward perfect ideals; and the teacher must carry this
conception of the child’s nature into the work of education. It is a
scientific fact that prayer is for the health of the soul. It is useless to
theorize on the subject—men pray because it is their nature; they
can not help it. Even if prayer does not change the will of God, at
least it does change the will of man, which may be the object of
prayer. The Christian experience shows that prayer is a communion
of man’s spirit with God, the Spirit. John Fiske affirms the reality of
religion. He argues that the progress of life has been achieved
through adjustment to external realities; that the religious idea has
played a dominant part in history; that all the analogies of evolution
show that man’s religious nature cannot be an adjustment to an
external non-reality. He says: “Of all the implications of the doctrine
of evolution with regard to Man, I believe the very deepest and
strongest to be that which asserts the Everlasting Reality of
Religion.”
In this message to students we have emphasized a particular

ideal, namely, normal activity, because one’s own effort and
experience count most for growth and power.
“It was better youth

Should strive, through acts uncouth,
Toward making, than repose on aught found made.”
Students are at an age when to them the roses nod and the stars
seem to wink. Their mental landscape is filled with budding flowers,
singing birds, and rosy dawns. Every one has a right to consider his
own perfection and enjoyment, his own emotions. One is better for
his healthful recreations, his aspirations and ideals, his perceptions
of beauty and his divine communings—the sweetness and light of
the soul. We can only ask that the main purpose and trend of life
may be laborious and useful, even strenuous and successful.
Lowell wrote of the pioneers who settled New England that they
were men
“Who pitched a state as other men pitch tents,

And led the march of time to great events.”
The pioneers of this Commonwealth were men who here pitched a

state as other men pitch tents, and are leading the march of time to
great events. The age, America, offer great opportunities to
educated young men and women. Use them with courage. King
Henry IV. of France once gained a great victory at Arques. After the
battle, as he was leading his troops toward Paris, he met one of his
generals coming up late with a detachment of the army, and thus
greeted him, “Go hang yourself, brave Crillon! We fought at Arques
and you were not there,” as though the greatest privilege in life were
an opportunity to contend and win for one’s self a victory.
A few years ago I went to Ayr, the birthplace of Burns. I visited the
poet’s cottage, walked by the Alloway Kirk where Tam o’ Shanter
beheld the witch dance, crossed the Auld Brig and wandered by the
banks and braes o’ bonny Doon—and it is a beautiful stream. I found
myself repeating lines from “Tam o’ Shanter,” “Bonny Doon,” “Scots
Wha Hae wi’ Wallace Bled,” and from some of the sweeter and
nobler songs of Burns. And I thought of the mission of the poet. The
scenery in and about Ayr is beautiful, but there is many another
region equally attractive. The people with whom Burns dwelt, his
neighbors and friends, were commonplace men and women,
knowing the hardships, the drudgery, the pettiness of life. And yet he
so sang of these scenes and these people, so touched every chord
of the human heart, that annually thirty thousand travellers visit Ayr
to pay their homage at the poet’s shrine. The poetic view of life is the

Original PDF Differential Equations With Boundary Value Problems 9tdownload Original PDF Differential Equations With Boundary Value Problems 9th PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Original PDF Differential Equations With Boundary Value Problems 9tdownload Original PDF Differential Equations With Boundary Value Problems 9th PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Original PDF) Differential Equations

with Boundary-Value Problems 9th

assignments and applications, MindTap is a digital learning solution and

REVIEWERS OF PAST EDITIONS

Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University

1.1 Definitions and Terminology

A Definition The equation that we made up in (1) is called a differential

DEFINITION 1.1.1 Differential Equation

ClAssifiCAtion by type If a differential equation contains only ordinary

ExamplE 1 Types of Differential Equations

(b) The following equations are partial differential equations:*

notAtion Throughout this text ordinary derivatives will be written by using

it is immediately seen that the symbol x now represents a dependent variable,

ClAssifiCAtion by orDer The order of a differential equation (either ODE

second order first order

is a second-order ordinary differential equation. In Example 1, the first and third

ExamplE 2 Differential Form of a First-Order ODE

(a) By dividing by the differential dx an alternative form of the equation

(b) By multiplying the differential equation

In symbols we can express an nth-order ordinary differential equation in one

ExamplE 3 Normal Form of an ODE

ClAssifiCAtion by lineArity An nth-order ordinary differential equation (4)

ExamplE 4 Linear and Nonlinear ODEs

(b) The equations

nonlinear term: nonlinear term: nonlinear term:

DEFINITION 1.1.2 solution of an ODE

In other words, a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation (4) is a

F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.

intervAl of Definition You cannot think solution of an ordinary differential

ExamplE 5 Verification of a Solution

(b) From the derivatives y9 = xe x + e x and y0 = xe x + 2e x we have, for every real

left { hand side: y0 2 2y9 1 y 5 (xe x 1 2e x ) 2 2(xe x 1 e x ) 1 xe x 5 0,

y solution Curve The graph of a solution f of an ODE is called a solution

ExamplE 6 Function versus Solution

DEFINITION 1.1.3 Implicit solution of an ODE

ExamplE 7 Verification of an Implicit Solution

on the open interval (−5, 5). By implicit differentiation we obtain

(a) implicit solution (b) explicit solution (c) explicit solution

Because the distinction between an explicit solution and an implicit solution

fAmilies of solutions The study of differential equations is similar to

Sometimes a differential equation possesses a solution that is not a member of

ExamplE 9 Using Different Symbols

The next example shows that a solution of a differential equation can be a

in theory, as well as in many applications, we must deal with systems of differ-

A solution of a system such as (10) is a pair of differentiable functions x = f 1(t),

If the integrand g in (11) is continuous on an interval [a, b] and a # x # b, then

The integral in (11) is often nonelementary, that is, an integral of a function g

constant, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

ExErcIsEs 1.1 Answers to selected odd-numbered problems begin on page ANS-1.

dy 6 6 29. Verify that the piecewise-defined function

dP c1et In Problems 41 and 42 verify that the indicated pair of functions is a

y 5 c1x21 1 c2x 1 c3x ln x 1 4x2

The possibilities of education depend upon inborn capacities, but

Men and peoples have made permanent contributions to the

A gentleman who had resided some years in Central and South

“The ’eathen in ’is blindness bows down to wood ’an stone.

“L’Envoi” of “The Seven Seas” suggests the creed of a healthy soul:

A cartoon of Gladstone, appearing soon after he had ostensibly

In this Philosophy of Work is there no place for romance? Shall

The purpose of our labor determines its qualities of truth and

In this message to students we have emphasized a particular

“It was better youth

F(x, (x), 9(x), . . . , (n)(x)) 5 0 for all x in I.