Agric Sciencesgrade 11 Notes and Activities - 240118 - 090352

TOPIC 1: BASIC CHEMISTRY
What is chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of the properties, composition and structure of

matter, the changes that occur in matter, and the energy that is released
during these changes.
1. Important chemistry terminology

• Matter- Is anything that can occupy space and has mass (it weighs
something) and volume (it take up space)
• Atom- is the smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down by
chemical means
They are made up of the following sub-atomic particle; neutron, proton
and electron
• Proton- is a subatomic particle with a positive charge
• Neutron- is a subatomic particle with no charge
• Electron-is a subatomic particle with a negative charge
• Valence electron- is the electron in the outer shell of an atom It is
determined by the main group number of an element found in its column
in a periodic table e.g Carbon is in group 4 and has 4 valence electron
• Atomic number- number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
• Atomic mass number- number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom
• Element- is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler
substance by chemical means (element adhere to form a molecule)
• Molecule- is a group of two or more atoms which are bond together to
form a compound (molecule can be broken down chemically into
elements they made up of)
e.g water molecule (H2O) is made up of two hydrogen atom and one
oxygen atom
Agricultural Sciences -Notes- Grade 11
carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of 1 carbon atom and two oxygen

atom
• Compound- substance that result from a combination of two or more
different elements
• Periodic table- is the table of all the known elements arranged in order
of their atomic number
• Isotopes- element that has equal number of proton but different number
of neutrons
• Mixture- two or more substance which has been combined such that
each substance retains its own chemical identity. e.g salt in water (salt
dissolve in hot water)
Activity 1 (chemistry concepts)
1.1 Define the following concepts;
(a) matter
(b) Atom
(c) Proton
(d) Neutron
(e) Periodic table
(f) Atomic number
(g) Atomic mass number
(h) Isotope
(i) Element
(j) Molecule
Activity 2 (chemistry concepts)
1.1 analyse the flow chart below and answer the questions based on it
1
1.1.1 Identify the substance labelled A, B and C (3)

1.1.2 Explain the differences between an element and substance in (2)
1.1.3 Distinguish between the mixtures B and C (2)
2
2. The periodic table
Is the table of all known chemical elements in order of atomic number.
Elements in a periodic table are arranged in a series of rows and columns

based on shared chemical and physical properties at room temperature
(they may be gas, liquid or solid)
Interpreting a periodic table
Periodic table groups
Groups in a periodic table are numbered 1-18 from left to right
• Group 1: made up of alkali metals (note: hydrogen is not considered

a metal)
Alkali metals are very reactive (most reactive group in the periodic table)
They react violently with water
Has one valence electron
3
• Group 2: made up of alkali earth metals alkali earth metals are very
reactive, but less reactive than alkali metal
Has two valence electron
Differences between alkali metals and alkali earth metals
Alkali metal: have one electron in their outermost shell

Alkaline earth metal: has two outer shell electrons
Similarities between alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
They are both good electrical and heat conductors

They are the most reactive metals in the periodic table
They have low melting point compared to other metals
• Group 3-12: made up of transition metals (they contain metals)
Some transitional metals are below the main table (they contain
Lanthanide and Actinide series)
Lanthanide: They follow transitional metal atomic number 57 in period

6 of the periodic table
Has 3 valence electron
They are very reactive
Actinide: They follow transitional metal atomic number 89 in period

7 of the periodic table
Has 3-6 valence electron
They are radioactive
Most can be produced in laboratories
• Group 13: Boron group (made up of other metals)
They are highly reactive
4 • Group 14: Carbon group (made up of other non-metals)


Reactivity varies
• Group 15: Nitrogen group (made up of other non-metals)
Reactivity varies
• Group 16: made up of chalcogens (oxygen group)
It is also known as oxygen family (since oxygen is first member of the
family)
They are reactive
• Group 17: made up of halogens
They are called halogens because they give salt when they react with
metals
Has 7 valence electrons
This are the most electronegative elements
Elements in group 17 are highly reactive (because of the closeness
to the noble gases. They can easily achieve the noble gas electron
structure)
• Group 18: made up of noble gases
Have 8 valence electrons (2 for He)
They are colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-inflammable gases
under standard conditions
They are most stable or non-reactive (because they have full number
of valence electrons in their outer shell)
Elements and reactivity
Reactivity: is a chemical property that determines how an element will react

with others to form a compound.
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What makes an elements reactive?
The number of electrons in each atom i.e;
• When the outer shells are full, the atom is stable (halogens)
• When the outer shells are not full, the atom is reacting (they either gain,
lose or share electron)
Note: the most reactive metals are the elements in group 1 and 2 i.e;
• Element in group 1: they lose an electron so that their outer shell is empty
• Element in group 2: they lose two electrons so their outer shell is empty
This group easily give up valence electrons to make a compound
Note: the most reactive non-metals are elements in group 16 and 17 i.e;
• Elements in group 16 lose two or more electrons to fill their outer shell
• Element in group 17 need one or more electron to fill their outer shell
This groups gain valence electron to make a compound
Activity 3 (periodic table)
1.1 use the periodic table below to answer the following questions
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1.1.1 Identify the lightest element from the periodic table (1)
1.1.2 Group 18 on the periodic table is composed of gases that are chemically inactive and
cannot react with others as indicated in the periodic table grouping. Suggest the name
given to this group and give TWO examples (3)
1.1.3 Copy and complete the table in your book
Element Valency Atomic number Mass number
electrons
Magnesium
Sulphur
Activity 4 (periodic table)
1.1 Answer the following on a periodic table

1.1.1 Element in a periodic table are arranged in period and group. Indicate
the common characteristic of element in the same:
(a) Period (1)
(b) Group (1)
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1.1.2 Elements in group 17 and group 18 differ. Explain how the elements
differ with regard to chemical reactivity (2)
1.1.3 Give a reason for the answer in QUESTION 1.1.2 (2)
3. ACIDS AND BASES
Atoms can sometimes be positively charged or negatively charged. e.g H+

atom is a hydrogen atom with a positive charge.
• Presence or absence of hydrogen ion in a liquid determine if the liquid is acidic
or basic. For an example;
➢ Tap water that we drink has ions in it, and this ion makes water either acidic
or basic.
➢ In our body there are small compounds called amino acids.
➢ Some acids such as citric acids are found in fruits.
➢ Vinegar is an acid
➢ Bicarbonate of soda is basic
THE pH SCALE
Is a scale that describes how acidic or basic a liquid is.
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Acid- is a solution that has an excess of H+ ions. (it comes from Latin word
acidus meaning sharp or sour.
➢ Strong acid- acid with very low pH. (0-4)

➢ Weak acid- acid that is partially ionised in water solution (has Ph close to 7)
Base- is a solution that has an excess of OH- ions (hydroxides). (also known
as alkaline)
➢ Strong base – a base that has a very high Ph. (10-14)

➢ Weak base- a base that is partially ionised in water solution (has pH close to
7 i.e pH 8-10)
Neutral- is a solution that has a Ph of 7. It is neither acidic nor basic
• It focuses on the concentration of hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
• Only distilled water has Ph 7 (neutral pH)
• The scale goes from 0 to 14
• Acids- are very close to 0 and 7
• Bases- are from 7 to 14
• Neutral- right in the middle, (pH 7)
Differences between acid and base

Acid Base
Donates/Gives off H+ ion when reacting Accepts H+ ion when dissolve in water
with water
Taste sour Taste bitter
High concentration of hydrogen ions High concentration of hydroxide ion
(OH)
Turns litmus paper red Turns litmus paper blue
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Activity 5 (acids and base)
1.1 Below are substances with different pH values.

• Baking powder
• Orange juice
• Milk
• Battery acid
1.1.1 Indicate whether each of the substances above is neutral, acidic,
strongly acidic, alkaline or strongly alkaline. Write the substance and
the pH indicator. (4)
1.1.2 Indicate the substance in QUESTION 1.1.1 that has a high
concentration of the following:
(a) Hydroxide ion (1)

(b) Hydrogen ion (1)
Activity 6 (acids and base)
1.1 Acids and bases play a vital role in agriculture.

1.1.1 Tabulate TWO differences between acid solution and base solution. (5)
1.1.2 If an acid solution is mixed with an alkaline solution, a chemical reaction
take place. Give the name of the reaction. (1)
1.1.3 State TWO products of the chemical reaction in QUESTION 1.1.2. (5)
1.2 HCl and NaOH are chemical formulae of substances used in agriculture.
1.2.1 Identify the chemical formulae representing the following:
(a) Alkaline (1)
(b) Acid (1)
1.2.2 Show the chemical reaction when HCL dissolves in water. (3)
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4. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
Not all atoms have same number of protons and electrons
The main sub-atomic particles and their relative charge
• Proton: Has a positive charge

: They are determined by the atomic number
• Neutron: has a negative charge
• Electron: has no charge
Relationship between atomic number and the number of sub-atomic particles in

the nucleus
The simplest element in the periodic table is hydrogen.
• It has atomic number 1, which means;

➢ There is just 1 proton in the nucleus of hydrogen atom.
To balance the positive charge of the proton, hydrogen atom has 1

negatively charged electron around the nucleus.
Oxygen has atomic number 8, which means; there are 8 protons in

the nucleus of an oxygen atom
To balance the positive charge of the proton, oxygen atom has 8 negatively
charged electron around the nucleus.
The number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic mass number

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ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS AROUND THE NUCLEUS AND VALENCE
Each layer in an atom can hold a certain number of electrons as follows;
Closest to the nucleus: can hold only TWO electrons can exist
Second shell: can hold only EIGHT electrons
Third shell: can hold up to eighteen electrons
Fourth shell: can hold twenty-two electron

Note: the shell closest to the nucleus has lowest energy than other shells
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Agricultural sciences -Notes- Grade 11
FORMATION OF AN ION
• An atom with one or more electron or one or more missing electron

is called an ions.
• Ions which have gained electrons are called anion (they are
negatively charged).
• Ions that has lost one or more electron are called cations (they are
positively charged).
• Ions of opposite charge attract one another, while ions of same
charge repel one another.
Activity 7 (formation of ions)
1.1 The diagram below shows the structure of a substance that is

important in agriculture.
1.1.1 Identify the structure above. (1)

1.1.2 Provide THREE reasons visible in the diagram to support the
answer in QUESTION 1.1.1. (3)
1.1.3 Indicate the charge of the parts labelled A and C. (2)
1.1.4 Name the type of ion that will be formed when the following
occurs:
(a) Part labelled A is removed and only one remains (1)
(b) One more part labelled A is added to make three (1)
1.2 Draw a diagram showing a Boron atom and arrange all the valence
electron in a sequential order. (4)
5. CHEMICAL BONDING
• Chemical bonding usually occurs in the formation a molecule.
• A molecule is made up of two or more elements joint together by a
chemical bond to form a new substance behave or look differently from
the original elements For an example;
1. Think of hydrogen and oxygen, which both occur naturally as gases.
Hydrogen (H) is highly flammable and oxygen (O) supports the burning
process. But the occur together to form H2O which is colourless,
odourless, tasteless liquid called water which can be used for many
purposes.
2. Think of introducing just one atom of sulphur(S) and three more oxygen
atom to water, this will form another clear liquid, but one that behaves
very different from water. This liquid is known as sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
which is very dangerous to smell, touch and drink
3. Think of Sodium (Na) a light coloured metal and Chlorine a green
poisonous gas, when chemically bonded they form a sodium chloride.
This compound is safe and is used every day when we cook
Types of chemical bonding
1. Covalent bonding
Is the bond in which electrons are shared between atoms
2. Ionic bonding
Is a bond that occur when a negatively charged ion (anion) and

positively charged ion (cation) attract each other to forms an ionic
compound. Or when an atom gains or lose an electron
Note: many ions have 8 electrons in their valence shell that form a
complete octet (eight).
When sodium and chlorine atom come together the following occur;
➢ The sodium atom gives up (lose) its valence electron to form an ion with
a complete octet (this is called electron transfer)
➢ The chlorine atom receives the electron from sodium to complete its octet
and become an ion.
➢ The strong attraction between positively charged sodium cation (Na+)
and negatively charged chlorine anion (CL-) give rise to sodium chloride
NaCL- (table salt)
Activity 8 (chemical bonding)
1.1 The illustration below shows the type of chemical bonding. Answer the
questions based on these ilustrations
1.1.1 Identify the type of bond shown by diagrams A and B (2)

1.1.2 Differentiate between the two types of bonds, A and B you have
mentioned in QUESTION 1.1.2 (2)
1.2 Analyse the following reaction and answer the questions that follows
HCL + KOH KCL + H2O
1.2.1 Identify the chemical reaction illustrated above (1)
1.2.2 Give a reason for your answer in QUESTION 1.2.1 (1)
1.2.3 Give two chemical bonds that are involved in the above reaction
and give one example of each. (4)
1.1 The diagram below illustrates atoms responsible for the formation
of a compound
1.1.1 Identify the compound formed by the atoms in the diagram above
1.1.2 Indicate the health benefit of the above compound
1.1.3 Name the parts labelled A, B and C
1.1.4 Elements in a periodic table are grouped according to similar
chemical characteristics. Indicate the group to which each of the
following elements illustrated in QUESTION 1.1.1 belong.
1.1 The diagrams below illustrate the chemical bonding between

atoms.
Bonding A Bonding B
1.1.1 Identify the chemical bondings illustrated in A and B above. (2)

1.1.2 Give a reason for each of the bonding identified in QUESTION
2.2.1. (2)
1.1.3 Indicate the importance of compound in bonding A for the
following:
(a) Agricultural industry (1)
(b) Household use (1)
6. Organic and inorganic compounds
Differences between organic and inorganic compounds
Organic compound: has both carbon and hydrogen atom together
: made up of living organism
: has faster chemical reaction
: some organic compounds are highly flammable
Inorganic compound: has less carbon and hydrogen atom
: made up of non-living organism

: has slower chemical reaction
: most inorganic compound does not burn
Chemical formulae
Chemical formulae show the number and type of atom found in a

compound as well as the number of atoms in a molecular element
• Water: H2O (has 2 hydrogen atom and 1 oxygen atom)

• Carbon dioxide: CO2
• Glucose: C6H12O6
• Sodium chloride: Nacl
• Magnesium sulphate: MgSO4
• Hydrogen: H2
• Oxygen: O2
• Ozone: O3
• Chlorine: Cl2
• Sulphur: S
Structural formulae
Is the graphical representation of the molecular structure showing how

atoms are arranged and how they are chemically bonded within the
molecule.
Water
Lewis structure
Is a diagram that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule.
(You can also exclude the first 2 electrons in the inner shell when drawing
a Lewis structure)
Is the quickest way of showing the valence electron of an atom
Note: The main group number for an element can be found in its column
on the periodic table, for an example; carbon is in group 4 and has 4
valence electron. Oxygen is in group 6 and has 8 valence electron
Importance of inorganic compounds
1. Water (H2O)
Makes up 80% of plant and animal cells
Act as a cooling agent
Medium for chemical reaction
2. Carbon dioxide
Used by plants during photosynthesis.

It combines with water to form carbonic acid.
3. Sodium chloride (Nacl)
Used as a food preservative
4. Ammonia (NH4)
It is an important source of nitrogen (used to produce fertilisers)
Used in household cleaning products
Used in medicine industry

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Organic compounds are classified according to their functional group they

contain. For an examples;
➢ Methanol and ethanol are both classified as alcohols since they contain
hydroxyl group (-OH)
➢ Hydroxyl group: is a functional group made up of a single hydrogen
and single oxygen atom (-OH) joined by single bond. (the R represent
hydrocarbon radical)
➢ Carboxyl group: is a functional group made up of carbon atom joined

to oxygen atom by a double bond and to a hydroxyl group by a single
bond
➢ Amino group: is functional group made up of a nitrogen atom joined

by a single bond to two hydrogen atoms
Alkanes and alcohols
Differences between alkanes and alcohol
Alkanes: They are made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
The Carbon atoms are linked to each other by a single bond

Alcohol: has hydroxyl group attached to the carbon atom
ALKANES
Basic type of alkanes, chemical formulae, structural formulae and name

of alkyl group
1. Methane
➢ is the simplest alkane and main component of natural gas
➢ it has a single carbon atom
➢ if you burn methane in the presence of oxygen carbon dioxide and
water is produced
➢ it can be used as a fuel
2. Ethane
➢ Is a colourless, odourless gas
➢ It has two carbon atoms
➢ Can be used as a by-product in oil refining
3. Propane
➢ It has three carbon atoms
➢ It is commonly used as a fuel for engines
4. Butane
➢ Is an alkane with four carbon atoms
➢ It is highly flammable
➢ It is used as a lighter fuel for bottle gas or aerosol sprays
ALCOHOLS
The general formulae of alcohol are R-OH (The “R” represents hydrocarbon
radical attached to hydroxyl group. They are named according to the radical in
which the hydroxyl group (-OH) is attached. For an example;
➢ If the –OH is attached to the methyl radical CH3 the compound will be
CH3OH, then we will have methyl alcohol known as methanol
➢ If the –OH is attached to the ethyl radical C2H5 the compound will be
C2H5OH ethyl alcohol known as ethanol Basic types of alcohol
1. Methanol
Is the simplest alcohol
It is volatile (it change into vapour easily)
Is a clean energy resource used to fuel cars and cook stoves and
found in Methylated Spirit Can be used as an antifreeze
Chemical formulae: CH3OH
2. Ethanol
Is pure drinking alcohol
It is volatile (it can change into vapour easily)
Molecular formulae: C2H5OH
It is flammable
Found in most alcoholic drinks, perfumes, thermometer and medicine
Activity 11 alkanes and alcohols
1.1 the table below show a basic groups of organic compounds, structural
formula as well as molecular formula
1.1.1 complete the table by providing labels A to D (4)

1.2 The products below are displayed in a retail shop. Carefully analyse
the products and answer questions that follow
1.2.1 indicate the functional group of product A and B (1)

1.2.2 give the scientific name of both product A and B (2)
1.2.3 Identify the product (A or B) which is ideal to be used for heating. (1)
1.2.4 Write the structural formula of product B
1.2.5 Product A can be oxidised to form another product. Give the scientific
name of the product
Activity 12 (alkanes and alcohol)
1.1 Analyse the structural formula of compounds below and then answer
questions that follow:
A B
H H H H
H C C OH H C C H
H H H H
C D
O H
H C OH H N
1.1.1 Indicate the functional group of each of the compounds labelled:
(a) A (1)
(b) C (1)
1.1.2 Write down the chemical formula of the compound labelled C. (2)
1.1.3 The compound labelled B plays a protective role in plants. Justify this statement by
explaining THREE roles. (3)
1.1.4 Draw the Lewis structure of the compound labelled D showing a covalent link
between the atoms. (4)
1.1.5 Compare compound A and B on the basis of their structural formulae. (2)
Activity 13 (alcohols and alkanes)

1.1 The diagrams below show the structural formula of different compounds.
1.1.1 Classify the compounds represented by structures A and B into two categories
1.1.2 Give a reason for your answer in QUESTION 2.1.1 based on their structures.
1.1.3 The structures labelled A and E have the same molecular formula but different
structures. Give the name of such compounds. (1)
1.1.4 Write the chemical formula of the compound represented by structure A (2)
1.1.5 Identify the letter of the compound responsible for the following:
(a) Catalyst in many chemical reactions
(b) Used as a cleaning product (2)
Activity 14 (alcohol and alkanes)
1.1
1.1.1 Indicate the letter of a compound that matches each of the following
descriptions:
(a) Formed by fermentation process
(b) It is also known as acetic
(c) It is formed when the structure represented by letter B reacts
with structure C
(d) Can be used for heating in rural homes with no electricity
1.1.2 Explain the impact of a compound labelled D on the environment
1.1.3 Describe the benefits of using a compound labelled C as a source
of energy for cars instead of petrol
1.1.4 Indicate the functional group of compounds labelled B and C
7. FATTY ACIDS AND BIOMOLECULES

It is an organic acid characterised by presence of carboxyl group with a
long hydrocarbon chain making up a tail.
Fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to
28.
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

1. Saturated fats
➢ found mainly in animal products (such as milk, cream, butter,
cheese and meat)
➢ Has a single bond between carbon atoms
➢ They are solid at room temperature
2. Unsaturated fats
➢ Found mainly in plant products (such as sunflower oil, olive oil,
peanut)
➢ Has one or more double bond between carbon atom.
➢ They are liquid at room temperature.
BIOMOLECULES
1. Fats and Oil (lipids)
The monomer of lipids are 3 fatty acids and glycerol joint together
by an Esther bond
Differences between fats and oil
Fats: they are solid at room temperature
Oil: they are liquid at room temperature
Functions of lipids
➢ Reserve source of energy
➢ Act as an insulation material
➢ Act as a shock absorber
➢ Important part of membrane of living cells
3. Proteins
This are large molecule built from small units called amino acids
(monomer of proteins are amino acids)
The amino acids are joined together by a peptide bond 20
natural amino acids make up a protein.
They have nitrogen in their structure
Functional group of amino acid: amino group (NH2) and carboxyl
group
Essential and non-essential amino acids

Essential amino acid: found from eating protein rich food
Non-essential protein: proteins that are produced by the body.
Functions of proteins
➢ Responsible for growth

➢ Repair worn out tissues
➢ Formation of hormones and enzyme
3. Carbohydrates
➢ Built by small units of monomers called glucose
➢ Glucose is joint together by a glycosidic bond
➢ They are commonly found in plants and plant products
➢ It includes starch and sugars
➢ They are organic compounds formed of carbon and hydroxyl
groups
➢ They form cellulose in plants and cartilage in animals
Classification of carbohydrates
Two Monosaccharides are joints together by a glycosidic bond
form a disaccharide. Three common disaccharide are:
➢ Sucrose (table sugar) = formed by, glucose + fructose
➢ Lactose (sugar in milk) = formed by glucose + galactose
➢ Maltose (product of starch digestion) = glucose + glucose
Functions of carbohydrates
➢ Store energy
➢ Main source of energy
➢ Needed for fattening
➢ Work as flavour sweetener in human diet
Activity 15 (fatty acids and biomolecule)

1.1 The pyramid below shows the feed components and their quantities that are
included in a ration prepared for animals:
1.1.1 Name the organic compound in A and C. (2)

1.1.2 Indicate the building block of the compound in C and D. (2)
1.1.3 The compound in C can be simple or complex.
Provide a distinction between the two. (2)
1.1.4 State TWO reasons why the compound labelled B is important. (2)
1.1.5 Indicate whether the compound in D is saturated or unsaturated. (1)
1.1.6 Support with a reason the answer in QUESTION 1.1.5. (1)
1.2 Fats and oils are collectively referred to as lipids.
1.2.1 Tabulate TWO differences between fats and oils. (4)
Activity 16 (Fatty acids and biomolecules)
1.1 The structures below show the bonding of carbon atoms in fatty acids:
FATTY ACID A FATTY ACID B
-C-C=C- C- C- C=C - C- C- C- C- C-C-
1.1.1 Identify the type of fatty acid labelled A and B. (2)

1.1.2 Indicate the letter representing the fatty acid that matches each of the
descriptions below:
(a) Originates from plants (1)
(b) Solid at room temperature (1)
(c) Has a high melting point (1)
(d) Liquid at room temperature (1)
1.1.3 Name TWO reasons why fats are important in living organisms. (2)
Activity 17 (fatty acids biomolecules)
1.1 The table below shows the fat content of different nutritional values of fats.
Analyse analyse it and answer the question that follow.
Nutritional value Olive oil Sunflower Hard Butter (g)
per 100g (g) (g) margarine
(g)
Total fat 98 91.6 80 81
Saturated fat 14 12.0 42 51
Unsaturated 73 17.0 28 20
fats
polyunsaturated 11 59.0 10 03
1.1.1 Draw a bar graph to compare the amount of saturated, unsaturated and the
polyunsaturated fat in lipids that are analysed in the above table (6)
1.1.2 Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fats. (2)
1.1.3 Mention any TWO functions of lipids in living organism. (2)
Activity 18 (fatty acids and biomolecule)

1.1
1.1.1 Classify the compounds labelled A and C (2)

1.1.2 Indicate the name of the fatty acids labelled A and B (2)
1.1.3 Write only the letter representing a fatty acid to which each of the following
statement applies:
(a) is of animal origin (1)
(b) It is of plant origin (1)
1.1.4 The compound labelled C plays an important role in agriculture. Justify this
statement with TWO important roles of this compound. (2)
Activity 19 (biomolecule)
1.1 The structural formula below represents monosaccharides.
STRUCTURE A STRUCTURE B
1.1.1 Name structure A and structure B. (2)

1.1.2 Indicate the compound formed when structure A and B are joined
together. (1)
1.1.3 Give TWO elements that are the basic composition of all
carbohydrates. (2)
1.2
Carbohydrates are organic molecule which acts as energy suppliers in the food of
animal. Some carbohydrates are very large and complex while others are simple.
Indicate the example of monosaccharaide or disaccharide or polysaccharide supplied

by each of the following food and plant source:
1.2.1 Fruits
1.2.2 Milk
1.2.3 Sugar cane
1.2.4 Wood
1.2.5 Plant cell
1.1. Analyse the structure below and answer the questions based on it
1.1.1 identify the structure above.

1.1.2 indicate the letter (A or B) that gives the structure in QUESTION 1.1.1 the
following:
(a) basic property
(b) Acidic property
1.1.3 Two or more of the structures mentioned in QUESTION 1.1.1 above, can be
joined together to form a polymer. Provide the name of this reaction
1.1.4 The polymer formed from joining two or more of the structure above plays a vital
role in the body of animal. Justify this statement with THREE reasons.
Activity 21 Biomolecules
1.1 The structures below are small units which when joined together form a
very complex organic compound.
Structure A Structure B
2.3.1 Give the name of the structures illustrated above. (1)

2.3.2 Name the bond that links structures A and B. (1)
2.3.3 When structure A joins structure B a water molecule is removed. Give
the name of this reaction. (1)
2.3.4 Identify TWO groups that make up both structures A and B. (2)
2.3.5 A large number of the structures illustrated in QUESTION 2.3 can be
joined together to form a complex organic compound.
Name the compound. (2)
2.3.6 Name THREE reasons why the compound in QUESTION 2.3.5
is important for living organisms. (3)
Activity 22 (Biomolecule)
1.1 The following structural formulae represent organic compounds. Study them and
answer the questions that follow:
1.1.1 Identify compounds A–D. (4)

1.1.2 Identify which of the structural formulae is a monomer of carbohydrates. (1)
1.1.3 Name the functional groups of the structural formulae B, C and D. (3)
1.1 The diagram below represents a bio-molecule
1.1.1 Identify the molecule (1)

1.1.2 Name the element found in the molecule (2)
1.1.3 Name type of the molecule represented by A and B respectively (2)
1.1.4 Compare the structures of the types of molecules represented by A and B (2)
1.1.5 Name the type of bond that join structure A with B,C and D
1.1.6 Name TWO functions of fats. (2)
TOPIC 2: SOIL SCIENCE

1. Soil texture
Relative size of particles in a given soil (i.e Clay particles are small, while sand particles
are large)
Different soil particles size according to diameter
Clay: less than 0,002mm
Silt :0,002-0,05mm
Sand 0,05- 2mm
Field Methods of determining soil texture
Feeling method
Sausage method
Soil texture triangle and determining soil textural classes

To identify a soil that is 40% sand, 25% clay and 35% silt, you need to find 25 on the
side for the clay and draw a line the direction of the arrow. Do the same with sand and
silt. In this case the descriptive classification of soil is loam
Activity 24 (Soil texture)
1.1
The sieve method is one of the important methods to determine the soil texture. Before
sieving, the soil sample is weighed and the placed in the top sieve. The entire set of sieves
vibrate automatically, or can be shaken by hand. Soil samples should be crushed to break
the peds before sieving. The soil sample is usually dried and any organic matter is burned
off or removed. Thereafter the individual weights are calculated as a percentage of the
total weights. In an experiment 3 800g od soil mass was taken to determine the weights
of different sizes which are as follows, 1700g of sand,1200g of clay and 900g of silt.
1.1.1 calculate the percentage of sand in the soil sample (3)

1.1.2 apart from sieve method, mention other TWO methods that are used in
determining soil texture (1)
1.1.3 Why should the farmer know the textural class of his/her soil? (2)
Activity 25 (soil texture)
1.1
When soil is to be allocated to a particular texture class, analysis is done in a

laboratory where particles sizes are expressed as a percentage in respect of other
particles. Knowledge of the texture class influences the decisions farmers make
about farming and assist traditional people to make pots which they use to serve
traditional beer during certain ceremony.
1.1.1 analyse the texture diagram above and determine the texture class of the
following soil sample: A. 50% sand, 20% clay, 25% silt
B. 40% sand, 50% clay, 10% silt
C. 94% sand, 3% clay, 2% silt
1.1.2 indicate the sample (A, B and C) to which each of the following characteristics
applies.
(a) Suitable for pottery work in rural communities
(b) Most suitable for cultivation
Activity 26 (soil texture)
1.1 soil texture is the proportion of sand, silt and clay in a given soil sample. Below
is a texture diagram used to identify soil texture classes, on the basis of particle
size analysis
1.1.1 use the texture diagram above to determine the percentage of sand and clay in
the following texture classes:
(a) clay loam (2)
(b) Silt loam (2)
1.1.2 The texture class with 20% sand, 20% silt and 60% clay has an influence on soil
characteristic. Substantiate this statement by explaining how this texture
influences the following:
(a) Tillability of the soil (2)
(b) Drainage of the soil (2)
1.1.3 Indicate the texture from the texture triangle that is ideal for crop cultivation
Activity 27 (Soil texture)
1.1 Different texture classes can be known through determining the quantity
of clay, silt and sand in a given soil sample. Indicate the method of
determining texture through the following:
1.1.1 Diagram showing the percentage of clay, silt and sand of a given
sample. (1)
1.1.2 Allowing light to pass through a dispersion of particles. (1)
1.1.3 Soil sample is released into water and the size of particles reaching
the bottom is determined. (1)
1.2 Explain the influence of clay and sand on the following soil characteristics:
1.2.1 Chemical reactivity (2)
1.2.2 Fertility (2)
1.2.3 Erodibility (2)
Activity 28 Soil texture
1.1 The diagrams below show different methods that can be used by a farmer to
determine the texture of the soil.
DIAGRAM A DIAGRAM B
1.1.1 Identify the methods of determining the texture as illustrated in Diagrams A and B. (2)
1.1.2 Predict the texture that will remain on top of the sieve if the method in Diagram
A is used. (1)
1.1.3 Suggest the texture illustrated in Diagram B. (1)
2. Soil structure
It describes the combination of particle to for aggregates
Classification of different soil structures
Factors influencing the development of soil structure
➢ Soil texture sandy soil has little or no structure (because particles do not bind
easily)
clay soil displays good structure
➢ Organic matter content
➢ Soil water content
➢ Micro-organism
Factors causing soil structure to decline
➢ Over grazing
➢ Movement of animals or farming equipment on wet soil
➢ Cultivating when soil is too wet or too dry
➢ Over irrigation
➢ Mono-cropping
Methods to improve poor soil structure
➢ Practice crop rotation

➢ Add gypsum
➢ Avoid cultivation and tillage when soil is too wet or too dry Prevent soil erosion
Advantages of good soil structure
➢ Prevent soil crusting

➢ Prevent soil erosion
➢ Prevent soil compaction (compacted soil lose their pore spaces so they cannot
hold water and air)
➢ Has nutrient balance
Activity 29 (soil structure)
1.1 Soil particles are grouped together to form aggregates or peds.
These peds are classified on the basis of shape. The diagram
below show different structures based on shape.
1.1.1 indicate the structure A and D

1.1.2 Indicate the letter representing a structure to which each of the
following statement applies:
(a) It is found in compacted soil
(b) Develops in soils of arid climate
1.1.3 Indicate a letter of a structure you would recommend to the farmer
for crop production
1.1.4 Give THREE reason for recommendation in QUESTION 1.1.3
Activity 30 (Soil structure)

1.1 the pictures below show soil with good structure and compacted
soil. Analyse the pictures and answer questions
1.1.1 identify the soil (A or B) that is compacted soil from the pictures
1.1.2 justify your answer in QUESTION 1.1.1 by indicating TWO visible
signs
1.1.3 provide TWO traditional methods in which the compaction can be
improved
1.1.4 Mention THREE advantages of soil with a good structure like A
Activity 31(Soil structure)

1.1 The table below shows the physical characteristics of soil on two
wheat farms
Physical soil Farm A Farm B
characteristics
Structure Crumb Blocky
Soil fraction (mm) 2, 00 - 0, 50 Less than 0,002
Depth (mm) 950 450
Colour light Grey
1.1.1 Indicate the farm which was likely to be easily saturated with
water.
1.1.2 give TWO reasons for the answer in QUESTION 1.1.1
1.1.3 Deduce the farm which is likely to have a higher wheat yield
1.1.4 Justify by explaining TWO characteristics on the table that can
result in higher yield.
3. Soil colour
Colour in soil gives an indication of soil condition. When used with
other soil characteristics, soil colour can be useful in determining how
that soil formed.
Homogeneous and nonhomogeneous soil colour
Differences between homogeneous and non-homogeneous soil
colour
Homogenous: soil sample display a single and uniform colour
For an example in a region when iron oxide occurs on sand, a
homogenous red colour may be spotted
Non-homogenous: occur when there’s mixture of colours. (the colour
might appear homogeneous from a distance, but appear different when
closely analyse. For an example; a mottled soil has a mixture of yellow and
orange-brown colours with some grey spots.) mottling are easy to be seen
when the soil is wet and fade away when dry.
Soil colours and their characteristics

➢ Dark or black soil
Indicates presence of organic matter
It is usually very fertile
Well drained soil
➢ Light soil or whitish soil Presence of salt
Result of server leaching
Less organic matter
➢ Red soil
Indicated presence of iron oxide
Presence of less water and enough oxygen Well
drained soil
➢ Grey soil
Less iron oxide (less oxidation)
Results of waterlogging
Poor drainage
Factors determining soil colour

➢ Presence of water
➢ Organic matter content of soil
➢ Soil aeration
➢ Drainage
➢ Water holding capacity.
Activity 32 soil colour

1.1 soil colour has a great influence on the fertility and productivity of
soil
1.1.1 Compare TWO interpretation of dark coloured soil and light
coloured soil on crop productivity (4)
1.2 Soil colour is a useful indicator of of some physical and chemical
properties that occur beneath the surface. Compare red and grey
coloured soils with regard to the following:
1.2.1 Air (2)
1.2.2 Moisture (2)
1.3
The colour of soil can give much information to the farmer or sell to the
soil scientist provided it is interpreted correctly
Indicate the colour of soil that is likely to occur under the following
climatic conditions
1.3.1 cool temperate regions (1)
1.3.2 humid region (1)
1.3.3 dry condition (1)
Activity 33 Soil colour

1.1. Soil colour is a useful indicator of some properties of soil. Different
soil colours exist as a results of certain soil conditions Indicate the
cause of the following soil colours:
1.1.1 Black (1)
1.1.2 Red (1)
1.1.3 Grey (1)
1.2 Characteristics and conditions of the soil.

1.2.1 Distinguish between homogeneous and non-homogeneous soil
colour. (2)
1.2.2 Name TWO factors that determine the colour of soil. (2)
4. SOIL PORES
Pore space and porosity
Total pore spaces: is the volume of soil that is occupied by air and water
➢ Pore spaces allow water to move through the soil.
➢ Pore spaces determine the amount of water a soil can hold.
Clay soil can hold more water than sandy soil (clay soil has low
permeability)
Water drains for fast in sandy soil that in clay soil
Differences between macro pores and micro pores

Macro-pores
➢ This are large pores that has bigger diameter.
➢ They drain freely under the influence of gravity
➢ It allows easy movement of water and air
Importance of macro-pores.
➢ They influence water air exchange
➢ Stimulate plant roots penetration
➢ Provide habitat for microorganism Micro-pores
➢ This are small pores that has small diameter
➢ Water will remain in this pores (unless suction forces occur)
➢ Has high water retention capacity
Bulk density
Is the mass per unit volume of soil
Calculating bulk density
750g of soil occupies a space of 500cm3. Calculate the bulk density of
this soil
Bulk density/BD= Mass of dry soil (g)
Volume of dry soil (cm3)
= 1,5g/cm3
➢ Low bulk density
Indicates well drained Suitable for cultivation
➢ High bulk density
Indicates compacted soil not suitable for cultivation Factors
influencing bulk density of soil
➢ Size of particle (soil texture)
➢ Degree of compaction
➢ Amount of organic matter
Activity 34 (Soil pores and bulk density)

1.1 bulk density is the mass per unit volume of any
substance. The sample of oven dried soil has a mass of
560 g and 75cm3 of volume
1.1.1 use the information above to calculate the bulk density
of the soil sample (4)
1.1.2 supply ONE factor that influence bulk density of soil (1)
1.2
Pore space of soil is important because soil pores are filled with water
and gases which are important for plant growth. The percentage of the
total pore space is determined by various factors
1.2.1 Describe the influence of the following factors on the total
pore space
(a) Soil depth (1)
(b) Soil cultivation (1)
1.2.2 Name TWO other factors that may have an influence
on the total pore space. (2)
Activity 34 (Pore space and bulk density)
1.1 the table below shows the mass, volume, bulk density and
percentage pore space of different soil sample.
Soil Sample Mass (g) Volume Bulk Pore

(cm3) density space (%)
(g/cm3)
A 450 600 0,75 62,7
B 620 550 1,13 56,2
C 880 500 ……….. 52,5
D 680 80 8,5 30,8
1.1.1 Use the information in the table to draw a bar graph
showing the mass and the volume of soil sample (6)
1.1.2 Identify the soil that has not been disturbed by heavy
implements (1)
1.1.3 Deduce TWO reason from the data in the table above for
your answer in QUESTION 1.1.2 (2)
1.1.4 Calculate the bulk density of soil sample C (4)
5. Soil air
Soil air makes up the volume of soil (pores) not occupied by liquids
Soil air differ from atmospheric air (soil air has more water vapour and
lower oxygen concentration than atmospheric air)
➢ All living organism need to get access to air to survive
➢ In the soil, living organism must also get access to oxygen to
survive
➢ Aquatic organism must extract oxygen for them to survive
Factors influencing the movement of soil air

Soil depth
Oxygen concentration decrease with depth, due to slow movement from
the atmosphere down through the soil.
Pore size
Soil with large pores make it easier for CO2 to escape from the soil to the
atmosphere and O2 to diffuse into the soil from the atmosphere.
Aeration
Soil with large pore generally has good aeration than soil with poor aeration
Drainage
Soil with large pore (sandy) has good drainage (water moves freely in the
soil) than soil with small pore (clay) with poor drainage (water is retained)
Comparison between atmospheric air and soil air
% % %
Nitrogen oxygen Carbon dioxide
Soil air 79.2 20.6 0.3
Atmospheric air 79 20.9 0.03
From the table above you can note that;
➢ In the soil air, Oxygen is replaced by carbon dioxide and at the same
time used by the roots and soil micro-organism during respiration.
That’s why the concentration of oxygen is relatively low.
➢ In the soil air, carbon dioxide is released by soil micro-organism and
roots. That’s why the concentration of carbon dioxide is fairly high in
the soil air.
Factors affecting the composition of soil air

Temperature
➢ High temperature stimulates soil micro-organism activity which
result in increased concentration of carbon dioxide Microbial activity
➢ Micro-organism require oxygen from the soil air for respiration, this
lowers the concentration of oxygen in the soil Type of crop
➢ Soil in which crops are grown contain more carbon dioxide than
bare soil (CO2 concentration is greater near the roots of the plant than
further away)
Plant roots
Plant roots require oxygen, so they take it from the soil air. This lower the
concentration of oxygen in the soil air Importance of carbon dioxide, oxygen
and nitrogen
Oxygen
Needed for respiration of plant plant roots and micro-organism
Needed for oxidation of minerals which contain iron
Play a role in decaying of plant remains or organic matter
Carbon dioxide
It combines with water to form carbonic acid.
Help to dissolve rocks and minerals to form soil (carbonic acid stimulate
weathering of rock to form soil) It releases plant nutrients in a soluble form
React with inaccessible compound to make them accessible to plant root
Nitrogen
Dilutes oxygen in the soil
It slows down oxidation
It is utilised by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in soil to make microbial protein.
Activity 35 (Soil air)

1.1 carbon dioxide from the root and decomposition of organic matter
reacts with water to form carbonic acid. Carbon dioxide in the air
combines with rain water to also form carbonic acid
1.1.1 carbon dioxide + water = carbonic acid
Express this as a chemical equation (2)
1.1.2 indicate THREE functions of carbon dioxide (3)
1.2 Name the gas responsible for each of the function below:
1.2.1 Inaccessible compounds become accessible to plant roots
1.2.2 slows down oxidation
1.2.3 improves the formation of humus in the soil.
Activity 36 (soil air)

1.1
Soil air makes up the volume of soil not occupied by liquid. The amount
of gases in soil is determined by the condition of soil. The oxygen
content in lower horizons is less due to poor diffusion and carbon
dioxide can escape easily in soils with a low total porosity.
1.1.1 Deduce TWO factors that influence storage and movement of soil
air from the scenario above. (2)
1.1.2 Compare the levels of gases mentioned in the scenario above with
those in the atmosphere. (2)
1.1.3 Explain the relationship between porosity and bulk density. (2)
1.2 A soil scientist conducted an experiment to test the influence of soil

gas in plants.
Experiment no. No.1 No.2
Conditions under which Planted seeds in soil and Planted seeds with a well
seeds are planted kept soil waterlogged rooted organic matter and
watered when needed
Results No growth occured Luxurious growth
1.2.1 Indicate the gas that is deficient in experiment No.1. (1)

1.2.2 Explain the role that the gas mentioned in QUESTION 1.1.1 could
have played if it was not deficient. (1)
1.2.3 Name the gas that is high in soil as a result of activities in
experiment No 2. (1)
1.2.4 Explain the reason for the high amount of gas mentioned in
QUESTION 1.2.3 (2)
6. Soil water
➢ This is the water in the soil
➢ Such soil is available in the form of:
gas – Water vapour
liquid – Water
solid – Ice
➢ Main focus will be on soil water in its liquid form.
Basic types of soil water

Gravitational water
➢ Is a free water that moves through the soil due to the force of
gravity
➢ it is found in macro-pores
➢ it is not available or taken up by plants (it may cause plant to wilt as
it occupies air space and restricts the supply of oxygen to plant
roots)
Hygroscopic water
➢ Is the water that forms a thin film around soil particles
➢ It is not available to plants (because this water is held tightly by
force of adhesion)
➢ Usually found in clay soil Capillary water
➢ Is water found in micro-pores
➢ It is available for plant growth (since capillary forces are stronger
than the force of gravity
➢ It is held by cohesion and adhesion
Cohesion –bond of two or more different molecules
Adhesion- force of attraction between similar molecule
Soil water losses and ways to limit the loss
Through run-off (occurs especially on sloping soils)

➢ Cover sloping soil with vegetation in rainy season
➢ Use contour wall to control run-off of water
➢ Use organic matter to increase infiltration
➢ Use gypsum the surface of soil to increase water infiltration
Through evaporation (occur when soil moisture is higher than moisture
in the atmosphere)
➢ Avoid irrigation during the hottest part of the day
➢ Plant wind breaks
Trough transpiration (occur when water is lost through the stomata of

leaf)
➢ Cultivate plants with low transpiration rate (since they require small
amount of water)
➢ Plant cultivars with short growing season (since they use less water
than long season crops
➢ Eliminate weeds (since it uses too much water)
➢ Limit use nitrogen fertiliser as it stimulate development of larger
leaves which uses much water)
Through percolation/seepage (occur in soil that is saturated)
➢ Use controlled irrigation (since flood irrigation on sandy soil may
lead to great percolation loss)
➢ Add organic matter to the soil (since it will increase the water
capacity of soil)
Capillary movement
Is the upward movement of water from the soil through micro-pores
➢ In soil with fine texture
Water will rise much higher because the particles are
closer together and capillary forces are stronger Water
movement is slow
➢ In soil with coarse texture
Water will rise very slow (capillarity is less)
Water movement is fast since the pores are too large
Diagram showing capillary movement
Availability of water of soil water to plants

This refers to the capacity of a soil to retain water that is available to plants
Saturation point
➢ This occur when all soil pores are filled with water that is held by
adhesion
➢ There is no space available for air in the soi (therefore plants will
grow normally)
Temporary wilting point
➢ It occur when the soil does not provide enough water to the plant
for it to retain its turgitidy
➢ Plants will be slightly wilted during hottest part of the day due to
increased transpiration
Permanent wilting
➢ Occur when there is not enough water in the soil to support the
growth of plant, or if water loss continues, plant will appear wilted
➢ Occur when there is hygroscopic water in the soil.
Activity 37 (soil water)

1.1 the schematic representation below indicates the forces with which
water is attracted to soil particle at different distances
1.1.1 deduce the forces that attract water molecules at distances labelled
A, B and C
1.1.2 Explain the reason why water drains away at C’
1.2
A farmer has a small piece of land for growing crops because of
different moisture condition, the land was divided into two, one piece for
vegetable and another piece for maize. Farmer cleared the land in
preparation of for planting. Soon after preparation, there was a heavy
rain for 2 days and the land was saturated with water.
Moisture content of both piece was measured for a period of 10 days.
The results are shown in the table below
DAY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Moisture 20 13 9 7 5 4 3 2 1 1
content
of land
for maize
Moisture 20 18 16 14 13 12 10 7 6 5
content
of land
for
vegetable
(%)
1.2.1 Plot a line graph of the moisture content for two pieces of land
against time in days
1.2.2 suggest THREE ways to limit the loss of water in land used for
maize
Activity 38 (Soil water)
1.1 The availability of water for plants is influenced by presence of
accessible soil water. The plant can either wilt, die or grow
optimally depending on soil moisture conditions
Indicate the plant’s response to the following soil conditions

1.1.1 water is held at a point equal to permanent wilting
1.1.2 field water capacity
1.1.3 temporal wilting point
1.1.4 saturation point

1.1
1.1.1 formulate a hypothesis for this experiment (2)

1.1.2 indicate the type of water movement the learners demonstrated in
the experiment (1)
1.1.3 based on the obeservations, label the soil types represented by A,
B and C. (3)
1.1.4 Indicate the soil where the following occurs:
(a) Water rises most rapidly (1)
(b) Water rises the slowest (1)
1.1.5 Give a reason for your answer in QUESTION 1.1.4 (a) and (b) (2)

1.1 Analyse the illustration on soil water below and answer questions that
follow.
1.1.1 Name the appropriate term referring to the illustrations labelled A

and B. (2)
1.1.2 Justify with a reason the answer to QUESTION 1.1.1. (2)
1.1.3 Explain the plant response when grown in soils in the illustrations
labelled B and C. (2)
1.1.4 Differentiate between temporal and permanent wilting points. (2)

1.1 The picture below shows different ways in which moisture can be lost
from soil.
3.3.1 Identify the water loss labelled B, C and G. (3)

3.3.2 Water loss in B can be prevented by minimising the use of nitrogen
fertiliser. Justify this statement. (2)
3.3.3 Indicate the letter representing the water loss that can be prevented
by each of the following measures:
(a) Contour walls (1)
(b) Planting wind breaks (1)
3.3.4 Identify the movement of water labelled D. (1)
3.3.5 Give a reason for the answer in QUESTION 1.1.4. (1)
7. Soil temperature
➢ It play an important role in many processes taking place in the soil
➢ The process includes: chemical and biological reaction
➢ The temperature of the soil is determined by heat exchange
between the soil and the atmosphere
➢ (heat is transmitted down to the soil through conduction)
Factors influencing soil temperature

Soil colour
➢ Dark coloured soil absorb much heat
➢ Light coloured soil reflects heat Amount of water in soil
➢ Wet soil takes time to heat up than dry soil Vegetation
➢ Soil with dense vegetation is cooler than soil with sparse vegetation
(vegetation shade the soil from sunlight)
Slope aspect
➢ North facing slope is much warmer than south facing slope (in the
shadow)
Season
➢ Soil will be warmer in summer and cooler in winter
Distance from the equator
➢ Soil closer to the equator is warm and soil away from the equator
permanently frozen because is cold
Influence of soil temperature on physical, chemical and

biological process taking place in soil
Biological
➢ When the temperature is high there is greater microbial activities in
the soil
➢ High temperature stimulate seed germination
➢ High temperature stimulate root development
Chemical
➢ When temperature is high speed up chemical reaction in the soil
Physical
➢ Day and night temperature help promote physical weathering of
rocks
Ways to manipulate soil temperature for better production

Mulching
➢ Covering soil with straws to insulate it Irrigation
➢ It helps reduce the soil temperature (as water in the surface
evapourates, energy is used and temperature drops
Add organic matter
Activity 42 (Soil temperature)

1.1
Soil temperature plays an important role in many processes which take place
in soil. These includes chemical reactions, biological and physical action
1.1.1 Explain how soil temperature has an influence on chemical

processes in the soil (2)
1.1.2 Name TWO ways in which a farmer can manipulate soil
temperature (2)
1.2 The following diagram illustrate the factor that influences soil
temperature
1.1.1 indicate the factor that influence the temperature as illustrated

above (1)
1.1.2 explain the reason for each of the following soil temperature:
(a) land will be warmer for long time under moist and cloudy
condition (2)
(b) Low temperature in light coloured soil compared to dark soil

1.1.3 State THREE influences of soil temperature on biological process

1.1 The data below shows the soil temperature reading at two different
depths measured from 06:00 until 18:00
Time Temperature reading Temperature reading 20 cm
on the surface (ºC) deep (ºC)
06:00 08 04
08:00 10 04
10:00 14 15
12:00 21 12
14:00 27 16
16:00 24 18
18:00 19 16
1.1.1 draw a bar graph showing soil temperature readings at different

depth during different times of the day (6)
1.1.2 state your observations about the trend of temperature on soil
surface (1)
1.1.3 name TWO ways to minimise the situation in QUESTION 1.1.2 (2)
1.2 Soil temperature has an effect on physical, biological and chemical
processes taking place in soil. Indicate whether each of the following
process listed below is a physical, chemical or biological effect of soil
temperature:
1.2.1 Faster chemical reactions due to warm temperatures (1)
1.2.2 Micro-organisms are more active at temperatures between 15 °C to
35 C (1)
1.2.3 At high temperatures rocks break up to form soil particles (1)

1.1 The graph below shows soil temperature ranges over 60 hours.
1.1.1 Explain the trend of soil temperature as reflected in the graph

above. (2)
1.1.2 Use a table to present the information given in the graph above.(6)
1.1.3 Name TWO ways in which the farmer can manipulate temperature
other than the one shown on the graph. (2)
Activity 45 (soil temperature)

1.1 The diagram below shows the orientation of land as a factor
influencing soil temperature.
1.1.1 Indicate the letter that represents the land where the following
occurs:
(a) Increased seed germination and germination percentage (1)
(b) Retard microbe activity (1)
(c) Faster chemical reaction (1)
1.1.2 Give TWO methods the farmer can apply to manipulate soil
temperature. (2)
8. Soil morphology/ soil profile

soil profile- is the vertical exposure of soil showing various
horizons soil horizon- this are layers in the soil profile profile hole-
is a pit dug in the soil to expose all horizon
Development and description of major soil horizon

O – HORIZON
➢ Top soil/ surface horizon
➢ Known as organic horizon
➢ Contain decayed organic matter
A – HORIZON
➢ It is a top soil horizon
➢ It is always present unless it is removed
➢ Most biological activities take place
➢ It is the most important hforizon for agriculture
➢ It is the first horizon to be ploughed
➢ It develops through weather
➢ Has a mixture of organic and inorganic matter
B – HORIZON
➢ It is a subsoil
➢ Illuviated horizon
➢ Contain material that leached from A-HORIZON
➢ Contain clay silicate and oxide( iron oxide, manganes oxide,
aluminium oxide)
C – HORIZON
➢ Contain partially weather rock
➢ Contain unconsolidated rock
R – HORIZON
➢ Contain unweathered rock material
➢ Made up of unconsolidated rock material
Additional horizon
E- HORIZON
➢ Found after A-HORIZON
➢ It doesn’t not occur in every soil profile
➢ Contain little organic matter (due to leaching)
➢ Found from soil in high rain-fall areas
➢ It is more lighter than A HORIZON above it and B-HORIZON below
it.
G – HORIZON
➢ It is sticky and clay rich horizon
➢ It reflects permanent waterlogging
➢ Found near water table Mature (Adult soil)
➢ Has all the clear distinguishable soil horizon
It has : A
E
B
C
Young soil
➢ This are usually immatured soil
➢ It has minimal horizons (A horizon is above the R horizon)
➢ Parent material is the only influence
➢ It has: A A
C or R
Water logged soil
➢ It is a poorly drained soil
➢ It hardens and crack into cubes when dry
➢ It fails to support plant and microbial life
➢ It has: A O
B or G
G
Eroded soil
➢ Such soil has part of it’s A HORIZON and B HORIZON is remove
by wind or water erosion
➢ It cannot sustain crop life
➢ It has: B
C
Activity 46 (soil morphology)
1.1 The diagram below shows horizontal layers.
1.1.1 Identify the letter of the horizon in which the following

information applies:
(a) Soil is directly formed (1)
(b) Physical weathering occurs (1)
(c) Signifies the loss of organic matter (1)
(d) Decomposed organic matter mixed with mineral particles (1)
1.1.2 Sketch the profile of the following soils:
(a) Wet soil (2)
(b) Eroded soil (2)
Activity 47 (soil morphology

1.1 The diagram below shows horizontal layers of a soil.
1.1.1 Sketch the profile of the soil with horizontal layers in the diagram
above. (2)
1.1.2 Indicate the horizon that will be visible if the soil above can
be subjected to the following:
(a) High degree of leaching (1)
(b) Very wet conditions (1)

1.1 the diagram below shows the development of master horizon and
the schematic representation of a soil profile. Answer the questions
based on it.
Use the diagram above and relate the horizons with the following
characteristics:
1.1.1 The horizon is formed by marked loss of soil structure
1.1.2 Mineral particles are found in this horizon
1.1.3 Contain only inorganic material
1.1.4 Mixture of inorganic and fully decomposed organic matter
1.1.5 Material from which soil is directly formed
1.1.6 Physical weathering occur in it.

1.1 The illustration below shows different horizons visible after digging
through the soil
1.1.1 determine the age of the soil above
1.1.2 give a reason for your answer
1.1.3 sketch the profile for the type of soil metioned in Question 1.1.1
1.1.4 indicate the letter representing a horizon with the following
characteristics
(a) enriched with eluviated material
(b) inorganic materialmixed with organic
9. Soil classification
Is the grouping of soil with similar properties (such as texture and
structure)
➢ Classification of soil help you to understand, identify and
communicate knowledge about soils, as well as to properly
manage the soil
Ways of classifying soil
Binomial soil classification system (used in S.A)
➢ The system is based on identifying master horizons
➢ According to this system, soil is divided into 73 soil forms and soil
families.
Soil forms
This is an upper or general level
They are defined by the unique vertical sequence of horizon
Soil families
This is a lower and more specific level
It shares same properties of soil form but different to soil form with
other properties.
Steps involved when classifying soil
1. Demarcate master horizon
2. Identify all the horizon’
3. Name a soil form
4. Identify a mark that differentiate soil family
5. Identify soil family
6. Determine the texture of the A- horizon
Reason for classifying soil
To know which crop to cultivate
To know which fertilizer to be used
To manage irrigation of the crop
Activity 50 (soil classification)

1.1 Soil classification is an important aspect of agriculture.
1.1.1 Outline THREE reasons why soil classification is important in
agriculture. (3)
1.1.2 In South Africa soil classification system contains two categories or
levels. Name these categories. (2)
1.1.3 Outline the procedure when soil classification is done in sequence.
Soil colloids
What are soil colloids?
This are negatively charged ion that attracts positive cations
They are very tinny soil particles (less than 0,001mm)
They are the most active portion of soil
They have ability to adsorb cations
Types of colloids
In-Organic Colloid
• They have layered structure with flat plate (they have structure)
Note: each layer is made up of two or THREE sheets compose of THREE element: Silicon,
oxygen and aluminium.
• These elements combine to form different kinds of clay.

Silicon combine with oxygen to form SILICA SHEETS.
SILICATE CLAY have two or three layers (depending on combination of silica and
aluminium)
Groups of silicate clay:
Vermiculite – has high fertility because of high negative charges which adsorb high amount
of cations.
Kaolinite- 1:1 type. Has less fertility because of less negative charges which adsorb less
cations.
Montmorillonite- 2:1 type
1:1- is one silica layer and one aluminium layer
2:1-is two silica layers and one aluminium layer
• Form from weathering of minerals such as; FELDSPAR or MICA

• They are rich in mineral Silica
• Made up of clay minerals
• Contain aluminium, magnesium and hydroxide
e.g. Clay mineral
ORGANIC COLLOID
• They are structure less
• Form from decomposed organic matter
• They are more reactive chemically
• They have greater influence on properties of soil
e.g. humus
Differences between organic and in-organic colloids
Organic colloid In-organic colloid

Have a net negative charge Have net positive charge
They are sticky They are not sticky
They shrink and swell Do not shrink and swell
They hold nutrients on the surface Do not hold water and nutrient
Made of humus Made of clay mineral
CATION ADSORPTION AND CATION EXCHANGE
Cation adsorption
• Is the binding of positive charged cation to the negatively charges on the surface
• In humid region, most of the colloids are dominated by three main cations: Ca2+, H+
&
AI3+
Acidic soil
Soil with predominance of the following cation:
• Hydrogen (H+)
• ALUMINIUM (AI+)
N0TE: Mg2+, K+ & Na+ are found in lesser amounts
ALKALINE SOIL
Soil with predominant of the following cation:

Calcium (Ca2+)
• Magnesium (mg2+)
• Potassium (k+)
• Sodium (Na+)
Note: H+ and Al+ are found in lesser amount
Predominant ions and soil
type
Predominant ions Type of soil Ph.

Hydrogen (H+) and Acidic Low
Aluminium (Al+)
Calcium (Ca+) and Sweet neutral
Magnesium (Mg+)
Sodium(Na+) and Brackish alkaline
potassium (k+)
CATION EXCHANGE
Is the measure of the ability of soil to exchange cations with the soil
Note: the (+) superscript indicates how many positive charges the cation carries)
Neutralisation
• Is the reversal of acidity
• H+ ions are exchanged for ca2+ and Mg+ Acidification
• Is the process of exchanging basic cation such as Ca2+, mg2+, k+ and Na+ for acid
cation H+ and Al3+ Active acidity
• Is the hydrogen concentration in the soil water

• Hydrogen ions are in a solution and can easily exchange
Reverse acidity
• Hydrogen ion are bound onto the soil particles, and not the solution
• Hydrogen ions are not readily exchanged
Note: clay soil- hold more cation

: Sandy soil- hold less cation
PH SCALE
Measures the acidity and alkalinity of the soil
Degree of acidity is determined by the amount of H+ ion in the soil It ranges
from 0-14
Factors causing soil acidity
• Carbon dioxide combines with to form carbonic acid in the soil

• Rain water leaches away alkaline ions
• Decaying of organic matter produces organic acids
• Fertilizer containing sulphur is added into the soil
• Weathering of acidic parent material
Effects of soil acidity on crop production
• Causes roots to detoriates or stop growing

• Plant fail to absorb water and nutrients
• Loss of crop yield
• Acid lower the availability of nutrients
Ways to control soil acidification
• Add lime in the soil (adding calcium or magnesium to the soil)

• Avoid using acid fertilizers (use basic fertilizers such as CALCITIC or DOLOMITIC
AGRICULTURAL LIME
• Plant acid tolerant plants
SOIL ALKALINITY AND SALINITY
What is soil alkalinity?

• This are clay soil with a PH higher than 9
• It has poor structure
• Has low infiltration capacity
• Rich in carbonates (sodium carbonates)
• It is less soluble than acidic soil
• Found in arid or semi-arid region
• This soil is BASIC not SALTY (It has low sodium chloride concentration)
What is salinity?
• Is the concentration of salt in the soil or water
• Water with more salt is known as Brackish water (it has more salt than fresh water
but not more than sea water)
• Soil with more salts is known as brackish soil
• This soil (contain solute salts such as Na+, Ca2+and Mg2+)
SALINE AND SODIC SOIL
Differences between saline and sodic soil
Saline soil / white brack

• Soil that is rich in soluble salts such as sodium chloride (table salt) and calcium
sulphate (gypsum)
• Ph. lower than 8,5
• Parent material from which the soil weathers contain salts
• It can be a result of sea water in coastal areas
Sodic soil/ black brack

• Soil that contain excess sodium carbonates
• Ph. is higher than 8,5
• It contains much sodium that most crop will not grow in them
• It has reduced infiltration and water availability
• Surface waterlogging increases
Characteristics of saline or white brack soil

• It contains enough soluble salts to affects growth of most plants
• Contain no soluble carbonates
• Most common soluble salt are chlorides and sulphates of sodium
• Contain large amount of gypsum (calcium sulphate)
• Sodium and chloride present in large quantity
• Contain no soluble carbonates Measuring salinity
Measured by testing the electrical conductivity of the soil solution. The more SALT in A
SOLUTION, the greater the conductivity
Factors causing brackishness/alkalinity /saltiness

• Soil parent material
• Salty irrigation water
• Inorganic fertilisers
• Poor soil drainage
Effects of brack/alkaline/salinity on crop production

• Crops may wilt or die
• Uneven growth
• Salt at the root zone make extraction of water difficult
Method to prevent or control soil alkalinity/brackish or salinity
• Apply gypsum
• Apply green manure
• Irrigate to leach salt in dry areas
• Cover soil with mulch during summer
• Do not apply too much lime on the soil
• Test irrigation water
Ways to reclaim alkaline soil
• Identify the cause of alkaline

• Add organic matter to facilitate drainage
• Add gypsum to reduce the PH
Activity 51 (SOIL colloids)
1.1 Soil colloids both organic and inorganic are tiny soil particles which determine the fertility
of the soil
1.1.1 Give an example of organic colloid (1)
1.1.2 Differentiate between organic and inorganic colloid with regard to shape (2)
1.1.3 Explain how organic and inorganic colloids improves soil fertility (2) Activity
52 (Soil colloids)
1.1 Cation absorbed on the surface of the colloid can be exchanged with cation predominant
in the soil solution. The diagrams below show cations adsorbed on the colloid and in the
solution
1.1.1 Identify the form of acidity labelled A and B (2)

1.1.2 Justify the answer in QUESTION 1.1.1 above (2)
1.1.3 Indicate the letter representing acidity that will have an effect on the plant growth (1)
1.1.4 Suggest a reason for the answer in QUESTION 1.1.3 above (1)
1.1.5 Give an appropriate term for the ability of soil to exchange cations with the soil solution
ACTIVITY 53 (soil colloids)

1.1
1.1.1 From the list of ion above, select TWO (in each case), that influences the soil reactions
below:
(a) Alkalinity (2)
(b) Acidity (2)
(c) neutrality (2)
1.1.2 Indicate TWO negative impacts of soil dominated by AI+3 on crop (2)
1.1.3 Suggest a method to control the problem stated in QUESTION 1.1.2 above (2)
Activity 54 (soil colloids)

1.1 Answer the following questions by using the elements in the following table
Ca++, Mg++, H+, Na+, AI+++,

NH4+ NO3-
1.1.1 Which element makes the soil to be acidic (1)

1.1.2 Indicate the element which causes brack or alkaline soil (1)
1.1.3 Name the element(s) which cannot be adsorbed directly to the colloid (1)
1.1.4 State ONE element that causes neutral
(1)
ACTIVITY 55 (soil colloids)
1.1 The following shows a comparison between the properties of organic and inorganic
colloids
Property Organic colloid Inorganic colloid
Origin 1.1.1 1.1.2
Form 1.1.3 1.1.4
Element composition 1.1.5 1.1.6
Activity 56 (soil colloids)
1.1 The schematic representation below illustrates the cation adsorption on the surface of the
colloids.
1.1.1 Indicate the type of acidity illustrated in the colloid labelled A. (1)
1.1.2 Give a reason for the answer in QUESTION 1.11. (2)
1.1.3 Name TWO factors that may be the cause of the colloidal condition labelled A
1.1.4 The colloidal condition labelled C causes the soil to be brackish. Justify this
statement.
1.1.5 Name the chemical substance that can be used to reclaim brackishness in soil
1.1.6 comment on the fertility level of soils dominated by the following clay minerals:
(a) vermiculite (2)
(b) kaolinite (2)
Activity 57 (Soil alkalinity and salinity)

1.1 the table below shows TWO farms with different soil condition
FARM A FARM B
Upper layer of soil is black White layer of salt appears on the

Soil particles dissociates soil surface
Reduced water infiltration Poor Water take long time to infiltrate
seed germination due to the soil
dispersed particles blocking Crop appear wilted even after
pores irrigation
On hot days water evaporates
leaving salt on the soil
1.1.1 predict the Ph. of souls in farm A and Farm B

1.1.2 Indicate the common terms used to describe the Ph. levels of farm A and
Farm B
1.1.3 Name the salt that predominate in Farm A soil
1.1.4 Suggest Two measures in which the condition of soil in farm A can be
corrected
Activity 58 (Soil alkalinity and salinity)

1.1 Compare in table form the saline and sodic soils with regard to the following:
1.1.1 (a) dominant salt (2)
(b) colour (2)
(c) corrective measures (2)
TOPIC 3 SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

SOIL ORGANISM
• A good healthy soil is full of living organism
• Some of the soil organism are microscopic and they cannot be seen with the
naked eye.
• Such soil organism breaks down organic matter to release nutrients
• They are known as decomposers
• The environment in which soil organism is determined by the physical and
chemical properties of soil (soil provides living requirement as well as protection
for soil organisms
• They are involved in chemical processes such carbon and nitrogen cycle
Differences between soil micro-organism and macro-organism Micro-organism
Smaller than 0,2- 2mm in width

Cannot be seen with naked eyes
Macro-organism
Larger animals over 2 mm in width

Can be seen with naked eyes
Examples of soil organism
MICRO-ORGANISM
• Bacteria
It has large variety including spiral, rod-shaped and round bacteria
• Algae
Multicellular organism.
• Fungi
This are spore-forming organism such as penicillin
• Protozoa
They are simple organism without any fixed cell shape
MACRO-ORGANISM
• Earthworm
• Mice and mole (vertebrates)
• Insects, mites, millipedes, ants and beetles (arthropods)
Condition needed for the survival of soil organism
• Sufficient Soil moisture

Micro-organism are more active in soil with moisture between 20% and 50%
• Suitable Soil temperature Temperature between 25- 30 ®C
• Ideal pH.
Soil pH determine the type of organism in the soil.
Importance soil organism (both micro and macro-organism)
• Break down organic matter and release plant nutrients

• It improves soil structure (due to the formation of humus)
• Nitrogen fixation (They fix nitrogen from the atmosphere into microbial protein)
• They open up the soil to improve soil aeration
Negative effect of micro-organism in the soil
• Dairy products can be spoilt by certain fermentation fungi

• Micro-organism can cause disease
• Food poisoning may occur when rotting bacteria land in food
Activity 59 (living organic matter)

Living organism
1.1 The pictures below show some living organisms found in soil.
1.1.1 Classify the organisms in pictures A and B. (2)

1.1.2 The organisms in the pictures above need certain conditions in order to survive.
Mention THREE conditions needed for the survival of these organisms. (3)
1.1.3 Explain how the organisms in the pictures above improve the following in the
soil:
(a) Soil structure (2)
(b) Soil fertility (2)
Activity 60 (living organic matter)

Nutrient cycle
1.1 Nutrient cycling is important in agriculture as it ensures availability of nutrients over and
over again for the next cropping season. Analyse the illustration below showing nutrient
cycling.
1.1.1 Identify the nutrient cycle illustrated above. (1)

1.1.2 The processes labelled A and C ensure that the nutrient identified in QUESTION
1.1.1 reaches the living organisms. Name the processes in A and C. (2)
1.1.3 Indicate the processes in which the gas above is returned to the atmosphere as
illustrated in label D. (1)
1.1.4 Explain the role of soil organisms in the cycle illustrated above (2)
Activity 61 (Living organism)

Nutrient cycle
1.1
1.1.1 identify the processes labelled A, B, C and D

1.1.2 Name the soil condition favouring the process in B
Activity 4 (Living organism)

Nutrient cycle
1.1 The schematic representation below illustrates the recycling of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere to the living organisms and back again
1.1.1 Provide labels for the process numbered 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6

1.1.2 Name TWO important soil micro-organism that play a role during the process
labelled 5
1.1.3 State TWO requirements of the organism in QUESTION 1.1.2 above.
PAPER 2
PLANT NUTRITION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Is the process of food production
• It is a chemical process taking place in green parts of plants
• It involves converting carbon dioxide into organic compound in the form of
carbohydrates or sugar which is stored in plants as energy
Chlorophyll
6CO2+ H2O+Light C6H12O6+ 6O2
Enzyme
Schematic representation of photosynthesis
• Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the stomata

• Water is absorbed by roots and moves upwards through the xylem to the leaves
• The mesophyll tissue of the leave contains chloroplast and enzymes
• The light energy Is absorbed by the chlorophyll in the chloroplast
• Light, enzyme and chlorophyll change carbon dioxide into oxygen and carbohydrates
• Oxygen leaves the plant and enter the atmosphere
• Carbohydrates are stored in leaves and stem of plant.
Differences between photosynthesis and respiration

Photosynthesis Respiration
It is an anabolic process (building up It is a catabolic process (breaking down
process) process
Occur during the day Occur during the day and night
Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the Oxygen is absorbed from the
atmosphere atmosphere
Oxygen is released into the atmosphere Carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere
Phases of photosynthesis
• Light phase
Needs light to take place
It is light-dependent
Also known as hills reaction
Takes place in the grana of chloroplast During this
phase the following occur:
➢ chlorophyll absorb radiant energy from the sun and convert it into
chemical energy.
➢ Part of the energy is used to split water molecule into oxygen (gas)
and hydrogen ions (this is called photolysis)
➢ The oxygen is released into the atmosphere and used for cellular
respiration.
➢ The hydrogen ions combine with co-enzyme NADP to form NADPH
which is used in the dark phase
➢ The energy is also used to transform ADP into ATP
➢ The remaining energy is used to produce energy carrier ATP (This is
called photophosphorylation)
➢ ATP carries the energy to the stroma, in chloroplast, to build
carbohydrates molecule.
• Dark phase
Does not require light
It is light- independent phase
Also known as Calvin cycle
Take place in stroma of the chloroplast During this
phase the following occur:
➢ Carbon dioxide, ATP and NADPH is used to produce energy-rich
glucose
Storage of food in plants
Product of photosynthesis are stored in different parts of the plant.
• Stems
Potatoes (fleshy thicken underground stem)
Ginger (underground horizontal stem)
Onion (short underground stem
Sugar cane (aerial stem)
• Roots
Sweet potatoes (fleshy lateral roots)

Carrot and beetroot (stored in tap root)
• Leaves
Onion leaves
Cabbage, spinach, lettuce
• Seeds Sunflower seeds
Bean seed
Maize seed
• Fruit
Deciduous fruit and citrus fruit (fleshy fruit) Walnut
(dry fruit)
Factors influencing the rate of photosynthesis
• Light intensity
High light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis
Low light intensity decreases the rate of photosynthesis
• Temperature
High temperature increase the rate of photosynthesis
Low temperature decreases the rate of photosynthesis
• Carbon dioxide concentration
High carbon dioxide concentration in the air increase the rate of
photosynthesis
Low carbon dioxide concentration in the air decrease the rate of
photosynthesis
• water
High soil water content increases the rate of photosynthesis
Low soil water content slow down the rate of photosynthesis
Ways to manipulate plants to increase photosynthesis
• Trellising
Keeping plants off the ground to ensure that the fruit bearing-shoots have
maximum exposure to sunlight for maximum photosynthesis
• Pruning
Removing branches of trees to prevents overshadowing to give plants enough
exposure to light for maximum photosynthesis
• Greenhouses
Have transparent roofs which enable plants to obtain maximum exposure to
light for photosynthesis
• Plant density
Fruits and trees are spaced far apart to give leaves maximum exposure to light
for photosynthesis
ACTIVITY 63 (PLANT NUTRITION)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1.1 The sketch below shows the light phase and dark phase of photosynthesis
1.1.1 Indicate the part of a plastid where the following occur:

(a) Light phase
(b) Dark phase
1.1.2 Predict the benefit of the processes in QUESTION 1.1 to mankind
1.1.3 Mention TWO storage organs of plant where excess products of the
process in QUESTION 1.1could be stored
1.1.4 Differentiate between photosynthesis and respiration with regard to
energy use in both processes
Activity 64 (plant nutrition) Photosynthesis
1.1 two schematic representations of two chemical processes that take place in plants are
indicated as follows:
(a) CO2 + H2O+energy sun carbohydrates +O2
(b) Carbohydrates + O2 CO2 +H2O+ chemical energy
1.1.1 Identify the process (a) and (b) in QUESTION 1.1 above
1.1.2 Comment on the differences between the two chemical processes under the
following:
(a) Energy (b)
food
1.1.3 List TWO storage organs in which excess starch, sugar, lipids or protein are stored in
plant
Activity 65 (Plant nutrition)

Photosynthesis
1.1 The illustration below indicates a very important process in plant studies
1.1.1 Critically examine the process in the illustration and tabulate TWO differences
between the process above and respiration in plants
1.1.2 Suggest THREE factors that could increase the rate of the process illustrated in
QUESTION 1.1 above
1.1.3 State THREE adaptation of plants to reduce the transpiration rate
1.1.4 Give the importance of the process illustrated in QUESTION 1.1 to all living
organism (THREE reasons)
1.1.5 Recommend TWO ways to increase the rate of photosynthesis
WATER AND NUTRIENTS

Water
Importance of water in plants
• Water transport nutrients to the plant

• Water provides structural support to plant
• Water act as cooling agent
• It is a medium for chemical reactions (e.g. photosynthesis and respiration)
Movement of water from the soil to the roots
• Plants get their water and mineral nutrient through their roots from the soil •
The roots have root hairs which absorbs water and mineral salts
• Transport of water can be:
Passive uptake - needs no energy to transport water e.g.
Osmosis and Diffusion
Active uptake – needs energy to transport water
Differences between osmosis and diffusion Osmosis
• Is the movement of water molecule from high water potential to low water potential
through permeable membrane
• Water moves freely because of their own kinetic energy
• When water molecule contains dissolved substances it lowers its free energy
Diffusion
• Is the movement of molecule from high concentration to low concentration
• Movement will continue until the concentration of molecule between the two region is
equal (we say it has reached a dynamic equilibrium)
Difference between hypertonic and hypotonic solution

Hypertonic solution
• Solution that many contain dissolved substances
• This solution has low water potential Hypotonic solution
• Solution that contain fewer dissolved substances e.g. pure water

• This solution has high water potential
Movement of water from the roots to the stem and the leaves
• Xylem tissue in the roots is responsible for the transport of water from the roots to the
stem and leaves
• Upward movement of water from the roots to the stem and leaves is controlled by the
following forces:
Root pressure
• As water moves into the root, the roots is filled with water and the osmotic pressure
increase.
• The cell become turgid and root pressure develops in the xylem
• Root pressure pushes the water up the xylem vessel of the stem to the leaves.
Transpiration pull
• Is the upward pulling force exerted in water column in plants when water is lost
through transpiration
• Water is pulled up the xylem vessel in the root and stem as a results of the
evaporation of water vapour
Capillarity
• Upward movement of water in narrow tubes
Movement of water from the leaves to the atmosphere

o In the leave excess water is released into the atmosphere via
evaporation.
o The water evaporates through small openings on the surface of the
leaf water in the leaf can be lost through:
o Transpiration
o Loss of water in the form of vapour through the stomata of leaves
o It occurs during the day
Guttation
• Loss of water in the form of small droplets through the hydathodes on the edge of
leaf
• It occurs during the night
Adaptation features of plants to reduce transpiration rate
• Thick cuticle
• Sunken stomata
• Hairy leaves
• Small leaves
Activity 66 (plant nutrition)

Water
1.1
A decrease in hydrostatic pressure in the upper parts of the plant, due to the
diffusion of water out of stomata into the atmosphere, allows water to travel
from the roots to the stem and leaves of plants. The process that enable water
to move up a plant from the roots to the stems and leaves involve osmotic
flow, root pressure and transpiration pull.
1.1.1 Identify TWO pressures in plants that allow water to travel from the
roots to the stems and leaves from the scenario above. (2)
1.1.2 Differentiate between root pressure and transpiration pull in plants. (4)
1.1.3 Mention the part of the plant modified for the diffusion of water into
the atmosphere. (1)
activity 67(plant nutrition)

water
1.1
The movement of water from the roots to the stems and leaves is very important. Water
contains much-needed mineral nutrients. In this way the nutrients are transported to the
different organs of the plant. Some of the processes take place
through osmosis and diffusion.
1.1.1 Deduce THREE factors that influence the upward movement of water in plants. (3)
1.1.2 Summarise the role played by xylem vessels in the upward movement of water in
plants. (2)
1.1.3 List TWO functions of water in plants. (2)
1.1.4 Distinguish between osmosis and diffusion. (4)
1.1.5 Name the part of the plant responsible for the following:
(a) transportation of water (1)
(b) absorption of water (1)
(c) transportation of nutrients (1)
MINERAL NUTRITION
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MACRO AND MICRO MINERALS

Macro-mineral
• Minerals required by plants in large quantities
• They become deficient when taken in small quantities
Example: Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Micro mineral
• Mineral required by plants in small quantities
• They become poisonous when taken in large quantities Example: Iron (Fe)
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Cobalt
Form in which minerals are available to plants.

Nitrogen
• NO-3 (Nitrate) in soil water
• NH4+ (ammonia) in soil water
Phosphorus
• H3PO4 (Phosphoric acid)
Potassium
• K+ (Potassium ion) in soil water
Deficiency of macro-minerals
Nitrogen
• Stunted growth
Yellowing of leaving (chlorosis) •
Leaves become brown and die
Phosphorus
• Reduced growth
• Purple, discoloured leaves
Potassium
Leaf scorch
Plant nutrient uptake

Types of plant nutrient uptake
Passive ion uptake
Nutrient elements diffuse from soil water into the root down the concentration
gradient: it requires no energy
Active ion-uptake
Nutrient elements diffuse from soil water into roots against concentration gradient:
It requires energy
Factors affecting the availability of nutrients to plants Soil pH. Leaching

leads to draining of mineral salts from the topsoil to subsoil where unavailable. Crop
removal
clean clearing, deforestation or cutting down of harvested crops reduces soil nutrients
Erosion: removes soil nutrients.
Methods to determine nutritional status of soil
Soil sample analysis
Soil sample analysis = usually done before planting:
contact analytical laboratory for questionnaires and packets keep samples for
each land unit, and topsoil (10) and subsoil (5) separate draw representative
sample from mixed sub-samples place in clean bag (plastic, cloth or hessian),
identify and deliver with questionnaire.
Plant or leaf sample analysis
Plant or leaf sample analysis = done when crop is already growing: leaf
sample taken to laboratory where it is washed, dried and stored representative
sample taken at a certain time of the year
pick 10–20 young, mature healthy leaves (at least 10 undamaged) before 10:00 do
not wash, place in clean plastic bag and deliver to laboratory immediately.
Activity 68 (plant science)
Mineral nutrition
1.1
Some grade 11 learners tested the effect of different nutrient element on the formation
of buds in a rose plant for six months. Their findings was recorded in a table as follows:
Nutrient element Number of buds formed after three month
Zinc 8
Cobalt 5
Nitrogen 20
Boron 25
Potassium 15
1.1.1 Draw their findings using a bar graph and give and
appropriate heading for the graph. (5)
1.1.2 Tabulate the nutrient element used for the trial into micro
and macro nutrients elements
Activity 69 (Plant science)
Mineral nutrition
1.1 The following plant nutrient deficiency symptoms occur in
some vegetable crops:
(a) Growth of whole plant is stunted and restricted
(b) Leaf margins and ends become brown and necrotic
(c) Poor leaf development
1.1.1 Match the mineral elements in the table that show the deficiency
symptom mentioned in 1.1
Sulphur Calcium,
Nitrogen Potassium
Activity 70 (plant sciences)

Mineral nutrition
1.1
The difference between micro-elements and macro-elements is
only in the quantities required by plant. Nutrients element
requirements differ between the element as well as between plant
species
1.1.1 Tabulate the following plant nutrients into macro and micro element:
Boron
Potassium
Zinc
Nitrogen
1.1.2 indicate ONE function of boron to plants
1.1.3 state TWO ways in which mineral nutrient uptake occurs in plants

Mineral nutrition
1.1 mineral nutrients are very essential for the growth and
development of crops. However, there are several factors that
affect the availability of nutrients or mineral element to plants
1.1.1 indicate FOUR factors that affect the availability of mineral
nutrients to plants
1.1.2 state TWO method that could be used to determine the nutritional
status of
soil
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILISERS
Differences between organic and inorganic fertilizers

Organic fertilizer
Fertilizer composed of decayed organic matter
In-organic fertilizer
chemical preparations consisting of inorganic salts applied to
soil IN-ORGANIC
FERTILIZERS
EXAMPLES OF INORGANIC FERTILIZERS
Nitrogen fertilizers
LAN (Lime ammonium nitrate)
UREA CO(NH2)
AMMONIUM SULPHATE (NH4) SO4
Phosphate fertilizer
ROCK PHOSPHATE
SUPERPHOSPHATE
Potassium fertilizer
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KCL)
POTASSIUM SULPHATE (K2SO)
FERTILIZER MIXTURE
Mixture of nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K):
Each type is designated by a number, e.g. 2:3:2 (24) meaning the ratio
of N to P to K is 2:3:2 and 24 kg out of 100 kg are minerals.
Calculation of the percentage plant nutrient in mixed fertilisers
Example:
Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the fertiliser mixture 2:3:2
(24).
Answer:
The total quantity of all three nutrients together in 100 kg of the mixture is
24 kg.
The sum of the parts of each nutrient is 2 + 3 + 2 = 7.
Mass of N in 100 kg mixture = 2⁄7 x 24 =
6,8 kg or 6,8% Mass of P in 100 kg
mixture = 2/7 x 24 = Mass of K in 100 kg
mixture = 2/7 x 24 =
Impact of inorganic fertilisers on the environment

● release substances that contribute to acid rain and greenhouse effect
● cause water contamination
● does not add any organic material into the soil, thus organic material is
depleted by soil micro-organisms
● contain sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid which increase soil acidity
AGRICULTURAL LIME
Two forms of agricultural lime:
Calcitic lime
Dolomitic lime
ORGANIC FERTILIZER
Main types of organic fertilisers
Manure
➢ Green manure (decomposing crop residue).
➢ Farm manure consist of dung or faeces from domestic animal and
leaves from plants)
Compost = organic matter that has been decomposed
Factors affecting composition of farm manure

Type and age of animal from which manure obtained
Type of ration fed to animals
Type and amount of bedding
incorporated Storage and handling of
manure.
Ways of applying fertilizers to the soil

1. Soil applications
Broadcasting
Uniform distribution of fertiliser over planting area (top-dressing)
Band placing
Fertiliser can be placed in a ‘band’ close enough to supply young plants
with nutrients efficiently, but not cause salt burns to roots
Foliar application
Application of soluble fertiliser as fine spray or mist onto leaves

Aerial application of fertiliser
Involves aircraft that apply granular fertilisers (aircraft hire is costly)
Fertiliser application through irrigation
Applied by means of irrigation water or specially designed implements:
irrigation systems can be used, micro-jet or drip irrigation are best

organic and in-organic fertilisers
1.1 A bag of compound fertiliser contain three nutrients in the

following ratio: 3:2:5
1.1.1 Calculate the percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium in
the mixture of the compound fertiliser (4)
1.1.2 State ONE use for gypsum for grain farmer (1)

Organic and in-organic fertiliser
1.1 The picture below shows an example of a bag of inorganic fertiliser
1.1.1 Classify the type of fertilizer in the picture above (1)

1.1.2 Justify your answer to QUESTION 1.1.1 (1)
1.1.3 Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in the bag of
fertiliser (4)

organic and in-organic
fertilizers
1.1 Organic matter in the soil are all substances that once lived, but have died
and can decompose or rot in the soil. Many farmers believe that it is the
most important fraction of the soil because it has both physical and
chemical effects on the soil.
1.1.1 identify THREE physical effect of organic matter on garden bed

1.1.2 state THREE factors that influence the composition of farm manure
1.1.3 state THREE negative impact of inorganic fertilizer on the environment

Organic and in-organic fertilizer
Organic fertilizers are made up of decayed organic matter, such as
plants that have decomposed or have been digested by organisms. A
debate was organised in your class, and you were called to argue in
favour in favour of the use of organic fertilisers in the school garden
1.1.1 Give THREE reasons in favour of use of organic fertiliser in your

school garden in your school
1.1.2 Suggest THREE characteristic of crops that could be used for

green manure
PLANT REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction in plants

Structures and functioning of the main parts of a flower
Female reproductive organ and functions:

• Known as pistil
• stigma is hairy and/or sticky to trap polled
• ovary produces eggs or ovules.
Male reproductive organ and function:

• known as stamen
• Anther produces pollen.
Non-sexual parts:
• Petals (collectively referred to as the corolla)
• Sepals (collectively referred to as the calyx)
Functions
Sepal/calyx protects the ovary
Petal/corolla attracts insects to the flower
Pollination process by which pollen from anther to
stigma, enabling fertilisation
process of pollination
• Pollen moves from the anther to the stigma
• Pollen grain grows downwards towards the ovary and fertilizes the
ovum
• Ovary forms the fruit
• Fertilised ovum develop into seed
Types of pollination
Cross pollination – movement of a pollen from the anther of one plant to
the stigma of another plant
Self-pollination – movement of a pollen from the anther to the stigma of

same plant
Agents of pollination
Insects
Flowers attract insects by producing nectar, strong smell and bright
petals birds, bats and mice
Wind
no nectar, strong scent or bright petals

Water
no nectar, strong scent or bright petals
Development of matured/ripe pollen grain
• Haploid nucleus of the young pollen grain divides by mitosis to from

two nuclei known as generative nucleus and vegetative nucleus (pollen
tube nucleus)
• Result in the formation of matured pollen grain that has a double wall
which consist of a tough outer wall called exine and inner membrane
called intine
The exine protects the pollen grain against harsh conditions
Receptive stigma
The germination of ripe pollen grain on a receptive stigma until

fertilisation
• When the anther ripens, the wall between the pollen

sac burst open and ripe mature pollen grains are ready
to be dispersed
• Ripe pollen grain that contain the male sex cell (male
gametes) is transferred by pollination agents from the
anther to the receptive stigma of a flower
• The ripe pollen grain germinates
• The exine softens and split open
• the intine grows and form a pollen tube
• Pollen grain land on stigma and germinates, forming a
pollen tube
• Tube nucleus controls its growth
• Generative nucleus travels down the pollen tube and
undergoes mitosis
• Pollen tube moves through the micropyle into the
ovule to start fertilisation
Fertilisation in plants
Fertilisation – is the fusion of male gamete (pollen) and female gamete
(ovum) to form a zygote
• For fertilisation to be successful the anther must produce viable
pollen and the stigma must be receptive
• Male gamete (n) and female gamete (n) fuse to form a zygote (2n)
Double fertilisation
Two male gamete are released into embryo sac; one fuses with
egg nucleus to form a diploid zygote (2n) that will develop into
embryo
The other One fuses with the diploid endosperm to form triploid endosperm cell
(3n) Endosperm is a nutrient-rich tissue that nourishes developing embryo.
Ablactation
Is the dropping of flowers or fruitlets within the first ten days after
flowering
Factors cause or influence ablactation
1. Biological factors
• When there is no fusion of male and female gamete (when
female flower are not pollinated by male flowers)
• When little pollen is produced
• When pollen has low germinating power
2. Soil factors
• Shortage of essential nutrients in the soil
• Water shortage in the soil
3. Climatic factors
• Cold temperatures affect germination of seeds
• Frost will damage flower
• Excessive rain prevent pollen from being transported
• Wind may inhibit the ability of insect and birds to transfer
pollinating agents
•
•
Development of fruits
Fruit setting is the development of fruits from the ovary of flowers

• Fruits are produced by flowering plants
• The wall of a fruit is called pericarp Pericarp is divided into:
➢ Exocarp is the outer layer
➢ Mesocarp is the middle layer
➢ Endocarp is the inner layer
Different types of fruits

1. Simple fruits
Fruits that develop from a single ovary
Divided into:
• Succulent fruits
Fruits that are fleshy, juicy, sweet and brightly coloured
The fruit wall (pericarp) is fleshy
Example: berries (grapes and tomatoes)
Stone fruit (peaches plums and apricots)
• Dry fruits
Fruits that have hard dry pericarp around the seeds
Example: legumes (peas and beans)
: Nuts (acorns, peanuts, hazelnuts
2. Compound fruit
Develops from several ovaries in the single flower
Compound fruits are divided into: aggregate fruit e.g. strawberry,
raspberry
Multiple fruit e.g. pineapple
mulberries
3. Accessory fruit
Fruit that develop from ripened ovary and some other parts of the
flower
Example: apples
Parthenocarpy
o Is the natural or artificial production of fruits without fertilisation of
ovules
o Fruits are normally seedless normally (if seeds are present, they are
not viable and cannot germinate)
o It occurs mainly in plants with many ovules e,g Bananas pineapple

and oranges
Types of Parthenocarpy
Vegetative Parthenocarpy
• Plants do not need pollination to produce fruits
• Result in the development of seedless fruit
• e.g. banana and seedless cucumber
Simulative Parthenocarpy
• It needs pollination to produce fruits
• It occurs when pollen tube does not reach the ovule or
sometimes embryo abort after fertilisation.
e.g. seedless grape

Plant sexual reproduction
1.1 The circle below represents flower parts of a dicotyledonous
plant. Match the letters (A to D) to the description below
1.1.1 male organ

1.1.2 modified floral leaves which form the pistil
1.1.3 a part of the pistil that produces egg cell

1.1.4 a tube connecting the stigma to the ovary
1.1.5 define the underlined description in 1.1.
Activity 2 (PLANT SCIENCE)

1.1
Bees are stinging winged insect which collect
nectar and pollens, producing wax and honey.
They usually live in large communities and are
found flying from mostly during the spring and
summer season
1.1.1 Deduce the process in 1.1

1.1.2 Mention TWO other agents that perform the process in 1.1
1.1.3 Define the process in question 1.1.1
111

1.1 the illustration below shows the parts of a flower
1.1.1 identify the parts that will develop into a fruit

1.1.2 indicate the part that receives pollen grain during
fertilisation
1.1.3 suggest the term for the part that consist of stigma, style
and ovary
1.1.4 state TWO important role of petals in sexual reproduction

1.1 the diagrams below show the germination of a
dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plant
112
1.1.1 Deduce the process that is taking place in DIAGRAM 2

1.1.2 Explain briefly THREE ways in which plants are adapted to
wind pollination 1.1.3 State the THREE other agents of
pollination apart from wind

1.1
Before seeds and fruits are formed, fertilisation should take place. In
some cases, double fertilisation take place. The fertilised flower gives
rise to sees and fruits. The ovule develops into a seed which feeds and
protect embryo. The ovary itself develops into a fruit. The fruit protect
the seed amongst other functions
1.1.1 differentiate between fertilisation and double fertilisation

1.1.2 deduce ONE function of a fruit from the scenario
1.1.3 state TWO basic requirement for seed germination
113
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
What is asexual reproduction?
Is the reproduction of plant from a piece of a parent plant other than
the seeds
Types of asexual reproduction
Natural asexual reproduction
• Is the natural process that take place without seed formation
• Different parts of a plant such as the stem, leaves and roots are
used to grow new plants.
• Only one parent is involved and there is no fusion of male and
female gametes Artificial propagation
• It does not occur naturally
• It involves use of methods such as budding and grafting to
grow new plants
• Different plant parts are used to grow new plants asexually
Method of asexual
reproduction Bulbs
• This are swollen underground stems covered by fleshy scale
leaves that store food
• Adventitious root grows at the bottom end of the stem
• Green leaves grow from the bulb
e.g. Onions, garlic
114
Corns
• They are short, thick, round underground stem that store food.
• They are covered by dry scaly leaves
• Buds at the bottom scale-like leaves grow into new plants
e.g. freesia and gladiolus
Tubers
This are modified plant parts (stem and root) that are used for asexual
reproduction Stem tubers
• Is a swollen underground modified stems with nodes and
internodes?
• They serve as food storage organ
• The eye bud are the nodes
• Shots develops from the eye bud
• Adventitious roots develop at the base of the shoot
e.g. potatoes and yams
115
Root tubers
• This are swollen adventitious roots in which food is stored
• New plants grow from the buds
e.g. sweet potatoes
Runners
• Stems that grows in the surface of the soil
• When it bends over and touches the ground, new adventitious
roots develop and new plant arises
• As soon as the shoot root, it eventually separates from the
parent plant
• Runner grows out from the base of main stem of the parent plant
e.g. strawberry and grass
Rhizomes
• Is the thickened underground stems that grow more or less
parallel with the surface of the soil
• At the nodes, adventitious root develops and new plant grows
from the terminal bud at the tip of the rhizome
• New plant can be cut from the rhizome and planted separately
e.g. ferns, grasses and ginger
Types of artificial asexual reproduction in plants
116
Cutting
It is taken from stem, leaves or roots of parent plant and grow into new
plants
Stem cutting- stem must have few nodes and buds and must be cut
at an angle. when stem is planted into develops roots and shoots
Leaf cutting- consist of aa leaf with a leaf stalk. When placed in the soil they
develop Roots and shoot
Root cutting- planted horizontally in well-drained soil where they
develop into a shoot
Budding
In budding, a single bud from a plant with good characteristic is
inserted into an opening in the bark of well-developed plant.
Grafting
In grafting, a whole section with several buds is inserted to plant with
well-developed characteristics
117
Advantages of using asexual reproduction methods in plants

• It is faster than sexual reproduction
• Large number of offspring can be produced fast
• New plants can be produced from existing plants without using
seeds
• No fertilisation needed
• Seed germination is not necessary

Plant asexual reproduction
1.1 different plants parts may be used for vegetative reproduction. Some
plant parts are shown in the illustration below
1.1.1 identify the type of asexual reproduction in figure A, B, C

and D
1.1.2 list TWO disadvantages of using the method in FIGURE A
for propagation
1.1.3 outline the difference between sexual and vegetative
reproduction plants
activity 81 (plant
science) plant asexual
reproduction
1.1 A B
118
1.1.1 Determine the type of asexual reproduction technique in A and B

above
1.1.2 give THREE reason to justify the use of asexual reproduction in
plants propagation
1.1 farmers use different methods of plant propagation on their farm. Two of
the propagation methods are shown in the illustration below
1.1.1 identify the propagation method in FIGURE A and FIGURE B

1.1.2 recommend THREE reasons to convince emerging farmer to
practice the methods in
1.1
1.1
Asexual or vegetation propagation is of great importance in crop
production, especially in horticultural crop production. This can be
divided into natural or artificial propagation
119
1.1.1 categorise the following into natural and artificial vegetative

method of asexual propagation:
Stolons budding
Layering Corns
1.1.2 State TWO advantage s of vegetative propagation

The storage organ is a part of plant which is modified to store or retain
carbohydrates or water. Most storage organs are often found below
ground level where they protected
1.1.1 Supply THREE parts of plant modified as storage organ

1.1.2 Indicate ONE chemical process that result in the formation and
storage of carbohydrates in plants
1.1.3 State TWO requirement for the process indicated in 2.1
1.1.4 Identify ONE product of the process indicated in 2.1.1 that is
stored in plants
Plant improvement and biotechnology

Plant breeding
It involves the development of new plant varieties
Plants are bred for desired characteristic with the aim of improving
crop production It is done through genetic variation of plants.
Plant breeding method:
1. Selection
120
• method of choosing plants with desired characteristic for

breeding purpose Characteristic of plants to be considered when
selecting animals for breeding:
• Productivity
• Better taste
• Resistance
• Adaptation to environment
• Efficient use of water and nutrient
2. Hybridisation
• Different desired characteristic from different plants are combine
in one plant
• Two different but related plant species are crossed
Mutation
The aim of mutation is to improve crop quality by improving genetic
variation
Mutation can be introduced artificially by using agents such as
radiation and chemical
The desired mutants will be selected to interbreed to produce
new crop variety Aim of genetic mutation
• It contributes to food security
• It provides additional income to farmers
• To increase production
• Introduce plants that are resistant to disease
Biotechnology
Is the application of technology to modify plant or make
new plants Genetic modification (GM)
121
• Is the technique of changing the characteristic of a plant by

introducing gene from another plant
• It is carried out in the laboratory
• Plant whose characteristics are changed is called GMO
• It does not occur in nature
Characteristics of genetically modified
organism (GMO)
Resistance to diseases and pest
Resistance to drought
Improved taste
Higher nutritional value
Increase crop yield
Long shelf life
Disadvantages of GM crop
Causes unknown disease
It is too expensive
Cause food allergies
Have negative impact on biodiversity
Examples of genetically modified crops in S.A
Maize
Cotton
soybean
122
PLANT PEST/ PARASITES AND DISEASE
Weed control management
What is weed?
• It is an unwanted plant that usually have a negative impact on
agricultural soil.
• They are small herbaceous plant
• They compete with crop for light, nutrients and water
• It interferes with normal growth of a crop and weakens
productivity of plant
Adaptation features of weeds that allow them to grow

successfully
• Grow on disturbed environment where soil is damaged
• They produce large amount of seed that can easily disperse
• It can persist in the soil for years
• They can thrive in harsh environmental conditions
Agents of weed dispersal

• Birds – They eats fruits and seeds from weeds and carry seeds
else where
• Human – They disperse weed seeds when they are stuck on
their clothes and shoes.
• Animals- They spread weed seed when they are stuck on their
fur
• Wind
Harmful effects of weeds
• They compete with cultivated crops for space, light, nutrients and
water
• Slow growth of plants
• They carry disease that reduce quality of crops
• Increase food shortage
Weed control
Mechanical control
It includes:
123
➢ physically uprooting of weed

➢ burning of field to destroy weed
Chemical control
It includes:
➢ spraying herbicides to the soil
Biological control
It includes:
➢ use weed natural enemy
Integrated weed control
It includes:
➢ combination of two or more weed control methods
➢ using both physical, chemical and biological control at the
same time.
124

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TOPIC 1: BASIC CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the study of the properties, composition and structure of

1. Important chemistry terminology

carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of 1 carbon atom and two oxygen

Activity 1 (chemistry concepts)

1.1 Define the following concepts;

Activity 2 (chemistry concepts)

1.1.1 Identify the substance labelled A, B and C (3)

2. The periodic table

Is the table of all known chemical elements in order of atomic number.

Elements in a periodic table are arranged in a series of rows and columns

Interpreting a periodic table

Periodic table groups

Groups in a periodic table are numbered 1-18 from left to right

• Group 1: made up of alkali metals (note: hydrogen is not considered

Alkali metal: have one electron in their outermost shell

Similarities between alkali metals and alkaline earth metals

They are both good electrical and heat conductors

Lanthanide: They follow transitional metal atomic number 57 in period

Actinide: They follow transitional metal atomic number 89 in period

4 • Group 14: Carbon group (made up of other non-metals)

Has 4 valence electron

Elements and reactivity

Reactivity: is a chemical property that determines how an element will react

What makes an elements reactive?

The number of electrons in each atom i.e;

This group easily give up valence electrons to make a compound

This groups gain valence electron to make a compound

Activity 3 (periodic table)

Activity 4 (periodic table)

1.1 Answer the following on a periodic table

1.1.3 Give a reason for the answer in QUESTION 1.1.2 (2)

3. ACIDS AND BASES

Atoms can sometimes be positively charged or negatively charged. e.g H+

Is a scale that describes how acidic or basic a liquid is.

➢ Strong acid- acid with very low pH. (0-4)

➢ Strong base – a base that has a very high Ph. (10-14)

Neutral- is a solution that has a Ph of 7. It is neither acidic nor basic

Differences between acid and base

Activity 5 (acids and base)

1.1 Below are substances with different pH values.

(a) Hydroxide ion (1)

Activity 6 (acids and base)

1.1 Acids and bases play a vital role in agriculture.

4. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Not all atoms have same number of protons and electrons

The main sub-atomic particles and their relative charge

• Proton: Has a positive charge

Relationship between atomic number and the number of sub-atomic particles in

The simplest element in the periodic table is hydrogen.

• It has atomic number 1, which means;

To balance the positive charge of the proton, hydrogen atom has 1

Oxygen has atomic number 8, which means; there are 8 protons in

The number of protons + number of neutrons = atomic mass number

ARRANGEMENT OF ELECTRONS AROUND THE NUCLEUS AND VALENCE

Each layer in an atom can hold a certain number of electrons as follows;

Second shell: can hold only EIGHT electrons

Third shell: can hold up to eighteen electrons

Fourth shell: can hold twenty-two electron

• An atom with one or more electron or one or more missing electron

Activity 7 (formation of ions)

1.1 The diagram below shows the structure of a substance that is