Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Workbook - Answers

CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: WORKBOOK
Workbook answers
Chapter 1
Exercise 1.1 Exercise 1.2
1 A solid has a fixed mass and volume / shape. 6
A liquid has a fixed mass but its shape changes 100
to that of the container in which it is placed. 90
A gas has no fixed shape or volume. A gas 80
completely fills the container that it is in.
70
2
Temperature / °C
60
50
40
30
20
solid solid solid liquidliquidliquid gas gas gas
10
3 a B 0 1 2 3 4 5
b C Time / minutes
c A
7 The student would need to use an oil bath (in
d D place of the water bath) so that the higher
4 A freezing (solidification) temperature could be reached.
B melting 8 The substance is freezing (solidifying) /
C condensation turning from liquid to solid.
D evaporation or boiling 9 The temperature stays constant because
energy is being released as the substance
5 a radon
solidifies / the molecules are giving out heat
b radon and nitrogen as they stop moving from place to place and
c nitrogen become organised in a structured lattice
d cobalt arrangement / in the solid the molecules can
e The sample of ethanoic acid is impure. only vibrate about fixed points / the heat
The presence of impurities raises the released by the formation of new interactions
boiling point of a substance. (forces) between the particles keeps the
temperature constant until all the substance
is solid.
1 Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry – Harwood, Lodge & Wooster © Cambridge University Press 2021
Chapter 1 continued
10 a bubbles then rise to escape the liquid
and enter the gas phase (state) / the
Temperature / °C
boiling point of a liquid changes with

the atmospheric pressure / the lower the
atmospheric pressure, the easier it is for
the gas bubbles to form and the lower the
boiling point.
Time / minutes Exercise 1.3

b The curve flattens but the temperature 13 a The purple crystals are soluble in water, so
does not stay constant while the wax the water begins to break up the crystals,
solidifies. This is because wax is a mixture and particles (ions) from the solid move
of substances, not a pure compound. into the water. This continues until all the
11 a A solid solid dissolves. The particles then move
through the liquid and spread out through
B solid and liquid (melting is taking place) the liquid until the solution is evenly
C liquid coloured throughout.
D liquid and gas (boiling is taking place) b A shorter time – if the temperature were
b 17 °C higher, the particles would be moving
c 115 °C faster, as they would have more energy /
the process of diffusion would take place
d The temperature remains constant until
more quickly.
the change of state is complete.
14 a ammonium chloride ➞ ammonia +
e The melting point and boiling point are
hydrogen chloride
not those of water.
b NH3(g) + HCl(g) ➞ NH4Cl(s)
12 a The carbon dioxide is under pressure in
the fire extinguisher. 15 a The smoke ring forms closer to the
hydrochloric acid end of the tube because
b Hoar frost is a powdery white frost caused
ammonia molecules diffuse (move) faster
when solid ice forms from humid air. The
than hydrogen chloride molecules / this
solid surface on which it is formed must
is because ammonia molecules have a
be colder than the surrounding air. Water
lower relative molecular mass (Mr =
vapour is deposited on a surface as fine
17) compared with hydrogen chloride
ice crystals without going through the
molecules (Mr = 36.5) / ammonia
liquid phase.
molecules travel further in a given time.
c Evaporation: evaporation is a process
b approximately 30 cm / approximately
that can take place at any temperature /
two-thirds of the way along the tube
it takes place at the surface of the liquid
only / particles with enough energy can c hydrogen > methane > oxygen > chlorine
escape from the surface / these particles d G must have a molecular mass greater
have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome than that of methane, but less than that
the interactive forces between the particles of oxygen / it must have an Mr between 16
and break free from the surface into and 32.
the vapour (gas) phase / the rate of
evaporation increases with temperature
as the energy of the particles increases
with temperature.
Boiling: boiling takes place at a specific
temperature (the boiling point of the
liquid) / bubbles of gas form throughout
the liquid as particles gain sufficient
energy to form a gas bubble / the gas
Chapter 1 continued
16 The kinetic model states that the particles in a
liquid and in a gas are constantly moving. In a
gas, the particles are far apart from each other
and their movement is said to be random. The
particles in a solid are held in fixed positions
in a regular lattice. In a solid, the particles can
only vibrate about their fixed positions.
Liquids and gases are fluids. When particles
move in a fluid, they can collide with each
other. When they collide, they bounce off
each other in different directions. If two gases
or liquids are mixed, the different types of
particle spread out and get mixed up. This
process is called diffusion.
In gases at the same temperature, particles
that have a lower mass move faster than those
with higher mass. This means that the lighter
particles will spread and mix more quickly.
The lighter particles are said to diffuse faster
than the heavier particles. When gaseous
molecules diffuse, the rate at which they do
so is inversely related to the relative molecular
mass (Mr) of the gas.
Chapter 2
Exercise 2.1 5 a boron / 2,3
b phosphorus / 2,8,5
1 Atoms are made up of three
different particles: 6
• protons, which are positively charged Beryllium 2,2
• neutrons, which have no charge Magnesium 2,8,2
• electrons, which are negatively charged. Calcium 2,8,8,2
The negatively charged particles are arranged
in different shells (energy levels) around the Exercise 2.2
nucleus of the atom. The particles with a
negligible mass are the electrons. All atoms of 7 a
the same element contain the same number Atom Proton Electronic configuration
of protons and neutrons. Atoms of the same number
element with different numbers of neutrons are 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
known as isotopes. shell shell shell shell
2 a 3 A 2 2
b 4 B 5 2 3
c 7 C 13 2 8 3
d 37 Li D 15 2 8 5
3 The electrons in an atom are arranged in a E 19 2 8 8 1
series of shells around the central nucleus.
These shells are also called energy levels. In an b one (the atoms of element B)
atom, the shell closest / nearest to the nucleus c B and C
fills first, then the next shell, and so on. There
is room for: d 3
• up to two electrons in the first shell e
• up to eight electrons in the second shell
• up to eight electrons in the third shell.
(There are 18 electrons in total when the three
shells are completely full.)
The elements in the Periodic Table are
organised in the same way as the electrons fill
the shells. Shells fill from left to right across
the rows of the Periodic Table.
• The first shell fills up first, from hydrogen
to helium.
• The second shell fills next, from lithium 8 a 38
to neon.
b 53
• Eight electrons go into the third shell,
from sodium to argon. c 78
• Then the fourth shell starts to fill, d 137 – 55 = 82
from potassium. e Isotopes are different atoms of the
4 a Mg (magnesium) same element that have the same proton
number but different nucleon numbers.
b F (fluorine)
c K (potassium)
Chapter 2 continued
9 a B
b E
c A and C
d B and D
10 a 2 protons, 2 neutrons, +2
b The gold atoms are packed together in a regular arrangement (lattice) / in layers / the
atoms can only vibrate about fixed positions.
c This suggests that the atoms were largely empty space through which the
α-particles passed.
d These α-particles had made direct hits on the nuclei of the gold atoms. They are
repelled backwards because the nucleus of the atom is positively charged and so are
the α-particles.
11 a
Isotope Name of Atomic Mass Number of
element number (nucleon)
number protons neutrons electrons
12
6C Carbon 6 12 6 6 6
14
6C Carbon 6 14 6 8 6
1
1H Hydrogen 1 1 1 0 1
3 Hydrogen
1H 1 3 1 2 1
(tritium)
31
15 P Phosphorus 15 31 15 16 15
32
15 P Phosphorus 15 32 15 17 15
127
53 I Iodine 53 127 53 74 53
131
53 I Iodine 53 131 53 78 53
b The chemical properties of isotopes of the same element are the same because the
number and arrangement of electrons in the isotopes are the same / the atoms of the
isotopes all have the same number of outer electrons.
c percentage of rhenium-187 in natural sample = 100 – 37.4 = 62.6%
(185 × 37.4) + (187 × 62.6)
Ar of rhenium =
100
6919 + 11 706.2 18 625.2
= =
100 100
= 186.3
Chapter 3
1 6
Compound Mixture Name of Formula Displayed Molecular
The elements cannot The substances in it compound formula model
be separated by can be separated by Hydrogen
physical methods. physical methods. HCl H Cl
chloride
The substances
The properties are O
present still show the
different from those Water H2O
properties that they
of the elements that H H
have when
went to make it.
by themselves.
The elements are N
The substances can Ammonia NH3
combined in a H H
be present in any H
definite proportion
proportion by mass.
by mass.
2 a compounds: distilled water, carbon H
dioxide, sodium chloride, copper sulfate C

Methane CH4
b mixtures: brass, lemonade, seawater, H H
H
hydrochloric acid solution, air
3 A compound H H
B element
Ethene C2H4 C C
C mixture
H H
D element
E compound Carbon
CO2 O C O
dioxide
F mixture
4 sodium chloride is a white solid – 7
different from the elements
Molecule Dot-and-cross Displayed formula
sodium chloride dissolves in water – diagram
different from the elements,
particularly sodium
Ammonia H N H H N H
sodium chloride is neutral in solution – (NH3) H
again different from the two elements H
5 a iron is magnetic; sulfur is non-magnetic /
iron is dark grey; sulfur is yellow / iron O
Water (H2O) O
reacts with hydrochloric acid; sulfur does H H
not react with acid H H
b the fact that the mixture continues to glow Hydrogen

with heat shows that a chemical reaction chloride H Cl H Cl
is continuing to take place, and that it is (HCl)
an exothermic reaction
c the product is no longer magnetic / the H H
H H
product reacts with acid but gives a Ethane H C C H H C C H
different product to that produced by the (C2H6)
iron powder H H
H H
Chapter 3 continued
8
Molecule Dot-and-cross diagram Displayed formula
Nitrogen (N2)
N N N N
Ethene (C2H4)
H H
H H
C C C C
H H
H H
Methanol (CH3OH)
H
H
H C O H H C O H
H
H
Ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH)
H O
H O
H C C H C C
O H
H
H O H
Note that in the answers to question 8, the

dot-and-cross diagrams are drawn differently to
those in question 7. Both methods are equally
acceptable, but the drawings here have the
advantage of showing the overlap between the
atoms in covalent bonding.
Chapter 3 continued
Exercise 3.3 11 a
positive metal ion
9 a the sodium ion (2,8) has one less electron
than a sodium atom (2,8,1)
b the chloride ion (2,8,8) has one more electron
electron than a chlorine atom (2,8,7)
c
+ –
Na Cl
d electrostatic forces of attraction between b i the electrostatic forces between the

ions with opposite charge metal ions and the delocalised sea of
e NaCl has a high melting point because the electrons are strong and so it needs a
forces between the ions are strong – it takes strong heat to overcome them
a large amount of heat to disrupt them ii the fact that the layers can slide over
10 each other without the bonding being
broken means that a metal can be
Property Explanation drawn out into wires
A solution of an The ions in the giant iii the layers of metal ions can move
ionic compound ionic structure always over each other without the metallic
in water is a good have the same regular bonds being broken, therefore the
conductor of arrangement (see
delocalised electrons between the ions
electricity. These Figure 3.2).
in the metallic structure are free to
ionic substances are
called electrolytes. move and can be made to flow in one
direction
Ionic crystals have Strong attraction
a regular shape. between the positive
The crystals of and negative ions Exercise 3.4
each solid ionic holds the giant ionic 12
compound are the structure together.
same shape. The A lot of energy is Observation Explanation
angles between the needed to break
Diamond is a very … because all the
faces of the crystal down the regular
hard substance … atoms in the structure
are always the arrangement of ions.
are joined by strong
same, whatever the
covalent bonds.
size of the crystal.
Diamond does not … because all the outer
Ionic compounds In a molten ionic
conduct electricity … electrons of the atoms
have relatively high compound, the
are involved in making
melting points. positive and negative
bonds.
ions can move – the
ions can move to the Graphite is slippery … … because the layers
electrodes when a in the structure are
voltage is applied. only held together by
weak forces.
A molten ionic In a solution of an
compound (i.e. an ionic compound, the Graphite conducts … because there are
ionic compound positive metal ions electricity … some free electrons
heated above its and the negative non- that are able to move
melting point) is a metal ions can move between the layers to
good conductor of – these ions can move carry the current.
electricity. to the electrodes when
a voltage is applied.
Chapter 3 continued
13 a Graphite conducts electricity because not 15 Silicon(IV) oxide occurs naturally as mud /
all of the outer electrons of the carbon sand. It has a giant covalent / electrostatic
atoms are used in the covalent bonding structure very similar to graphite /diamond.
that holds the atoms together in the layers. Such a structure can also be described as a
These ‘free’ electrons are able to move in giant molecular / ionic structure as all the
between the layers. They can be made to atoms in the crystal are joined together by
move in one direction when a voltage covalent bonds.
is applied. Each silicon atom is bonded to four / two
b Graphite acts as a lubricant because there oxygen atoms, while each oxygen atom is
are only weak forces between the layers of linked covalently to four / two silicon atoms.
carbon atoms in the structure. The layers The oxygen atoms are arranged hexagonally /
can be made to move over each other if a tetrahedrally around the silicon atoms.
force is applied. The fact that all the atoms are bonded
14 a The strong bonds between the atoms are together in a two-dimensional / three-
covalent bonds. dimensional structure like graphite / diamond
b In the crystal, there are two oxygen atoms means that silicon(IV) oxide has similar
for every silicon atom, so the formula physical properties to graphite / diamond.
is SiO2. Silica is very hard / slippery and has a low /
high melting point. All the outer electrons of
c The atoms of the lattice are organised in
the atoms are used in making the covalent
a tetrahedral arrangement like diamond,
bonds between the atoms. This means that
with a silicon atom at the centre of each
silicon(IV) oxide does / does not conduct
tetrahedron (pyramid).
electricity. There are no electrons free to carry
d This is an example of a giant molecular the current through the crystal.
(covalent) structure.
e Each oxygen atom forms two
covalent bonds.
f Each silicon atom forms four
covalent bonds.
Chapter 4
Exercise 4.1 8 The formula of a simple molecular compound
shows exactly how many atoms are bonded
1 a 1H; 1N; 3O together in each molecule. For example,
b 1Cu; 2N; 6O ethane has two carbon and six hydrogen atoms,
c 2N; 8H; 1S; 4O so its formula is C2H6. This is the molecular
formula for ethane. This formula can be
d 1K; 1Mn; 4O
simplified to CH3 by dividing through by 2.
2 a CH3 is the empirical formula of ethane.
H The formulae used for giant covalent and
1
Li B C N O F Ne ionic compounds are the simplest ratio of the
1 3 4 3 2 1 0 different atoms or ions in each compound.
Na Mg Al S Cl
1 2 3 2 1
These formulae are known as the empirical
K Ca transition elements Zn Br formulae of these types of compounds.
1 2 variable valency 2 1
Exercise 4.2
b Li, Na, K, Mg, Ca, Zn, Al
9 a methane + oxygen ➞ carbon dioxide
c N, O, F, S, Cl, Br + water
d B, C b CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ➞ CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
3 a H2S 10 a zinc + copper(II) sulfate ➞ zinc sulfate
b B2O3 + copper
c CS2 b ammonium chloride + sodium hydroxide
d NH3 ➞ ammonia + sodium chloride + water
4 12 carbon atoms + 22 hydrogen atoms c iron + oxygen ➞ iron(III) oxide
+ 11 oxygen atoms = 45 11 a 2Na + Cl2 ➞ 2NaCl
5 a PR2 (or R2P) b 2SO2 + 3O2 ➞ 2SO3
b QR (or RQ) c Fe2O3 + 3CO ➞ 2Fe + 3CO2
c Q2 d 2PbO + C ➞ 2Pb + CO2
i ionic 12 a CuO
ii ionic b Na2CO3
iii covalent c ZnSO4
6 a MgBr2 , Mg2+Br− d AgNO3
b Ca3N2, Ca2+N3− e (NH4)2SO4
c Al2O3, Al3+O2− f K3PO4
7 a molecular formula C2O2H4 g Fe(OH)3
b empirical formula COH2 h CrCl3
13 a 1:1
b 1 : 3: 3
c 2:8:1:4
14 a 2:1
b K2O
Chapter 4 continued
15 a 18 5 tonnes zinc oxide ➞ 4 tonnes zinc
Cl –
Na+ Na+ 20
so 20 tonnes zinc oxide ➞ 4 × 5 ( )
– –
= 16 tonnes zinc
Cl Na+ Cl
4
or 5 = x / 20
20
Cl – + – so x = 4 × 5 = 16 tonnes of zinc
Na Cl
19 a Mass is conserved during a reaction, so
Na+ Cl – Na+ the mass of the products equals the mass
of reactants:
b
mass of reactants = 68 + 96 = 164 g
+ –
so, mass of water is 164 – 56 = 108 g
b in the reaction shown, 68 g of ammonia
is burnt. If the mass of ammonia burnt
is 17 g, this is
17 1
68 = 4
Na+ Cl – so, mass of water formed is
16 a Cl2(g) + 2Br–(aq) ➞ 2Cl–(aq) + Br2(aq) 1 × 108
= 27 g
b Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ➞ Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) 4
c Fe2+(aq) + OH–(aq) ➞ Fe(OH)2(s)
d Zn2+(aq) + Mg(s) ➞ Zn(s) + Mg2+(aq)
Exercise 4.3
17
One carbon atom is three
times as heavy as one
helium atom
H He C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Li N
One helium atom is four One nitrogen atom is
times as heavy as one twice as heavy as one
hydrogen atom lithium atom
Carbon-12 is used as the standard

for relative atomic mass.
Chapter 4 continued
20
Molecule Chemical formula Number of atoms or Relative molecular
ions involved (or formula) mass
Oxygen O2 2O 2 × 16 = 32
Carbon dioxide CO2 1C and 2O 1 × 12 + 2 × 16 = 44
Water H2O 2H and 1O 2 × 1 + 16 = 18
Ammonia NH3 1N and 3H 14 + 3 × 1 = 17
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 1Ca and 1CO3
2+ 2–
40 + 12 + 3 × 16 = 100
Magnesium oxide MgO 1Mg and 1O
2+ 2–
1 × 24 + 1 × 16 = 40
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 1NH4+ and 1NO3– 2 × 14 + 4 × 1 + 3 × 16 = 80
Propanol C3H7OH 3C, 8H and 1O 3 × 12 + 8 × 1 + 1 × 16 = 60
21 a
0.3
Mass of MgO / g
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2
Mass of Mg / g
b The mass of magnesium oxide produced

increases if more magnesium is used. The
increase is linear (directly proportional).
c mass of MgO produced = 0.19 g
Note that your answer may differ slightly
because your line of best fit may be
slightly different.
d 0.19 − 0.12 = 0.07 g
0.07
e × 24 = 14 g
0.12
f from experiment: 0.12 g magnesium gives
0.19 g magnesium oxide
0.19
1.00 g will give g magnesium oxide
0.12
0.19
therefore 3.5 g will produce × 3.5 =
0.12
5.54 g of magnesium oxide
g Magnesium is sufficiently reactive to
combine with nitrogen from the air to
produce magnesium nitride, Mg3N2
Chapter 5
Exercise 5.1
1
The formula of magnetite is Fe3O4
The atoms
present are Fe Fe O O ...............
O
Fe ............... O ...............
The relative
56 + .............
atomic mass is ............. 56 + .............
56 + .............
16 + .............
16 + .............
16 + .............
16 = .............
232
• The relative formula mass of the iron 3 Empirical formula of compound = AsC3H9
oxide (Fe3O4) = 232
As C H
• In this formula, there are three atoms of
% by
iron, Fe. 62.5 30.0 7.5
mass
• The relative mass of 3Fe = 168.
Moles in 62.5 = 0.83 30.0 = 2.5 7.5 = 7.5
• This means that in 232 g of Fe3O4 there 100 g 75 12 1
are 168 g of iron.
168 Ratio of
• So 1 g of Fe3O4 contains 232= 0.724 g 0.83 2.5 7.5
moles
of iron.
Whole
• So 100 g of Fe3O4 contains 72.4 g of iron. number 1 3 9
• In other words, the percentage (%) of iron ratio
in Fe3O4 = 72.4%.
2 a Empirical formula of oxalic acid = CHO2 Exercise 5.2
C H O 4 a From equation: 1 mol Fe2O3 gives 2 mol Fe
% by 100
26.7 2.2 71.1 100 g of Fe = = 1.79 mol
mass 56 mol
Moles in 26.7 = 2.23 2.2 = 2.2 71.1 = 4.44 1.79
100 g mol of Fe2O3 needed = = 0.895 mol
12 1 16 2
Ratio of
2.23 2.2 4.4
Mr of Fe2O3 = (56 × 2) + (16 × 3) = 160
moles
mass of Fe2O3 needed = 0.895 × 160 =
Whole 143.2 g
number 1 1 2
100 g of iron is 1.79 moles of Fe, so
ratio
0.895 moles of Fe2O3 are needed for the
b Mass of empirical formula = reaction, or 143.2 g of iron(III) oxide.
12 + 1 + (2 × 16) = 45 b From above: 143.2 g Fe2O3 gives 100 g
But actual formula mass = 90 of iron
Therefore, actual molecular formula of so 143.2 tonnes Fe2O3 gives 100 tonnes
oxalic acid = C2H2O4 of Fe
Therefore 71.6 tonnes of Fe2O3 are needed
to produce 50 tonnes of Fe
Chapter 5 continued
106
c mol Fe2O3 in 100 tonnes = 100 × = b
160 Final burette reading / cm3 14.60
625 000 or 6.25 × 105 mol
mol Fe expected = 625 000 × 2 = 1 250 000 First burette reading / cm3 0.20
or 1.25 × 106 mol Volume of NaOH(aq)
14.40 (P)
mass of Fe expected = 1 250 000 × 56 = added / cm3
70 000 000 g or 70 tonnes
Fe actual yield = 7 tonnes c Stage 1:
7 × 100 • 14.40 cm3 of NaOH(aq) containing
Therefore, percentage yield = =
70 0.50 moles in 1000 cm3 were used.
10%
5 a CaCO3 ➞ CaO + CO2 • Number of moles NaOH used =
b 1 mol CaCO3 gives 1 mol CaO (quicklime) 0.50
× 14.40 = 7.20 × 10−3 moles
1000
100 g CaCO3 gives 56 g CaO
(or 0.0072 moles)
or 100 tonnes CaCO3 gives 56 tonnes CaO
Stage 2:
56
1 tonne CaCO3 gives tonnes CaO • Note that 1 mole of citric acid reacts
100
56 with 3 moles of sodium hydroxide.
tonnes CaO = 0.56 tonnes
100 • Number of moles citric acid in sample
c From above: 1 tonne CaCO3 gives 7.20 × 10−3
= = 2.40 × 10−3 moles
0.56 tonnes CaO 3
expected: 2.5 tonnes CaCO3 would give (or 0.0024 moles)
(0.56 × 2.5) = 1.4 tonnes CaO Stage 3:
actual yield = 1.12 tonnes • Relative formula mass of citric acid
1.12 × 100 (Mr of C6H8O7) = 192
therefore, percentage yield = =
1.4
80% • Mass of citric acid in sample =
The yield is not 100% because the 2.40 × 10−3 × 192 = 0.46 g
limestone may not be 100% calcium • Percentage purity of sample =
carbonate – or other valid reason. 0.46
0.48 × 100 = 95.8%
Exercise 5.3 • (Note that you have a clue that you are
6 a on the right lines in your calculation
because your value for the mass of
citric acid must be less than 0.48 g)
d The citric acid can be further purified by
re-crystallisation.
conical flask
Step 1
balance burette
00.48
colourless
A ..............................
solution
Step 2 Step 3
Chapter 5 continued
7 Number of moles of H2SO4 in 25 cm3 of 10
2
2 mol / dm3 solution = × 25 = 0.05 moles
1000
Maximum number of moles of CuSO4.5H2O
that could be formed = 0.05 moles moles
Maximum mass of crystals, CuSO4.5H2O, that volume

conc.
could be formed = 0.05 × 250 = 12.5 g (The / dm3
mass of one mole of CuSO4.5H2O is 250 g.)
7.3 Solute Volume Molar Moles of
Percentage yield = × 100 = 58.4%
12.5 of concentration solute
Exercise 5.4 solution of solution /
mol/dm3
present
8 Sodium 1 dm3 0.5 0.5

chloride
Hydrochloric 500 cm3 0.5 0.25
acid
mass
Sodium 2 dm3 0.5 1.00
no. of molar
hydroxide
moles mass Sulfuric acid 250 cm3 2 0.50
Sodium 200 cm3 2 0.40

Substance Ar or Mr Number of Mass / g thiosulfate
moles Copper(II) 7.5 dm3 0.1 0.75
Cu 64 2 128 sulfate
Mg 24 0.5 12
Cl2 71 0.5 35.5 Exercise 5.5
H2 2 2 4 11
S8 256 2 512
Experiment number Volume of hydrogen
O3 48 0.033 1.6 collected / cm3
H2SO4 98 2.5 245
1 85
CO2 44 0.4 17.6
2 79
NH3 17 1.5 25.5
CaCO3 100 1 100 3 82
MgSO4.7H2O 246 0.333 82 Mean average 82
9 a 128 g Cu = 2 mol Cu The three results are not equal because of the
1 mol = 6.02 × 1023 atoms Cu difficulty in cutting exactly equal lengths of
magnesium ribbon. Also, the pieces of ribbon
2 mol Cu = 2 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.20 × 1024
may not be exactly the same thickness or
atoms of copper
width, or gas may be lost as the magnesium
b 4 g H2 = 2 mol H2 molecules is allowed to fall into the flask, or there
2 mol H2 molecules = 2 × 6.02 × 1023 = may have been air in the measuring cylinder
1.20 × 1024 H2 molecules = 2.4 × 1024 H before starting.
atoms
Chapter 5 continued
12 From equation: 24 g of magnesium (1 mole) ➞
24 000 cm3 of hydrogen
24
so 1 cm3 of hydrogen produced from =
24 000
0.001 g of magnesium
and 82 cm3 of hydrogen produced from 0.001
× 82 = 0.082 g
13 24 g of magnesium ➞ 120 g of
magnesium sulfate
120
so 0.082 g will give 24 × 0.082 = 0.41 g
The answers to 12 and 13 could be calculated
by other proportionality methods.
14 The key factor here is that 24 g of magnesium
will produce 120 g of dried anhydrous
magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)
(see the equation).
• Weigh out a known mass of
magnesium ribbon.
• React it with excess dilute sulfuric acid
until no more gas is given off and no
magnesium remains.
• Transfer the solution to a beaker of
known mass.
• Heat the solution to dryness, taking care
to avoid it spitting.
• Allow to cool and weigh the beaker
and residue.
• Filter, dry and weigh the crystals carefully.
• From the data above, calculate the mass
of crystals that 5 cm would have given.
Exercise 5.6
15 75 cm3
16 25 cm3
17 50 cm3
18 2NO + O2 ➞ 2NO2
50 cm3 25 cm3 50 cm3
Chapter 6
Exercise 6.1 4 During electrolysis, ionic compounds are
decomposed by the passage of an electric
1 a current. For this to happen, the compound
power supply must be either molten or in solution in water.
– + Electrolysis can occur when an electric current
passes through a molten electrolyte. The two
rods dipping into the electrolyte are called
the electrodes. In this situation, metals are
A
deposited at the cathode and non-metals are
formed at the anode.
When the ionic compound is dissolved in
– + water, the electrolysis can be more complex.
cathode anode Generally, during electrolysis, positive ions
move towards the cathode and negative ions
move towards the anode. At the negative
electrolyte
electrode (cathode) the metal or hydrogen
ions gain electrons and form metal atoms or
heat if necessary hydrogen molecules. At the positive electrode,
(anode) non-metals are formed as their ions or
b graphite and platinum
hydroxide ions from the water lose electrons.
c A–3, B–1, C–2, D–4
2 Exercise 6.3
Molten Product Product at Observations 5
electrolyte at anode cathode (–) of product
(+) at anode Solution Gas Gas given Substance
(electrolyte) given off off or left in
purple at the metal solution at
Lead(II)
iodine lead vapour anode deposited the end of
iodide
given off at the electrolysis
Magnesium green gas cathode
chlorine magnesium
chloride given off concentrated
potassium
red–brown potassium bromine hydrogen
Zinc hydroxide
bromine zinc vapour bromide
bromide
given off copper(II)
oxygen copper nitric acid
Calcium colourless nitrate
oxygen calcium
oxide gas given off silver sulfate oxygen silver sulfuric acid
sodium sodium
oxygen hydrogen
Exercise 6.2 nitrate nitrate
3 a chromate ions 6 a H2(g) ➞ 2H+(aq) + 2e–

b Chromate ions are negatively charged and b O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– ➞ 2H2O(l)
so move towards (are attracted to) the c 2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l)
positive electrode.
d The only waste product is non-polluting
c Anions: chromate (CrO42–) and water / they do not need recharging / they
sulfate (SO42–) are more efficient than a petrol engine.
Cations: potassium (K+) and e needs to be an increased availability of
copper (Cu2+) hydrogen refuelling stations / needs to be
d A blue colour moves towards negative a move to ‘greener’ sustainable sources
(Cu2+ ions), and a yellow colour moves of hydrogen rather than from a fossil
towards positive (CrO42– ions). fuel source
Chapter 6 continued
Exercise 6.4
7 a
d.c. power supply
+ –
A (anode) C (cathode)
E (electrolyte)
b
copper
c
copper(II) sulfate (or copper(II) chloride /
copper(II) nitrate)
d The anode dissolves away, and a sludge
forms below it.
e To protect the object from corrosion /
for decorative purposes.
8 a copper(II) chloride ➞ copper + chlorine
CuCl2(aq) ➞ Cu(s) + Cl2(g)
b The gas will bleach moist litmus paper.
c The reaction is endothermic / electrical
energy is being used to decompose
the compound.
9 a i cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ➞ Cu(s)
ii anode: Cu(s) ➞ Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
b i Change in mass at cathode: mass
increases as copper deposited
ii Change in mass at anode: mass
decreases as copper dissolves away
from anode
c The blue colour is due to the copper ions
present in the solution / the copper ions
discharged at the cathode are replaced by
those dissolving into solution at the anode
/ so the colour does not fade.
Chapter 7
Exercise 7.1 b ZnCO3 ➞ ZnO + CO2
c Chemical – new substances, zinc oxide
1 When a physical change takes place,
and carbon dioxide, are formed from the
the substance undergoing the change is
zinc carbonate.
unchanged chemically. When a chemical
change takes place, the substance or d The zinc carbonate is broken up
substances formed are different to the starting (decomposition) using heat (thermal).
substance. Physical changes are easy to reverse e When the zinc oxide cools down it
so that we can easily go back to the starting changes colour from yellow to white,
substance. Chemical changes are difficult which is a physical change. This change is
to reverse, so it is more difficult to form the easily reversed because when it is heated it
starting substance again. turns yellow again.
2 a Ice melting is a physical change, because
the ice and water are chemically the same /
both H2O. Melting is also easy to reverse.
b Magnesium burning in air is a chemical
change because a new compound,
magnesium oxide, is formed. Also, it is
difficult to reverse the change and lots of
energy is given out in the reaction.
c Salt dissolving in water is a physical
change because the salt and water are
unchanged chemically (the salt is just
dissolved) – it is sodium chloride still.
The dissolving can be reversed by
evaporation of the water.
3 a
colourless
gas = carbon
dioxide
heat
solid zinc
carbonate
(ZnCO3)
cool
hot cold
solid (yellow) solid (white)
zinc oxide zinc oxide
heat
Chapter 7 continued
Exercise 7.2 b In an endothermic reaction, the reactants /
products have more thermal energy than
4 the reactants / products. This means
Type of reaction Statement/ Fact that energy is transferred to / from the
surroundings and the temperature of the
The temperature
surroundings increases / decreases.
decreases.
8
Heat energy is
Exothermic given out to the
surroundings.
The temperature CaO + CO2
Energy / kJ
increases.
endothermic
Combustion is an
CaCO3
Endothermic example of this
type of reaction.
Heat energy is
taken in from the Progress of reaction
surroundings.
5 a exothermic
b The chemicals might burst the container CH4 + 2O2
Energy / kJ
and mix with the food/drink.

exothermic
c By leaving an empty space above
the chemicals. CO2 + 2H2O
d calcium oxide + water ➞
calcium hydroxide
CaO + H2O ➞ Ca(OH)2 Progress of reaction
6 a Advantage: can be used
anywhere instantly. 9 a A reactants
Disadvantage: cannot be re-used. B activation energy
C enthalpy of reaction
b Use a known amount of water, measure D products
the temperature and then add a series
of known masses of ammonium b
nitrate. Measure the temperature after
each addition. Plot a graph to show
Activation energy
temperature change against mass of = +2000 kJ / mol
ammonium nitrate added. Use the graph
Energy / kJ
to determine the mass needed to reduce N2 + 3H2

the temperature to 5 °C. Other methods Enthalpy change
are possible, but they must work. of reaction
= –92 kJ / mol
Exercise 7.3 2NH3
7 a In an exothermic reaction, the reactants / Progress of reaction

products have more thermal energy than
the reactants / products. This means
that thermal energy / potential energy is
transferred to / from the surroundings
and therefore the temperature of the
surroundings increases / decreases.
Chapter 7 continued
Exercise 7.4 f i 0.2 mol of propane gives −2054 × 0.2
= –410.8 kJ
10 The bond energy is the energy required to
ii 4 mol of propane gives −2054 × 4 =
break one mole of covalent bonds. The energy
–8216 kJ
is measured in kilojoules. When bonds are
33
broken energy has to be added to the system iii 33 g of propane = 44 mol = 0.75 mol
and the sign for ΔH is positive. When bonds
are made energy is given out by the system Therefore energy released =
and the sign for ΔH is negative. The enthalpy 0.75 × –2054 = –1540.5 kJ
change for the reaction is the difference
between the energy taken in when bonds are
broken and the energy given out when bonds
are made. If the overall change in enthalpy is
negative then the reaction is exothermic.
If it is positive then the reaction is an
endothermic one.
11 a i Weakest bond = C–C
ii Strongest bond = C=O
b i Number of moles of OH bonds = 4
ii Energy required = 4 × 464 = 1864 kJ
c i Bonds broken = 4C–H + 2O=O
= 6 bonds
ii Bonds made = 2C=O + 4O–H
= 6 bonds
12 a Number of moles of bonds broken:
2 × C–C, 8C–H and 5 × O=O
b Energy required to break moles
2 × C–C = 2 × 347 = 694
8 × C–H = 8 × 413 = 3304
5 × O=O = 5 × 498 = 2490
Total energy required for bond breaking =
6488 kJ / mol
c Bonds made: 6 × C=O and 8 × O–H
d Energy given out by making 6 × C=O
bonds = 6 × 805 = 4830
Energy given out by making 8 × O–H
bonds = 8 × 464 = 3712
Total energy given out = 8542 kJ / mol
e Enthalpy change for combustion of
propane = (energy required to break
bonds) − (energy given out when bonds
formed) = 6488 − 8542 = –2054 kJ / mol
Chapter 8
Exercise 8.1
1 a B has the greater surface area because more surfaces are exposed.
b calcium carbonate(s) + hydrochloric acid(aq) ➞ calcium chloride(aq) +
water(l) + carbon dioxide(g)
2 The mass decreases because carbon dioxide is given off, leaves the solution and
therefore the mass decreases.
3 temperature of acid, concentration of acid, volume of acid, mass of
marble chips
4 Temperature: if it is increased the particles of acid move more quickly, collide
with the solid surface more frequently and with greater force so that there are
more collisions with an energy greater than the activation energy.
Concentration of acid: particles are more crowded and collide more frequently,
so there is more chance of a reaction.
Volume of acid: if a greater volume of acid (of the same concentration) were
present, then the reaction would take place for longer. As long as the acid
covers the chips, it does not affect the initial rate of reaction.
Mass of solid (of same particle size): if more solid is present then reaction
would continue for longer.
5 In the reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid, the acid
particles can only collide and react with the calcium carbonate particles on the
outside of the pieces, the ones on the inside cannot react. In the smaller pieces,
more of the inside particles are exposed to the acid and the acid particles can
therefore react with more calcium carbonate particles and more reactions
take place.
6 a For the large pieces of marble chips (flask B), readings (in grams) were:
Time /s 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Mass /g 240.86 240.65 240.40 240.21 240.10 240.05 239.95 239.94
Loss in
0.00 0.21 0.46 0.65 0.76 0.81 0.91 0.92
mass /g
Time /s 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450
Mass /g 239.90 239.88 239.87 239.86 239.86 239.86 239.86 239.86
Loss in
0.96 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
mass /g
For the small pieces of marble chips (flask B), readings (in grams) were:
Time /s 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Mass /g 240.86 240.35 240.08 239.99 239.95 239.92 239.90 239.88
Loss in
0.00 0.51 0.78 0.87 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.98
mass /g
Time /s 240 270 300 330 360 390 420 450
Mass /g 239.87 239.86 239.86 239.86 239.86 239.86 239.86 239.86
Loss in
0.99 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
mass /g
Chapter 8 continued
b 11 a 440 s
1.2
b average rate
loss in mass for = maximum volume
1 smaller pieces time taken to complete the reaction
loss in mass for
large pieces = 100 = 0.23 cm3 / s
0.8 440
Loss in mass / g
12
0.6 120
X
100
0.4
Volume of gas / cm3

80
0.2
60
0 40
0 200 400 600
line for 5 cm Mg
Time / s 20
c Smaller pieces. The graph is steeper at
the beginning and reaches the maximum 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
amount of gas earlier.
Time / s
7 a The greater the surface area, the faster
the rate. a The line (X) should be steeper at first
b The same amount of acid was used. and level off to the same volume as the
original line.
Exercise 8.2 b The line should be as steep as the original
line at first and then level off to 50 cm3
8 The concentration of a solution / solvent is a
because half the mass of magnesium
measure of the number of particles of solute /
was used.
solvent per unit volume / area.
c An example is shown. The slope of this
9 The third box should have eight filled circles.
The reason for this is that the concentration line is 88–72 = 16 = 0.16 cm3 / s
100 100
is equal to the first box which has two closed d As the reaction proceeds the acid is used up
circles. But, the volume in the first box is 1 dm3 and therefore its concentration decreases
and the third box is 4 dm3 which means we and the rate slows down. This means that
need four times as many solute particles for the slope of the graph decreases and the
the same concentration. line gradually gets less steep.
Exercise 8.3
13 a Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) ➞
H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
b The sulfur formed is a solid and it
makes the solution cloudy. Therefore
as it increases the reaction mixture
gets cloudier.
10 a Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ➞ MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) c The cross will be obscured when there is
b A = delivery tube enough sulfur in the reaction mixture to
make it so cloudy that it cannot be seen.
B = clamp This means that we are measuring the
C = gas syringe time it takes to make a certain amount
c time, volume of gas of sulfur.
Chapter 8 continued
d The sulfur dioxide is toxic and causes
respiratory distress, so we need a
well-ventilated room.
Also when the reaction mixture is
discarded, it should be discarded in a
fume cupboard sink.
Safety specs are needed because of the
acid used.
14 When the temperature of a reaction mixture
is increased the particles move around more
quickly and this increases their kinetic energy.
Because they move around more quickly
at higher temperatures, they collide more
frequently and this increases the chance of a
reaction taking place. More importantly, when
the particles do collide the collisions are more
efficient. This means that more collisions have
an energy greater than the activation energy,
which is the energy required for reaction
to occur.
15 a
Experiment Thermometer Initial Thermometer Final Mean Time for printed
diagram temperature diagram temperature average text to disappear
/ oC / oC temperature /s
/ oC
30 30
1 25 24 25 24 24 130
20 20
40 40
2 35 33 35 31 32 79
30 30
45 45
3 40 40 40 38 39 55
35 35
55 55
4 50 51 50 47 49 33
45 45
60 60
5 55 60 55 54 57 26
50 50
Chapter 8 continued
b f
Light intensity
100
Time / s
50 Time
Exercise 8.4
16 The correct order is U W Q P V T R S
17 a Copper(II) sulfate. It speeds up the
reaction because the formation of bubbles
of hydrogen gas increase greatly but
0 it is changed chemically. The red solid
20 40 60 80 produced is copper (this newly-made
Mean average temperature / °C copper acts as a catalyst and speeds up
the reaction).
c Experiment 5 b Copper is the true catalyst because it
d This was the experiment carried out speeds up the reaction and is unchanged
at the highest temperature. Increasing and is still copper at the end.
the temperature increases the rate of 18
a reaction because the particles are
moving faster and therefore collide more Ea for uncatalysed
frequently. They also have more energy reaction
when they collide and so are more likely
to react. Enthalpy change for
Energy / kJ
both catalysed and

e As the reaction mixture gets cloudier, due uncatalysed reactions
reactants
to the production of sulfur, the intensity/
brightness of the light reaching the light Ea for catalysed
data-logger decreases. reaction
products
Progress of reaction
Chapter 9
Exercise 9.1 4
1 a endothermic True False
b By adding water drop-wise to the powder. All reactions are easily reversible. ✓
c If the forward reaction is endothermic Reversible reactions are represented

✓
by the arrows ⇌.
then the reverse reaction must be
exothermic / because the water being When the concentrations of
added becomes chemically combined reactants and products are equal, ✓
(with the cobalt ions) in the solid and reversible reactions stop.
bonds are formed. If the forward reaction is
endothermic, the backward reaction ✓
d anhydrous
is exothermic.
2 a CuSO4.5H2O ⇌ CuSO4 + 5H2O
Heating always favours the
blue white endothermic reaction in a ✓
b The reaction is reversible. reversible reaction.
c The white powder would turn blue, When equilibrium is reached,
✓
with heat given out / the test detects the reversible reactions stop.
presence of water and the water does not Reversible reactions can go forwards
have to be pure / the water can still react or backwards depending on ✓
even though there is some ethanol there. the conditions.
d Test its boiling point (should be 100 °C at
sea level) / or its freezing point. Exercise 9.2
3 a –75.3 kJ / mol 5 Crop plants are found to need three elements
b The temperature increases. for healthy growth: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
c The backward reaction is exothermic and potassium (K). Plants take up these
which means that heat is released elements in the form of salts such as ammonium
to the surroundings and the nitrate, potassium nitrate, and potassium or
temperature increases. ammonium phosphate. These elements are
d needed for the new plants to make the proteins
needed for growth. Farmers add fertilisers to the
soil to replace the nutrients that previous crops
Activation have absorbed during growth.
energy CuSO4 + 5H2O 6 a NH3
Energy / kJ
b KCl: potassium chloride

Enthalpy change
CuSO4.5H2O of reaction HNO3: nitric acid
H3PO4: phosphoric acid
NH4NO3: ammonium nitrate
c potassium phosphate: phosphoric acid
and potassium hydroxide
Progress of reaction
ammonium sulfate: ammonia solution
(ammonium hydroxide) and sulfuric acid
d ammonia + nitric acid ➞
ammonium nitrate
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) ➞ NH4NO3(aq)
Chapter 9 continued
7a forwards
b i The rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of backward reaction.
ii Equilibrium shifts towards the ammonia and hydrogen chloride.
iii The system resists the decrease in pressure by making more gas molecules.
Exercise 9.3
8
Change in conditions Effect on the position of the equilibrium
Increase in pressure for reactions Equilibrium shifts to favour the side of the reaction with more / fewer
involving gases gas molecules (the side which occupies more / less space).
Decrease in pressure for reactions Equilibrium shifts to favour the side of the reaction with more / fewer
involving gases gas molecules (the side which occupies more / less space).
Increase in temperature for any reaction Equilibrium shifts to favour the exothermic / endothermic reaction.
Decrease in temperature for any reaction Equilibrium shifts to favour the exothermic / endothermic reaction.
Forward and reverse reactions both sped up so no effect on equilibrium
Addition of a catalyst
position, but the reaction reaches equilibrium slower / faster.
9 a vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, 11 a

or vanadium pentoxide
b The products side of the equation (the 80
300 ºC
right-hand side) has fewer moles of
70
gas (occupies a smaller volume) – so a
higher pressure will favour this side of 60
the equation. As pressure increases, the
Ammonia / %
equilibrium mixture contains more sulfur 50

trioxide.
40
c The yield is good enough and reaction
vessels that withstand high pressures are 30
500 ºC
expensive to build. Also high pressures
need very strong pumps and a lot of 20
energy. 10
10 a 450 °C, 20 000 kPa pressure (and a
powdered iron catalyst) 0
0 20 000 40 000
b Pressure / kPa
b 70% ammonia
uncatalysed
c 46% ammonia (possible range is 42–50%)
d The disadvantage of using a low temperature
catalysed would be that the ammonia would be produced
N2 + 3H2 at a slower rate. This slower rate could make the
Enthalpy
process uneconomic at the lower temperature.

∆H exothermic 2NH3 e Using a high pressure:
• favours the production of ammonia /
moves the equilibrium position to the right
(because there is a smaller volume of gas
on the products side of the equation)
Progress of reaction • increases the rate of production of ammonia
(because the reacting molecules are therefore
closer together, and collide more often).
Chapter 10
Exercise 10.1
1 a
hydrocarbon carbon dioxide iron
fuel
BURNING water
....................... oxygen RUSTING rust
oxygen heat energy water

........................
carbon dioxide
b
oxidation sugar
Exercise 10.2 ...............................
2 a
If a substance gains oxygen during a
reaction, it is oxidised. 5 a i Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
RESPIRATION water
b If a substance loses oxygen during a ii Reduction is the gain of electrons.
reaction, it is reduced. b Transfer 1 e–
c The substance that givesoxygen
oxygen to i heat energy
Sodium (Na) 2,8,1 Chlorine (Cl)
another substance in a chemical reaction 2,8,7
is the oxidising agent. ii Sodium ion (Na ) 2,8 Chloride ion +
d The substance that accepts oxygen from (Cl–) 2,8,8

another substance in a chemical reaction Explanation: Sodium has lost one
is the reducing agent. electron and is therefore oxidised;
3 a chlorine has gained one electron and is
oxidation therefore reduced.
Transfer 2 e–
heat i Ca (Ca) 2,8,8,2 Oxygen (O)
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O 2,6
ii Calcium ion (Ca ) 2,8 Oxide ion 2+
reduction (O2–) 2,8

b reducing Explanation: Calcium has lost two
c i Zn(s) + Ag2O(s) ➞ ZnO(s) + 2Ag(s) electrons and is therefore oxidised;
oxygen has gained two electrons and is
ii Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) ➞ 2Fe(s) + Al2O3(s) therefore reduced.
iii 3Mg(s) + Al2O3(s) ➞ 3MgO(s) + 6 a
2Al(s)
reduction
iv CO2(g) + 2Mg(s) ➞ C(s) + 2MgO(s)
4 a Carbon monoxide is the reducing agent,
and oxygen is the oxidising agent. The Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
carbon monoxide gains oxygen. Therefore
oxidation and reduction have taken place.
oxidation
b Nitrogen monoxide is the oxidising
agent, and carbon monoxide is the Copper(II) ions are acting as
reducing agent. The carbon monoxide oxidising agents.
gains oxygen. Therefore oxidation and
reduction have taken place.
c C7H16 + 11O2 ➞ 7CO2 + 8H2O
The carbon and hydrogen both gain
oxygen and are therefore oxidised. The
heptane is therefore the reducing agent
and oxygen is the oxidising agent.
Chapter 10 continued
b Reducing agent = RA; 11 a 2Mg(s) + CO2(g) ➞ 2MgO(s) + C(s)
Oxidising agent = OA ON . 0 +4 +2 0
i Cu(s) + 2Ag+ (aq) ➞ Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) b The magnesium has been oxidised,
RA OA because its oxidation number has
ii 3Mg(s) + 2Al3+(aq) ➞ 3Mg2+(aq) + 2Al(s) increased from 0 to +2.
RA OA The carbon has been reduced, because its
oxidation number has decreased from +4
c i Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ➞ Cu(s)
to 0.
Electrode = cathode
(Oxygen remains as –2 throughout.)
Type of reaction = reduction
12 MnO4− ➞ Mn2+
ii 2Cl– (aq) ➞ Cl2(g) + 2e–
oxidation number: +7 +2
Electrode = anode
Type of reaction = oxidation colour: purple pink
(almost colourless)
iii Al3+(l) + 3e– ➞ Al(l)
13 a 2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l)
Electrode = cathode
Type of reaction = reduction b an oxidation reaction / electrons have
been lost; oxygen has been gained by
7 a Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) ➞ 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
the hydrogen
b Cl2(g) + 2I–(aq) ➞ 2Cl–(aq) + I2(aq)
c O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– ➞ 4OH−(aq)
c chlorine
d H2(g) + 2OH−(aq) ➞ H2O(l) + 2e−
d Cl2 + 2e– ➞ 2Cl– (multiply this equation by 2 in order to
8 Cl2 + 2Br– ➞ 2Cl– + Br2 cancel out the electrons)
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e− ➞ 4OH− (aq) / add
Exercise 10.3 equations together
9 a +2 b +3 c +2 d +4 2H2(g) + O2(g) ➞ 2H2O(l) / electrons and
10 a +3 b 0 c +3 d +6 OH– ions cancel out
e +6 f +1 e Hydrogen has greater energy efficiency /
more energy produced for a given mass
of fuel; water is the only product of
burning hydrogen.
f Hydrogen must be transported and stored
safely as it is highly explosive / hydrogen is
currently expensive to produce / as it is a
gas, hydrogen is difficult to transport.
Chapter 11
Exercise 11.1
1 Acids are substances that dissolve in water to give a solution with a pH less
than 7. Hydrochloric acid has the formula HCl and is a strong acid. Sulfuric
acid (formula = H2SO4) and nitric acid (formula = HNO3) are also strong acids.
In acidic solutions the concentration of the hydrogen ions is greater than the
concentration of hydroxide ions.
Bases are the oxides and hydroxides of metals and ammonia. A base will
neutralise an acid to form a salt and water.
Most bases are insoluble in water, but alkalis are bases that are soluble in water
and their solutions have pH values greater than 7. KOH (potassium hydroxide)
and NaOH (sodium hydroxide) are both strong alkalis. In alkaline solutions
the concentration of hydroxide ions is greater than the concentration of
hydrogen ions.
2
Practical observation Acid Base Alkali
A solution of the substance has a pH of 8. ✓
A solution of the substance turns litmus paper blue. ✓
A solution of the substance turns litmus paper red. ✓
A substance that neutralises an acid but is insoluble in water. ✓
A substance that neutralises an acid and is soluble in water. ✓
A substance that is an insoluble oxide or hydroxide of a metal. ✓
A substance that is a soluble hydroxide of a metal. ✓
A solution with a pH of 9 that is produced when ammonia is dissolved in water. ✓
3 a Colour at A = red Colour at B = orange Colour at C = purple

b Colour of thymolphthalein = blue Colour of methyl orange = yellow
c N placed at 25 cm3, pH 7 on graph
d 25 cm3
e a burette
f pH = 1.6
Exercise 11.2
4
Type of reaction Statements about these reactions
Acid + metal carbonate Gives H2 gas as a product
Gives a salt + water + a gas as

the products
Acid + reactive metal

Gives CO2 as a product
Does give an effervescence (fizzing)

Acid + insoluble metal oxide
Gives a salt and water as the

only products
Acid + alkali
Gives a salt and gas only
5 a word equation: magnesium + hydrochloric

f word equation: magnesium + nitric acid
acid ➞ magnesium chloride + hydrogen
➞ magnesium nitrate + hydrogen
symbol equation:
symbol equation:
Mg + 2HCl ➞ MgCl2 + H2
Mg + 2HNO3 ➞ Mg(NO3)2 + H2
b word equation: calcium hydroxide +
6 a Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl ➞ MgCl2 + 2H2O
hydrochloric acid ➞ c alcium chloride
+ water b MgCO3 + 2HCl ➞ MgCl2 + H2O + CO2
symbol equation: c Take the sample of the antacid and place
Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl ➞ CaCl2 + 2H2O in a conical flask. Add some distilled
water and make sure this is well mixed.
c word equation: calcium oxide + nitric acid
➞ calcium nitrate + water Add the methyl orange indicator to this
mixture and place on the white tile.
symbol equation:
CaO + 2HNO3 ➞ Ca(NO3)2 + H2O Fill the burette to the zero mark with the
1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
d word equation: sodium hydroxide +
sulfuric acid ➞ sodium sulfate + water Slowly add the acid to the antacid/mixture
until the methyl orange changes colour
symbol equation:
yellow to orange.
2NaOH + H2SO4 ➞ Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Note the volume of acid used and
e word equation: sodium carbonate + nitric
repeat with the other antacid. The
acid ➞ sodium nitrate + carbon dioxide
antacid that requires the greater volume
+ water
of hydrochloric acid is the more
symbol equation: Na2CO3 + 2HNO3 ➞ effective antacid.
2NaNO3 + CO2+ H2O
d The magnesium carbonate reacts with the
acid to form carbon dioxide, which will
cause bloating and burping.
Exercise 11.3
7 a Experiment 1
Using a beaker / pipette, 10 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution was
placed in a conical / round-bottomed flask. Thymolphthalein indicator was
added to the flask turning the solution red / blue because of the acidic /
alkaline conditions. A burette / volumetric pipette was filled to the 0.0 /
50.0 cm3 mark with hydrochloric acid (solution P). The acid was then run
into the flask until the colour changed to red / colourless showing that the
alkali in the flask had been neutralised / naturalised by the acid.
The volume of acid / alkali added was noted. The flask was washed
thoroughly with tap / distilled water.
b Experiment 2
The experiment was repeated using the same volume of sodium hydroxide
acid / alkali in the flask but a different solution of acid (solution Q) in the
burette / volumetric pipette.
c The white tile gives a background that makes it easier to distinguish
colour changes.
8 a and b
Burette readings / cm3 Experiment 1 Experiment 2
Final reading 10.6 21.4
Initial reading 0.0 0.2
Difference 10.6 21.2
9 a sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ➞ sodium chloride + water

b H+(aq) + OH–(aq) ➞ H2O(l)
c blue to colourless
d experiment 2
e The acid used in experiment 1 (P) was the more concentrated. Less of it
was required to neutralise the same amount of NaOH.
f 10.6 cm3. The same volume because although it has been diluted, the
amount of NaOH is the same.
Exercise 11.4
10 a pure water: H+ = OH–
b acid solution: H+ > OH–
c alkali solution: OH– > H+
11
Acid Base Alkali
A solution of the substance contains an excess of hydroxide (OH ) ions.
− ✓
A solution of the substance contains an excess of hydrogen (H ) ions.
+ ✓
The substance is a proton acceptor. ✓ ✓
The substance is a proton donor. ✓
12 a Hydrochloric acid is a weak / strong b It is the hydrogen ions from the acid that
acid. Hydrogen chloride gas consists of react with the calcium carbonate. The
covalent / ionic molecules. When they hydrochloric acid is the strong acid and
dissolve in water these molecules partly / therefore its concentration of hydrogen
completely dissociate into hydrogen and ions is greater than the weaker ethanoic
chlorine / chloride ions, producing as many acid. This means that the reaction with
hydrogen ions in the solution as possible. hydrochloric acid will be faster and end
b Ethanoic acid is a weak / strong acid. more quickly. This is shown by the steeper
When it dissolves in water some / all of graph for hydrochloric acid.
the molecules dissociate into ions. The c Hydrochloric acid will have the greater
majority of the molecules remain intact. conductivity because it is a strong acid,
This means that the concentration of completely dissociated and therefore has
hydrogen ions is more / less than it could a higher concentration of ions which will
be if all the molecules had dissociated conduct electricity.
into ions. d The hydrochloric acid loses a proton to
c Two solutions of hydrochloric acid the ammonia and is therefore a proton
and ethanoic acid have the same donor; the ammonia gains a proton and is
concentration. The hydrochloric acid therefore a proton acceptor.
solution will have the higher / lower
pH value. It has the higher / lower
concentration of hydrogen ions and is the
more / less acidic solution.
13 a i ethanoic acid:
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COO–(aq) +
H+(aq)
ii hydrochloric acid:
HCl(aq) ➞ H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
iii sulfuric acid:
H2SO4(aq) ➞ HSO4–(aq) + H+(aq)
b The reaction is reversible and will reach
an equilibrium when the rate of the
reverse reaction is equal to that of the
forward reaction.
14 a
hydrochloric acid
80
Volume of CO2 / cm3
60
ethanoic acid
40
20
0
Time / minutes
Chapter 12
Exercise 12.1
1 a Hydrochloric acid always produces
a chloride.
b Nitric acid always produces a nitrate.
c Phosphoric acid always produces
a phosphate.
2
Other products of
Substances reacted together Salt produced
the reaction
dilute hydrochloric acid zinc oxide zinc chloride water
water and carbon

dilute sulfuric acid copper carbonate copper sulfate
dioxide
water and carbon

dilute sulfuric acid magnesium carbonate magnesium sulfate
dioxide
dilute hydrochloric acid magnesium magnesium chloride hydrogen
dilute nitric acid copper oxide copper nitrate water
dilute ethanoic acid sodium hydroxide sodium ethanoate water
dilute phosphoric acid potassium hydroxide potassium phosphate water
3 All salts are ionic compounds. Salts are

produced when an alkali neutralises an acid.
In this reaction, the salt is formed when a 4 a Sulfuric acid
metal ion or an ammonium ion from the alkali
Magnesium oxide/magnesium hydroxide/
replaces one or more hydrogen ions of the acid.
magnesium carbonate
Salts can be crystallised from the solution
Warm the acid. Add the base until it stops
produced by the neutralisation reaction. The
disappearing/dissolving.
salt crystals formed often contain chemically
combined water. These salts are called hydrated • Filter.
salts. The salt crystals can be heated to drive • Warm the filtrate until crystals start
off this water. The salt remaining is said to to appear.
be anhydrous. • Leave to cool so that the rest of the
Salts can be made by other reactions of acids. crystals are formed.
Magnesium sulfate can be made by reacting b Hydrochloric acid
magnesium carbonate with sulfuric acid. The
Potassium hydroxide/potassium carbonate
gas given off is carbon dioxide. Water is also
formed in this reaction. Place accurate volume of solution of base
in conical flask.
All sodium and potassium salts are soluble
in water. Insoluble salts are usually prepared • Add a few drops of indicator.
by precipitation. • Add hydrochloric acid from burette
until the indicator changes colour.
• Note volume of acid used and repeat
same experiment without indicator.
• Warm solution formed until crystals
start to appear.
• Leave to cool so that the rest of the
crystals are formed.
9 a No further precipitate is formed after
5 a To make sure that all of the acid is reacted 4 cm3 of sodium phosphate solution
and none carries through into the stages is added.
of concentration and crystallisation.
Therefore the reacting ratio of the two
b by filtration – it is the filtrate solutions is 6 : 4 or 3 : 2.
c Heat the filtrate in an evaporating basin The two solutions have the same
to concentrate the solution. Then allow to concentration, so the molar ratio of metal
cool slowly to form crystals. Filter off the X ions and phosphate ions is 3 : 2.
crystals and dry between filter papers.
Formula of the phosphate of metal X is
d zinc + nitric acid ➞ zinc nitrate + hydrogen therefore X3(PO4)2.
Zn(s) + 2HNO3(aq) ➞ Zn(NO3)2(aq) b 3X3+(aq) + 2PO43–(aq) ➞ X3(PO4)2(s)
+ H2(g)
c filter off the precipitate as the residue /
6 a ECBAFD wash the precipitate / dry carefully in
b Because heating strongly would risk warm oven
driving off any water of crystallisation
present which would destroy the structure
of the crystals, giving a powder.
c water of crystallisation
Exercise 12.2
7 a soluble
b insoluble
c insoluble
d soluble
e insoluble
f soluble
8 a Reagents used copper(II) nitrate and
potassium or sodium carbonate
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3 ➞ CuCO3(s) +
2KNO3(aq)
b Reagents used silver nitrate and potassium
or sodium iodide
AgNO3(aq) + KI(aq) ➞ AgI(s) +
KNO3(aq)
c Reagents used silver nitrate and potassium
or sodium chloride
AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) ➞ AgCl(s) +
KNO3(aq)
d Barium nitrate and potassium or
sodium sulfate
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + K2SO4 ➞ BaSO4(s) +
2KNO3(aq)
e One of the following equations
Cu2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) ➞ CuCO3(s)
Ag+(aq) + I–(aq) ➞ AgI(s)
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) ➞ AgCl(s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) ➞ BaSO4(s)
Chapter 13
Exercise 13.1 b C and Si (carbon and silicon)
c Group 4 (IV)
1 The Periodic Table is a way of arranging the
elements according to their properties. They d When the melting points of elements are
are arranged in order of their proton number. plotted against atomic (or proton) number
Elements with similar properties are placed they show a repeating pattern. The highest
together in vertical columns called groups. melting points are given by the elements
Periods are horizontal rows of the elements. of Group number 4 / IV and the lowest by
The table shows trends down the groups and the noble gases.
patterns across the periods. Exercise 13.2
The placing of the elements in the table also
4 a Cs
corresponds to their electron arrangements
(electronic configurations). The number of b Na
electrons in the outer electron shell is the same c one electron in outer shell
as its group number in the table. The number d conductor, lustrous, reactive, soft
of occupied electron shells of the element is 5 To stop them reacting with water and air.
the period in which it is placed.
6 a two of: float on surface of water; move
2 a Cu and Cr around; fizz; both melt; disappear at end
b He of reaction
c Br b The potassium bursts into (lilac) flame.
d C The sodium does not.
e S c 2Na + 2H2O ➞ 2NaOH + H2
f He, Ne and Kr 7 a two of: grey solid; conducts electricity;
g Cu soft/easily cut; lustrous/shiny
h Ca b 1
i Mg
3 a
C
6
3500
3000
B
2500 5
Melting point / °C
2000
Si
Be 14
1500 4
1000 Mg Al
12 13
Li Na S
500 3 P
11 15 16
0
Proton
–273 Cl Ne number
N O F Ne 17
7 8 9 10 18
8
Group I metal Density Radius of metal Boiling point / °C Reactivity with water
/ g per cm3 atom / nm
floats and fizzes quickly on the
sodium 0.97 0.191 883 surface, disappears gradually and
does not burst into flame
reacts instantly, fizzes and bursts

potassium 0.86 0.235 760
into flame, may spit violently
reacts instantaneously, fizzes and

rubidium 1.53 0.250 686 bursts into flame then spits violently
and may explode
0.255–0.265 620–650
caesium 1.88 reacts instantly and explosively
(actual value 0.260) (actual value 671)
Exercise 13.3
9 a The halogens are metals / non-metals and their vapours are
coloured / colourless.
b The halogens are toxic / non-toxic to humans.
c Halogen molecules are each made of one / two atoms; they are
monatomic / diatomic.
d Halogens react with metal / non-metal elements to form crystalline
compounds that are salts.
e Halogens can colour / bleach vegetable dyes and kill bacteria.
10 a
Halogen Reaction with iron wool
Chlorine When iron wool was lowered into a gas jar, a very exothermic reaction could be seen
and dark red solid formed.
The iron wool had to be heated at first, but there was a very exothermic reaction
Bromine
and a dark red solid was formed.
Lots of heat was needed and a small amount of heat was given out. A dark red
Iodine
solid formed.
b The elements get less reactive as we descend the group.

c 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) ➞ 2FeCl3(s)
d 2Fe(s) + 3Br2(g) ➞ 2FeBr3(s)
11 a
Element Proton number Melting point / °C Boiling point / °C Colour
fluorine 9 –219 –18 pale yellow
chlorine 17 –101 –34 pale green
bromine 35 –6 red/dark red
iodine 53 114 185 grey–black
astatine 85 303 337 black
b Exercise 13.4
400
12
True False
300
Some transition elements are ✓
non-metals.
200 Transition elements have ✓
high densities.
Temperature / °C
Some transition elements make ✓

100
good catalysts.
Transition elements form only ✓
0
white compounds.
All transition elements ✓
are magnetic.
–100
13 a copper
b platinum
–200
c copper
d iron
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Proton number e manganese
= melting points = boiling points f chromium
c estimated boiling point = 90–115 °C g silver, gold
(actual value 114 °C) 14 a oxidation number
colour: red–brown b variable oxidation number
physical state: liquid c iron(II) oxide: FeO
d fluorine and chlorine iron(III) oxide: Fe2O3
e solid, black
f The melting points increase as you go
down the group.
Exercise 13.5
15
Statement Electronic configuration
Is an element in the same
group as nitrogen
2,8,2
Is a monatomic gas
2,8,5
Is chlorine
2,8,8
Forms the gas SO2 with an
element in the same group
2,8,6
Is a green–yellow gas
2,8,7
Is a brittle yellow solid
16 a
Noble gas Density g/dm3 Atomic number Period Electronic configuration
Helium 0.18 2 1 2
Neon 0.90 10 2 2,8
Argon 1.78 18 3 2,8,8
Krypton 3.75 36 4 2,8,18,8
Xenon 5.89 54 5 2,8,18,18,8
b The period number (row number) is equal

to the number of occupied shells (energy
levels) in the atom of the element.
c Helium is used in balloons because it is
(a lot) less dense than air.
d It will sink because argon is more dense
than air.
17
Name of element Sulfur Selenium Tellurium
Density / g per cm 3
2.07 4.79 6.24
Melting point / °C 115 221 450
Boiling point / °C 445 685 988
Ionic radius / nm 0.184 0.198 0.221
Chapter 14
Exercise 14.1
1 1 = strong 2 = high 3 = sonorous 4 = they can be beaten into shape 5 = ductile
2
Description of physical property Name for this property Use that depends on this property
They can be moulded or bent
malleability car bodies
into shape.
They transfer heat well. thermal conductivity cooking pots and pans
They can be drawn into wires. they are ductile cabling and wiring
They conduct electricity. electrical conductivity electrical wiring
They are heavy for their volume. high density building construction
They can bear weight and are not

strength bridges
broken easily.
They make a ringing sound when
they are sonorous bells
struck by a hammer.
3 a Metals show good electrical conductivity 5 a magnesium > zinc > iron > copper
whereas non-metals are poor conductors Magnesium produced the most vigorous
of electricity. bubbling of gas when added to the acid,
b Metals are malleable and ductile but copper produced no gas at all. Zinc
non-metals are brittle. produced more effervescence than iron.
c Metals are good conductors of heat but b hydrogen
most non-metals are thermal insulators. c zinc + hydrochloric acid ➞ zinc chloride
d Metals are usually grey in colour and can + hydrogen
be polished whereas non-metals are a wide 6 a magnesium oxide
range of different colours and cannot
b B is sodium / sodium hydroxide is the
be polished.
solution produced
4 a Aluminium has a high electrical
c A<C<B
conductivity.
d B
b The low density of aluminium means that
the overhead cables do not sag too much e magnesium oxide, MgO
between pylons.
c Copper is an even better conductor of
electricity and the weight of the wiring is
not a factor.
d Titanium is light and strong – it is
also expensive, so can only be used for
specialist purposes.
Exercise 14.2
7 a iii b vi c v d ii e i f iv
8
Alloy Composition Use Useful property
iron: >99.75% can be beaten into shape

mild steel car bodies
carbon: <0.25% (malleable)
iron: 74% cutlery,

resistant to corrosion
stainless steel chromium: 18% surgical instruments,
(does not rust easily)
nickel: 8% chemical vessels for industry
copper: 70% musical instruments, ‘gold’ colour, harder

brass
zinc: 30% ornaments than copper
copper: 95%
bronze statues, church bells hard, does not corrode
tin: 5%
aluminium: 90.25%
aerospace zinc: 6% light (low density)
aircraft construction
aluminium magnesium: 2.5% but strong
copper: 1.25%
tin: 60% joining wires in electrical

solder low melting point
lead: 40% circuitry
iron: 95%
tungsten steel cutting edges of drill bits very hard
tungsten: 5%
9 a In a pure metal the layers can slide over f

each other so the metal can be shaped positive metal ion
without breaking.
b Solder has a lower melting point and so it electron
is easier to melt. It is also stronger and so
the joints will be stronger.
c chromium and nickel / they are
transition metals
d The presence of the different sized atoms
of the added metal in the alloy means that
the layers cannot slide over each other as
easily as in the pure metal / the alloy is The copper used in wiring needs to be
stronger and less malleable. very pure so that the delocalised electrons
e The presence of the added iron and silicon can move as freely as possible through
atoms make the commercial aluminium the structure. The presence of impurities
stronger and harder. would interfere with this flow.
g i The pins of the electric plugs have to
be strong, so brass of composition
Cu60:Zn40 is used.
ii Brass instruments have to be shaped
into tubes, so a softer alloy is needed.
Cu70:Zn30 is therefore used.
Chapter 15
Exercise 15.1
1 a All the metals in the group react with cold water to give an alkaline
solution of the metal hydroxide.
b sodium: 2,8,1
potassium: 2,8,8,1
c They each contain one electron in their outer (valency) shell.
d Potassium is the more reactive, as the energy generated by the reaction is
sufficient to ignite the hydrogen produced.
e potassium + water ➞ potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
f 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) ➞ 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
2 a The sodium melts into a ball.
b Yellow, because of the sodium ions present / yellow is the flame test colour
for sodium.
c magnesium + water (steam) ➞ magnesium oxide + hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) ➞ MgO(s) + H2(g)
3 a two outer electrons
b
Group II metal Density Radius of metal Boiling point Reactivity with water and steam
/ g per cm3 atom / nm / °C
reacts very slowly with cold
magnesium 1.74 0.173 1090 water, but reacts strongly
with steam
reacts strongly with cold water,
calcium 1.54 0.231 1484
unsafe to react with steam
strontium 2.64 0.249 1377
barium 3.62 0.268 1845
c Atomic size increases as you descend the group.

d Calcium appears to show values for density and boiling point that do not
follow the general trends in the group.
e calcium + water ➞ calcium hydroxide + hydrogen
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ➞ Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
f In Groups I and II the metals become more reactive with water as you
descend the groups.
Exercise 15.2 b the reaction between zinc and
copper(II) sulfate
4 a When metals react with cold water, the
c because the reactions have finished and no
products are a metal hydroxide and
more heat is given out
hydrogen. The hydroxides formed are
alkaline and they will turn red litmus blue. d zinc + copper sulfate ➞ zinc sulfate +
Some metals do not react with cold water copper
but do with steam. The products in this Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ➞ FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
reaction are the metal oxide and hydrogen. e Zinc gave the higher temperature rise
Copper does not react with water or with because it is the more reactive metal.
dilute acids. This is because it is lower in f This experiment seems to be a ‘fair test’
the reactivity series than hydrogen. in that most of the variables except the
5 a zinc + steam (water) ➞ zinc oxide + choice of metal are controlled. One
hydrogen difficulty is whether the two metals were
b copper or silver (or another metal low in powdered to the same extent so the
the series) surface area available for the reaction
c iron, zinc or magnesium (not calcium will be different in each case. Note that,
or sodium, etc., because these are too although 5 g is not an equal number of
reactive to be safe) moles of the two metals, it is an excess in
both cases.
6 a
80
Temperature / °C
zinc
60
iron
40
20
0 1 2 3
Time / minutes
7 a
zinc zinc tin silver copper
tin(II) copper(II) copper(II) copper(II) silver

chloride sulfate sulfate sulfate nitrate
solution solution solution solution solution
At start Colour grey grey silver silver brown

of metal coloured coloured
Colour colourless blue blue blue colourless
of solution
At finish Colour coated coated with coated with silver coated
of metal with silver- brown solid brown solid coloured with silver-
coloured coloured
crystals crystals
Colour colourless colourless colourless blue blue
of solution
b zinc > tin > copper > silver

c The first equation is correct as lanthanum
is more reactive than aluminium and
will displace aluminium from aluminium
sulfate (reduce Al3+ ions to Al atoms).
d transition metals
e They can be good catalysts; they form
coloured compounds.
f Aluminium becomes coated with a very
thin layer of aluminium oxide which
masks the true reactivity of the metal.
8 a Magnesium is less ready to form a
positive ion than sodium because there
are more protons in the nucleus attracting
the electrons.
b Potassium forms a positive ion more easily
because the outer electrons are further
from the nucleus and this outweighs the
fact that there are more protons in the
nucleus / there is also one more inner shell
of electrons in potassium.
Chapter 16
Exercise 16.1
1 a–c
Metal Reactivity Method of Energy needed to Cost of extracting
extraction extract the metal the metal
sodium most most highest
calcium extraction by
magnesium electrolysis
aluminium
carbon
zinc
lead reduction by
copper heating with
silver carbon
gold least least lowest
2 copper and silver 11 a Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) ➞ 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

3 zinc [state symbols as apply in the furnace]
4 no, zinc is more reactive than hydrogen b CaCO3(s) ➞ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
5 Sodium can be obtained by electrolysis of the 12 a SiO2
molten ore (energy costs high). b CaO
6 a Sodium is a good reducing agent, as it has c CaO(s) + SiO2(s) ➞ CaSiO3(l) [state
a strong tendency to form positive ions; symbols as apply in the furnace]
it does this more readily than aluminium 13 a Zinc has a lower boiling point than iron
and so can be used to extract aluminium and it boils at the temperatures in the
from aluminium chloride. furnace. The zinc vapour is collected and
b i 3Na(s) + AlCl3(s) ➞ 3NaCl(s) + Al(s) condensed at the top of the furnace.
ii 3Na(s) + Al3+(s) ➞ 3Na+(s) + Al(s) b The liquid zinc collected at the top of the
7 a exothermic reactions furnace will be pure as it passed through
the furnace as a gas. Iron remains as a
b aluminium + iron(III) oxide ➞ aluminium
liquid at the furnace temperature and
oxide + iron
flows down to the bottom. The liquid
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) ➞ Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s)
iron dissolves impurities as it flows down
c iron < aluminium < sodium through the furnace.

8 a E b C c A d B e D 14 a
bauxite
9 blast furnace: because hot air is blown b
Al2O3, Al3+ and O2–
(blasted) into the furnace at the base
c
The aluminium oxide must be molten
10 a hematite so that the ions are able to move to the
b at the centre of the furnace, half-way up electrodes and be discharged.
c carbon monoxide (CO) produced from d i oxygen
burning the coke ii aluminium
d iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide ➞ iron e any one correct, e.g. aircraft, food
+ carbon dioxide containers, overhead power cables
e The iron is liquid at the temperature in the
furnace and so it flows down to the bottom.
15 a B 21 Aluminium is not as strong and is
b A more expensive.
c C outer casing, D molten aluminium 22 a galvanisation
d Cryolite is a solvent in which the b Zinc is more reactive than iron and so will
aluminium oxide is dissolved; it lowers corrode away in preference to the iron /
the melting point of the aluminium oxide the zinc provides sacrificial protection /
and so reduces the energy costs of the the zinc forms positive ions more readily
extraction. than the iron.
e They burn away in the oxygen discharged 23 a magnesium
by the electrolysis. b Zn(s) ➞ Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
f Al3+(l) + 3e– ➞ Al(l)
2O2–(l) ➞ O2(g) + 4e–
16 a Aluminium oxide is amphoteric and so
reacts with the sodium hydroxide; iron
oxide is basic and does not react.
b (thermal) decomposition
Exercise 16.4
17 a Anhydrous calcium chloride is a drying
agent to dry the air in the tube.
b To boil any dissolved air (oxygen) out of
the water.
c To prevent any air dissolving in the water.
d tube 4
e Dissolved salt would speed up the rusting
process (seawater makes rusting take
place faster).
18 a air (oxygen) and water
b Two of: painting, coating in plastic, oiling,
plating with a metal.
19 a The can could rust all the way through.
b The zinc, being more reactive, would
corrode in preference to the steel.
c It is reactive and could react with acids in
the food.
d Tin is unreactive and does not react
with acids.
20 a Lead is poisonous, and a little could
dissolve and contaminate the food.
b If the layer of tin is broken it causes the
iron beneath to corrode more rapidly. The
tin coating is less reactive and no longer
protects the can.
Chapter 17
Exercise 17.1
1 a
A R G L A N S H I F O M T I L E Formula Name of gas Found in Considered
M C H O R I C P R E U M A S D B clean dry air a pollutant
O U T T I C R H N O Y L O I S F
Ar argon ✓
T H I S U L F U R D I O X I D E
A L B O R I T A S K R O Y Z P L CO2 carbon dioxide ✓ ✓
S V R M J P H G T I N T G A Q U CO carbon monoxide ✓
Q K L C F E G S E O N L E C D P H2 hydrogen
N R E N A H T E M S O U N P Y F
H Y D R O G E N L E G N P Z L R CH4 methane ✓
B E N X R U O P A V R E T A W A N2 nitrogen ✓
W R O M I B A R T S A O T F A M NO2 nitrogen dioxide ✓
F N P Q R V P E S L P R M N E D
O2 oxygen ✓
F R K A E A L M S P V Y L P A O
P S C A R B O N D I O X I D E M SO2 sulfur dioxide ✓
H2O water vapour
b hydrogen e nitrogen and argon

c oxygen / 21% f See completed table in a.
d nitrogen and nitrogen dioxide g water
2 a Source Gas Adverse effect
toxic gas
carbon dioxide
motor can cause respiratory
carbon problems
vehicles
monoxide
methane
farming causes acid rain
particulates
oxides of
power
nitrogen causes global
stations
sulfur dioxide warming
photochemical smog
increased cancer risk
b Carbon monoxide decreases the capacity c The easiest methods to implement do

of the blood to carry oxygen. not impact on everyday human life but
c sulfuric acid, nitric acid (accept sulfurous do not make a major difference to levels
acid, nitrous acid also) of pollution. The more difficult methods
must be attempted, but will have a wider
d methane
range of impacts on society.
e (anaerobic) decay of vegetation in
4 a Harmful nitrogen oxides (NOx) arise from
marshes and paddy fields / (anaerobic)
nitrogen and oxygen from the air reacting
decay of organic material in landfill sites /
in the hot engine of the vehicle. (Diesel
digestion in livestock
engines produce higher levels of NOx as
3 a A and B: both are major contributors they have a higher operating temperature.)
of carbon dioxide. Possibly D: a major
b 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) ➞ 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
contributor to methane. Carbon dioxide
and methane are greenhouse gases. c Nitrogen(II) oxide is acting as an
oxidising agent.
b C and F: both can be done without
impacting on the human population. The
technology is already available.
Exercise 17.2
5 The greenhouse effect has kept the Earth at a temperature suitable for the
development of life for many thousands of years. As industrial activity has
increased during the 20th century, more and more greenhouse gases have been
released into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide and methane are the two gases
causing the greatest problem. Methane is 25 times more potent as a greenhouse gas
but carbon dioxide is present in greater quantities.
Because of these gases, more of the heat from the sun is kept within the
Earth’s atmosphere and this causes global warming. Much of this heat warms
water in the oceans, which cover about 70% of the Earth’s surface. Increased
temperatures in the oceans and in the atmosphere have an effect on the Earth’s
climate. This effect means that extreme weather events are more likely.
6 a
460 16.4
450 16.2
440 16.0
430 15.8
420 15.6
Carbon dioxide concentration / ppm
Mean average temperature / °C

410 15.4
400 15.2
390 15.0
380 14.8
370 14.6
360 14.4
350 14.2
temperature
340 14.0
330 13.8
320 13.6
310 13.4
carbon dioxide
300 13.2
290 13.0
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040
Year
b i Carbon dioxide: there has been a steady increase in the level of

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere since 1880. However, the curve
has increased more sharply since the 1960s. This rate of increase has
remained steady over recent decades.
ii Mean temperature: the change in mean temperature is more variable,
showing more peaks and troughs. However, since the 1940s, the broad
trend is for the mean temperature to increase.
c No. It was only a minor fluctuation as the 9 The greenhouse effect is a natural
trend is still upwards. phenomenon that warms the surface of
d carbon dioxide = 450–460 ppm / mean the Earth.
temperature = 15.4–15.5 °C (values When thermal energy (infrared radiation)
depend on extrapolated line drawn) from the Sun reaches the Earth’s atmosphere,
7 a glaciers melt: sea level rises / coastal around 30% is reflected back to space and
flooding more likely around 70% is absorbed by the oceans and
land to heat the planet. Some of this heat is
b lack of rain: vegetation dries out / fire
then radiated back up into the atmosphere.
spreads more rapidly
Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere such as
c Dependent on student answers:
carbon dioxide and methane can absorb this
Problems: increased land temperatures / infrared radiation and then re-emit it back
droughts, etc. toward the Earth. This reduces heat loss to
Causes: industrialisation / burning fossil space and keeps the Earth’s temperature warm
fuels / intensive livestock farming / enough to sustain life.
deforestation, etc. Human activities are increasing the amount
Solutions: increasing use of hydrogen of greenhouse gases released into the
and renewable energy / planting trees atmosphere, trapping extra heat and causing
/ decreasing reliance on fossil fuels / global temperatures to rise. This warming of
reduction in livestock farming, etc. both the atmosphere and the oceans gives rise
8 a Photosynthesis to the different aspects of climate change.
b carbon dioxide + water ➞ glucose
+ oxygen
c 6CO2 + 6H2O ➞ C6H12O6 + 6O2
Exercise 17.3
10
Stage of treatment What is removed
passed through a coarse screen A, B

sedimentation and filtration E, H
chlorination F
not removed in water treatment C, D, G
11
Test Seawater River water
Add to anhydrous copper sulfate Changed from white to blue Changed from white to blue
Test with cobalt chloride paper Changed from blue to pink Changed from blue to pink
Measure the boiling point Boiled at 103–105 °C Boiled at slightly over 100 °C
There was a lot of white There was very little
Boil away a sample of water
solid remaining solid remaining
12 Distilled water contains no dissolved

substances. Even very small amounts of
dissolved impurities in water can interfere with
science experiments.
13 a It has been filtered as it flows through the
ground / it has not flowed through fields
and towns.
b No: only water that is consumed by
people needs to be free from microbes.
c Some minerals are essential for health,
and spring (well) water can provide some
of these minerals.
d Boiling will kill the harmful microbes in
the water.
e Plastic bottles can be discarded, causing
environmental pollution.
f Sterilising tablets can be added to water /
water can be boiled before consumption /
filter straws, etc.
Chapter 18
1 The chief source of organic compounds is the 3 a alkanes
naturally occurring mixture of hydrocarbons b alcohols
known as petroleum. Hydrocarbons are
c carboxylic acids
compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen
only. There are many hydrocarbons because d alkenes
of the ability of carbon atoms to join together 4 a butane
to form long chains. There is a series of b methanoic acid
hydrocarbons with just single covalent bonds c butanol
between the carbon atoms in the molecule.
These are saturated hydrocarbons, and they 5 a CnH2n +2
are called alkanes. The simplest of these b CnH2n+1OH
saturated hydrocarbons has the formula c CnH2n+1COOH
CH4 and is called methane. Unsaturated
hydrocarbons can also occur. These molecules
contain at least one carbon–carbon double
bond. These compounds belong to the
alkenes, a second series of hydrocarbons.
The simplest of this ‘family’ of unsaturated
hydrocarbons has the formula C2H4 and is
known as ethene.
The test for an unsaturated hydrocarbon is to
add the sample to bromine water. It changes
colour from orange–brown to colourless if the
hydrocarbon is unsaturated.
2 a
Name Formula Boiling
point / °C
ethene C2H4 –102
propene C3H6 –48
butene C4H8 –7
pentene C5H10 30
hexene C6H12 60 (58–62)
b C12H24
c CnH2n
d A homologous series is a series of
organic compounds that have the same
general formula and similar chemical
properties because they contain the same
functional group.
e the carbon–carbon double bond
6
Name of compound Homologous series Molecular formula Displayed formula
H H H
propanol an alcohol C3H7OH H C C C O H
H H H
H
O H
ethanoic acid a carboxylic acid CH3COOH H C C
H
H
H H
H
propene an alkene C3H6 H C C C
H
H
H H
ethanol an alcohol C2H5OH H C C O H
H H
H H
ethane an alkane C2H6 H C C H
H H
Exercise 18.3
7
Compound Molecular formula Structural formula Empirical formula

butane C4H10 CH3CH2CH2CH3 C2H5
propene C3H6 CH3CH=CH2 CH2
ethanol C2H5OH CH3CH2OH C2H6O
propanoic acid C2H5COOH CH3CH2COOH C3H6O2
propyl ethanoate CH3COOC2H5 CH3COOCH2CH3 C2H4O
8 a because it is an alkane with just carbon–carbon single bonds

b and c
H
O O A
H C
H H H
C O C H
C H C
C C
C C H
O C C
C C H
H C H
H H B
H H
H Aspirin
d the hydroxyl group (–OH); the functional group present in alcohols

CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
Cholesterol CH CH2 CH
CH3
CH3
CH3
HO
9 a alkenes
CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2
(or CH3CH2CH=CHCH3)
b (structural) isomerism
10 a butane, CH3CH2CH2CH3
b butan-2-ol, CH3CH2CH(OH)CH3
c but-1-ene, CH3CH2CH=CH2
d 1,1-dibromoethane, CH3CHBr2
e ethyl ethanoate, CH3COOCH2CH3
11 a propyl propanoate,
CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH3
H H
O
H H H
H C C C
O C C C H
H H
H H H
b methyl butanoate, CH3CH2CH2COOCH3

H H H
O
H
H C C C C
O C H
H H H
H
Chapter 19
Exercise 19.1 3 a
H H H H
H
1 a
C C C C H H C C C C H
Name of ethane ethene
H
hydrocarbon H H H H H H H
Molecular b
formula of C2H6 C2H4 H H H H H H H H
hydrocarbon H C C C C H H C C C C H
Saturated / Br Br H H H Br Br H
saturated unsaturated
unsaturated
c C4H8 + Br2 ➞ C4H8Br2
H H H H 4 a
Displayed
H H H
formula of H C C H C C
hydrocarbon H H H C C C H
H H
H H H
Relative
molecular b
30 28 H H H H H H
mass of
hydrocarbon
H C C C H H C C C H
b i
Ethane is saturated because all the Cl H H H Cl H
C—C bonds are single covalent 1-chloropropane 2-chloropropane
bonds.
ii Ethene is unsaturated because it c A reaction that is started by light
contains one C=C bond. (including ultraviolet light) / the light
energy provides the activation energy for
c Alkenes C=C
the reaction.
2 a
H 3C CH2 Exercise 19.2
C 5 a
H
H H
C
H2C CH2 H C C O H
H2C CH H H
C
b C3H7OH or C3H8O
CH3 c 3 × 12 (3 carbons) + 7 × 1 (7 hydrogens) +
16 + 1 (for OH group)
b C10H16 = 36 + 7 + 17 = 60
c 10 × 12 + 16 × 1 = 136 6 a retinol, cholesterol and geraniol
d The colour changes from orange–brown b alkenes
to colourless (not clear).
7 a The water has to be in gaseous form and
e A thermometer, B (water-cooled) therefore the temperature has to be above
condenser / Liebig condenser, the boiling point of water.
C measuring cylinder
b If a high pressure is applied to the
f burning in an insufficient (limited) supply chemical system at equilibrium, the
of air (or oxygen) equilibrium will shift to lower the pressure
and does this by making fewer gas
molecules which means more ethanol.
8 a d Ethene is formed from the cracking of
fossil fuels, and therefore the production
air-lock containing water of ethanol by this method makes it a
non-renewable fuel. Fossil fuels are
non-renewable because they take millions
of years to form, so once they are used up
there is no more. If ethene is made from
glucose, all the sources are from plants
bubbles of carbon dioxide
and are therefore renewable because more
glucose solution and yeast
can be planted and grown.
12 a Measurements made are: weighing the
masses of ethanol and the burner before
and after burning; weighing the water
b Ethanol is toxic to the yeast and as more and copper calorimeter to make sure the
is produced it eventually kills the yeast. same amount of water is used each time;
temperature measurements.
c Ethanol is a product of anaerobic
respiration – in the presence of oxygen b Errors are due to heat loss and
a different reaction takes place / in the incomplete combustion.
presence of oxygen the ethanol may c C2H5OH + 3O2 ➞ 2CO2 + 3H2O
be oxidised. 13.8
d x= × 2.7 = 16.2 g of water
d Advantage using ethene: can be made using 2.3
continuous flow method so do not need to 13 a A: ethanol; B: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH;
stop and start / can make 100% ethanol. C: 88
Advantage using sugar: cheap – the b The independent variable is either
materials are easily available and doesn’t the number of carbons or the relative
use fossil fuels. molecular mass.
9 a high temperature and a catalyst The dependent variable is the
b C9H20 ➞ C5H12 + C4H8 boiling point.
c steam (H2O) To estimate the boiling points of
propan-1-ol and hexan-1-ol:
10 a C4H9OH + 6O2 ➞ 4CO2 + 5H2O
Plot the points; draw line of best fit
b butan-1-ol + propanoic acid ➞ butyl
whether it be a curve or straight line.
propanoate + water
• From the line, see what temperature
c CH3CH2COOCH2CH2CH2CH3
corresponds with three carbons or a
relative molecular mass of 60.
Exercise 19.3
• Extend line on for six carbons or
11 a C2H5OH + 3O2 ➞ 2CO2 + 3H2O relative molecular mass of 102.
b carbon monoxide and water c The value for hexan-1-ol, because the
c burns to give out lots of heat energy; easy value for propan-1-ol lies on the line
to light; easily available, e.g. from renewable already given. The hexan-1-ol is an
sources; burns cleanly with no solid estimate by extrapolation of what the
waste; is a liquid at room temperature and value would be.
therefore easy to transport
Exercise 19.4
14 a A b C and E c D
d B and D e A f C2H4O
15 a H2O
b 1 kg = 1000 g: Mr(ethanol) = 46;
Mr (CH3COOH) = 60
920
Number of moles of ethanol = × 103
46
= 2 × 10 (20 000)
4
From the equation the number of moles

of ethanoic acid = number of moles of
ethanol = 20 000. Therefore, mass of
ethanoic acid formed = 20 000 × 60 =
1 200 000 or 1.2 × 106 g or 1200 kg.
c ethanoic acid + sodium carbonate ➞
sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide
+ water
16 a If the condenser is returned to the usual
slanting position, the reaction mixture
will not be returned to the flask and some
of the ethanol will not be oxidised to
ethanoic acid. Some of the ethanol will
distill over and not be available to react.
b C2H5OH + 2[O] ➞ CH3COOH + H2O
c The group knew that they needed ethanoic
acid as well as ethanol to prepare ethyl
ethanoate. So, they took the ethanol and
divided it into two portions. One portion
was oxidised to ethanoic acid by adding
it to acidified potassium manganate(VII).
The mixture was then refluxed for an
hour and the ethanoic acid produced
was distilled off. The ethanoic acid was
then mixed with the ethanol and some
concentrated sulfuric acid added. The
concentrated sulfuric acid acted as a
catalyst for the reaction. After the mixture
was refluxed together, the ester ethyl
ethanoate was distilled off.
d CH3COOH(l) + C2H5OH(l) ⇌
CH3COOC2H5(l) + H2O(l)
Chapter 20
Exercise 20.1 b
aluminium oxide
1 A: refinery gas / heating and cooking
B: gasoline (petrol) / fuel for cars
C: naphtha / for making chemicals
ceramic wool
(chemical feedstock) soaked in decane
product /gas
D: kerosene (paraffin) / fuel for aircraft

(jet fuel) Y
E: bitumen / road surfacing ice cubes
ice-cold water
2 a boiling point
b Chain length decreases and viscosity
decreases as you ascend the tower. c It is a catalyst.
3 a d See diagram.
50 50
e Y = octane.
Proportion in petroleum 2C8H18 + 25O2 ➞ 16CO2 + 18H2O
Proportion in petroleum / %
Percentage of demand / %
40 Percentage of demand 40
f Test: add bromine water and mix.
Results: the bromine is decolourised or
30 30
the colour of the bromine water goes from
orange to colourless.
20 20 g The other product would have to contain
only one carbon and be an alkene, which
10 10 has to have at least two carbons.
0 0
Exercise 20.2
A B C D diesel fuel oil /
6 a Poly(ethene) is an addition polymer
oil waxes / E
formed from many ethene molecules. In
Fraction
this reaction, the starting molecules can
b B (gasoline), diesel oil; E (bitumen), be described as monomers. The process is
fuel oil and waxes known as polymerisation.
c B (gasoline) + diesel oil = 22 + 23 = 45% b
4 a C15H32 ➞ C12H26 + C3H6 H H H H H H
b C C C C C C
H H H
H H H H H H
H C C C
7 a–v / b–ii / c–iv / d–i / e–iii
H H
8
5 a C10H22(l) ➞ C8H18(l) + C2H4 (g)
H Cl
decane octane ethene C C
H H
9 a not broken down by natural means / not

digested by biological organisms
(bacteria / fungi)
b calcium chloride, water, carbon dioxide
10 a aquatic life (e.g. fish, turtles, birds) can get tangled with plastic bags /
ropes, etc. and be strangled by them / larger creatures can take bags, etc.
into their stomachs / fragments of larger plastic objects and microbeads
can be ingested and interfere with feeding and digestion of food
b any exfoliating / mildly abrasive products such as cosmetic facial scrubs,
shower gels and toothpastes
Exercise 20.3
11
Addition polymerisation Condensation polymerisation
Monomers used usually many molecules of a single molecules of two different monomers
unsaturated monomer, usually contains usually used; monomers contain a
a carbon–carbon double bond reactive functional group at each end of
the molecule
Reaction taking place an addition reaction a condensation reaction with loss of a
small molecule (usually water) each time
a monomer joins the chain
Nature of product only one product formed – the polymer two products: the polymer plus another,
small, molecule
non-biodegradable can be biodegradable
resistant to acids PET can be hydrolysed back to

monomers by acids or alkalis
12 a A, C and D.
b They have only one functional group in the molecule.
13 a polyamide
b
H H H
N C C N N C
O O O
amide link
c water / H2O
d nylon
14
O O
Monomers used C C and HO OH
HO OH
Structure of the polymer O O O O

formed (show just three C C O O C C
monomers joined)
Name: water
Other product formed
Formula: H2O
Type of polymer formed polyamide polyester polysaccharide
15 a They are both condensation polymers /
both polyamides.
b Synthetic polyamides are made from a
maximum of two monomers. A protein
chain is made from up to 20 different
(amino acid) monomers with each protein
having a unique amino acid sequence.
c amino acids
Chapter 21
Exercise 21.1 b Toxic sulfur dioxide gas will be released
from solution if the mixture is heated too
1 Measuring cylinder, because the large volume strongly (the solubility of gases decreases
of solution needs to be added rapidly; with increased temperature).
volumetric pipettes are designed to only
dispense small volumes at a time, but are Exercise 21.2
more accurate.
7 a
2 Results would be more precise but not more
accurate, as accuracy depends on human Elements Mixtures Compounds
reaction time. aluminium brass carbon dioxide
3 dilute nitric
sodium copper sulfate
acid
250 zinc seawater methane
b Elements. Mixtures are easily separated

200
by physical means, and compounds
can be separated chemically into their
Time / s
150 constituent elements.

c electrolysis
100 8 a simple distillation
b Any insoluble solid in a liquid, with
50 appropriate filtrate and residue from
example given.
0 c Dissolve in a solvent (water), filter and
0 10 20 30 heat to crystallise.
Volume of sodium thiosulfate used / cm3
9 Heat the solution to evaporate water
(crystallisation point) until crystals are seen at
4 a 13.5 cm3 (13–14 cm3 depending on the line the surface or until a sample taken with a glass
drawn on the graph) rod forms crystals. Allow to cool and filter the
b 16.5 cm3 (or 30 minus the value given crystals formed from the remaining solution.
in 4a) 10 Simple distillation: the liquid is evaporated
20
5 × 0.5 = 0.25 mol / dm3 by boiling and condensed leaving the solid
40
behind. Example: production of drinking
6 a Additional apparatus needed:
water from seawater. Fractional distillation:
thermometer and Bunsen burner
more than one liquid is present / the mixture
• Use fixed volume of thiosulfate. is boiled and the condensate is collected at
• Measure temperature of solution. different temperatures / the collecting vessel
• Add acid and time. is changed when the boiling point of a
component is exceeded. Example: separating
• Retake temperature.
different fractions from petroleum.
• Repeat, but heat thiosulfate solution
11 a Impure water would have a higher
to raise temperature by 5 °C.
boiling point.
• Further repeats increasing
b An impure metal would have a lower
temperature by 5 °C each time.
melting point.
• Plot a graph of time against final
12 Weigh the sample of powdered brass / add
temperature of mixture.
hydrochloric acid in excess / wait until
• To make a fair test, change only one reaction stops (no more bubbling) / filter to
variable (temperature) at a time while obtain copper / wash and dry copper / weigh
keeping all other conditions (solution the copper and calculate the mass of zinc
concentration, etc.) the same. by subtraction.
Exercise 21.3
13 A: solvent front: the level that the solvent
reaches during chromatography run
B: origin / base line: the level where the
samples are placed
14 between 0 cm and 1 cm / must be below the
origin, e.g. 0.5 cm
15 A pencil was used rather than an ink pen
because soluble components in the ink could
have risen up the paper with the sample and
interfered with the result.
16 No. There are no spots in common / no spots
at the same height.
17 The component at 5 cm, as it has
moved furthest.
18 Mixture X: one component was insoluble and
remained on the baseline (as shown).
Mixture Y: two of the components moved
together in the solvent used (or one
component was colourless and so did not
show on the chromatogram).
19 a By comparing the spots with those
produced by known substances
(standards).
b By running the sample using a different
solvent to try to separate them (or by
using a locating agents to detect any
colourless component).
20 a spot moves 2 – 1 cm = 1 cm, solvent moves
7 – 1 cm = 6 cm; Rf = 1/6 = 0.17 (2 d.p.)
b By using a locating agent which reacts
with the substance in the spot making
it coloured / spray the locating agent on
the chromatogram / hang to allow the
reaction to take place and to dry.
Chapter 22
Exercise 22.1 6 a strong pungent smell of ammonia and the
red litmus is turned blue
1
b nitric acid
Cation (metal ion) Colour of flame c white precipitate
lithium, Li+ red d Cl–(aq) + Ag+(aq) ➞ AgCl(s)
sodium, Na +
yellow e ammonium chloride, or NH4Cl
potassium, K +
lilac f NH4Cl + NaOH ➞ NaCl + H2O + NH3
calcium, Ca 2+
orange–red
barium, Ba2+ light green Exercise 22.2
copper(II), Cu2+ blue–green 7 a chromium Cr3+
b copper Cu2+
2 The procedure for the flame test is:
c iron(II) Fe2+
• Dip a clean (nichrome) wire probe into
hydrochloric acid. 8 a When Fe2+ is exposed to air it will form
Fe3+ by oxidation.
• Dip the wire into the compound to
be tested. b iron(III) Fe3+
• Hold the wire near the edge of the roaring c copper Cu2+ / blue–green flame
blue flame of a Bunsen burner. 9 Drops of copper sulfate are added to the
• Note the colour of the flame produced. ammonia solution, so the ammonia solution is
always in excess and the pale blue precipitate
Results: the antacids containing sodium
never appears.
carbonate will give a yellow flame; this
colour tends to mask the colour produced
by the presence of other metals / the antacid
containing just calcium carbonate gives an
orange red flame.
3 Solid carbonates would not react directly with
NaOH(aq) / first acidify each solid antacid
with a small amount of dilute hydrochloric
acid to form the metal chlorides / then add
excess aqueous sodium hydroxide separately
to each sample. The antacid containing
calcium ions will give a white precipitate (of
calcium hydroxide).
4 a Use a flame test: barium gives a light
green flame.
b Barium carbonate is insoluble in water but
would dissolve in the acid environment of
the stomach and cause poisoning.
5 a Ca2+ and CO32–
b The fizzing with HCl shows a gas is
formed, and this is CO2 which is given
by carbonates.
c calcium carbonate
d All carbonates (apart from those of
Group I and ammonium) are insoluble.
Therefore calcium carbonate is insoluble
and after filtration will always be in
the residue.
10 a
Test Observations
1 A sample of the solid mixture was dissolved in
distilled water.The solution was acidified with A white precipitate was formed.
dilute HCl(aq) and a solution of BaCl2 added.
2 A sample of the solid was placed in a test tube. The solid dissolved and pungent fumes were
NaOH(aq) was added and the mixture warmed. given off.
A piece of moist red litmus paper was held at the The litmus paper turned blue, indicating the
mouth of the tube. presence of ammonium ions.
3 A sample of the solid was dissolved in distilled
A white precipitate was formed which was
water to give a colourless solution. NaOH(aq) was
soluble in excess alkali.
added dropwise until in excess.
4 A further sample of the solid was dissolved in
A white precipitate was formed. On addition
distilled water. Concentrated ammonia solution
of excess alkali, the precipitate was soluble.
(NH3(aq)) was added dropwise until in excess.
b ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4) and zinc sulfate (ZnSO4)

c The precipitate in both tests is zinc hydroxide (Zn(OH)2).
Exercise 22.3
11 a carbon dioxide
b Test: bubble the gas through colourless limewater.
Result: the limewater turns cloudy/milky.
c i Test: Use a glowing splint
Observations: splint relights
ii Test: Use a lighted splint
Observations: ‘pops’ with a lighted splint
12 a Ammonia: turns damp red litmus paper blue.
Chlorine: bleaches damp litmus paper white.
b It would not show which was which / both gases would give
identical results.
13 a A paper dipped in a solution of acidified potassium manganate(VII) is
held in the gas. The paper turns from purple to colourless.
b It is a reducing agent.
c damages buildings / damaging to tree growth / damaging to aquatic life in
lakes and streams / causes breathing problems
Exercise 22.4
14 burette: to measure the volume of the solution added
volumetric pipette: to measure the fixed volume of the solution in the flask
conical flask: to contain and swirl the solutions being reacted
15 thymolphthalein, it is an indicator to show the endpoint
16 a
Titration
1 2 3 4
Final burette reading / cm 3
25.9 48.6 32.4 28.5
First burette reading / cm 3
0.0 23.3 6.9 3.1
Volume of solution A / cm3 25.9 25.3 25.5 25.4
Best titration result (✓) ✓ ✓ ✓
b 25.9 cm3 because it is the rough or pilot value

c 25.4 cm3 (omitting rejected value)
d to ensure adequate mixing
e Any remaining solution in the flask could interfere with the next titration
and give false results.
17 a The water does not affect the result as the quantity of acid and alkali are
separately measured. Water is only the solvent.
b A smaller volume would be needed to neutralise the same volume of alkali
since it contains more acid per unit volume (a higher concentration).
Exercise 22.5
18 The cobalt chloride paper would change from blue to pale pink (test for the
presence of water).
19 a white precipitate (sulfate ions)
20 water D (lowest pH value)
21 water C (most sodium ions and most chloride ions)
22 Water D. Impurities increase the boiling point of water. D is purest (lowest
total solids) and so has the lowest boiling point.
23 Carbonates can decompose on heating / some solids splash out during boiling.
24 To decide whether the water might pose any hazards to health / for
quality control.

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CAMBRIDGE IGCSE™ CHEMISTRY: WORKBOOK

boiling point of a liquid changes with

Time / minutes Exercise 1.3

dioxide, sodium chloride, copper sulfate C

b the fact that the mixture continues to glow Hydrogen

Note that in the answers to question 8, the

d electrostatic forces of attraction between b i the electrostatic forces between the

Carbon-12 is used as the standard

b The mass of magnesium oxide produced

Maximum mass of crystals, CuSO4.5H2O, that volume

8 Sodium 1 dm3 0.5 0.5

Sodium 200 cm3 2 0.40

MgSO4.7H2O 246 0.333 82 Mean average 82

3 a chromate ions 6 a H2(g) ➞ 2H+(aq) + 2e–

and mix with the food/drink.

to determine the mass needed to reduce N2 + 3H2

7 a In an exothermic reaction, the reactants / Progress of reaction

Volume of gas / cm3

both catalysed and

1 a endothermic True False

c If the forward reaction is endothermic Reversible reactions are represented

b KCl: potassium chloride

9 a vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5, 11 a

equilibrium mixture contains more sulfur 50

process uneconomic at the lower temperature.

oxygen heat energy water

d The substance that accepts oxygen from (Cl–) 2,8,8

reduction (O2–) 2,8

3 a Colour at A = red Colour at B = orange Colour at C = purple

Acid + metal carbonate Gives H2 gas as a product

Gives a salt + water + a gas as

Acid + reactive metal

Does give an effervescence (fizzing)

Gives a salt and water as the

5 a word equation: magnesium + hydrochloric

9 a sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid ➞ sodium chloride + water

dilute hydrochloric acid zinc oxide zinc chloride water

water and carbon

water and carbon

dilute hydrochloric acid magnesium magnesium chloride hydrogen

dilute nitric acid copper oxide copper nitrate water

dilute ethanoic acid sodium hydroxide sodium ethanoate water

dilute phosphoric acid potassium hydroxide potassium phosphate water

3 All salts are ionic compounds. Salts are

reacts instantly, fizzes and bursts

reacts instantaneously, fizzes and

b The elements get less reactive as we descend the group.

Some transition elements make ✓

b The period number (row number) is equal

They conduct electricity. electrical conductivity electrical wiring

They can bear weight and are not

iron: >99.75% can be beaten into shape

iron: 74% cutlery,

copper: 70% musical instruments, ‘gold’ colour, harder

tin: 60% joining wires in electrical

9 a In a pure metal the layers can slide over f

c Atomic size increases as you descend the group.

tin(II) copper(II) copper(II) copper(II) silver

At start Colour grey grey silver silver brown

b zinc > tin > copper > silver

gold least least lowest

2 copper and silver 11 a Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) ➞ 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

Exercise 16.2 Exercise 16.3