FIRST TERM LESSON NOTE

SUBJECT: CHEMSTRY CLASS: SSS3

SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPICS
1 REVISION, SATURATED HYDROCARBON, UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON, AROMATIC HYDROCARBON
AND ALKANOLS
2 ALKANOIC ACIDS - SOURCES, NOMENCLATURE, STRUCTURE, PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND USES.
3 ALKANOATES, GENERAL MOLECULAR FORMULAR, NOMENCLATURE, PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND
USES.
4 FAT AND OIL AS HIGHER ESTERS, SOURCES, PROPERTIES AND USES. DETERGENTS AND SOAPS
STRUCTURE, THEIR MODE AND ACTION.
5 AMINES AND AMIDES , GENERAL MOLECULAR STRUCTURE, PREPARATION, PROPERTIES AND
USES.PROTEINS – SOURCES, STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND USES, TESTS FOR PROTEINS.
6 CARBOHYDRATES – SOURCES, GENERAL MOLECULAR FORMULAR, CLASSIFICATION, PROPERTIES AND
USES. TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES.
7 MIDTERM BREAK/TEST
8 POLYMERS, GIANT AND MACROMOLECULES.
9 METALS AND THEIR COMPOUND ( ALKALI METALS)
10 ALKALINE EARTH METALS
11 TRANSITION METALS AND ALLOYS
12 REVISION.
13 EXAMINATION.

REFERENCE BOOK
NEW SCHOOL CHEMISTRY FOR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY OSEI YAW ABABIO.
PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY FOR SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY GODWIN OJOKUKU
OUTLINE CHEMISTRY FOR SCHOOLS & COLLEGES BY OJIODU C. C.
CHEMISTRY PASS QUESTIONS FOR S.S.C.E AND UTME.

WEEK TWO
TOPIC: ALKANOIC ACIDS

CONTENT
 Sources
 Nomenclature
 Structure
 Preparation
 Properties and Uses

ALKANOATES
General molecular formula, nomenclature, preparation, properties and uses.

SOURCES:
The alkanoic acid or carboxylic acids are also called fatty acids because some of them are found in natural fats and
oils. They contain the functional group called carboxy group.

NOMENCLATURE:
The IUPAC name of each homologue is obtained by changing the “-e” endind of the corresponding alkane to “-oic”
acid e.g. mathanoic, ethanoic etc.

STRUCTURE:
Alkanoic acid has a general molecular fomular of CnH2n + 1COOH where n > 0. or RCOOH. Thus it has the
following structure.
 O
RC
OH

E.g.Ethanoic acid CH3COOH

H
O
H C C

H OH
PREPARATION e.g.Ethanoic acid
Ethanoic acid can be prepared by the complete oxidation of ethanol by acidified sodium heptaoxo dichromate (VI)
solution. The oxidation reaction is a two stages of reaction
I. Ethanol oxidized to ethanol; CH3CH2OH O3 CH3CHO

II. Ethanol oxidized to ethanoic acid; CH3CHO O3 CH3COOH

Or
CH3CH2OH + [O] CH3CHO + [O] CH3COOH
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It is colourless liquid with a sharp and pungent smell.
2. It has sour taste.
3. It is soluble in water.
4. It freezes into ice-like at temperature below 170C therefore called gluciaethanoic acid (anhydrous ethanoic
acid).
5. It has boiling point of 1180C
6. It turns blue litmus papers to red.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. It libratescarbon(IV) oxide from either trioxocarbonate (IV) or hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV) salts.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3CONa + H2O + CO2.
2. It librates hydrogen gas when it reacts with highly electropositive metals e.g.
Mg &Ca; 2CH3COOH + Ca (CH3COO)2Ca + H2.
3. As an acid, it neutralizes boxes or alkalis to form salts known as ethanoate and water only
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O.
4. It reacts with alkanols to form ester e.g. CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O
5. Reduction:
It can be reduced to ethanol in the presence of lithiumtetrahydridoaluminate III as
reducing agent (LiAlH4)
CH3COOH + 4H CH3CH2OH + H2O
6. It reacts with chlorme successively to form chloroethanoic acid e.g.
CH3COOH + Cl2 CH2ClCOOH + HCl
CH2ClCOOH + Cl2 CHCl2 COOH +HCl
CHCl2 COOH + Cl2 CCl3COOH + HCl

EVALUATION
1. (a) State four (4) chemical properties of ethanoic acid.
(b) Give two (2) physical properties of ethanoic acid.
2. How would you prepare ethanoic acid in the laboratory.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKANOIC ACID

Alkanoic acids are classified based on the number of carbonxylic groups present per molecules.
1. Monocarboxylic Acids: these have one carboxylic group per molecule e.g.
methanoic acid (HCOOH)
 O

H C
OH

Ethanoic acid CH3 COOH

H
O
H C C

H OH
2. Dicarboxylic Acids: these have two carboxyl groups per molecules e.g. ethan -1, 2-dioe acid
(oxalic acid)
COOH O O
or C C
COOH HO OH

3. Tricarboxylic acids: these have 3 carboxylic acid per molecule e.g. 2-hydroxy propan 1,2, 3-
tricaboxylic acid.
H
H C COOH
HO C COOH
H C COOH
H
N.B: Two important aromatic caborxylicacid are
(1) Benzoic acid

(2) 2-hydroxy benzoic acid

USES OF ETHANOIC ACID

1. It is used in making compounds like cellulose ethanoate, dyes etc.
2. It is used as organic solvent.
3. It is used in the food industries for preserving and flavoring food.
4. Used for coagulating rubber latex.

EVALUATION
1. Give three (3) classes of alkanoic acid.
2. State four (4) uses of ethanoic acid.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by O.Y. pages.504-506

WEEK THREE
TOPIC:ALKANOATES
  General Molecular Formular
 Nomenclature
 Preparation
 Properties And Uses.

GENERAL MOLECULAR FORMULA.

The alkanoates are called esters. They have general molecular formula of RCOOR’.
It has structural formula of
O
R C
OR
e.gethylethanoate CH3COOCH2CH3

NOMENCLATURE
Naming of alkanoates are obtained by substituting “e” ending in alkane with “oates” in
alkanoates.

PREPARATION E.G. ETHYL ETHANOATE .

Ethyl ethanoate is prepared by the esterification between ethanol and glacial ethanoic acid at 150 0C in the
presence of concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid. To reduce the chances of the reverse reaction happening, the
ester is distilled off as soon as it is formed.
C2H5OH + CH3COOH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
This method can be used for converting alcohols into esters, but it doesn't work with phenols - compounds where
the -OH group is attached directly to a benzene ring. Phenols react with carboxylic acids so slowly that the reaction
is unusable for preparation purposes.

Purification of the Product

Add about 20 cm3 saturated calcium chloride solution to the ethyl ethanoate in the separating funnel, shake well,
and remove the lower aqueous layer.
Pour the ethyl ethanoate into a beaker, add a few lumps of solid anhydrous calcium chloride and shake well.
Carefully pour the liquid into a clean, dry 100 cm3 round-bottom flask and add some anti-bumping granules. Set up
the distillation apparatus, including a 0-100 oC thermometer in the apparatus.
The distilling flask should be placed in a cold water bath, which is gradually heated.
The ether that is always formed in this reaction will distil off between 35-40 oC, and may be poured away.
Continue to heat the flask and collect the fraction that boils between 74-79 oC.
You should notice that it has the distinctive sweet smell of an ester.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Ethyl ethanoate is a colourles volatile liquid with a pleasant smell.
2. It is slightly soluble in water.
3..It has boiling point of 750C.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Hydrolysis.
Ethyl ethanoate can be hydrolysed by water to produce ethanoic acid and ethanol.
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O CH3COOH + C2H5OH.

N.B: If an alkali is used instead of water, it will produce the salt of the acid e.g.
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH

2. REACTION WITH AMMONIA

Ethyl ethanoate reacts with ammonia to produce ethanol and thenamide
CH3COOC2H3 + NH3 C2H5OH + CH3COOH2

3. REDUCTION
Ethyl ethanoate can be reduced by hydrogen from lithium tetrahydridoalluminute (III) as reducing agent
CH3COOC2H5 + 4[H] 2C2H5OH

USES OF ALKANOATES/ESTERS
- They are used as food flavours.
- Used in perfumes and cosmetics
- Used as solvent for cellulose nitrate .
- Used for quick-drying substances like paints, nail varnishes etc.

EVALUATION
1.Write the general structure of the ester.
2.Write a balanced equation for the reaction between propanol and butanoic acid.
(a) Name the products formed.
(b) What type of reaction is involved.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio page.504-509

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The name of (CH3)2 CHCOOH is
A. Propane acid B. 2-methylhutanoic acid C. Dimethyl butanoic acid
D. Propanoic acid
2. Citric acid appears in unripe orange while enthanwie acid appears in
A. Unripe pawpaw B. Carrot C. Vineger D. Rice
3. Esters are employed in the following except.
A. Making perfumes B. Making cement C. Nail varnishes D. Making yeast
4. An alkanoic acid reacts reversibly with an alkanol to produce.
A. a salt B. an ester C. a sugar D. an alkene
5. Ethan-1, 2-dioe acid is
A. a mineral acid B. dicarboxylic acid C. citric acid D. a soap

THEORY
1a. Give the formula of ethanoic acid and indicate its functional group.
b. Ethanoic acid reacts with both sodium hydroxide and ethanol, suing equations to comparethe reactions and
classify the products.
2a. Ethylethanoate reacts with both water and alkali; using equation to compare the reaction.
b. What happens when ethanoic acid is heated strongly with soda-line.
 WEEK FOUR
TOPIC: Fats and Oils
CONTENT
 Sources, properties and uses detergents and soaps
 Structure, their mode and action.
 Fats and oils belong to a general group of compounds known as lipids.
 Detergents and Soap

SOURCES:
Fats are solids that usually come from animals e.g. Tallow (mutton fat). Oils are liquids that come from plants e.g.
vegetable oil, coconut oil etc. Both fat and oil are esters of the trihydricalkanol(propane -1, 2, 3- triol).

STRUCTURES, THEIR MODE AND ACTION

Fats and oils are called triglycerides (or triacylcylgerols) because they are esters composed of three fatty acid units
joined to glycerol, a trihydroxy alcohol:

A triglyceride is called a fat if it is a solid at 25°C; it is called an oil if it is a liquid at that temperature.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Fats have higher melting points due to the presence of higher proportion of esters of saturated fatty acid.
2. Oils have lower melting points because of the presence of esters of unsaturated fatty acid.
3. Pure fats and oils are colourless, odourless, and tasteless.
4. They are insoluble in water and decomposes at temperature above 300 oC .

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Hydrogenation of oils.
This is carried out in the presence of nickel as catalyst at 180 0C to yield margarine.

2. Saponification:
Hydrolysis of fats and oils with cyanotic alkali yields propane -1, 2, 3- triol and fatty acid of sodium or potassium.

USES OF FATS AND OILS

1. Fats are consumed as food.
2. Oils are used to make margarine.
3. Tallow (a fat) is used for making soaps.
4. Ground nut oil and cotton seed oil are used for cooking.
5. Coconut oil and palm oil are used for making soap and for cooking.

EVALUATION
1. Identify two (2) uses of fats and oils.
2. Write two (2) chemical properties and two (2) physical properties of fats and oils.
DETERGENTS:
Detergents are any substance which have ability to clean an object e.g. soaps, soap powders, washing liquids and
water.

TYPES OF DETERGENT
1.SOAPY DETERGENTS: This is soap of sodium salt of fatty acid.

PREPARATION
Animal fat or vegetable bits are steam-heated with sodium or potassium hydroxide in a large container. A
concentrated Nuel solution is added to decrease the soluble of the soap – so that it comes out as hard
cake on cooling known as salting out
STRUCTURE:-
CH3(CH2)16 COOCH2
CH3(CH)2)16 COOCH + 3NaOH. CH 3(CH2)16 COOCH

(Sodium Hydroxide) Propane 1,2,3-triyltrioctadecanoate

NATURE OF SOAP
Each molecule of soap has long hydrocarbon chain (alkyl) which is attached to ionic head of either COO - Na+ or
COO-K+. The alkyl tail hydrophobic) dissolves oil or organic solvent while the ionic soluble in water (hydrophilic).

ACTION OF SOAP (CLEANSING ACTION)

When soap solution is applied to a grease-coated piece of fabric, the soap molecule moves to thegrease spot. The
hydrophobic tails dissolve in grease while the hydrophilic dissolves in the water.
The grease spot is lifted up and more soap particles dissolve the grease.

2. SOAPLESS DETERGENTS
Soapless detergents are the more favouredall purpose cleansing agents nowadays. They are available as liquids or
solids. The example of soapless detergent is alkyl benzenesulphates (ABS). These are sodium salt of an acid e.g.
sulphonic acid.

STRUCTURE:
The molecule of detergent has hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head.

The hydrophobic tail is a long chain hydrocarbon or benzene ring with long alkyl group.

The hydrophilic unlike soap can be positively or negative change or neutral. The high solubility of soapless
detergent in water is due to the presence of –SO3- Na+ in the molecules.

The soapless detergents are called synthetic detergents. The raw materials are petrochemicals from refining crude
oil.

Hydrophilic
R - SO3- Na+
Hydrophobic tail
R is a long hydrophobic chain.

ACTION OF SOAPLESS DETERGENT

- They do not form scum or react with hydrogen ions.

EVALUATION
1. Draw the structure of soapless detergent.
2. State one advantage of soapless detergent over soapy detergent.
READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio pages.509-514

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The structure of soap according to suponification process is
A. CH3(CH2)16COONa B. CH3CH2COOCa C. CH3CH2CH2COONa
D. C2H5COONa
2 . The example of soapless detergent is
A. alkyl B. ethylethanoate C. alkanol D. alkylbenzenesulphonates
3. Hydrophobic tail of soap dissolves in grease while hydrophilic dissolves in
A. benzene B. water C. propanol D. kerosene
4. Fats and oils belong to a general group of compounds known as ………..
A. glycerol B. soap C. margarine D. lipids
5. Hydrolysis of fat and oil to yield alkanol and soap is called …………
A. esterification B. hydrogenation C. hydrolysis D. saponification

THEORY
1. Explain the structure of soapless detergent and its mode of action.
2. Explain the following; (a) saponification (b) hydrogenation

WEEK FIVE

TOPIC: AMINES AND AMIDES

AMINO-ACIDS
Amino acids are the basic structural units of proteins.
The functional groups in amino acids are amino group (-NH 2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH)
General structure

NH2 α carbon

H C COOH

EVALUATION
1. Name the functional groups present in amino acids molecule.
2. What are proteins?
3. State two properties of protein.

AMINES AND AMIDES

CONTENTS: General molecular formular/structure, preparation, properties and uses.

AMINES:
It has a functional group of NH2.
GENERAL MOLECULAR FORMULAR/STRUCTURE:
It has a general molecular formula of RNH2 or structure of R–N–H

H
PREPARATION:
They are derivatives of ammonia where one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by alkyl or aryl groups
e.g. RNHz, R2NH.
CLASSIFICATION:
Amines can be classified according to alkyl group.

1. Primary amine with one alkyl group e.g. RNH2 or

R or CH3
H N H H N H
2. Secondary amine with 2 alkyl groups e.g. R2NH or
R CH3
R N or CH3 N H
H
3. Tertiary amine with 3 alkyl groups e.g. R 3N or
R CH3
R1 N R11 or CH3 N CH3
Trimethyl amine
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. They can dissolve in water.
2. They are gases and liquid.
3. They have fishy odour.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. As bases they neutralize acids.
2. They dissociate/ionize in water e.g. CH3NH2 + H2O CH3NH3++ OH-

USES
1. Used in making nylon
2. They can also be used in making polyamide.

PROTEIN
Proteins are made up of polypetides chains. Polypeptide chains are products of condensation polymerization of
amino acid molecules. The condensation polymerization of amino acid is the interaction between amino groups, -
NH2, and Carboxyl groups, -COOH, to form the polypeptide chain.
A polypeptide chain:
H O H O H
O
+
H3 N C C [N C C] +nNC
O
R H R H R
Amino end dipeptide Carboxyl end

OCCURRENCE
Proteins are found in living cells where they perform different functions. Examples are hemoglobin, collagen and
insulin, ribonucleic. The structure have cross linkage between chains which are called disulphide bridges or
disulphide cross linkages.
Properties
1. They are denatured easily at a temperature above 400C by variation in PH and by certain organic solvents
and chemical reagents.
2. Proteins are hydrolyzed to give amino acids by boiling with dilute acids (e.g. HCI) and alkalis or using
enzymes.

Uses
1. They are used for building up of tissues and repairing of worn-out tissues in the body.
2. They are necessary for growth especially in infants.
EVALUATION
1. State two (2) physical properties and two (2) chemical properties of amine.
2. Give the classes of amine according to the number of their alkyl groups.

AMIDES
O
It has functional group of –C which is known as carbonamide group.
NH2
STRUCTURE:
O H O
CH3 C or H C C
NH2 H N H
H

PREPARATION
- Amide e.g. ethanmide can be derived from ethanoic acid in the presence of ammonia.
O OOO
CH3 C + NH3 C + H2O CH3 – C + NH3 CH3 C +H2O
OH NH2
OH NH2
- Amide is commonly prepared by reacting esters with concentrated aqueous ammonia.
E.gCH3COOC2H5 + NH3 Ethanamide CH3CONH2 + C2H5OH
-They can also be prepared by removing a molecule of water from ammonium salt of carboxylic x acids.
e.g. CH3COONH4 CH3CONH2 + H2O

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Only methanamide is a liquid while others are solid.
2. They have high melting point and high boiling point.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Amide can be hydrolysed in the presence of alkali and mineral acid e.g.
CH3CONH2 + H2O CH3COOH + NH3
2. In the presence of sodium hydroxide and bromine, amides produce amines with elimination of one carbonyl
group.
e.g.CH3CONH2 + Br2 + 4NaOH CH3NH2 + 2NaBr + Na2CO3 + 2H2O
USES:
1. Used in the preparation of amines.
2. Used in making synthetic resins and plastics.
3. It can also be used in making fertilizer.
CARBAMIDE/UREA
This is an amide of hydrogen trioxo carbonate (IV) acid. It is produced by compressing CO 2 and NH3 at high
pressure at 2000C.
H2CO3 CO(NH2)2

OH NHz

O C O C

OH NHz
Carbonamide/urea

N.B.: Urea is produced in our body and excreted in the urine.

EVALUATION
1. Write the structural formula of amide.
2. Give one different between amine and amide.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by O.Y. Ababio pages 520-521

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1.Tertiary amine is represented as follow
A. R2NH2 B. (CH3)2NH C.R2NH3 D. R2N
2.Which of the following has fishy odour
A. alkanoic acid B. alkanol C. amide D. amine
3.Amide can be regarded as derivatives of …………
A. alkanol B. policarboxylic acid C. monocarboxylic acid D. carbonxamide group
4.During the hydrolysis of amides, one of the following is produced.
A. monocarboxylic acids B. water C. H2SO4 D.NaOH
5. Carbamide is an example of
A. amine B. alkane C. alkyl D. amide

THEORY
1(a). State two (2) physical properties of amide.
(b). How would you prepare ethanamide from an ester.
2(a). State two (2) chemical properties of amide.
(b). How would you identify an example of amine in the laboratory.

WEEK EIGHT
TOPIC: NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC POLYMERS.

Polymerisation (addition and condensation) plastics.

Thermosplastic and thermosetting polymers, resins.
Polymer is the final product, macromolecule of high molecular mars. It consists of a repeating units and its general
molecular formula may be represented as [repeating units]n where n is a very large whole number.

N.B:- All polymers are macromolecules, but not all macromolecule but it is not polymeric.

NATURAL POLYMERS:
These are organic compounds which can be found in living thing e.g. carbohydrates like starch and cellulose and all
proteins fats and oils are not large enough to be grouped as giant molecule or polymer.

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
These are called plastics e.g. nylon polythene etc.

EVALUATION
1. State a difference between natural polymers and synthetic polymer with example each.
2. What is another name for synthetic polymer?

POLYMERIZATION
This is the process whereby two or more monomers link/join together to form a compound of
high molecular mass.

TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION
1. Addition polymerization:- these occur when two or more of the same monomers join together to form the
polymer without elimination of any small molecules.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MONOMER
- It must be simple.
- Unsaturated
- There should be double bonds between the carbon atom.
e.g.n[CH2CH2 ] ……..CH2CH2[CH2CH2]nCH2CH2……

2. CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION:- This is process whereby two or more smaller

molecule (monomers) join together to form a giant molecule (polymer) with elimination of trace/small
molecule such as waters ammonia, hydrogen chloride.

TYPES OF CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION

I. COPOLYMER :- This is formed from two condensing monomers of different types.
II. HOMOPOLYMER :- It is formed from monomers of the same type.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR POLYMERIZATION

- High temperature
- High pressure
- Presence of catalyst (initiator) e.g. oxygen, hydrogen peroxide.

EVALUATION
1. State two conditions necessary for polymerization of ethane to from polythene.
2. Mention one difference between additional polymerization and condensation polymensation.

PLASTICS
Plastics are synthetic which can be heated or pressured to form any shape.

THERMOPLASTIC
Thermoplastics are type of synthetic materials which can be heated and remoulded to any shape e.g. nylon,
polythene, polypropene, Perspex etc.

THERMOSETS
Thermosets, on the other hands cannot be softened or melted by heat and remoulded once they are formed e.g.
uera-methanal, bakelite.

Thermoplastics and thermosets

Thermoplastics Thermosets
Polythene Bakelite
Polypropene Urea-methanal
Polystyrene
Nylon
Terylene
Perspex

RESINS
This is obtained from the rubber tree. The fluid obtained from the tree can be heated and changed to elastic solid
known as rubber. The rubber consists of 2-methyl but-1, 3- diene monomers known as isoprene.
CH3
nCH2 = C CH = CH2
2 – methylbuta -1, 3-diene.
VULCANIZATION:
This is the process of heating natural rubber with sulphur to give rubber a greater tensile, strength, durability and
elasticity over a wide range of temperature.

SYNTHETIC RUBBER:
Examples of synthetic rubbers are poly 2-chlorobuta -1,3diene, styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR), poly bute -1, 3-
diene and poly 2-methyl propene.

EVALUATION
1. What is resin?
2. State two (2) differences between thermoplastic and thermoset.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by O.Y. Ababio pages 523-531

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The following are examples of small molecules based during polymerization process.
A. acid B. HCl C.H2O D. NH3
2. Polymerisation of ethane produces ……………
A. Perspex B. isoprene C. polythene D. ammonia
3. Bakelite is a good example of …………..
A. natural rubber B. thermoset C. thermoplastic D. additional polymerization
4. Starch and cellulose are good examples of …………
A. polythene B. natural polymer C. synthetic polymer D. food
5. Joining together of smaller molecules to form a giant molecule is called ………..
process. A. hydrogenation B. saponification C. esterification D. polymerization

THEORY
1 (a) What are the conditions necessary for polymerization.
(b) List two types of polymerization.
2 (a) Write an equation for the preparation of polythene from ethane.
(b) What are the monomer present in the following:
- polythene
- polyvinyl/chloride
- polytetrafluoro ethane
- polypropene
 WEEK NINE
CARBOHYDRATES:
Carbohydrates are naturally occurring organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygenwith oxygen in
the ratio 1:2 as in water. The general molelcular formula of carbohydrates is C x(H2O)y or CxH2yOy. Carbohydrates
are generally polydroxyl aldehydes, ketones or any compound that on hydrolysis yields any of the polyhydroxides.
They are synthesized in green plants by photosynthesis.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrate

Simple sugar Complex sugar

(polysaccharides)
Monosaacharide Disacharides e.g. starch cellulose
e.g. glucose e.g sucrose

EVALUATION
1. Define carbohydrates.
2. State one example each of simple sugar and complex sugar.

MONOSAACHARIDES
Monosaacharides are simple sugar with three to six carbon atoms per molecule. The most common and important
of these are the ones with six carbon atoms per molecule called the HEXOSES. They have the same molecular
formula C6H12O6 but different spatial arrangement. Examples include glucose, fructose, galatose and mannose.

GLUCOSE (C6H12O6)
Glucose, commonly known as grape sugar or dextrose, is present in grapes, in honey and the sap of plants.
Glucose is synthesized by green plants during photosynthesis.

PREPARATION:- Glucose can be prepared in the laboratory by the acid hydrolysis of starch.
The starch is heated with dilute hydrochloric acid or tetraoxosulphate VI acid. The acid functioning as hydrolyzing
agent in the reaction.
(C6H10O6)n nH2O nC6H12O6
Starch Dil H2SO4 glucose
Physical properties
1. It is a white crystalline solid.
2. It is soluble in water.
3. It has sweet taste.

Chemical properties
1. It dehydrates to black residue of carbon when with conc. H2SO4
C6H12O6 6C + 6H2O
2. It is a strong reducing agent. This is due to the presence of the –CHO group in the molecule.
3. It is readily fermented to ethanol and carbon VI oxide by the enzyme (ZYMASE) in yeast.

TEST: Add a few drops of Fehling’s solution to 5cm3 of glucose solution in a test tube. A brick- red
precipitate is obtained on boiling.

GLUCOSE STRUCTURAL FORMULA:

H
C = O the functional groups in the
H C H molecule are:
HO C O -CHO and OH
H C OH But -CHO determines the
H C OH chemical properties
OH C H
 H
FRUCTOSE (C6H12O6)
An isomer of glucose is fructose. Fructose is a non-reducing sugar (it contains the >CO group)
FRUCTOSE STRUCTURAL FORMULA
H

H C OH The functional groups in the molecule are:

C = -C=O and –OH

Chemical properties
HO C H

H C OH

H C OH

H C OH

EVALUATION
1. State two (2) physical properties of starch.
2. Give difference between glucose and starch.
DISACCHARIDES:-
Disaccharides are simple sugar containing two molecules of monosaccharide per molecules. Their general
molecular formula is C12H22O11. Some important disaccharides and the component monosaccharide are;
DISACCHARIDE COMPONENT MONOSACCHARIDES
Sucrose (cane sugar) Glucose + fructose
Lactose (milk sugar) Glucose + galactose
Maltose (malt sugar) Glucose + glucose

SUCROSE:-
This is the common granulated sugar used at home to sweeten food. It occurs naturally in plant and fruits e.g.
pineapple, carrots sorghum, sap and sugar cane.

Preparation: Sucrose is prepared industrially by;

1. Extraction of juice from sugar cane,
2. Concentration of the juice by evaporation,
3. Crystallization of the solid sugar from the concentrated juice and
4. Filtration of sugar crystals from the molasses.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1. It is a white crystalline solid.
2. It is dissolves readily in water.
3. It has sweet taste.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
1. It chars by dehydration to a black residue of carbon on addition of Conc. H 2SO4.
C12H22O11 12C + 6H2O
2. It undergoes hydrolysis to equal quantity of glucose and fructose when boiled with dil.
H2SO4 or HCL (aq)
3. It undergoes inversion under the influence of invertase in yeast
Sucrose invertase Glucose + Fructose
4. It is non-reducing sugar.

TEST:
Glucose gives a red precipitate with freshly prepared Seliwanoff’s reagent.

USES
1. For sweetening foods and beverages.
2. For ethanol production by fermentation.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are a group of complex carbohydrates composed of very long chains of monosaccharide linked
together by condensation polymerization.
Monosaccharide condensation
polysaccharides + n/2 water
Hydrolysis

Some important examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, and cellulose. The general molecular formula of
polysaccharides is (C6H10O5)n

EVALUATION
1. Name three disaccharides and the component monosaccharide.
2. Describe what would be observed on addition of Conc. H2SO4 to sucrose.
Tests
1. Million’s test – A white ppt. is form when a few drops of Million’s reagent are added to some
egg-white in a test-tube. The white ppt. turns brick red on heating (indicating the presence of proteins).
2. Biuret test: when few drops of dilute NaOH solution is added to some egg white solution in
a test tube, and 1% CUSO4 solution is added drop by drop and the test solution is shaken
vigorously after each drop. A violet colour is seen indicating a positive test for proteins.
3. Proteins form an intense yellow colour with a few drops of conc. HNO 3 acid.

EVALUATION
1. Explain a chemical test for proteins.
2. What is the product of hydrolysis of proteins?

Week Ten
SODIUM
OCCURRENCE
Sodium occurs as NaCl (rock salt), NaNO and Na2CO3.is often known as Chile saltpeter because it is found
abundantly in Chile. It also occurs as borax and in complex trioxosilicates (iv) found in clay soil.

Extraction: It is extracted by electrolysis of fused NaCl using the Downs cell. The cathode is a steel cylinder. Fused
NaCl (mp:801oc) is put in the cell where it is heated to keep it molten. CaCl2 is often added to lower the melting
point of NaCl to about 600oC. Sodium and chloride are the products.
As the electrolysis progresses, the molten Na collects in the cathode chamber where it gets to the top and is
collected through a pipe. A hood guides the gaseous chloride at the anode for collection.

At the cathode: Na+ + e- Na(s) (Reduction )

At the anode : Cl- Cl + e- (Oxidation)
Cl + Cl Cl2 (q)

Overall electrolysis reaction.

2Na+(g) + 2Cl-(i) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

Physical Properties
Silvery solid with metallic luster
Flaots on water (density of 0.98)
Very malleable
Melting point of 97oC (Low for a metal)
Good conductor of heat and electricity.

EVALUATION
Write the cathodic and anodic half cell equations in the electrolysis of fused NaCl
What is the function of CaCl2 introduced into the electrolytic cell during the electrolysis above.

Chemical Properties
Reaction with air
4Na (s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
Na2O(s) + H2O(g) 2NaOH (aq)
2NaOH (aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(s) + H2O (i)
Sodium tarnishes easily when exposed to air due to presence of oxygen.
Sodium is stored in paraffin oil, toluene or naphtha to prevent its oxidation by air. In excess air the reaction can be
represented as follows:
2Na (g) + O2(g) Na2O2(g)

3. Combination reaction: with H2, Cl2,S,P (with non-metals except Boron,carbon & Nitrogen)
4. 2Na(s) + H2(g) 2NaCl(g)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(g)
2Na(s) + S(g) Na2S(s)
3Na(s) + P(g) Na2P(s)

In Hg
Na(s) + Hg (l) Na/Hg(l)

With water: it reacts violently with cold water giving out a lot of heat and liberating hydrogen gas.
2Na + H2O Na2O + H2
2Na + 2H2O 2NaOH + H2

5. With acid:
2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O
NB: The reaction is explosive and extremely dangerous

6. With ammonia
2Na(s) + 2NH3 (g) 2NaNH2(s) + H2 (g)

Test for sodium ions

Flame test: Na compounds give a golden yellow colour for non-luminous flame.
Note: Potassium gives a lilac (pale purple) flame which looks common (deep red) when viewed through a blue gas.

USES OF SODIUM
It is used in manufacturing important compounds such as tetraethyl lead (Iv) .(Pb(C2H5)4
Sodium vapour lamps (orange-yellow light) are used to light high ways and airports
It is used in liquid form as a coolant in nuclear reactors
Can be used as a reducing agent in combination with ethanol or sodium amalgam.
Can be sued in the extraction of titanium to reduce titanium tetrachloride to the metal.

Compound of Sodium The following are compounds of sodium: Na2O, Na2O2, NaOH, NaCl, Na2SO4, NaNO3,
NaCO3.

SODIUM TRIOXOCARBONATE (Na2CO3)

Na2CO3 exists.
As soda ash in the anhydrous state
As a monohydrate, Na2CO3.H2O.
As a decahydrate (more often) Na2CO3.10H2O called washing soda

The laboratory preparation follows the three equations below:

a. 2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3. + H2O(l)
b. Na2CO3(aq) + H2O + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3 (s)
c. 2NaHCO3(s) NagCO3 + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

The NaHCO formed as a white ppt is filtered off, washed and heated to give he anhydrous Na2CO3. Na2CO3 is
prepared industrially using the Solvay process.

SOLVAY PROCESS INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION

A concentrated sodium chloride solution is saturated with NH3 gas to produce ammoniacal brine this is allowed to
fall into the top of a large tower. As the solution passes through a series of baffle-plates (baffles) it react with CO2
which is forced up the tower under pressure.
NH3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O NH4HCO3(aq)
NH4HCO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl (aq)
The NaHCO3(aq) is filtered, washed and heated to yield anhydrous NaCO3, steam and CO2. The CO2 is used
again in the tower.
2NaHCO3(s) heat Na2CO3(s) + H2O + CO2 (g)
The soda ash (anh. Na2CO3) can be dissolved in hot H2O and re-crystallized as washing soda
Na2CO3(s) + 10HsO (l)

The economic importance of the process.

The CO2 required in the process is obtained by heating CaCO3 in a lime kiln.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaO(s) + 2 NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O (l)
The NH3 is recycled. The raw materials are NaCl, CaCO3. The only waste product is CaCl2.

GENERAL EVALUATION
Write an equation to show the reaction of sodium with air.
Explain briefly the economics of the Solvay process.
Explain the reaction of sodium with cold water.
Explain what happens to the following when they are exposed to the atmosphere;
(a) Washing soda (b) caustic soda pellets

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Which of these is not an alkali? (a) Sodium hydroxide (b) Potassium hydroxide (c) Aqueous ammonia (d) none of
the above
Which compound is added to fused NaCl to lower its melting point? (a)CaCO3 (b) CaCl2
© Ca(OH)2 (d) Ca(NO3)2
NaHCO3 is also called? (a) Chalk (b) Baking powder (c) Lime (d) Slaked lime
What is the colour of sodium flame (a) white (b) red (c) black (d) green
Sodium reacts explosively with cold water to liberate (a) Hydrogen (b) CO2 (c) O2 (d) Na2O.

THEORY
(a) Explain the Solvay process
(b) (b) What is the function of NH3 in the process
Why is it necessary to concentrate the ore before extraction of any metal?

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by O.Y Ababio pages 419-442.

WEEK SIX
TOPIC: METALS AND THEIR COMPOUND
CONTENT
Aluminum
Occurrence
Aluminum can be obtained as Kaolin, Al2O3.2SiO3.2H2O, cryolite. Na3AlF6, Corundum Al2O3 and mica
K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2.
NB: the main source of aluminum is bauxite Al2O3.2H2O

Extraction
Aluminum can be found in clay and rocks, but due to their high silica content, they can not be used for extraction of
aluminum. The extraction of aluminum is carried out By electrolysis of bauxite.
The extraction proceeds In two stages.

1. Purification of Bauxite
2. Bauxite is first heated with caustic soda solution under pressure to form soluble sodium aluminate(III)
Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O 2NaAl(OH)4
The impurities, iron III oxide and trioxosilicates (iv) can be filtered off as a sludge.
The filterate contains aluminate (III) and then seeded with aluminum hydroxide crystals to induce precipitation of
aluminum hydroxide.
NaAl(OH)4 Al(OH)3 + NaOH
The Al(OH)3 is then filtered off, washed, dried and heated strongly to yield pure aluminium oxide or alumina while
the NaOH is concentrated and used again.

2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O

Chemistry of the Reaction

Alumina consist of aluminum and oxygen ions

At the Cathode
The aluminum ions gain three electrons each at the cathode to deposit as metallic aluminum.
Al3+ + 3e Al

At the Anode
The oxygen ions donate two electrons each to form atomic oxygen, which then pair off to form gaseous molecules.
O2- O + 2e-
O + O O2
Overall Reaction
4Al3+ 6O2- 4Al + 3O2

Physical Properties
It is silvery white solid
Aluminum has density of 2.7glcm3
It is very malleable and ductible
It can be rolled into a foil
It has melting point of 660o
It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity
It has moderate tensile strength but high in alloys.

Chemical Properties
1. Reaction with air
4Al + 3O2 2Al2O3(s)
2Al + N2 2AlN(s)

2. Reaction with non-metals e.g Sulphur, Nitrogen phosphorus, carbon and halogen
2Al + 3Cl2 2AlCl3
3. Reaction with Acids
2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2
2Al + 6H2SO4 Al2(SO4)2 + 6H2O + 3SO2
NB: Aluminum can not react with either dilute HNO3 or conc. HNO3 due to formation of a protective layer of
aluminum oxide.
4. Reaction with Alkali
2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O 2NaAl(OH)4 + 3H2

5. Reaction with iron III oxide

2Al + Fe2O3 Al2O3 + 2 F3.

Test for Aluminum Ions

Add drops of sodium hydroxide solution to the unknown salt solution. Formation of a white gelatinous precipitate
which dissolve in an excess of sodium hydroxide solution indicates the presence of aluminum ions.

Add a few drops of aqueous NH3 solution to the unknown salt solution. The formation of white gelatinous
precipitate which dissolve in excess of aqueous NH3 confirms the presence of aluminum ion .
Al3+ + 3OH- Al(OH)3
USES
Aluminium is used in making cooking utensil
It is sued in making overhead electric cables
It is used in making alloys e.g duralumin
Aluminium powder suspended in oil is used in paints mirrors and cars.

Iron
Occurences
Iron is usually found as haematite, Fe2O3, magnetite Fe3O4, iron pyrites, FeS2, siderite or spathic iron ore FeCO3
and limonite Fe2O3.H2O.
Iron is the second most abundant metal in the earths crust after aluminium. It is also present in clay haemoglobin
and chlorophyll in plants.

Extraction
The iron e.g haematite is first roasted in air to produce iron (III) oxide.
The iron (III) oxide is then mixed with coke and lime stone and heated to a very high temperature in a blast
furnace.

In the lower part of the furnace, the white hot coke is oxidized by the oxygen in the hot air to liberate carbon (Iv)
oxide. C + O2 CO2.

The CO2 change to carbon(ii) oxide at the top of the furnace and then react with iron (III) oxide and reduce it to
iron
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2F3 + 3CO2

The limestone present decomposes at high temperature to yield calcium oxide, which then combine with the
silicon(Iv) oxide, impurity, to form calcium trioxosilicate (iv)
Ca CO3 CaO + CO2
SiO2 + CaO + CaSiO3
The molten iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace and is tapped off. It is run into moulds where it sets as pig iron.

Physical Properties
Iron is silvery solid with luster
It has relative density of 7.9
It is very ductile
It has high tensile strength
It has melting point of 1530oC
It is good conductor of heat and electricity
NB: It can be magnetized easily.

Chemical Properties
Reaction with Air
4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O 2Fe2O3.XH2O

Reaction with steam

3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2

Reaction with non-metals e.g sulphur, chlorine,

2Fe + eCl2 2FeCl3
Fe + S FeS

Reaction with Acid

Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2
NB: No reaction is observed when conc. HNO3 is added to iron.
Uses
NB: Fe2+ is used as confirmatory test for oxidizing agent in the laboratory.
Cast iron is used for making objects which do not require high tensile strength e.g stove, cookers, lamp post
radiator etc

Cast iron is used for making nails, chains, iron rods, and sheets of iron, agricultural implements etc.

GENERAL EVALUATION
What is the main source of Aluminium in nature?
Using a diagram and equations, explain how pure Aluminium is extracted from the above source.
With the aid of a diagram and the equation of the reaction, show how you would mend a broken iron rod by the
thermit process.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry by Osei Yaw Ababio, pages 442 478.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
Aluminium reacts readily with all common mineral acids except
A. HNO3 B. HCl C. H2SO4 D. H3PO4
The great affinity of aluminium for oxygen at high temperatures is employed in the
A. Electrolytic process B. thermit process C. Haber process D. lead chamber process
Aluminium materials should not be exposed to alkalis because aluminium is A. basic B. acidic C. an oxidizing agent
D. a reducing agent
Wrought iron is the A. purest form of iron B. most brittle form of iron C. most impure D. form of iron containing
no carbon
Which one is the most common iron ore? A. Magnetite B. Haematite C. Carnallite D. Dolomite

THEORY
(a) Write the electronic configuration of iron?
(b) Iron forms the iron(II) ion, Fe2+ and the iron(III) ion, Fe3+.
Write the electronic configurations of these ions.
Which of them is more stable?
Give reason for your answer.
Explain why iron but not aluminium corrode easily on exposure to air despite the fact that aluminium is above iron
in the electrochemical series.