WEEK ONE:

TOPIC: GEOMETRY

SUB-TOPIC: MENSURATION: (i)Length of arc of a circle, (ii)Perimeter of sectors and segments, (iii)Area of
sectors and segments of a circle, (iv)Relationship between the sector of a circle and the surface area of a
cone.

What is Mensuration?

Mensuration is the branch of mathematics that studies the measurement of geometric figures and their
parameters like length, volume, shape, surface area, lateral surface area, etc.

LENGTH OF AN ARC OF A CIRCLE

An arc length is the distance between two points along a section of a curve.

Arc Length Formula (if θ is in degrees): L = 2 π r (θ/360°)

L = Length of an Arc

θ = Central angle of Arc

r = Radius of the circle

Question 1: Calculate the length of an arc if the radius of an arc is 8 cm and the central angle is 40°.

Solution:

Radius, r = 8 cm, Central angle, θ = 40°

Arc length = 2 π r × (θ/360°), So, L = 2 × π × 8 × (40°/360°) = 5.582 cm

PERIMETER OF SECTOR AND SEGMENT

The perimeter of a sector is the distance around a sector. We can calculate the perimeter of a sector by
adding together the lengths of the two radii and the arc length of the sector.

We can calculate the perimeter of a sector by adding together the lengths of the two radii and the arc
length of the sector.

It is given as 2r + 2 π r × (θ/360°

Length of the arc is

L = θ/360° ×2∏r

Substitute θ = 60°, r = 42 and ∏ = 22/7.

L = 60°/360° × 2 × 22/7 ×42

L = 1/6 ×2 × 22 ×6

L = 1 × 2 ×22

L = 44 cm

Perimeter of sector is

= L + 2r

Substitute L = 44 and r = 42.

= 44 + 2(42)

= 44 + 84 = 128 cm, So, length of the arc is 128 cm.

PERIMETER OF A SEGMENT:
Perimeter of segment = LENGTH OF CHORD + LENGTH OF ARC

Example:
Relationship between the sector of a circle and the surface area of a cone.

WEEK TWO:

TOPIC: GEOMETRY

SUB-TOPIC: MENSURATION: (i)Surface area and volume of solid shapes:-cube,cuboids,cylinder,cone,

prism, pyramid, sphere, hemisphere, frustum, compound shapes
CUBE:

Total Surface area of a cube is 6×L×L

The volume of a cube can be found by multiplying the edge length three times

Volume of a Cube = L×L×L

CUBOID:

The total surface area of a cuboid is the sum of all its surfaces. In order to find the total surface area of a
cuboid, we need to add the area of all the 6 rectangular faces. The formula for the total surface area of a
cuboid is 2 (lw + wh + lh) where l = length, w = width, and h = height of the cuboid

The formula of volume of a cuboid is = Length × Width × Height.

CYLINDER

The formula to calculate the total surface area of a cylinder is expressed as, total surface area of cylinder
= 2πr(r + h).

The volume of a cylinder, V=2πrh

CONE

The Total Surface Area of a cone, T = πr(r + l) square units.

The formula for the volume of a cone is V=1/3hπr².

PRISM

The formula for the surface area of a prism is obtained by taking the sum of (twice the base area) and
(the lateral surface area of the prism). The surface area of a prism is given as S = (2 × Base Area) + (Base
perimeter × height) where "S" is the surface area of the prism.

Volume:

Any prism volume is V = BH where B is area of base and H is height of prism, so find area of the base by B
= 1/2 h(b1+b2), then multiply by the height of the prism.
PYRAMID:

A pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and an apex. The basic formula for
pyramid volume is the same as for a cone: volume = (1/3) * base_area * height , where height is the

height from the base to the apex.

SPHERE:
SOLVED EXAMPLES:

and this needs thorough practice and precision.

Solved Examples for You

Question 1: Shreya made a cylindrical bird-bath with a hemispherical depression at the upper end. The
radius of the circular shaped top is 30cm and height of the cylinder is 1.45 m. Find the total surface area
of the bird bath?

Answer : The radius of both cylinder and hemisphere are common, hence taken as r = 30cm = 0.3m.
Height (h) of the cylinder = 1.45 m.

TSA of the Bird-Bath = CSA of Cylinder + CSA of the Hemisphere

= 2 πrh + 2πr2

= 2 π r(h + r)

= 2 × (22/7) × 0.30 (1.45 + 0.30) m

= 3.3 m2

Q.2: What is the surface area of a cuboid with length, width and height equal to 4.4 cm, 2.3 cm and 5 cm,
respectively?

Solution: Given, the dimensions of cuboid are:

length, l = 4.4 cm

width, w = 2.3 cm

height, h = 5 cm

Surface area of cuboid = 2(wl+hl+hw)

= 2·(2.3·4.4+5·4.4+5·2.3)

= 87.24 square cm.

Q.3: What is the volume of cylinder whose base radii are 2.1 cm and height is 30 cm?

Solution:

Radius of bases, r = 2.1 cm

Height of cylinder = 30 cm

Volume of cylinder = πr2h = π·(2.1)2·30 ≈ 416

WEEK THREE:

TOPIC: STATISTICS

SUB-TOPIC: Data Presentation: Revision on collection, tabulation and presentation of data, Frequency
distribution.

What is Statistics? This is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation,
and presentation of masses of numerical data.
Data:There are two possible ways in which data can be classify and these are Grouped and Ungrouped
data.Data is/are sometimes referred to as information. Although they differs in so many
ways,i.e,information is wider than data,hence data is found under the information of a certain event.

It is a common practice to present data in frequency tables. Frequency tables are used for summarising
data before analysis.
Example 2:Prepare a frequency table,showing the percentage scores of each of the scores obtained in a
mathematics test of students in SSS 1 Shephered.The scores are:

9, 7 ,8, 5, 4, 6, 5, 8, 6, 6, 10, 5, 6, 7, 6, 6, 5, 5, 7, 8, 10, 2, 8, 6, 6, 2, 6, 4, 5, 5, 8, 8, 6, 6, 5, 9, 9, 2, 7, 4, 6, 3,

5, 6, 2, 7, 2, 9, 8, 10

Solution
Calculation of Range, Median and Mode of Ungrouped Data

RANGE

The range of a set of numbers is the difference between the largest and the smallest numbers.

Example: Find the range of the following set of scores: 79, 60, 52, 34, 58, 60.

Solution

Arrange the set in rank order: 79, 60, 60, 58, 52, 34

The range is 79 – 34 = 45

THE MEAN

There are many kinds of average. T hemean or arithmetic mean, is the most common kind. If there are n
numbers in a set, then

Mean = sum of the numbers in the set/ n

Examples

1)Calculate the mean of the following set of numbers.

176 174 178 181 174

175 179 180 177 182

Solution

Mean = 176 + 174 + 178 + …. + 182/10

= 1776/10 = 177.6

2)Five children have an average age of 7 years 11 months . If the youngest child is not included, the
average increares to 8 years 4 months. Find the age of the youngest child.

Solution

Total age of all five children

= 5 x 7 yr 11 mo

= 35 yr 55 mo

= 35 yr + 4 yr 7 mo

= 39 yr 7 mo

Total age of the four older children

= 4 x 8 yr 4 mo

= 32 yr 16 mo

= 32yr + 1 yr 4 mo

= 33 yr 4 mo

Age of youngest child

= 39yr 7 mo – 33 yr 4 mo

= 6 yr 3 mo

Evaluation

1. Find x if the mean of the numbers 13, 2x, 0, 5x and 11 is 9. Also find the range of the set of numbers.

WEEK FOUR
TOPIC: Statistics

SUB-TOPIC: BASIC TOOLS: (i)Linear graph, bar graph and histograms, (ii)Pie chart, (ii)Frequency polygon

BAR CHART:

A bar chart is a graph with rectangular bars. The graph usually compares different categories. A Bar
Graph (also called Bar Chart) is a graphical display of data using bars of different heights

A bar chart or bar graph presents data with rectangular bars at heights or lengths proportional to the
values they represent.

Examples:
PIE CHART:

A pie chart (or a circle chart) is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices to illustrate
numerical proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice (and consequently its central angle and
area) is proportional to the quantity it represents.

Examples:
LINE GRAPH:

A line graph is a graphical display of information that changes continuously over time. Within a line
graph, there are various data points connected together by a straight line that reveals a continuous
change in the values represented by the data points.

Examples:

HISTOGRAM:

Histogram: a graphical display of data using bars of different heights. It is similar to a Bar Chart, but a
histogram groups numbers into ranges.
WEEK 6
SEQUENCE AND SERIES
Sequence and series is one of the basic topics in Arithmetic. An itemized collection of elements in which
repetitions of any sort are allowed is known as a sequence, whereas series is the sum of all elements. An
arithmetic progression is one of the common examples of sequence and series.

A sequence is defined as an arrangement of numbers in a particular order. On the other hand, a

series is defined as the sum of the elements of a sequence. In
short, a sequence is a list of items/objects which have been arranged in a sequential way.

A series can be highly generalized as the sum of all the terms in a sequence. However, there has to be
a definite relationship between all the terms of the sequence.
The fundamentals could be better understood by solving problems based on the formulas. They are very
similar to sets but the primary difference is that in a sequence, individual terms can occur repeatedly in
various positions. The length of a sequence is equal to the number of terms and it can be either finite or
infinite. This concept is explained in a detailed manner in Class 11 Maths. With the help of definition,
formulas and examples we are going to discuss here the concepts of sequence as well as series

Sequence and Series Definition

A sequence is an arrangement of any objects or a set of numbers in a particular order followed by some
rule. If a1, a2, a3, a4, etc. denote the terms of a sequence, then 1,2,3,4, ..denotes the position of
the term.

A sequence can be defined based on the number of terms i.e. either finite sequence or infinite
sequence.

If a1, a2, a3, a4, . is a sequence, then the corresponding series is given by

SN = a1+a2+a3 + .. + aN

Note: The series is finite or infinite depending if the sequence is finite or infinite.

Types of Sequence and Series

Some of the most common examples of sequences are:

Arithmetic Sequences

Geometric Sequences

Harmonic Sequences

Fibonacci Numbers

Arithmetic Sequences
A sequence in which every term is created by adding or subtracting a definite number to the preceding
number is an arithmetic sequence.

What are Finite and Infinite Sequences and Series?

Sequences: A finite sequence is a sequence that contains the last term such as a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6 an.
On the other hand, an infinite sequence is never-ending i.e. a1, a2, a3, a4, a5, a6 an ..
Series: In a finite series, a finite number of terms are written like a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + an. In
case of an infinite series, the number of elements is not finite i.e. a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + an + ..

Geometric Sequences
A sequence in which every term is obtained by multiplying or dividing a definite number with the
preceding number is known as a geometric sequence.

Harmonic Sequences
A series of numbers is said to be in harmonic sequence if the reciprocals of all the elements of the
sequence form an arithmetic sequence.

Fibonacci Numbers
Fibonacci numbers form an interesting sequence of numbers in which each element is obtained by
adding two preceding elements and the sequence starts with 0 and 1. Sequence is defined as, F0 = 0 and
F1 = 1 and Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2

Sequence and Series Formulas

List of some basic formula of Arithmetic progression and Geometric progression are

Arithmetic Progression a, a+d, a+2d, ,a+(n-1)d

Geometric Progression a, ar, ar2, .,ar(n-1),

, . Common Difference or Ratio Successive term Preceding term

Common difference = d = a2 a1

Successive term/Preceding term

Common ratio = r = ar(n-1)/ar(n-2)

nth Term of an A.P Tn = a + (n-1)d

Sum of first n term of an A.P Sn =

nth term of an A,P Tn = a

Sum of first n term of a G.P Sn = If r ,

Sn = if r 1

*Here, a = first term, d = common difference, r = common ratio, n = position of term, l = last term

Difference between Sequences and Series

Let us find out how a sequence can be differentiated with series.

Sequences Series
Set of elements that follow a pattern (1) Sum of elements of the sequence

Order of elements is important (2) Order of elements is not so important

Finite sequence: 1,2,3,4,5 (3) Finite series: 1+2+3+4+5

Infinite sequence: 1,2,3,4, (4) Infinite Series: 1+2+3+4+

Sequence and Series Examples

Question 1: If 4,7,10,13,16,19,22 is a sequence, Find: (a) Common difference (b) nth term (c)
21st term

Solution: Given sequence is, 4,7,10,13,16,19,22

a) The common difference = 7 4 = 3

b) The nth term of the arithmetic sequence is denoted by the term Tn and is given by Tn = a + (n-1)d,
where a is the first term and d, is the

common difference.

Tn = 4 + (n 1)3 = 4 + 3n 3 = 3n + 1

c) 21st term as: T21 = 4 + (21-1)3 = 4+60 = 64.

Question 2: Consider the sequence 1, 4, 16, 64, 256, 1024 .. Find the common ratio and 9th term.
Solution: The common ratio (r) = 4/1 = 4

The preceding term is multiplied by 4 to obtain the next term.

The nth term of the geometric sequence is denoted by the term Tn and is given by Tn = ar(n-1)

where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.

Here a = 1, r = 4 and n = 9

So, 9th term is can be calculated as T9 = 1* (4)(9-1)= 48 = 65536.

Some common questions on A.P and G.P.

Show that the sequence 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, ......... is an Arithmetic Progression. Find its 27th term and the
general term.

The 5th term of an Arithmetic Progression is 16 and 13th term of an Arithmetic Progression is 28. Find
the first term and common difference of the Arithmetic Progression.

Find the sum of the following Arithmetic series: 1 + 8 + 15 + 22 + 29 + 36 + to 17 terms

Find the sum of the series: 7 + 15 + 23 + 31 + 39 + 47 + .. + 255

Find the sum of the first 35 terms of an Arithmetic Progression whose third term is 7 and seventh term is
two more than thrice of its third term.

If the 5th term and 12th term of an Arithmetic Progression are 30 and 65 respectively, find the sum of its
26 terms.

Find the 10th and nth term of the Geometric sequence 7/2, 7/4, 7/8, 7/16, . . . . . . .

Find the 15th term of a G.P Whose 8th term is 192 and the common ratio is 2

Find a so that a, a+2, a+6 are consecutive terms of a geometric progression.

If (a-b), (b-c), (c-a) are the consecutive terms of G.P then find (a +b + c)2

The 7th term of a G.P is eight times of fourth term. What will be the first term when its 5th is 48?

If an amount ₹ 1000 deposited in the bank with annual interest rate 10% interest compounded
annually, then find total amount at the end of first, second, third, forth and first years.

Salary of Robin, When his salary is ₹ 5,00,000 per annum for the first year and expected to receive yearly
increment of 10%. Now find the Robin salary at staring of 5th year.

The third term of a G.P is 12 and the first term is 48. Find the sum of the first 11 terms

If the second and fourth term of G.P are 8 and 32 respectively. Find the sum of the first nine terms.
if 7 and 189 are the first and fourth term of a G.P respectively, find the sum of the first three terms of
the Progression.

Geometric Progression has the second term as 9 and the fourth term as 81. Find the sum of the first four
terms.

Find the sum of the geometric series: 4 - 12 + 36 - 108 + .............. to 10 terms

WEEK 8
LOGARITHM OF NUMBERS

A logarithm of a number is the power to which a given base must be raised to obtain that
number. The power is sometimes called the exponent. In other words, if by = x then y is the logarithm of
x to base b. For example, if 24 = 16, then 4 is the logarithm of 16 with the base as 2. We can write it as 4
= log 2 = 16.

In mathematics, the logarithm is the inverse function to exponentiation. That means the
logarithm of a given number x is the exponent to which another fixed number, the base b, must
be raised, to produce that number x. In the simplest case, the logarithm counts the number of
occurrences of the same factor in repeated multiplication; e.g. since 1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103,
the "logarithm base 10" of 1000 is 3, or log10 (1000) = 3. The logarithm of x to base b is denoted
as logb (x), or without parentheses, logb x, or even without the explicit base, log x, when no
confusion is possible, or when the base does not matter such as in big O notation.

The logarithm base 10 (that is b = 10) is called the decimal or common logarithm and is
commonly used in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the number e (that is b ≈
2.718) as its base; its use is widespread in mathematics and physics, because of its simpler
integral and derivative. The binary logarithm uses base 2 (that is b = 2) and is frequently used in
computer science.
Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in 1614 as a means of simplifying calculations.[1]
They were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, surveyors and others to perform
high-accuracy computations more easily. Using logarithm tables, tedious multi-digit
multiplication steps can be replaced by table look-ups and simpler addition. This is possible
because of the fact important in its own right that the logarithm of a product is the sum of the
logarithms of the factors:

{\displaystyle \log _{b}(xy)=\log _{b}x+\log _{b}y,}{\displaystyle \log _{b}(xy)=\log _{b}x+\log

_{b}y,}

provided that b, x and y are all positive and b ≠ 1. The slide rule, also based on logarithms, allows
quick calculations without tables, but at lower precision. The present-day notion of logarithms
comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the exponential function in the 18th
century, and who also introduced the letter e as the base of natural logarithms.[2]

Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to smaller scopes. For example, the decibel
(dB) is a unit used to express ratio as logarithms, mostly for signal power and amplitude (of
which sound pressure is a common example). In chemistry, pH is a logarithmic measure for the
acidity of an aqueous solution. Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in
measurements of the complexity of algorithms and of geometric objects called fractals. They
help to describe frequency ratios of musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime
numbers or approximating factorials, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in
forensic accounting.

The concept of logarithm as the inverse of exponentiation extends to other mathematical

structures as well. However, in general settings, the logarithm tends to be a multi-valued
function. For example, the complex logarithm is the multi-valued inverse of the complex
exponential function. Similarly, the discrete logarithm is the multi-valued inverse of the
exponential function in finite groups; it has uses in public-key cryptography

Logarithms and Anti-Logarithms

It is not always possible to handle the numbers which are either too large or too small. To make
long, tedious and confusing calculations simple, we change the form of the number using
logarithms. The changed number can be put into original form by using antilog. Logarithms and
Anit-Logarithms are the inverses of each other. Let us study logs and antilog in detail.

Logarithmic Laws and Properties

Theorem 1

The logarithm of the product of two numbers say x, and y is equal to the sum of the logarithm of
the two numbers. The base should be the same for both the numbers.

log b (x y) = log b x + log b y

Proof: Let log b x = p such that b p = x (i), and

log b y = q such that b q = y (ii)

Multiplying (i), and (ii), we have

b p × b q = x × y = b (p + q) [from the law of indices]

Taking log on both sides, we have,

log b x y = p + q = log b x + log b y.

Theorem 2

The division of the two numbers is the antilog of the difference of logarithm of the two
numbers. The base should be the same for both the numbers.

log x ⁄ y = log x – log y

Proof: Let, log b x = p such that b p = x … (i), and

log b y = q such that b q = y … (ii)

Dividing (i) by (ii), we have

x ⁄ y = b p ⁄ b q = b (p – q) [from the law of indices]

Taking log on both sides, we have,

log x ⁄ y = p – q = log x – log y

Theorem 3

The logarithm of a number to any other base can be determined by the logarithm of the same
number to any given base. Mathematically, the relation is

log a x = log b x × log a b

⇒ log b x = log a x ⁄ log a b

Proof: Let, log a x = p, log b x = q, and log a b = r. From the definition of logarithms, we have

a p = x = b q, and a r = b.

b q = x can be written as (a r) q = a r q = x.
Since, a p = b q = a r q = x. Comparing the powers, we have

p=rq

or, log a x = log a b × log b x

or, log b x = log a x / log a b.

Theorem 4

The logarithm of a number raised to a power is equal to the index of the power multiplied by
the logarithm of the number. The base is the same in both the conditions.

log b x n = n log b x.

Proof: Let log b x = p so that b p = x. Raising both sides to power n, we have

(b p) n = x n ⇒ b p n = x n

Taking log on both the sides, we have log b x n = p n

or, log b x n = n log b x.

log b (x + y) = log b x + log b (1 + y/x)

log b (x – y) = log b x + log b (1 y/x)

Logarithmic Table
 It is not always necessary to find the logarithm of a number by mere calculation. We can also
use logarithm table to find the logarithm of a number. The logarithm of a number comprises of
two parts. The whole part is the characteristics and the decimal part is the mantissa.

How to Use Log Table?: Step-By-Step Process

with Example
To find the log value of a number using the log table, you must understand
the process of reading the log table. We have provided a step-by-step
process to find the values using an example:

Step 1: Identify the table. For different bases, a different log table is used.
The table provided above is for base 10. So, you can find the log value of a
number to the base 10 only. To find natural logarithms or binary logarithms,
you will have to use a different table.
Step 2: Find out the integer and decimal parts of the given number.
Suppose we want to find the log value of n = 18.25. So, first of all, we
separate the integer and decimal.
Integer Part: 18
Decimal Part: 25
Step 3: Come to the common log table and look for the cell value at the
following intersections:
The row labelled with first two digits of n
Column header with the third digit of n
⇒ In this example, log10(18.25) → row 18, column 2 → cell value 2601. So,
the value obtained is 2601.

Step 4: Always use the common logarithm table with a mean difference.
Now again go to row number 18 and column number 5 (fourth digit of n) in
the mean difference table.
⇒ In this example, log 1 0 (18.25) → row 18, mean difference column 5 → cell
value 12. Write down the corresponding value which is 12.
Step 5: Add both the values obtained in step 3 and step 4.
That is 2601 + 12 = 2613.
Step 6: Find the characteristic part. By trial and error, find the integer value
of p such that a p < n and a p + 1 > n. Here a is the base and p is the
characteristic part. For common (base 10) logs, just count the number of
digits left of the decimal and subtract one.
So, Characteristic part = (number of digits to the left of the decimal 1).
In this example, characteristic = 2 1
= 1
Step 7: Combine both the Characteristic and the Mantissa part and you will
get the final value which is 1.2613.
So, log 1 0 (18.25) = 1.2613

Example 1: Use logs to

evaluateN=647⋅32×0.000001478.473×64N=647⋅32×0.000001478.473×64

Solution: Our approach consists of four steps:

convert the expression for N into logs

evaluate those logs using a log table

thus determine log N

calculate antilog of log N

Thus,

logN=(647⋅32×0.000001478.473×64)=log(647⋅32)+log(0.00000147)−log(8.473)−log(
64)log N=(647⋅32×0.000001478.473×64)=log (647⋅32)+log (0.00000147)−log (8
.473)−log (64)
Now, note that (use log tables):

647.32=6.4732×102⇒log(647.32)=2+log(6.4732)=2+0.8111=2.81110.00000147=1.47
×10−6⇒log(0.00000147)=−6+log(1.47)=¯¯¯6.16738.473=8.473×100⇒log(8.473)=0+0.
9280=0.928064=6.4×101⇒log(64)=1+log(64)=1.8062647.32=6.4732×102⇒log (647
.32)=2+log (6.4732)=2+0.8111=2.81110.00000147=1.47×10−6⇒log (0.00000147)
=−6+log (1.47)=6¯.16738.473=8.473×100⇒log (8.473)=0+0.9280=0.928064=6.4×
101⇒log (64)=1+log (64)=1.8062

Thus,

logN=2.8111+¯¯¯6.1673–0.9280–1.8062=2.8111+(–6+0.1673)–0.9280–1.8062=–
5.7558=–5–0.7558=(–5–1)+1–0.7558=–6+0.2442=¯¯¯6⋅2442log N=2.8111+6¯.1673–
0.9280–1.8062=2.8111+(–6+0.1673)–0.9280–1.8062=–5.7558=–5–0.7558=(–5–
1)+1–0.7558=–6+0.2442=6¯⋅2442

Note the last couple of steps carefully. Now, we have the characteristic and
mantissa of log N.

We thus find antilog (mantissa) = antilog (0.2442) = 1.7547 {from the antilog
tables}:

⇒N=1.7547×10−6=0.0000017547⇒N=1.7547×10−6=0.0000017547

Verify this using a calculator. Note that N was calculated without any actual
multiplication and division – operations much more cumbersome than addition
or subtraction.

Example 2: Find the value of 5√0.000001650.000001655

Solution: Let N=5√0.00000165N=0.000001655

⇒logN=15log(0.00000165)=15(−6+log1.65)(why?)⇒logN=15log (0.00000165)=15(−
6+log 1.65)(why?)

Using the log tables, we have:

logN=15(−6+.2175)=−1.2+0.0435=−2+0.8435=¯2⋅8435logN=15(−6+.2175)=−1.2+0.0
435=−2+0.8435=2¯⋅8435

Thus,
N=antilog(0.8435)10−2=6.974×10−2=0.06974N=antilog(0.8435)10−2=6.974×10−2=0.
06974

Example 3:

How many digits will there be in 87516?

Solution: Let N = 87516. We have:

⇒ logN=16log(875)=16log{log(8.75×102)}=16(2+log8.75)=16×2.9420=47.0721⇒
logN=16log(875)=16log{log(8.75×102)}=16(2+log8.75)=16×2.9420=47.0721

⇒N=antilog(0.0721)Contains1digitbeforethedecimal×1047
has47zeroes⇒N=antilog(0.0721)⏟Contains1digitbeforethedecimal×1047⏟has47zer
oes

Thus, N will contain 48 digits. Note that we do not need to calculate the antilog
of 0.0721 to arrive at this final answer.

Example 4: Evaluate (33049)43√22×70(33049)422×703

Solution: If we let N denote this expression, we have

logN=4log(33049)−13log(22×70)=4log330−4log49−13log22−13log70log N=4log (
33049)−13log (22×70)=4log 330−4log 49−13log 22−13log 70

Noticing that 330=11×3×10,49=72,22=2×11330=11×3×10,49=72,22=2×11 and

70=7×1070=7×10, we have

logN=4(1+log3+log11)−8log7−13(log2+log11)−13(1+log7)=113−13log2+4log3−253log7
+113log11=113−13(0.3010)+4(0.4771)−253(0.8451)+113(1.0414)log N=4(1+log 3+log
11)−8log 7−13(log 2+log 11)−13(1+log 7)=113−13log 2+4log 3−253log 7+
113log 11=113−13(0.3010)+4(0.4771)−253(0.8451)+113(1.0414)

=3.6666−0.1003+1.9084−7.0425+3.8185=2.2507=3.6666−0.1003+1.9084−7.0425+3.
8185=2.2507

Thus,

N=antilog(0.2507)×102=178.1148N=antilog(0.2507)×102=178.1148

The final result obtained this way may differ somewhat from the actual result
due to rounding-off errors along the way.
Example 5:

Solve the following system of equations for x and y :

2x+y=6y2x+y=6y

3x=3.2y+13x=3.2y+1

Solution: We have

(x+y)log2=ylog6=y(log2+log3)(x+y)log 2=ylog 6=y(log 2+log 3)

⇒xlog2=ylog3⋯(1)⇒xlog 2=ylog 3⋯(1)

and, xlog3=log3+(y+1)log2xlog 3=log 3+(y+1)log 2

⇒(x−1)log3=(y+1)log2…(2)⇒(x−1)log 3=(y+1)log 2…(2)

Using (1) and 2, we have

xlog2=((x−1)log3log2−1)log3xlog 2=((x−1)log 3log 2−1)log 3

Using log 2 = a, log 3 = b for convenience, we have

ax=(b(x−1)a−1)bax=(b(x−1)a−1)b

⇒abx=bax−ba−1⇒abx=bax−ba−1

⇒(ba−ab)x=1+ba=a+ba⇒(ba−ab)x=1+ba=a+ba

⇒(b2−a2ab)x=a+ba⇒(b2−a2ab)x=a+ba

⇒x=bb−a=log3log3−log2≈⋅4771⋅1761≈2.71⇒x=bb−a=log 3log 3−log 2≈⋅4771⋅17

61≈2.71

Similarly, y≈1.71y≈1.71.

Example 6: Prove that the following relation is correct for three numbers a, b
and c (assume that all the terms are well-defined):

logab=logcblogcalogab=logcblogca

Solution: We suppose the following:

logcb=x,logca=y,logab=zlogcb=x,logca=y,logab=z

Thus,

{cx=b,cy=aaz=b⇒(cy)z=b=cx⇒cyz=cx⇒yz=x⇒z=yx⇒logab=logcblogca{cx=b,cy=aaz=b
⇒(cy)z=b=cx⇒cyz=cx⇒yz=x⇒z=yx⇒logab=logcblogca

This relation enables us to change bases. For example, suppose that we have
to calculate log322048log322048. We can change the base to 2, as
follows:log322048=log22048log232=115=2.2

An approximation is anything that is similar, but not exactly equal, to something else. A
number can be approximated by rounding. A calculation can be approximated by rounding the
values within it before performing the operations .

Approximate Numbers and Significant Figures

An exact number is one that has no uncertainty. An example is the number of tires on a car (exactly 4) or the
number of days in a week (exactly 7). An approximate number is one that does have uncertainty. A number can be
approximate for one of two reasons:
The number can be the result of a measurement. For example a certain instrument capable of measuring to the
nearest 0.1 cm may measure the length of a certain bolt to be 8.6 cm. A better quality instrument capable of
measuring to the nearest 0.001 cm may give the length of the same bolt to be 8.617 cm. This new number is less
approximate but is still not exact.

Certain numbers simply cannot be written exactly in decimal form. Many fractions and all irrational numbers fall
into this category. For example the fraction 1/3 is approximately but not exactly equal to 0.333 and the irrational
number is approximately but not exactly equal to 1.73.

When we state that the measured length of the bolt is 8.6 cm then we actually mean that the value is closer to 8.6
cm than it is to 8.5 cm or 8.7 cm. The true length could be anywhere in the gray area shown here:

And when we state that the more accurate instrument gave the length of the bolt to be approximately 8.617 cm
then we mean that the value is closer to 8.617 cm than it is to 8.616 cm or 8.618 cm. The true length could still be
anywhere in the gray area shown here:
If someone told us that they used this same instrument and got a reading of 8.61712345 would we believe it? No
way! Adding just one atom to the end of the bolt would cause the last digit to change! The extra digits are
meaningless and are said to be insignificant. To claim that they are correct is nonsense.

Significant Digits or Figures

Definitions:

In an approximate number the leftmost digit is said to be the most significant digit and the rightmost digit is the
least significant digit. All the digits in the number are significant digits (also known as significant figures or sig. figs.)
with one exception: if the digit is a zero that is used just to locate the decimal point then it is not significant.

The accuracy of an approximate number is given by the number of significant digits in it.

The precision of an approximate number is given by the position of the rightmost significant digit.

Examples:
The approximate number 8.617 has 4 significant digits. The digit 8 is the most significant digit and the digit 7 is the
least significant digit.

The number 1.23, the number 0.000123 and the number 123000000 all have an accuracy of 3 sig. figs. All the zeros
are used simply to locate the decimal point.

The number 1.23 has a precision of 0.01, the number 0.000123 has a precision of 0.000001 and the number
123000000 has a precision of 1000000.

The number 1.023, the number 0.01023 and the number 1002000 all have 4 sig. figs. (The zeros shown in red are
used simply to locate the decimal point and don't count as sig. figs.)

Notes: The precision of a measuring instrument is the difference between the two closest readings that the
instrument can differentiate. For example the above instruments had a precision of 0.1 cm and 0.001 cm.

Precision and accuracy are not the same thing. Accuracy has to do with the quality (and cost!) of the measurement.
For example if your instrument has a precision of 1 centimeter then that may not be very accurate if that
instrument is designed to measure distances between objects on your desk but it would be very accurate if it was
designed to measure the distances between the planets.

Rounding
We saw above that if an instrument capable of measuring to the nearest 0.1 gave a measured value of 8.6 then the
true value could be anywhere in the gray area:
Rounding is exactly the same idea but reversed. Rounding to the nearest 0.1 means to replace any number in the
gray area (from 8.55 to 8.65) by 8.6. In general, rounding is done like this:

Rounding: When rounding to a certain place value then all digits to the right of that place are dropped. If the first
dropped digit is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 then the least significant digit kept is not changed. (This is called rounding down.) If
the first dropped digit is 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9 then the least significant digit kept is increased by 1. (This is called rounding
up.)

You can round to either a given decimal place or to a given number of sig. figs. Here are some examples of
rounding to 2 decimal places (the dropped digits are shown in red):
the rounding the rule used
4.384 → 4.38 first dropped digit is a 4 so round down
4.3851 → 4.39 first dropped digit is a 5 so round up
0.00043851 → 0.00 first dropped digit is a 0 so round down

Here are some examples of rounding to 3 sig. figs (the dropped digits are shown in red):
the rounding the rule used
4.384 → 4.38 first dropped digit is a 4 so round down
43851 → 43900 first dropped digit is a 5 so round up
0.00043851 → 0.000439 first dropped digit is a 5 so round up