COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF PROTECTED HORTICULTURE (HORT391)
FOR 2ND YEAR HORTICULTURE STUDENTS

By
Eden .M

Academic Year, 2016E.C Debre Tabor, Ethiopia

Semester II P. O. Box 272

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CHAPTER 1: - INTRODUCTION:-What Is Greenhouse and Type of Greenhouse

1.1. What is green house?

A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse or sufficient heating, a hothouse) is a structure with walls
and roof made chiefly of transparent material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated
climatic conditions are grown.
Greenhouse site selection criteria to be considered
1. Topography for greenhouse site selection: the location must be totally flat.
2. Microclimate for greenhouse site selection:-Frequently foggy areas should be avoided.
Areas that are well illuminated and free from shadows (hills, buildings) are preferred.
3. Harsh weather conditions:-Sites should be protected from cold winds and the roof should be
strong enough to dominant winds.
4. Irrigation facilities (Water Availability and Quality):–
 The availability of water sufficient quantity and of good quality and Saline water is not preferred.
5. Drainage:-Especially in regions of high rainfall. Places with a high water table must be avoided.
6. Soil Management:-The media should have properties appropriate for horticultural crops.
7. Pollution:-air pollution must be evaluated because particles can accumulate on the greenhouse
cladding material, which can limit solar radiation (e.g. dust from factories) or damage the
greenhouse cladding material.
8. Infrastructures for greenhouse ,Windbreaks, Room for Expansion
9. Market Accessibility, Availability of Labor.
Benefits or advantages of Greenhouse Farming
Provides favorable micro climate conditions for the plants.
 Year round production (all seasons even under extreme conditions is possible.)
 High yield with better quality per unit area and Longer production cycle
 Needs less irrigation due to moisture conservation and for off season/ high value crops.
 Hygienic production due to less sprays of toxic pesticides
 Better disease and pest control and in early raising of nursery.
 Round the year propagation of elite planting material and Protection from wind, rain, snow, birds, hail
 Generates self-employment for educated youth.
 To increase productivity (higher yield) compare to normal farming methods.
 To minimizes external threats to the crops under cultivation.

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 To produce disease free and genetically superior transplants continuously.
 Efficient utilization of chemicals and pesticides are used to control pest and diseases.
 Monitoring and controlling the instability of various ecological system.
Drawbacks or disadvantages of Greenhouse Farming
 It requires high upfront and operating expenses.
 It requires careful precautions to eliminate any pest or diseases
 Poor pollination takes place in greenhouse farming.
 Lack of awareness among farmers which requires training.
 It requires regular periodic inspection.
 Migration birds may be affected due to greenhouse.
Factors to be considered during Building Greenhouse
 Orientation.
 Length-Width Proportions.
 Foundation.
 Roof Slope.
 Framing and Glazing Materials.
 Beds and Paths
1.2. Type of Greenhous
The types of greenhouse based on shape are lean-to, even span, uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw
tooth and Quonset.GG
1. Lean-to type greenhouse: - placed against the side of an existing building. It is built against a
building, using the existing structure for one or more of its sides. It is usually attached to a
house, but may be attached to other buildings. The roof of the building is extended with
Limited to single or double-row plant benches.
It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure.
Advantage
 Close to available electricity, water, and heat. It is a least expensive structure.
 The best use of sunlight
 Minimizes the requirement of roof supports.
Disadvantages: limited space, limited light, limited ventilation and temperature control.

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More difficult for Temperature control because the wall that the greenhouse is built on, may collect
the sun's heat while the translucent cover of the greenhouse may lose heat rapidly.

2. Even span type greenhouse

The standard type and full-size structure, the two roof slopes are of equal pitch and width.
Used for the greenhouse of small size, and it is constructed on level ground.
The cost of an even-span greenhouse is more than the cost of a lean-to type.
Has greater flexibility in design and provides for more plants. Because of its size and greater
amount of exposed glass area, the even-span will cost more to heat.
Has a better shape than a lean-to type for air circulation to maintain uniform temperatures.
3. Uneven span type greenhouse
Constructed on hilly terrain. The roofs are of unequal width; make the structure adaptable to the
side slopes of hill. Seldom used now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.

4. Ridge and Furrow Greenhouse

The ridge and furrow that resembles an A-frame structure. The design involves connecting the A-
frame greenhouse structures in a neat row. Each row relates to the eave, where all the excess snow
and rain drains off. It’s inexpensive to make and can be constructed with only basic materials. This
greenhouse may be built with very little use of wood or plastic film.
It also requires little construction knowledge. Because of the broad base and short height, the peaks
may be more challenging to maneuver, and the heights are low.
The connection of several greenhouses acts to add more growing area, as well as increase the area
for more sunlight penetration.
Also, this helps save on cost and energy to care for plants from one greenhouse to the next.
Pros
 It leaves enough room inside the structure to grow plants.
 Saves on automation and energy.
 Ensures structure longevity by draining rain and snow from the roof.
 An appealing look.
Cons
 Expensive to set up.

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  Requires a big piece of land.
5. Saw tooth type Greenhouse
These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses accept that, there is provision for
natural ventilation in this type. Specific natural ventilation flow path develops in a saw- tooth type
greenhouse.
6. Quonset Greenhouse
Low side walls
The pipe arches or trusses are supported by pipe purling running along the length of the greenhouse.
In general, the covering material used for this type of greenhouses is polyethylene. Less expensive
than the gutter connected greenhouses
Difficult for laborers to work or grow plants in that reduced area.
Useful when a small isolated cultural area is required. These houses are connected either in free,
standing style or arranged in an interlocking ridge and furrow.

Classification of Green House based on Construction

1. Wooden Frame Greenhouses
Most cold climate weather greenhouses include wooden frame structures that help preserve the heat
inside. Wood is readily available in many places and easy to work with, even without hiring
professional to set up the greenhouse. Side posts and columns are constructed of wood without the
use of a truss. Pine wood is commonly used as it is inexpensive and possesses the required
strength. Timber locally available, with good strength, durability and machinability also can be
used for the construction.
Pros
 Thermal efficiency helps the greenhouse remain warm during cold winter months.
 Easy to build and make repairs.
 Wood is naturally attractive, especially when you have exposed grain.
 The timber frame is more environmentally friendly.
Cons
 Wood is expensive when not locally sourced.
 If not properly treated, it’s prone to insect attacks.
2. Pipe framed structures

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Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear span is around 12m.
In general, the side posts, columns, cross ties and purlins are constructed using pipes.
In this type, the trusses are not used.
3. Truss framed structures
Trusses are the fundamental vertical support structure of a greenhouse. If the greenhouse span is
greater than or equal to 15m, truss frames are used. Most of the glass houses are of truss frame type,
as these frames are best suited for pre-fabrication.

Classification of greenhouse based on suitability and cost

A. Low cost or low tech greenhouse
Low cost greenhouse is a simple structure constructed with locally available materials such as
bamboo, timber etc. The ultra violet (UV) film is used as cladding materials.
Unlike conventional or hi-tech greenhouses, no specific control device for regulating environmental
parameters inside the greenhouse is provided. Simple techniques are, however, adopted for
increasing or decreasing the temperature and humidity. Even light intensity can be reduced by
incorporating shading materials like nets. The temperature can be reduced during summer by
opening the side walls. Such structure is used as rain shelter for crop cultivation. Otherwise, inside
temperature is increased when all sidewalls are covered with plastic film. This type of greenhouse is
mainly suitable for cold climatic zone. Less expensive greenhouse without fan and pad

B. Medium-tech greenhouse:-have manually or semiautomatic control arrangement owing to

minimum investment. Constructed using galvanized iron (G.I) pipes. The canopy cover is attached
with structure with the help of screws. Whole structure is firmly fixed with the ground to withstand
the disturbance against wind. Exhaust fans with thermostat are provided to control the temperature.
Evaporative cooling pads and misting arrangements are also made to maintain a favorable humidity
inside the greenhouse.
Because of having semi-automatic, it requires a lot of attention and care, and it is very difficult and
cumbersome to maintain uniform environment throughout the cropping period. Suitable for dry and
composite climatic zones. Medium cost greenhouse with pad and fan system without
automation
C.Hi-techgreenhouse
to overcome difficulties in medium-tech greenhouse, a hi-tech greenhouse where the entire device,

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 controlling the environment parameters, are supported to function automatically. Expensive
greenhouses with fully automatic control system
Classification of Greenhouse Based On Utility
Greenhouses can be made depending on the functions or utilities. Based on the artificial cooling and heating,
greenhouses are classified as green houses for active heating and active cooling system.
1. Greenhouses for active heating
During the night time, air temperature inside greenhouse decreases. To avoid the cold bite to plants
due to freezing, some amount of heat has to be supplied. The requirements for heating greenhouse
depend on the rate at which the heat is lost to the outside environment. Various methods are adopted
to reduce the heat losses, viz., using double layer polyethylene, thermos pane glasses (Two layers of
factory sealed glass with dead air space) or to use heating systems, such as unit heaters, central heat,
radiant heat and solar heating system.
2. Greenhouses for active cooling
During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the ambient
temperatures, for effective crop growth. Hence suitable modifications are made in the greenhouse
so that large volumes of cooled air is drawn into greenhouse, This type of greenhouse either
consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog cooling. This greenhouse is designed in such a
way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some cases nearly 100%.

Classification of greenhouse based on covering materials

1. Glass Material Greenhouses:-Glass is quality material used to cover different types of

greenhouses. It facilitates deeper light intensity, which is ideal for healthy plants. Also, it allows
ample air filtration, which best controls the humid environment.
Pros
 Allows more light penetration.
 Facilitates ample air filtration.
 Appealing to look at.
Cons:-Glass is expensive to use, especially in a huge greenhouse.
2. Plastic Greenhouses:-a quality greenhouse, especially one to keep indoors away from direct
wind. Made using plastic frames.
Pros

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  Plastic greenhouses are affordable and readily available.
 It’s lightweight and easy to set up and Quality plastic creates a sturdy frame.

 They aren’t prone to damage like wood greenhouses.

 easy to clean and inexpensive,
Cons:-

 Plastic frames aren’t ideal for large structures.

 Prone to damage after some time.
3. Pipe Metal Frame Greenhouses:-framed greenhouse structures use heavy-duty metals like steel
and aluminum. These metals are long-lasting and use the greenhouse for a long time. Greenhouse is
for commercial purposes, reducing the cost of replacing worn-out pipes.
Pros
 Uses durable metal material.
 It provides a sturdy structure that can withstand the elements.
 Even in high temperatures, metal frame structures are resistant to heat.
Cons:-Heavy-duty metal is expensive
Types of greenhouse Depending on way of construction
1. Free standing (Tunnel greenhouse) :-
Is a separate structure and consists of sidewalls, end walls, and gable roof).
It is assembled similar to an even-span, except that a freestanding greenhouse is set apart from other
buildings, allowing full exposure to the sun. It can be made as large or small as desired.
It also provides more light, but requires more heat at night because of the additional exposed
surface area. Separate heating and cooling systems will be necessary.
2. Gutter connected (Multi-span) –Quonset roofed most popular design –each greenhouse section is
called bay. In this case, the interior walls are usually absent. Most commercial greenhouses now
utilize some variation of the gutter-connected design. This is primarily because the gutter-connected
design allows for a larger unobstructed interior than would be possible with stand-alone houses.
Having a large unobstructed interior improves the ability to automate common tasks such as
irrigation and improve space usage efficiency.
Additionally, by eliminating interior walls (which would be exterior exposed walls in free-standing
structures), the cost of construction materials and heating costs are reduced. Several potential

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drawbacks exist for gutter-connected facilities. Since the entire production area is a single space, the
ability to maintain different environmental conditions (such as would exist with numerous individual
structures) is lost.
Additionally, as the size of the gutter-connected span increases, uniformity and control of light,
temperature, airflow and humidity can be reduced. One way to minimize these issues is to have drop-
walls or curtains made of polyethylene film that can be raised or lowered between sections.
Chapter Two: - Demonstration of Green House and Non-Greenhouse Structures
What is Greenhouse foundation?
Known as a plinth or upstand, a base is the frame upon which a greenhouse is installed and,
subsequently, will sit on top of once it has been assembled.
The foundation design depends on greenhouse style, climate, site situation (soil, slope, etc.), desired
thermal efficiency, budget, available materials and building codes.
Building greenhouse foundation Considerations before building a greenhouse foundation are:

1. It must be anchored to the ground (Wind gusts can move or turn over a greenhouse because of
its low weight to surface area ratio).
2. There must be available drainage area for excess water to drain out of the greenhouse
3. Greenhouse should far away from weed and grass growing in the greenhouse floor.
The two most commonly built foundation are:-
1. Wood Foundation is a cost-effective option in the long run.
Simple and inexpensive making it an excellent option for most home greenhouses.
Recommend using naturally resistant woods
Woods contain substances that inhibit decay.
Requires a level site for greenhouse.
Set a level on top of one of the boards (shown in picture at left).
The recommend ground cover material is sand or small gravel because they have good drainage. The
greenhouse to the base keeping cold air from entering and warm air from escaping in the winter.
Wood Base Pros
 A more accessible and more cost-effective

 It’s adjustable and can be extended and used for larger greenhouses.
 It’s easy to maintain and clean,
 Coating to prolong the wood’s lifespan.
 It’s easier to provide appropriate drainage through the gaps between each unit.

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Wood Base Cons
 Chemicals may leach into the soil and affect crops.
 Not as durable as concrete.
 Mould development prone unless it is rot-resistant or pressure-treated.
2. Concrete Foundation (Concrete Slab Base or foundation)
A concrete slab base is the most durable foundation for a greenhouse. It does require planning and
labor ahead of time, but once it’s complete, do not need frequent maintenance.
Concrete Base Pros

 Provide maximum sturdiness to the greenhouse.

 Long-lasting and permanent.
 Rodents will not be able to tunnel inside the concrete base.

Concrete Base Cons

Plant only in garden beds, pots, etc.

Standing water may be a problem since it can only drain around the edges of the greenhouse base.
The most expensive option but the most cost-effective long term.
Cannot move from one site to another

CHAPTER THREE: - GREENHOUSE STRUCTURES

What is Greenhouse Placement and screening and Glazing

Importance of selecting the greenhouse placement are that determines:-

 Not only type of structure
 But also the direction and intensity of sun to get.
 Types of plants can grow.
 Protection of the greenhouse from storm damage
 The maintenance frequency for not only plants but of the structure itself
Consideration during Greenhouse placement
Climate: - benefit from moderate temp allowing year-round production for both cool and warm
crops and based on Crop requirement
Topography
 Level - easy to build and operate , Hilly areas – expensive grading and operate

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 Good drainage and free from flood – disease problems, increase maintain ace cost Water –
availability, rights, and quality
 Expansion – general rule is to buy twice the amount of land needed at the time of purchase to
allow further growth, unexpected needs, excess land can be sold later
 Water – availability, rights, and quality
 Labour supply
 Community requirement and government rules
Greenhouse Glazing Materials
Glazing:-What is glazing?
Glazing is the material that covers the greenhouse frame, the primary purpose is to allow light into
the greenhouse so directly influences the amount and the type (diffuse /direct ) of solar radiation.

Direct light –is a solar radiation received directly from the sun, without prior reflection
It is bright and strong and reaches from one direction
Diffuse light– is the result of scattering of direct radiation by cloud, dust or greenhouse cover. The
greenhouse glazing transmits both direct and diffuse light but at different proportions due to its
physical characteristic. Plastic films have more diffused light than glass. Double glazing will
provide more diffuse light to the plants than a single layer glazing.
Types of glazing
What materials are used for greenhouse glazing?
Factors should be considered when selecting a glazing material. The life of the material, its strength,
its weight, initial cost, light transmittance, thermal conductance, maintenance issues and
flammability are all very important factors.
Light Transmittance:-the higher the light transmittance of a glazing, the higher the amount of
sunlight that can penetrate the glazing and potentially enter the greenhouse.
Therefore, maximizing the amount of natural sunlight entering the greenhouse is desirable and in
most situations, the highest possible light transmittance level is desirable in a greenhouse glazing.
Light transmittance of a glazing is not constant. As glazing age, they tend to have a reduction in
light transmittance due to scratching from dust and debris and aging or "yellowing" of the glazing
material due to U.V. exposure.
Thermal conductance:-Thermal conductance refers to heat loss from inside of the greenhouse
through the glazing to outside of the greenhouse.

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Strength The stronger the greenhouse glazing, the more resistant it is to breakage from debris or
weather events such as high winds and hail. Therefore, the higher the strength, the lower the
probability of breakage and the resulting costs associated with replacing the glazing. However,
often glazings with a high level of strength are not very flexible.
Weight:-The heavier the glazing material, the higher the dead load on the structure. To account for
the increased dead load, a stronger support structure is required.
Life span (Durability / Longevity):-short glazing life span means frequent replacement. Therefore,
the initial cost of the glazing may be low as compared to other glazings, but after the glazing is
replaced several times, it may become less economically attractive than one with a higher initial
cost and a longer life span.
Scratch resistance:-Dust, soil particles and other debris can scratch the glazing. Scratching reduces
the light transmittance of the glazing and can therefore result in reduced light levels inside of the
greenhouse. This in turn may require more frequent replacement of the glazing and increased cost.
Cost:-All aspects of the cost of a glazing need to be considered. These include the initial cost of the
glazing material, structural support costs, life span of the glazing and thermal conductance of the
glazing. A glazing material that has a high initial cost when compared to other glazing materials
may be more economically attractive if it has a long lifespan or has a low thermal conductivity.
Common Greenhouse Glazing Materials
Glass. Glass-glazed greenhouses have relatively high air infiltration rates due to spaces between
glass panels.
 Best material for crop production
 Highest light transmission
 Long lasting
 Expensive
 Breakable
Polyethylene (Flexible sheets of polyethylene) are stretched over the greenhouse framework.
Polyethylene film is a common greenhouse glazing that is particularly adaptable to Quonset
structures because of its flexibility.
 Low in cost or Cheap
 Light-weight
 Easy to install.

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  Good insulator
 Flexible
Disadvantages
1. Need Additives may be included in the film to increase life-span, reduce condensation or reduce
heat loss.
2. Short-lived (Lasts 5-7 years) in comparison to other glazings. This is because it is very
susceptible to degradation by U.V. light.
3. Condensation and dripping. Because of the difference between inside and outside air
temperatures, water vapor tends to condense on the surface of polyethylene film inside of the
greenhouse.
Because the film is very hydrophobic, the water tends to bead and collect on the surface until large
enough drops are formed that then fall from the glazing onto the plant materials below. This
dripping of water from the glazing onto the plants can result in increased disease incidence.
Polycarbonate structured sheets
 Most widely used
 Good light transmission
 Resist hail damage
 Easy to work with.
Fiberglass
 Dropped in popularity
 Discolors after 7-10 years
 Flammable
 Poor insulator
 highly susceptible to U.V. degradation
Parameters Glass Poly Corrugated Polycarbonate
Light 92%, high 87 % for single layer 90 %
83 % (low) for double layered
Age Longest, UV, heat and  Shortest Long (25-30year)
 Up to 5 year in some
wind resistant
locations
 Usually 2-3 year (tropics)
 Becomes yellow and
brittle
Hail resistance Poor Poor Very high
Wind Resistance Fair to good Poor – single Very good
Good – double

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Heat retentions The lowest Very low – single layer Good
Double layered – excellent
Flammability Fire resistance High Very low
Flexibility Rigid not suitable for Excelled – suitable for any style Highly flexible, Very strong 200x
Quonset type greenhouse
impact resistant than glass
Cost Expensive to purchase and Low to construct Moderate
to construct But high maintaining
replacing cost
Uv Resistant – very good Low – needs additive Good
degradation
In general structured sheets, including polycarbonate, acrylic, and fiberglass, which are made
with double walls offer good insulation.
Flexible sheets of polyethylene are stretched over the greenhouse framework.
Important properties of poly
1. Film stabilization-
 Greenhouse cover must have resistance to breakdown for at least the length of time
 A greenhouse cover must be endowed with physical resistance to tear if subjected to
reasonable external forces and to impact of falling objects such as hail pellets
2. UV Blocking –
• Blocking the entry of ultra violet radiation into the greenhouse.
• This property has significant ramifications in the field of Integrated Pest Management as
well as film stabilization – for tropics
• The covers, which prevented U V from entering the greenhouse space, caused the insect
vectors to lose their orientation because insects see UV light and require UV light in order
to identify their targets
3. Heat trap –
• A greenhouse cover must block or impede the nocturnal escape of accumulated heat
sufficiently to call the structure a "heat trap". Otherwise the structure is a "shelter" and not
a "greenhouse".
• For temperate areas
4. Light transmittance -A greenhouse cover must be essentially transparent to the radiation in the
range of what we call the P A R (photosynthetically active range).

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Screening is sometimes used to diminish the radiation load on the crop at peak radiation levels, in
order to improve quality. This decreases the amount of PAR received by the crop and is likely to
decrease crop photosynthesis also.
1. Darkening (black out):-Short Day treatment – prevent light entrance and shortens daylight hours,
induces blooming chrysanthemum
2. Shading
 To prevent direct radiation and overall light level
 To reduce heat stress, water stress and quality reduction e.g propagation of rose
 Nurseries for root development and tissue-based reproduction: 50% - 70% black or gray
 Seed and seedling production nurseries: 22% to 50% black nets
3. Plant protection (insect barriers, birds, hazards)
Insect screens:-Several serious greenhouse pests can be excluded by screens with the following
hole sizes or smaller.

New innovations in screens, using colored shade nets to improve quality and yield of horticultural
crops. Results after applying chromatinet for rose growing;
Better growth in red nets
 The plants grown under the red netting were considerable higher than those under the
different colored nets.
 Blue net produced only stunted, dwarf plants.
 The gray netting yielded profuse but stunted ramifications. The aluminum netting brought
on the development of numerous ramifications, and
 In the Lisianthus experiment, lengthof flowering stems were found to be10cm longer under
the Red and theYellow net compared with the black
 Other examples , Monstra, Poinsttia ,Pittosporum, variegatum: also fruits,Pepper

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CHAPTER FOUR: - GREENHOUSE BENCHES AND BEDS

What is greenhouse Bench Construction, Types of benches, Flower Production, Ground Beds,
Containers, Hydroponics?
GREENHOUSE BENCHES
Benches: - are stable, well-drained platforms for growing plants. Benches serve an important
function in the operation of a greenhouse.
Advantages of benches:-
 Plants are at a more convenient height to work comfortably;
 Benches permit a more effective display of plants;
 Benches provide improved air circulation and environmental control around the plants
 Benches permit better disease and growth control.
Greenhouse bench materials and design can be a difficult decision, due to wide choice of products
available to the grower. Common designs, materials and considerations in choosing containers,
benches for commercial application.
Bench Space Efficiency:- defined as the square feet of bench space to the entire greenhouse floor
area. This number is expressed as a percentage.
TYPES OF BENCHES
Based on the Elevation There Are Two types of benches
Floor/Ground as benches:-Growing plants directly on the floor in conjunction with ground floor
heating systems
 Using the floor for growing plants is gaining popularity, but the cement must be laid exactly
level in order to achieve an even distribution of water when flooding floors.
 Porous concrete floors may be expanded in width to serve as “benches”.
 The main advantage is the porosity offered and the lowered cost from bypassing above ground structures.
2. Raised Benches:-There are many types of raised benching systems or production surfaces used
in greenhouses. Some are elevated while others utilize the floor of the greenhouse. Based on its
movability Common raised benching and production surface systems are:-
2.1. Stationary elevated benches: - cannot be (and are not designed to be) easily moved. Stationary
elevated benches. Supported numerous materials including concrete blocks, wood, steel, aluminum
or even hardened plastic. The surface of the bench may be made of wood, wire, wire cages,

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expanded metal, snow fencing, chain link fence, ebb-and-flow irrigation trays, irrigation troughs or
other types of materials.
Stationary benching systems generally have the lowest space usage efficiency and offer the least
flexibility.
2.2. Rolling elevated benches: - "rolled" from side to side or even from location to location
throughout the greenhouse facility. Rolling benches allow for a reduction in the number of
walkways required and thus an increase in the space usage efficiency.
Provide a transportation system within the greenhouse structure. However, the use of rolling
benches reduces access to plant material.
2.3. Removable benches:-Removable benches are generally stationary but are designed to be
repositioned or removed from the greenhouse during certain times of the cropping season.
Not mounted to the greenhouse floor. The support structure is typically made of concrete block,
aluminum, steel or wood. The surface may be wire, wire fencing, wire cages, snow fencing or other
low cost and easily movable materials.
Stationary elevated benches, rolling elevated benches and Removable benches respectively
Raised “Bench” System Based On an Arrangement/layout In A Greenhouse?
“Bench” system is an arrangement of benches inside a greenhouse to maximize the growing area
inside a greenhouse. Bench system improves the operation of a greenhouse so it is easy to water and
look after plants. Based on an arrangement of benches there are 3 types of bench system layouts for
a greenhouse:
1. Peninsular bench layout: -
Perpendicular to the sides of the greenhouse.
 Increases the spaces for growing plants.
 Provides for the passing of plant material and pots easily.
 Good layout for separating different types of plants.
 Have plenty of space to walk between aisles and can perform routine tasks easier.
2. Longitudinal system benches: -
 Run along the full length of the greenhouse.
 The most common use for fresh cut flowers production.
 Needs routine tasks like watering are easier on longitudinal benches in comparison to
peninsular.

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3. Rolling bench layout or Movable benches,:-
 Increases growing space up to 90%.
 Move table tops to one side or the other.
 Create aisles between benches when and where necessary.
Materials for Benches
1. Aluminum.
 Lightweight,
 Durable
 Slatted bench provides good drainage and air circulation.
 Material is rust resistant and maintenance free.
 Not suitable for large, heavy pots because bench made solely of aluminum
2. Galvanized steel.
 Longevity and resistance to rot and decay.
 Strong and can support at least 90 lbs.
 Expensive to install, it is only a one time cost and maintenance is very low.
2. Plastic.
 Tops are not going to rust or rot. It is easy to work with and lasts as long as metal options.
 Requires easy maintenance
 Hard to disinfect plastic surface.
 Plastic staging is not fireproof.
Plastic and Galvanized steel covering material
Containers:-Selection of suitable containers depends upon:-
The crop to be produced in greenhouse,
Plant characteristics crop stage, duration, vigor, growth habit, root system, etc. Generally long
duration, deep rooted and vigorous crop plants require bigger containers compared to short
duration, shallow and less vigorous ones. The containers provide optimum condition for
germination of seed and growth and development of transplants.
Advantages of containers in greenhouse production
 Increases production capacity by reducing crop time.
 High quality of the greenhouse product
 Uniformity in plant growth with good vigor

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  Provide quick take off with little or no transplanting shock.
 Easy maintenance of sanitation in greenhouse
 Easy to handle, grade and shift or for transportation.
 Better water drainage and aeration in pot media.
 Easy to monitor chemical characteristics and plant nutrition with advanced irrigation
systems like drips.
Types of containers
Plastic pots, Clay/Terra Cotta and Poly bags, flat, respectively
1. Plastic: -
 The most common and inexpensive
 Available in a multitude of sizes, shapes and designer colors and range in price from downright
cheap to the more expensive.
 Available with or without drainage trays.
 Containers are water-tight and non-porous.
 Reusable
 Light-weight
 Use little storage space
 Common in Agricultural research centers and higher learning institutions and commercial
flower farms
2. Polyethylene bags:-Poly bags of different sizes, thickness & color are available in the market
 Comparatively cheaper
 Handling of plants is very easy
 Light in weight and are easily available
 Before planting, polybags should be perforated for proper drainage
 Most commonly used to produce seedlings of trees and coffee in many parts of our country.
3. Flats: -Shallow plastic, wooden or metal trays, with drainage holes in the bottom.
Useful for germinating seeds or rooting cuttings
5. Fiber pots: -made from wood fiber and Biodegradable =>possible to transplant seedlings or
rooted cuttings with pots
6. Clay pots: -Heavy, Porous & lose moisture readily, easily broken, their round shape is not
economical of space and but it is relatively cheap and locally available. Clay pots can be used

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 for interior display. Because they are porous, it is necessary to place pots on a waterproof tray to
catch excess water and prevent bleeding of moisture through the pot onto carpet, floor or other
surface areas.
Flower Production in Greenhouse Production Systems
Greenhouse crop production systems are either based on soil or soilless culture.
In soil culture, crops are produced in the native soil or in a soil brought inside the greenhouse. A
well-drained, pathogen-free soil of uniform texture is typically the best medium for plant growth,
but some soils do not always have these attributes.
Soilless culture involves the growing of plants in either in a water culture, termed hydroponics, or in
a soilless substrate.
The greenhouse grower has many choices in soilless culture systems. The choice of culture will
depend on the plants to be grown, the size of the system, and the financial and time investment the
grower wishes to make.
Hydroponics :-( Soil less/ Hydroponic system):- The cultivation of plants without using soil.
Hydroponic uses inert growing media and supplied with nutrient-rich solutions, oxygen, and water.
This system fosters rapid growth, stronger yields, and superior quality
All nutrients are supplied to the plants through the irrigation water with the growing media being
soilless mostly inorganic.
Types of media in hydroponics
1. Water Based -Liquid (Non-Aggregate) Hydroponic Systems- No Solid Media
2. Media Based Hydroponics - Aggregate Hydroponic Systems- Use Media
For Cut Flowers in General, Roses in Particular Media Based (Non-Liquid) is Common Types
Hydroponic System Advantage and Disadvantage
Disadvantages
 Need Experienced Personnel.
 Requires Maintain the Proper Level and Balance Of Chemicals In The Solution
 water must be provided constantly to the plant roots; a malfunction in the pump, especially on a
hot day, can result in rapid wilting, serious plant stress and death
 Finally, hydroponic culture is more costly than conventional soil systems
 More expensive than traditional ground beds
Advantages

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1. High productivity
2. growers are able to compensate the extra cost through significantly better yields (20-25%) that
result from higher planting density, optimum plant nutrition and better pest and disease control
3. More efficient use of water and fertilizer due to recycling nut solution
4. Reduce the risk of soil borne diseases
5. Reuse of water and fertilizer (recycling is possible)

CHAPTER FIVE: - NON-GREENHOUSE STRUCTURES AND PRODUCTION AREAS

What are Cold frames and hot beds Lath houses Shade and saran houses and with difference in
terms of different parameters?
Picture represents both Cold frames and hot beds respectively
A hotbed is a bed of soil enclosed in a glass or plastic frame.
Hotbeds are warm growing environments created using the heat that's given off during the
decomposition of organic matter such as manure or a hotbed is a biological term for an area of
decaying organic matter that is warmer than its surroundings.
Hotbeds are used for forcing plants or for raising early seedlings.
Hotbeds are most useful for seed germination in early spring. They also are used for growing
seedlings in cold weather and for over wintering especially tender plants. Hotbeds can be used to
grow crops throughout the winter months.
The hotbed and the cold frame are identical in structure .The only difference between them is the
source of heat. The sun supplies all the heat in a cold frame, whereas sunlight is supplemented by
another heat source in a hotbed. Plant growth is slower in a cold frame than in a hot bed.
Disadvantages of a hotbed
 Needs changing of covering material if the temperature is less than the recommended (hay or
manure 45 degrees.)
 Only used for cold weather.
 Requires more water.
 Plants may get too big for the container.
 Requires large quantities of manure, it is not generally practical.
Cold frames extend the growing season by protecting tender plants and trapping heat.

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Used to harden off seedlings in the spring.
A cold frame is a small, transparent structure, built low to the ground.
A cold frame greenhouse is a clear, insulated outdoor structure that protects plants.
Cold frames are used to provide shelter for tender perennials, to "harden off" seedling plants or to
start cold-tolerant plants .Basically, a hotbed is a heated cold frame. In many ways it is a miniature
greenhouse, providing the same benefits with limited space at minimal expense. It is a means for
extending the growing season.
Unlike a traditional greenhouse, which often uses gas or electric heat, a cold frame greenhouse
depends on the sun's warmth to create a safe microclimate for your garden.
Location:-Hotbeds and cold frames should have a southern exposure to receive the maximum
amount of sunlight. To reduce the cost of heating, use a north or northwest windbreak.
 Leveled land
 Drainage area (The site should have good natural drainage so there will not be excess moisture
beneath the bed.)
 Faraway from shade tree (Windbreaks should never shade the cold frame or hotbed.)
 Free from flooding during heavy rains.
 Hotbeds located close to the home tend to received more attention than those further away.

Constructing the bed

Basically, the hotbed or cold frame is a rectangular box with the back higher than the front, covered
with a transparent "roof."
The size and complexity of the structure depends on needs or funds available. Recycled material
such as scrap lumber and old window sashes may be used, thereby reducing costs.
Sash and coverings:-The sash available will determine the dimensions for the bed. Glass sash is
the conventional frame covering and generally the best.
Materials:-The sides of the structure may be wood, brick, and masonry blocks, concrete or metal.
Masonry block, concrete or brick make excellent permanent structures but are more costly than
wood. Metal must be well insulated, or heat loss will be high.
Wood is the most frequently used building material for the average home garden hotbed or cold
frame.
 It is easy to work with
 More flexible

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 Materials required for heating the hotbed (Methods for heating the beds include):-
 Manure
 Electric cables
 Light bulbs
 Hot water and steam.
Manure-heated beds are of interest as a means of conserving energy. Temperature control in
manure-heated beds is more difficult than when beds are heated with electricity. Therefore, plant
growth normally is better in plants in electrically heated beds. The manure-heated bed is suitable for
only short periods in either spring or fall. The electrically heated bed can be used for any time
period or even throughout the entire winter.
Electric heating cables:-Electric heating cables are the most convenient and dependable means for
heating hotbeds.
Difference between Hot Bed and Cold Frame
Hot Bed Cold Frame
1. A hot bed is generally a mass of well-prepared 1. A cold frame is an outdoor growing “area” built without a bottom
manure placed out doors with a glass or polythene but with a solid-sided frame of wood, cement or brick, and a

frame placed on top to it. removable hinged top, glazed with glass, Fiberglas, or plastic.

2. Hot beds are used for starting the plants. 2. Cold frames are used for tempering or hardening plants to
outdoor conditions before transplanting.
3. Hot beds have a heat source. 3. Cold frame has no heat source.
4. Hotbeds are heated with electric soil cables, stable 4. Cold frames receive all of their heat directly from the sun.
manure or steam, or hot water heated with flues.
5. Present-day hot beds are built even with or slightly 5. Present-day frames are often completely above ground and
below ground level and covered by glass sash. plastic covered.
6. Hotbed can be used earlier in the spring and 6. Cold frame used later in the spring and earlier in fall and
later in fall and early winter than the cold frame. later winter than the hot beds.
Glasshouse is a form of greenhouse. Glass was once the only material suitable for this purpose, so
glasshouse and greenhouse were pretty much synonymous.
Hothouse is a heated greenhouse for plants that require an even, relatively warm temperature.
What is Net House? A net house is a garden structure that can be used to cover crops or fruit trees
from the elements. It is made of netting stretched over a metal frame and is usually supported by

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 poles. Net houses can be used to provide shade in the summer and protect plants from frost in the
winter. They are also useful for small gardens like nurseries, as they take up very little space.
What is Lath House? Lath houses are a type of greenhouse are made of narrow strips of wood,
called laths, which are nailed to a framework of timber. The laths allow air and light to circulate,
and the framework protects the plants from wind and snow. Lath houses can be used to grow
vegetables and flowers.
Difference between net house and lath house: A net house and a lath house are two different types
of greenhouses. A net house is made of a lightweight plastic mesh that covers the entire greenhouse.
A lath house is made of thin strips of wood that are placed over a greenhouse frame. Net houses are
cheaper to build than lath houses, but they do not last as long. Lath houses are more expensive to
build, but they last longer.
Difference between net house and lath house
Net house Lath house
1. Net houses are basically naturally 1. Lath house is a house for plants during winter sides may be
ventilated climate controlled. covered by plastic sheeting, which will furnish additional protection
from the winter cold.
2. Crops are grown under a favorable 2. A valuable asset in raising seedlings, rooted cuttings, and young
controlled environment and other rhododendron plants prior to setting them out in the garden.
conditions
3. In conventional agronomical practices, 3. It protects plants that are sensitive to high light intensity and also
the crops are being grown/cultivated in the protects them from the excessive winter cold.
open field under natural conditions where
the crops are more susceptible to sudden
changes in climate
4. It controlled temperature, humidity, light 4. It modifies the environment in which they are growing by
intensity, soil media, disease control, offering protection from hot, drying summer winds, reducing the
irrigation, and other agronomical practices intensity of the sunlight, lowering temperatures, and maintaining a
throughout the season irrespective of the higher humidity.
natural conditions outside.
What's the difference between a greenhouses and a shade house?
A green house is usually used as raising seedlings and a shade house is used in the second stage

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 Shade house is used to provide plants with shade. This garden structure provides suitable
conditions for shade-loving plants. Basically, it gives plants with a mix of shade and light.
Shade house has a frame that usually supports the shade cloth to protect the plants from excessive
heat. Aside from shade cloth, mesh or wooden laths can also be used in shading plants. Sometimes,
a shade house also looks like a green house. The difference is the shade not only cloth over them
but also.......
Shade houses usually have shade cloth over it. They are used to protect cultivated plants from
excessive heat, light or dryness. Different shade cloth may be available in different colors and
percentages to protect plants from sun, frost etc. In other words, it provides shelter from the
elements, which helps the shade loving plants inside, to have maximum growth.
What are shade-houses? :-Shade-housing is defined as “modification of the natural environment to
achieve optimal plant growth and production”. It is one of the protected agriculture technologies.
Protected agriculture also requires irrigation.
Disadvantages of shade houses
 Construction costs can be high.
 Requires continuous monitoring, care and maintenance.
 Lead to increased costs for water and or energy.
 The structure would have to be disassembled before and reassembled after a tropical storm.
Benefits of shade houses
 Produce small portions of land with very high yields.
 Possible to produce on waterlogged soil by using off-the-ground farming techniques.
 Production of high quality, fresh, green fruits and vegetables all year round.
 Allows for high productivity with reduced labour requirements.
 Reduces the incidence of pests and diseases.

A shade house is a structure which usually consists of a metal frame that supports shade cloth.
A type of screen that provides some passive environmental control e.g. shading the plants from
excessive sunlight and wind
Why use a shade house? :-A shade house is important in plant production for gaining maximum
growth, allowing plants time to acclimatize to outdoor conditions and "harden off". There are a
number of benefits in using a shade house:

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Protection
 Protect plants from wind, hail and pests
 Protect plants from extreme hot weather
 Protect plants which are cold or frost sensitive over winter
Improve growth
 Propagate new plants
 Grow tropical plants in cooler climates
Shade-House-feet Increase yields and quality. The result of a healthier root system
Improve space: Using multi-tier/layer shelves in a shade house
Grow vegetables, cut flowers or berry fruits out of season, faster than might be achieved outside.
Save in costs:-Considerable savings in operation costs (energy, irrigation, spraying, misting etc.)
Labor cost: Better work environment increases work efficiency
Increase safety and Plant disease suppression
Avoid workers exposed to severe weather conditions.
A shade house is for maximum growing of indoor, shade loving plants
CHAPTER SIX: - CONTROL OF GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT

Environmental control the greenhouse stays constant to provide optimal conditions that are most
favorable for maximum yield.
A plant’s ability to grow and develop is dependent mainly on Photosynthesis. In the presence of
light, the plant combines carbon dioxide and water to form sugars which are then utilized for
growth and flower/fruit production.
Management of the greenhouse environment is directed at optimizing the photosynthetic process in
the plants, the plant’s ability to utilize light at maximum efficiency.
Regular Irrigation and Fertilizers – Fertigation Control
Fertigation constantly applies water and fertilizers at precise amounts through the irrigation system.
This supplying of nutrients required by the crops helps keep yields at their best.
Fertigation is especially useful in the case of drip irrigation. The water and the nutrients are
absorbed directly into the roots.
 Improving the rate of growth, resilience and quality of the crops.
 More rational use of water and fertilizers

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  Respecting the environment and minimizing the environmental impact is something we can all
get use a greenhouse water recycling system to ensure crops safety.
 Quality indoor growing manageable.
 To produce high value crops or high profitable crops for many years

 Humidity, control, Light, photoperiod, Irrigation Management, Nutrient management,

 Ventilation and cooling, Plant growth regulators and Growing media (greenhouse substrates)
Light:-Source of energy for plants through photosynthesis. Initiates or modifies specific
physiological responses such as:
 Seed germination,
 Flowering,
 Senescence,
 Tuber formation, and
 Dormancy
Light saturation point: - the light intensity increases, the photosynthetic rate eventually reaches a
maximum point. This point where the light intensity does not increase the photosynthesis rate is called the
light saturation point. Additional light energy cannot be used and may be injurious to the plant.
 Plant species vary in their light saturation points.
What are the 3 key aspects of light affecting plant growth?
Measurement of light requires the use of three factors
The effect of light on plant growth, stem length, leaf color and flowering are measured by the use of
three factors:-
1. Color (quality) = is the wavelength of the light,
2. Intensity (quantity) = is the strength of the light, and
3. Duration (photoperiod) = is the time span of the light episode.
Photoperiod or Duration is refers to the amount of time a plant is exposed to light. Photoperiod
controls flowering in many plants or defined as day length or 'the period of daily illumination
received the flower or the plant

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 Thermoperiod refers to daily temperature change. Plants grow best when daytime temperature is
about 10 to 15 degrees higher than nighttime temperature.
Photoperiodism is the regulation of physiology or development in response to day length.
A short day plant: - is induced to flower by providing long nights and short days.
The response of plants to night length-regulates many responses in plants such as flower initiation
and development, plant dormancy, seed germination, and plant growth habit.
Many plant responses can be divided into three basic types: short day (SD), long day (LD), and day
neutral (DN).
Effects of day length:-The length of the light and dark periods has a definite effect on the growth
of plants. Photosynthesis, respiration and initiation of flower buds depend upon the length of day
the plants received.
The effect of photoperiodic can be controlled either by:
A. Extending day length
B. Decreasing day length (night extension)
A. Extending day length (Night interruption lighting)-Night interruption is used to prevent
flowering of short day stock plants or delay flower initiation on short day plants. Night interruption
can also be used to induce flowering of long day plants. Night interruption lighting is also known as
night breaks (NB).

B. Night extension:-The night can be lengthened by means of light excluding fabrics, or black cloths.
Placed over the crops. Black cloths are used to induce flowering of short day plants or inhibit
flowering of long day plants. High temperatures under the cloths can be reduced by using cloth
with white or aluminum reflective material on the outer side and by installing the cloth from eave in
the greenhouse.
Light Quality (color of light) = wave length:-Light high in far-red wavelengths will increase:
1. Internodes elongation and leaf size,
2. Decreases branching
3. Reduces leaf and flower color
 Plants grown under light high in red wavelengths will be:-Short, dark green and well branched.
 Light filtered through plant leaves will be high in far-red light because foliage absorbs red light,
allowing a greater proportion of far-red light to pass through.

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 Thus, close planting space decreases the red to far-red ratio, which results in the elongated &
poorly branched plants.
 Therefore, manipulation of light quality by filters is effective in controlling plant height.
Minimizing light energy:-High light levels may damage even the most-tolerant species resulting in
stunted growth, yellow leaves, and occasional patches of tan necrotic areas on leaves. It is also difficult
to work in high greenhouse temperatures resulting from light energy trapped in the greenhouse.
Light Interruption lighting: is used to prevent flowering of SD stock plants or to delay flower
initiation on SD plants.
 It can also be used to induce flowering of LD plants.
 Night interruption lighting is also known as night breaks.
 Long days can also be applied by turning on lamps at the end of the day and extending the
day length into the night, which is known as day continuation
Incandescent lights are used because they are inexpensive and produce sufficient levels of red
light to induce the photoperiodic response.
Growth regulation:-Chemicals used to control growth are either naturally occurring plant
hormones or synthetically produced compounds.
Hormones:-Hormones are compounds produced in the plant at one site and then transported to a
different part of the plant at one site and then transported to a different part of the plant where they
affect growth.
Auxins:-Auxins promote growth primarily through cell enlargement.
 Auxins also inhibit lateral shoot development.
 Auxins play an important role in plant propagation.
 Movements include
 the downward growth of roots,
 the upward growth of shoots
 The growth of shoots and leaves toward the light.
 Auxins are effectively used for promoting root formation on cuttings.
The major auxin produced in plants is indole-2-acetic acid (IAA).
Synthetic auxins include
 indolebutyric acid (IBA)
 indolepropionic acid (IPA)

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  Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA).
Gibberellic acid (GA)
 GA promotes growth through cell enlargement.
 GA inhibits root formation on leaves and stems; thus, it is not found in root-promoting products.
Ethylene:-It is naturally produced in fruits, seeds, flowers, stems, leaves and roots and controls a
multitude of processes. Ethylene lends itself to numerous commercial applications.
Abscisic acid (ABA)
 ABA promotes abscission of leaves and petals as well as a number of other processes.
 It is not a major hormone in the vegetative stages of growth but comes into play in the later
stages of maturity and senescence.
 ABA is not commercial important in greenhouse crop production.
Instruments used to measure Relative humidity are:-hygrometer, humidity meter and psychrometer .
A hygrometer (Psychrometer) and Digital Thermos Hygrometer respectively

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