Textbook Your Brain On Food 3Rd Ed 3Rd Edition Gary L Wenk Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Your Brain On Food 3Rd Ed 3Rd Edition Gary L Wenk Ebook All Chapter PDF
Gary L. Wenk
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Your Brain on Food
Your Brain
on
Food
How Chemicals Control Your
Thoughts and Feelings
Third Edition
1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
For Jane
CONTENTS
-
Preface ix
Chapter 1
Food, Drugs, and You 1
Chapter 2
Neurobiology of Feeding: Hormones,
Overeating, and Aging 31
Chapter 3
Memories, Magic, and A Major Addiction 91
Chapter 4
Euphoria, Depression, and Madness 121
Chapter 5
Your Brain’s Anchor to Reality 151
Chapter 6
Marijuana in the Brain 169
Chapter 7
Simple Molecules That Turn You On and Off 189
Chapter 8
Remnants of an Ancient Past 209
Chapter 9
Sleeping Versus Waking 219
vii
v i i i S C ontents
Chapter 10
Brain Enhancement and Other
Magical Beliefs 233
Suggested Readings 259
Index 261
PREFACE
-
ix
x S P reface
-
Food, Drugs, and You
1
2 S Y o u r B ra i n on F oo d
P L A N T S AR E T HE SO U RCE OF FOOD
AND D RU G S: W HY ?
The foods we eat and many of our most popular psychoac-
tive drugs often come from plants. Humans consume plants,
either directly in their natural form or after they have been
transformed into the flesh of a vertebrate, such as a cow, pig, or
bird. This book discusses how the contents of plants directly or
indirectly influence our brains. We all intuitively know that what
we eat can alter how we feel. Nutritional neuroscientists and
psychopharmacologists have been investigating the mechanisms
that underlie how the contents of plants specifically alter brain
chemistry and thus brain function. Basically, plants contain
chemicals that are nutritious, psychoactive, or both. That is
why the title of this book is Your Brain on Food. Everything that
humans consume can, and often does, affect brain function in
subtle and profound ways and influences how we think and feel.
Why do plants have such profound effects upon us? Are
plants trying to control humans? After reading the chapters on
tobacco and caffeine, you might conclude that plants have al-
most succeeded in taking over the world. In truth, plants have
no interest in humans at all. For the past 100,000 years since
the origin of our species, we have been, and will likely remain
despite our role in global warming, almost entirely irrelevant
to them.
Earth is home to more than 1 trillion different species;
invertebrates such as insects, spiders, and mollusks make up
4 S Y o u r B ra i n on F oo d
D RU G S A ND T HE O RG AN O F THE MI ND
Back on Earth, people in ancient cultures were certainly very
aware of the unique properties of certain plants and of the
consequences of consuming them on the body and brain; in-
deed, they often sought them out as remedies for a variety of
physical illnesses. This ancient use of plant extracts as medicines
was also likely the beginning of a long series of upheavals in our
concept of how the brain functions and what its role is as the
organ of the mind. For millennia, people believed that mental
illness was caused by evil spirits or was a punishment delivered
by an angry deity rather than as the result of a brain disease or
dysfunction, as we now realize. Only comparatively recently, in
the mid-20th century, have effective drugs been introduced for
the treatment of mental illness. The realization that it might be
possible to treat mental illness in the same way that one treats
physical illness—that is, medically—was slow to gain general
approval in part because of the wide-ranging, and for some still
quite frightening, implications about what this meant regarding
the nature of the human mind. What if all mental activity is
biochemical in nature? What if our cherished thoughts, such as
of God, and our deepest emotions, such as love, are simply the
result of biochemical reactions within one of the organs of our
body? What does this say about the soul or romance? Will we
one day have drugs to treat the broken soul or the broken heart
similar to the drugs we use now to treat serious mental illness?
It is probably not too farfetched to expect that yes, in the future,
8 S Y o u r B ra i n on F oo d
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.1 The anatomy of a few brain regions that are discussed later in the
book (a). How individual neurons communicate with each other (b).
See text for details.
the front end of your feeding tube toward the smell and the
voice to obtain a reward—the food and survival for another day!
To facilitate the process between your sensing the external
world and deciding how to interact with it and to elicit useful
behaviors that will improve your chances of survival, propa-
gate your species, and make you happy, the neurons in your
brain must communicate with each other. They do this mostly
by releasing neurotransmitters onto each other, including the
two neurotransmitters just mentioned as well as others that will
be introduced soon. Most of them can be found in just about
every brain structure. Moreover, their function depends entirely
on the function of the structures in which they are located.
Let’s consider a few examples. First, find the basal ganglia in
the center of Figure 1.1a. The nuclei that compose the basal gan-
glia are responsible for allowing normal movement. The level of
the neurotransmitter dopamine in these nuclei is much higher
than in most surrounding brain regions. Therefore, scientists
have concluded that dopamine within the basal ganglia is in-
volved in the control of movement. Furthermore, if we expose
your brain to a drug that impairs the function of dopamine
or the neurons that produce and release it, then your ability to
move will be impaired. But it would be incorrect to assume that
dopamine is always involved with movement—it is not. You
can also find dopamine in the retina of your eye and in your
hypothalamus, structures that have nothing to do with move-
ment. Similarly, the neurotransmitter norepinephrine can be
found in the hippocampus, a structure critical for forming new
1 6 S Y o u r B ra i n on F oo d
MODERN SCOTLAND
1688. Landing of William III.
1690. Restoration of the Kirk in Scotland.
1689. Battle of Killiecrankie.
1692. Massacre at Glencoe.
1695–1701. The Darien Scheme.
1686–1758. Allan Ramsay, poet and musician.
1707. Union of Scotland and England.
1715. The Old Pretender.
1725. General Wade opens the Highlands: road-
building.
The Black Watch Regiment formed from loyal
Highland clans.
1730–1740. Large number of Scottish students in English
schools and universities.
1745. “Bonnie Prince Charlie.”
1746. Culloden. Scottish feudalism ended.
Scottish history merged with that of Great
Britain.
1746–1770. The Highlanders assimilated, enrolled in the
British army, or emigrate to America.
1751–1773. Robert Fergusson, poet.
1773. Dr. Samuel Johnson visits the Hebrides and
Highlands. His book an epoch-maker.
1773. Fingal’s cave first described.
1759–1796. Robert Burns.
1802. The Edinburgh Review started.
1771–1832. Sir Walter Scott: poetry, 1805–1815; prose,
1814–1830.
1822. Caledonian Canal opened.
1795–1881. Thomas Carlyle.
1843. Disruption. Formation of the Free Church of
Scotland.
1830. Railway system inaugurated.
1846. Large emigration to America.
1819–1901. Queen Victoria. In the Highlands often, from
1852.
The Highlands become game preserves.
1915. The 225th meeting of the General Assembly in
Edinburgh.
INDEX
Baalam, 98.
Bagpipes, 222.
Ballaculish, 110.
Ballads, 56, 225.
Ban, 59, 186.
Bannerman, Sir Campbell, 198.
Bannockburn, 100, 199, 239, 281.
Banns, 45.
Barnum, P. T., 98.
Bayonets, 158–63, 172.
Bazaars, 261.
Beaton, Cardinal, 78, 79, 105.
Beds, 91, 153, 180.
Bees, 182.
Bell, Henry, 16, 25.
Bell Rock, 192.
Ben Nevis, 133, 136.
Ben Venue, 216.
Bible, 106, 224, 225, 239, 247, 249, 262, 277.
Birds, 7, 183.
Birnam Wood, 92.
Bishops, 243, 248, 284.
Black Watch, 285.
Blaikie, Professor, 192.
Blood, 198.
Bloody Mary, 249, 250.
Boece, Hector, 89, 282.
Boethius, 182.
Bonnie Prince Charlie, 132, 148, 153, 156–62, 192, 285.
Border Land, 47, 50–64, 284.
Boston, 61, 110, 244.
Bothwell Bridge, 285.
Bowen, Marjorie, 115.
Branksome Hall, 38, 41, 55.
Breakfast, 262, 263.
British army, 267, 286.
British Empire, 266–68, 286.
Brooks, Phillips, 244.
Brooms, 180.
Brown, Dr. John, 230, 231.
Bruce, George, 197, 198.
Bruce, Robert, 9, 10, 15, 40, 41, 70, 77, 192, 281.
Bruce, Thomas, 196.
Buccleughs, 60.
Buchanan, George, 240, 247, 258, 284.
Burns, Robert, 3, 28, 70, 130, 223–33, 242, 271, 286.
Burr, Prof. George, 265.
Byron, 46.
Cæsar, 278.
Cairn, 148.
Caithness, 31, 65, 210.
Caledonia, 51, 53.
Caledonian Canal, 131, 132, 141, 164, 210, 286.
Calvinists, 114, 228, 230, 249.
Cambuskenneth, 281.
Cameron, 276.
Cameronian Regiment, 268, 269.
Campbell, 117.
Canada, 122, 123.
Canals, 108, 110, 131, 132.
Canmore, Malcolm, 69, 70, 73, 146.
Canon Gate, 30.
Cape Club, 230.
Cardross Castle, 15.
Carlyle, Thomas, 123, 223, 252–54, 286.
Carnegie, Andrew, 68, 71–73.
Carse, 83.
“Castle Dangerous,” 209.
Castles, 15, 34, 55, 92, 99, 133, 168.
Cathedrals, 19, 199, 200.
Cattle, 219, 220, 276.
Cattle-lifting, 166, 169, 218.
Cavalry, 139, 148, 149.
Caves, 125.
Cayuga Lake, 226.
Celtic Scotland, 52, 65–67, 156, 280.
Celts, 67, 166, 210.
Cemeteries, 146, 224.
Chambers, 152.
Characteristics, 221, 261.
Charles I, 284, 285.
Charles II, 71, 167, 258.
Cheviot Hills, 52, 54.
Chillingham cattle, 219, 220.
Chimneys, 21, 98, 173, 174, 281.
China, 47, 107, 197.
Choate, Rufus, 248.
Christianity, 11, 53, 126, 129, 186, 244–46, 256.
Churchill, Winston, 198.
Churchman, 244.
Cities, 26, 67.
Civilization, 210, 246.
Clans, 170–72, 175, 189.
Claverhouse, 81, 115, 116, 241, 285.
Claymores, 149–51.
Cleveland, President, 260, 265.
Clyde, Firth of, 14, 119.
Clyde River, 14, 16.
Cochrane, 276.
Cockades, 162.
Coilantogle Ford, 216.
Collies, 36.
Colors, 178–83, 186, 208, 245.
Colquhon, 214.
Columba, St., 23, 24, 125, 126, 146, 280.
Confederate Scots, 275.
Constance, 56.
Cornell University, 73, 205.
Coronach, 215.
Costume, 185–90.
“Cotter’s Saturday Night,” 130, 231, 261, 262.
Covenants, 71, 254, 255, 284, 285.
Cowboys, 61.
Crafts and Guilds, 81, 195, 196.
Cranmer, 257.
Cranstoun, Sir William, 59, 63.
Crieff, 164.
Cromwell, Oliver, 146, 167, 285.
Crops, 121, 174, 235.
Crosses, 58, 128, 200.
Crusades, 41, 187, 191.
Culdees, 71.
Culloden, 147–54, 168, 189, 285.
Cumberland, Duke of, 152, 176.
Cumbria, 24.
Cuyler, Theodore, 223.
Dalrymple, 115.
Dances, 135, 139, 140, 145.
Danes, 125, 127, 128, 206.
Dante, 38.
Dargie Church, 264.
Darien Scheme, 285.
Darnley, 282.
David I, 281.
Declaration of Independence, 227, 241, 258.
Deer, 213.
Democracy, 26, 67, 257, 262, 271.
Denmark, 202, 203, 282.
Deserted villages, 94.
Dick Deadeye, 224.
Dies iræ, 42, 43.
Dissenters, 244.
Distilleries, 133, 141, 181.
Dogs, 35–37.
Dokkum, 264.
Doon Valley, 226.
Douglas, 41, 102, 103, 191.
Dragonades, 285.
Dragons, 85, 86.
Dress, 135, 143, 153, 162, 185–88, 210, 269.
Drinks. See Tea, Whiskey.
Druids, 71, 126.
Drumclog, 116.
Drummossie Moor, 147–54, 158–62.
Dryburgh, 43, 44.
Dulwich Galleries, 208.
Dumbarton Castle, 15, 65.
Duncan, 91.
Dundee, 67, 68, 76–87, 116, 263.
Dunfermline, 65, 68–74, 281.
Dunkeld, 53, 91, 92.
Dunoon, 225.
Dunottar Castle, 192.
Dunsinane, 90–94.
Dutch, 191, 208.
Earthquakes, 146.
Economics, 189.
Edinburgh, 26–37, 158, 230, 263, 268, 269.
Edinburgh Castle, 74.
“Edinburgh Review,” 286.
Education, 235, 283.
Edward I, 100, 199, 281.
Edward III, 281.
Edward VI, 248.
Edward VII, 203.
Electricity, 26.
Elgin, 196–201.
Elizabeth, Queen, 236, 249, 258.
Ellen, 216.
Ellen’s Isle, 214, 217.
Elliots, 60.
Ellislan, 225.
Emigrants, 122, 139, 140.
Empire, British, 190.
Engineering, 272, 286.
England, 266–68.
English in Scotland, 66, 165, 237.
English language, 249.
Episcopacy, 225, 284.
See Bishops.
Erskine, Ralph, 71.
Ethnic elements, 210.
Hamerton, 239.
Hamilton, 10.
Hanoverian dynasty, 157, 272.
Harris, Townsend, 197.
Hawthorne, 251.
Heath bell, 182, 185.
Heather, 177–85.
Hebrides, 117, 119, 120.
Henry, Joseph, 275.
Hepburn, 283.
Hepburn, J. C., 276, 277.
Heraldry, 187.
Hessians, 162.
Highland costume, 33, 260.
Highlanders, 53, 117, 221, 222.
Highland Mary, 14, 225.
Highlands, 65–67, 141, 164–76, 211, 220, 286.
High Street, 32, 199.
History, 64, 67, 74, 80.
Holland, 36, 106, 191, 206, 237.
Holmes, Dr. O. W., 95.
Holy Isle, 55.
Holy Pool, 214.
Holyrood, 283.
Homes, 259–66.
Honey, 174–75, 182.
Hooker, 241.
Hospitality, 68, 80, 259–61.
Hotels, 164, 259, 260.
Houses, 31, 173–75.
Hume, David, 235.
Huts, 173–75, 180.
Hydros, 259.
Hygiene, 31.
Inch Caillaich, 213.
Inch Cruin, 213.
Inch Fad, 213.
Inch Loanig, 213.
Inch Tarranach, 213.
Inch Vroin, 216.
Independents, 255.
See Pilgrim Fathers.
India, 200.
Indian Ladder, 215.
Indian, 159.
See Iroquois.
Inns. See Hotels.
Insane people, 214, 231.
Invasions, 51–54, 157, 282, 283.
Invergowrie, 83, 84, 259–67.
Inverness, 142–47, 281.
Iona, 119, 244, 280.
Ireland, 7, 11, 14, 74, 75, 113, 140, 188, 280.
Irishmen, 139, 140, 221, 222, 279, 280.
Irish missionaries, 205.
Iroquois, 35, 63, 150, 167, 205.
Irving, Washington, 42, 88.
Islands, 213, 216.
Ithaca, 139, 226, 265.
Ivanhoe, 42.
Kail, 167.
Kenneth, 11, 96.
Kentigern, St., 23, 280.
Kerns, 170–72, 189.
Kerr, Sir Robert, 58.
Kerrs, 60.
Khaki, 269.
Killiecrankie, 116, 168, 285.
Kingdoms, 280.
Kings, 236, 239, 240.
Kirk, 234, 254, 255, 284, 285.
Kirkwall, 203.
Kitchener, Lord, 29.
Knitting, 206.
Knox, John, 18, 20, 78, 106, 228, 237, 238, 247–54, 283.
Kyloe, 219, 220.
Macaulay, 112.
Macbeth, 5, 88–94, 146, 280, 281.
MacClernand, 274.
Macdonalds, 112, 121, 151, 281.
Macdougalls, 112, 113.
Macduff, 84.
Macfarland, 276.
Macgregors, 214.
MacIntoshes, 159.
MacMurtrie, 142.
Macpherson, 273, 274.
Mahomet, 235.
Makars, 232.
Malcolm Canmore, 69, 70, 73, 146, 280.
Malcolms, 90, 91, 280, 281.
Map, 65.
Margaret of Denmark, 203.
Margaret, Queen, 34, 69, 70, 73–75, 264, 281.
Marmalade, 174.
Marmion, 56, 117, 198.
Marriage, 44–46.
Mary, Highland, 14, 225.
Mary of Gelderland, 282.
Mary, Queen of Scots, 34, 81, 156, 248, 250–54, 258, 283, 284.
Mascots, 35.
Mather, Bailie, 79.
Maxwells, 60.
Mayflower, 255.
Medieval institutions, 244–46.
Meg, 226.
Melrose Abbey, 38–43, 244.
Melville, Andrew, 20, 192, 240.
Middle Ages, 47–48.
Mikado, 223.
Miller, Hugh, 3.
Milton, 258.
Misprints, 130.
Missionary interest, 269, 276, 277.
Monasteries, 18, 53.
Monk, General, 132.
Monks, 22, 69, 86, 127.
Monroe Doctrine, 260, 265.
Montrose, 191, 192.
Monuments, 28, 56, 116, 224, 225.
Moorish art, 207, 208.
Moors, 178.
Moray Firth, 147.
Morse, 275.
Moss troopers, 57–60, 63.
Mountains, 103, 104, 215.
Mungo, 22.
Murillo, 208.
Music, 116–20, 162, 163, 211, 222, 283.
Oatmeal, 174.
Oban, 108, 109.
Orcades, 202.
Order of the Thistle (St. Andrews), 206.
Orkneys, 96, 202–04, 210.
Ossian, 111, 212.
Oxen, 218–20.
Oxford, 241, 258.
Pageants, 195.
Parks, 72, 201.
Parliament, 183, 202, 255, 272, 281, 282, 283.
Peat, 7, 182.
Pebbles, 137, 138.
Pei-ho, 197.
Pennsylvania, 10, 60, 72, 118.
Pentland Firth, 131, 203.
People, the, 130, 237, 238, 240.
Percy’s “Reliques,” 233.
Perry, Commodore, 197.
Philadelphia, 23, 42, 72, 139, 155.
Philosophy, 4, 20, 234, 236, 271.
Picts, 95, 96, 146, 182, 280.
Pilgrim Fathers, 255, 264, 271.
“Pirate, The,” 208.
Pittencrieff, 71, 72.
Pladda, 10.
Plaids, 109, 153, 186.
Poetry, 227–33.
Police, 60, 62.
Pomona, 203.
Ponies, 204.
Portraits, 251, 252.
Prayer, 261, 262, 268, 269.
Preachers, 224.
Prelates, 242, 284, 285.
Presbyterians, 71, 171, 237, 255, 256, 261, 284.
Prescott, 61.
Prestonpans, 168.
Pretenders, 157.
Princes Street, 28.
Princeton, 4, 58.
Printing, 283.
Proverbs, 180, 198, 201.
Public schools, 226.
Puritans, 235, 241, 242, 255, 271.