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FRACTALS
Applications in Biological Signalling and
Image Processing
FRACTALS
Design, Fabrication, Properties
and Applications of Smart and
Applications in Biological
Advanced Signalling and
Materials
Image Processing
DINESH K. KUMAR
RMIT University, Melbourne
Editor
VIC, Australia
XuP. Hou
SRIDHAR ARJUNAN
Harvard University
RMIT University, Melbourne
School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
VIC, Australia
Cambridge, MA, USA
and
BEHZAD ALIAHMAD
RMIT University, Melbourne
VIC, Australia
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and
publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication
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Preface
It has been well established that healthy and stable natural systems are
chaotic in nature. For example heart-rate variability and not heart-rate, is
an important indicator of the healthy heart of the person. While there may
be large differences in the resting heart-rate of two healthy individuals,
it is important that this is not remaining monotonous but has significant
variability. Over the past four decades, numerous formulas have been
developed to measure and quantify such variability. This variability is
often referred to as the complexity of the parameters and explained using
Chaos Theory.
There are thousands of scientific publications on the application of
Chaos Theory for the analysis of biomedical signals and images. We have
attended many conferences and meetings where the relationship between
the fractal dimension (FD) of biomedical signals and images with disease
conditions, have been discussed. Many authors have demonstrated that
there is change in the values of FD with factors such as age and health.
The aim of this book is not to capture the details of these publications;
because we are certain that the readers can access those papers directly
and without our help. In our current world of information overload, we
do not see the purpose for writing any book to be repeating publications
that are already available.
When reading the numerous publications on the topic, one common
shortcoming was observed; the authors gave numbers, formulas and in
some cases, statistics. What they have missed out is the explanation to the
concepts. The aim of this book is to provide the conceptual framework for
fractal dimension of biomedical signals and images. We have begun by
explaining the concepts of chaos, complexity and fractal properties of the
signal in plain language and then discussed some examples to explain the
concepts. We are aware that there are many more examples and research
outcomes than are covered in this book. While we have attempted to
discuss current research and examples, this book is not a replacement of
your literature review on the topic.
We are hopeful that this book will help the reader understand the
concepts and develop new applications. Once the fundamentals are
vi FRACTALS: Applications in Biological Signalling and Image Processing
Preface v
List of Figures xiii
1. Introduction 1
Abstract 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History of Fractal Analysis 4
1.3 Fundamentals of Fractals 4
1.4 Definition of Fractal 5
1.5 Complexity of Biological Systems 6
1.6 Fractal Dimension 7
1.7 Summary of this Book 7
References 7
CHAPTER 1
Figure 1.1 Fractal object with an equilateral triangle. 5
CHAPTER 2
Figure 2.1 Generation of Sierpinski Triangle. 19
Figure 2.2 Menger Sponge. 19
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.1 Example of exactly self-similar object. 27
Figure 3.2 Example of statistically self-similar object. 28
Figure 3.3 Box counting Fractal dimension of accelerometer signal 38
during normal walking and FoG for a PD patient.
CHAPTER 4
Figure 4.1 Sample ECG Signal and computation of RR interval. 45
Figure 4.2 Computation of Fractal dimension of ECG signals for Normal 49
and severe CAN using Box counting FD and Higuchi’s FD.
Figure 4.3 An example of Poincaré plot of RR interval recorded from a 50
healthy person.
Figure 4.4 AR Spectrum Analysis before exercise. 54
Figure 4.5 AR Spectrum Analysis after exercise. 55
Figure 4.6 Poincaré plot of HRV before exercise. 56
Figure 4.7 Poincaré plot of HRV after exercise. 56
Figure 4.8 Mean (SD) fractal dimension of ECG recorded before and 57
after physical exercise.
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.1 Plot of self-similarity measure of the surface 66
electromyogram signal.
Figure 5.2 Example Plot of computing FD of sEMG 68
(a) Sample sEMG signal (b) Higuchi’s FD (c) Box counting FD.
Figure 5.3 Four recording locations in the surface of the forearm. 70
Figure 5.4 Computation of Maximum fractal Length. 70
Figure 5.5 Scatter plot of fractal features for four different flexions 71
F1—All fingers and wrist flexion, F2—Index and Middle finger
flexion, F3—Wrist flexion towards little finger, F4—Little and ring
finger flexion.
xiv FRACTALS: Applications in Biological Signalling and Image Processing
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.1 Plot of FD and MFL (from two channels during a session) 84
inversely correlated with the local error rate using polynomial fit.
Figure 6.2 Mean correlation coefficients of the prediction of the 86
alertness level using the MFL of EEG from tested session.
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7.1 Illustration of spatial distance (d) and orientation (θ) 92
from the candidate pixel for calculation of GLCM matrix.
Figure 7.2 Mesh grid of varying box-sizes (scales) covering 95
binerized retinal vasculature. (a) e.g., Box size of R = 8 Pixels
(b), e.g., Box size of R = 16 Pixels (c) The slope of the straight
line fitted on Log (N) vs. Log (1/R) is the box-counting fractal
dimension (Here: 1.66).
Figure 7.3 Illustration of Gray scale (differential) box counting [6] 96
(© 1994 IEEE with some modifications).
Figure 7.4 DFT of an enhanced retina image (Right eye – Macula 98
centered). (a) Enhanced image using 2D Gabor matched filter in
grayscale format. (b) The magnitude of the DFT of the enhanced
image with zero-frequency (DC) component shifted to the center
of the array (Presented as 3D color map).
Figure 7.5 Calculation of FFD. (a) 2D representation of Magnitude 99
of the power spectrum, the black radial lines show the sampling
direction (here spaced at 5º interval for better presentation)
(b) The rose plot of various βs corresponding to the slope of the
profiles sampled along different directions. (c) plot of average
M(p,q) vs. Log (Frequency) and the best fitting line to the data
(slope β = –3.1).
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.1 Major structures in human retina. (a) Cross-sectional 103
illustration of human eye [Source: WebMD LLC [2]]. (b) Human
retina photograph taken by fundus camera (Cannon CR-1).
Figure 8.2 Hypertensive retinopathy signs. (a) Mild: generalized and 106
focal arteriolar narrowing (black arrow), arteriovenous nicking
(white arrow) [Source: [24]] (b) Moderate: arteriolar narrowing
with arteriovenous nicking, flame-shaped hemorrhages
(white arrow), hemorrhages (blue arrow), and hard exudates
(black arrow) [Source: [24]] (c) Severe: Optic disc edema
[Source: [25]].
Figure 8.3 Example of a fundus image with severe diabetic retinopathies 108
[Source: [1] with some modifications].
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9.1 Comparison between two different types of tissues in 116
mammogram images. (a) Normal tissue (b) Malignant mass.
List of Figures xv
Figure 9.2 Comparison between two different type of breast lumps 120
(i.e., benign masses and malignant tumours) in terms of the
shape and border irregularities and the corresponding
box-count FD value.
Figure 9.3 Graphical comparison between the variations in FD of 120
two different type of breast lumps (i.e., benign masses and
malignant tumours).
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Skin structure, different layers of skin. 129
Figure 10.2 Example of a melanoma and its border irregularities 133
(a) color image (b) gray scale image with highlighted boundary
using active contour model (c) boundary of the melanoma in
binary format.
Figure 10.3 Age related FD changes of skin, comparison between 137
(a) young (Left) and (b) old (Right) skin. [Source:
http://perfectskinsolutions.co.uk/condition/ageing-hands/]
(c) & (d) Magnitude of the power spectrum (e) & (f) plot of
average M(p,q) vs. Log (Frequency) and the best fitting line to
the data as explained in Chapter 7.
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 Fractal dimension of sEMG recorded from biceps 145
muscle of the people ageing from 20 years to 69 years.
Figure 11.2 Mean Fractal dimension of ECG signal for young and 148
old healthy subjects.
Figure 11.3 Association between FFD of retinal images and aging. 149
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 Demonstration of different scanning methods 156
(a) Horizontal (b) Vertical (c) Radial (d) Circular on the
enhanced retinal image.
Figure 12.2 Mean (SD) fractal dimension of EMG as a progression of 169
endurance time.
CHAPTER 1
Einführung
AbstrAct
1.1 Introduction
Science attempts to model observations in terms of definitive laws and rules.
It deals with supposedly predictable phenomena such as gravity, electricity,
and biological processes. When these studies are undertaken, the system
is simplified into a number of independent components, each described
in deterministic terms. Such models are generally suitable for describing
a large number of observations and most of our technology has evolved
from such exercises. For example, the earth’s surface was first thought to
be flat; however, detailed analysis shows that the earth is round. Further
analysis now demonstrates the relationship between the surface of earth
and galaxies far away. While we all now know that earth is not flat, for
many day to day applications, it is sufficient to model and explain most
observations made by the naked eyes and for us human to perform many
of our daily activities such as walking or driving. It also allows us to build
our buildings and perform our other activities. However, it does not allow
us to explore the Universe.
The three important laws of nature were discovered by Newton, though
later were found to be inaccurate. Though these laws have been found to be
inaccurate, they can still be used to explain most of the phenomena that are
observed by us during our daily life and thus these laws cannot be considered
2 FRACTALS: Applications in Biological Signalling and Image Processing
differences that leads to large differences, and makes the two people behave
extremely differently.
Fractals are an ever continuing pattern, a pattern that is infinitely
complex and is based on self-similarity, with the underlying process being
simple. Fractals show a system that is seemingly based on very simple
principles but leads to very complex structures. Fractals are suited to
describe the chaotic behavior and are effective in describing systems such
as biological systems. They have also been adapted to describe and develop
music and art, to study natural objects, and have also been used in attempts
at giving rigor to concepts such as beauty.
with a natural tree structure and occupying only 3% of the body volume,
the blood vessels reach all parts of the body.
Biological systems have been found to follow the ubiquitous Three-
Quarter Power Law which is described by Fractal geometry. This particular
power law is based on the cube of the fourth root. Many three-quarter laws
have emerged from the measurement of seemingly unrelated systems,
modeling the relationship of different structures.
It has been found empirically that the body’s anatomy and physiology
follow fractal principles. Looking at the anatomy, our cerebrum shape,
neural connectivity, lungs, and capillaries, are describable by their fractal
dimensions and tree structures. The physiology of the body also follows
the same principle. While our heartbeats are often described as regular and
rhythmical, these are fractal in nature. It is actually very important that our
heartbeats are not exactly regular; the variation in the beat is responsible
for reducing dramatic fatigue and wear and tear on the heart. Research has
discovered that there is a reduction in the fractal properties of our heart
beat with disease and with ageing. The same applies for all other parts of
the body.
references
1. Lorenz, E.N. 1963. Deterministic nonperiodic flow. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences,
20(2): 130–141.
2. Mandelbrot, B.B. and J.A. Wheeler. 1983. The fractal geometry of nature. American Journal
of Physics, 51(3): 286–287.
CHAPTER 2
AbstrAct
2.1 Introduction
Often the body is described to be laterally symmetrical, and our physiology
is considered to be periodical in nature. However, the truth is different from
this; our bodies are not symmetrical, nor are our physiological parameters
periodic. Most people have a significant difference in the lengths of the right
and left legs and arms, and our heart beat is not exactly periodic.
While the body may not be exactly symmetrical and the physiology
may not be exactly periodic, these assumptions are in most cases suitable
for describing observations. Our clothes are made symmetrical and most of
us do not notice any difference between the lengths of our right and left leg.
And when we visit a clinic, our heart rate is monitored over a short period
of time and seems to be reasonably periodic. However, it is well known that
the body is asymmetrical and thus the symmetry only serves the purpose
of simplification. Our dominant side muscles are significantly stronger and
Physiology, Anatomy and Fractal Properties 9
larger than the other side. Similarly, our physiological parameters are not
periodic, and research has demonstrated that when the parameters become
very periodic, it is not sign of good health. More recently, research has
measured the variability of the parameters and identified the relationship
of such variability with healthy conditions. The lack of periodicity and the
asymmetry are the basis of natural phenomena. Traditional mathematical
concepts of Calculus are unsuitable for studying these.
There is yet another factor that is relevant for describing biological
systems. We are not modular and compartmentalized, but a single unit.
Actually, considering us as a single unit is also false, because we are
connected with our environment. We now understand the high level
of interdependence between different organisms. And, looking at any
biological system shows close similarity and resemblance within the species,
yet careful observations shows that each sample is unique. Calculus and
related mathematics are unable to describe us in details and can best describe
us in terms of some overall expectations.
Chaos theory, a mathematical concept, refers to the principles that
examine such variability and small differences between seemingly identical
objects. It overcomes some of the limitations of Calculus, and explains how
this lack of symmetry underpins the otherwise branching order, and why
counter-intuitively a chaotic system makes the system stable. While each
organism is a very complex structure, it can be viewed as a combination
or network of simpler structures, and each of these structures being very
similar. Just like no two leaves on a tree are ever identical but very similar,
similarly no two blood vessels are identical. The combination of these
results in a complex branching system can be modeled approximately by
its self-similarity.
One common observation of biological systems is that while there is an
underlying similarity, there are vast differences between two samples. This
is observed within a single organism or between two organisms of a species.
Thus, while the body is made of similar cells, and all cells are very similar,
the cells of the body create unique parts or organs of the body. Similarly,
while all human bodies are very similar, each of us is unique and we all
appear to be different. We have different sizes, gender, and color and so
on. Calculus is unable to describe these differences.
Chaos explains both these concepts; the self-similarity within a system,
and the cause of the large divergence in similar systems in similar conditions.
It shows that when a simple system is replicated and interconnected many
times, the resultant system appears very complex and can perform complex
functions. The theory also shows that when there are two identical systems,
small differences in the initial conditions can lead to large divergence and
thus the final system is very different. These concepts are discussed below.
10 FRACTALS: Applications in Biological Signalling and Image Processing
them? This section examines these questions, and explains the different
ways of measuring these properties.
Calculus has provided an excellent method for modeling many
observations, and can be considered to be the basis for most of our
modern science; physical, biological or social. It has given the means for
understanding range of concepts such as thermodynamics, electricity and
electromagnetism and provides means for computerized analysis of speech,
and discovering DNA. It even provides the basis for understanding the
concepts of relativity and quantum physics. In terms of Calculus based
sciences, all problems could be analyzed completely, even though the exact
answer may not often be possible.
What Calculus has been unable to explain is that when an experiment
is repeated, the outcomes are similar, and follow the same principles, but
they are never exactly the same. Most times these differences are small
and within the acceptable range of error, and often describable in terms
of the statistical distribution of the inputs. Many processes such as a
manufacturing system generate the outcomes that are nearly identical and
can be usually considered to be the same. Consider a process manufacturing
screws, where we would always expect to get identical products.
There are many other times when a process is repeated, but the
outcomes are very different even though all the parameters appear to be
the same. There are number of examples, both in science, math and social
sciences. One popular example is that of identical twins, who, having had
identical conditions during and at birth, grow up very different. There
are unlimited examples of such behavior ranging from financial markets
to vegetation and flight paths. Even in concepts of neural networks, the
outcomes of well-planned software outcomes can diverge significantly.
Calculus is unable to describe such differences and would describe such
experimental outcomes in terms of outliers or erroneous. However, these
happen very often and many natural phenomena and mathematical
modeling lead to such outcomes.
Fractal geometry describes the irregularity or fragmented shape of
natural features as well as other complex objects where Euclidean geometry
fails. This phenomenon is often expressed by spatial or time-domain
statistical scaling laws and is mainly characterized by the power-law
behaviour of real-world physical systems.
these laws. Thus, predictions based on Calculus are often imprecise and
sometimes in natural systems, the predicted values and the observed values
may disagree vastly. Most natural edges have an associated roughness which
may be observable only at finer scales, and thus different edges may have
a level of similarity but are never identical.
Chaos can be defined in any dimension, though the most common
representation is in time and space. An object is defined in space; and if
it is chaotic in space, it is fractal, or fractured. Unlike calculus, its edge or
surface cannot be defined by a polynomial equation, and has a roughness,
however small be the resolution. Unlike calculus, it does not respond to
the concept of going to the limit.
Chaos is the property of systems that have non-linearity and
interdependence, where order appears to be similar to natural disorder. Such
a system is highly sensitive to the initial conditions and a small change in
them will lead to divergence, where the possible states are radically different
from each other. It is generated by a dense network of very simple systems
that repeats and evolves, such that it is a necessary property of systems
with the potential of evolving and growth, such as biological systems. This
also may be described in terms of ‘fold and stretch’ a phenomenon which
obviously leads to self-similarity. This fold and stretch provides the ability
of a system to evolve, a process often referred to as ‘emergence’.
Chaos in time domain is similar to chaos in space domain. A dynamic
system is one whose conditions change with time. If we consider a typical
dynamic system defining an object moving in space over time, then we can
generally identify the trajectory of the object if we know the state of the object
and the equations that govern its movement over time. By this principle,
we are declaring that we could know the state of the object forever. If this
was valid, every well trained golfer would be able to predict the flight of the
ball, and the movement of the ball after the trajectory was obtained would
remain the same. And even if there are small differences in the swing of the
golfer, there would be anticipated small differences in the resultant location
where the ball comes to a halt. However, we know that this is not the case,
and the ball could end up in very different locations. While Calculus will
struggle to explain these differences, Chaos theory shows that small initial
differences and small differences in the environmental conditions could
lead to these large differences.
Time domain chaos or time-chaos is attributed to the outcomes being
sensitive to initial conditions. This explains that the trajectory of an object
(or an event) could alter vastly when there may be small difference in the
initial conditions. Lorenz work showed that the outcome of the two could,
though very similar and close to each other at the beginning may eventually
diverge exponentially away from each other [1]. Such sensitivity to initial
conditions demonstrates that definitive predictions offered by Calculus,
often referred to as reductionism, are not suitable for many situations such as
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Elle consulta des religieux ; son projet paraissait extravagant, ils
y mirent obstacle. L’un voulait faire entrer Anna Moës chez les
Franciscaines garde-malades, un autre dans un Carmel. Elle
vainquit la résistance de son directeur, le P. Romi, en lui signalant un
épisode de sa vie intérieure qu’elle ne pouvait, jugea-t-il, connaître
d’une connaissance naturelle [23] .
[23] Il avait éprouvé, dans son couvent, un petit
froissement d’amour-propre. Elle lui dit : « Tel jour, à telle
heure, vous avez eu cette pensée. »
D’autre part, son catholicisme lui valut des hostilités sans merci ;
l’intransigeance, en critique, de ses convictions, gênait les croyants
de moyenne espèce non moins que les libres penseurs. Quand les
catholiques subissaient l’erreur du libéralisme, d’Aurevilly, avec ses
axiomes foudroyants pour la tolérance, sa fidélité à expliquer
l’histoire dans le sens absolu de l’Église et à scruter les événements
sous le flambeau de ses seules doctrines, effarait la quiétude des
compromis. Comme il ne s’embrigada dans nulle faction politique,
pas plus qu’il ne voulut être d’aucun cénacle ni d’aucune Académie,
les milieux cléricaux se méfièrent d’un si redoutable paladin. La
médiocratie, soi-disant religieuse, réprouva, plus que des maîtres
incroyants, un artiste qui, s’avérant catholique, représentait sans
fausses décences les désordres de la chair, ou ailleurs exaltait le
saint et le pauvre, ces deux épouvantails des honnêtes gens.
Et pourtant, dès ici proclamons-le, Barbey d’Aurevilly restera une
des gloires les plus solides du catholicisme intellectuel, au siècle
dernier. Ses romans ont prouvé — ce que Chateaubriand n’avait su
démontrer par l’exemple — qu’un art imbu de surnaturalisme, six
cents ans après Dante, est encore possible, et que les sources des
intuitions supérieures ne sont point fermées pour nous. En tant
qu’essayiste et philosophe catholique, moins perçant que Joseph de
Maistre dans l’acuité des aperçus, il le vaut par la décision et
l’ampleur de son dogmatisme. Il ramena toutes les modulations de
ses idées à cette unique évidence « qu’en dehors du catholicisme il
n’y a rien de profond nulle part » ; postulat dont sa propre expérience
vérifia l’absolue justesse ; car si sa foi ne fut pas tout son génie, son
génie, hors de sa foi, n’eût été qu’une flamme errante, dévastatrice,
s’agitant au gré des partis pris et des passions.
Ce qu’il dut à ses croyances, il le savait d’autant mieux que, sans
avoir jamais renié son patrimoine de catholicisme, jusqu’à son âge
mûr il le laissa dormir infructueusement. Ses deux premiers
Memoranda (1836-1838), ses poèmes de jeunesse, Léa, Amaïdée,
Ce qui ne meurt pas, accusent les égarements de sensibilité, la
détresse d’orgueil où ses forces eussent dépéri, s’il ne fût enfin
revenu, de tout son élan, aux tonifiantes réfections des nourritures
sacramentelles.
Après une phase juvénile, celle de son droit à Caen, — il rêvait
alors « d’une vie fringante, du bruit militaire, des charges et des
sonneries, des uniformes et des aiguillettes », — il éprouva, entre
vingt-cinq et trente ans surtout, une période d’anémie sentimentale,
« de tristesse sèche », de « sensation du néant ». Le byronisme
l’atteignit plus intimement que bien d’autres, parce qu’il trouvait une
séduction à cette amertume méprisante de l’aristocrate qui s’ennuie.
L’ennui devenait « le dieu de sa vie ». Il se jugeait « vieux, vieux,
vieux ». Des veilles démesurées, un régime bizarre — souvent il
dînait d’une tranche de melon ou d’un morceau de sucre, ou même
ne dînait pas du tout — entretinrent son état mélancolique. Lorsqu’il
restait seul, dans sa chambre, au crépuscule, des angoisses
indéfinies l’oppressaient ; un temps pluvieux, l’après-midi d’un
dimanche, par les rues désertes, le navraient comme un abandon.
Irrégulier d’humeur, capricieux, à ses moments les plus moroses
il débitait « des folies et des fatuités » ou cédait à une paresse
torpide, singulière chez un artiste, plus tard si productif — sa
promptitude d’action ne devait, au reste, en nul temps, exclure une
certaine pente à l’indolence, au reploiement ; empoigner son labeur
« avec une rapidité d’oiseau de proie », n’était-ce pas une façon de
s’en libérer plus vite ? — Sa voracité de lectures trompait son
isolement ; il lisait n’importe quoi, même les Mémoires du Diable de
Soulié, pour « voir ce que c’était ». Avec cela, des riens frivoles
comblaient le vide de ses heures : la venue du coiffeur est rarement
omise dans son journal ; il se faisait de l’essayage d’une redingote
une affaire grave. Il fréquentait quelques salons, s’y composait un
rôle de nonchalante et sarcastique supériorité, ne trahissant son
fond passionné que par des concetti et des traits étincelants. Mais,
quoiqu’il se donnât le maintien d’un héros selon Stendhal, il n’aurait
pu, comme Stendhal, rester sèchement l’analyste retors des
hypocrisies mondaines. Dès son petit livre du Dandysme et son
roman de l’Amour impossible, la verve du poète frémit sous les
rigueurs de l’analyse.
Ses froideurs de dandy cachaient une ténuité d’impressions
morbide, des facultés d’analogies aussi subtiles que celles des
lyriques anglais. La vue d’une capote de soie blanche avec un nœud
flottant le remuait pour toute une soirée ; un beau jour de septembre,
dans une lumière ambrée, lui causait des sensations « inavouables,
tant elles étaient incompréhensibles. » Ses idées, quand elles se
cristallisaient en maximes, affectaient une finesse d’antithèse
presque féminine :
« Si la perte de ce qui fut est amère, notait-il un matin, la perte de
ce qui n’a pas été l’est bien davantage [30] . »
[30] Deuxième mémorandum, p. 23.
Une grande affection sans espoir pour une femme qu’il revit à de
rares intervalles creusait au centre de sa vie comme un puits de
silence et de douleur murée ; des passades sensuelles eurent peine
à l’en divertir ; il aimait, en damoiseau nerveux qu’il était, les femmes
sculpturales, ou d’une animalité provocante ; toutefois, peu capable
de plaisir, lorsqu’il ne l’intellectualisait point par le sentiment et
l’imagination.
Ses amis, Guérin et Trebutien entre tous, l’occupaient plus que
ses maîtresses : il s’enivrait de causeries métaphysiques, de
correspondances insatiables.
D’Aurevilly, vers cette époque, semblait promettre une sorte de
Musset, moins impulsif, plus abstrait, plus réfléchi.
Chez lui, la violence des instincts n’opprima que par crises le
libre arbitre. Son besoin de domination sur les autres et sur lui-
même, ou, pour mieux dire, son invincible aristocratie le préserva
des grossiers dévergondages. Porté, comme tout Normand, aux
liqueurs fortes, il s’interdisait d’en faire abus ; il s’exerçait à ne point
se rendre l’esclave même des femmes qui lui plaisaient. De même
que Julien Sorel, dans le Rouge et le Noir, il cherchait les occasions
de petites victoires réitérées, afin de se prouver la force de son
ascendant : « On obtient tout ce qu’on veut des hommes, écrivait-il,
par la persistance sans colère et par l’idée fixe éternellement
reproduite dans les mêmes termes et les mêmes accents. » En
attendant, il se contentait, au cours d’une discussion, de « ne pas se
laisser désarçonner plus qu’un centaure » ; il s’imposait d’accepter
avec calme les déconvenues ; il aurait voulu, à l’exemple de
Napoléon, pouvoir prendre et quitter librement « le poids de ses
pensées, se maintenir maître, en toute occurrence, de transposer
son attention ». Il s’indignait, approchant de la trentaine, d’avoir,
jusque-là, si peu agi :
« Qu’ai-je fait et que suis-je ? Qu’est-ce que je laisserais
d’achevé, de forclos, si je mourais ? »
Mais sa volonté se cherchait encore sans objet vital, et aurait pu
s’ankyloser dans le vide, ou dévier vers de faux principes.
Actuellement, par cela seul qu’il se détermina dans un autre sens,
on le concevrait mal, confondant, comme le Vigny d’Eloa, l’amour
avec la pitié, puis, détrompé des faiblesses du cœur, se raidissant
vers un stoïcisme de désespoir, celui des Destinées. Tel est l’orbe
pourtant où s’enferme Allan de Cinthry, le héros de Ce qui ne meurt
pas. Ailleurs, le philosophe Altaï — c’est d’Aurevilly lui-même —
s’est mis en tête de sauver la courtisane Amaïdée ; il l’entraîne dans
la solitude, au bord de l’Océan, auprès de son ami, le poète
Somegod (Maurice de Guérin). Amaïdée, s’ennuyant, prend la fuite,
retourne à sa vie d’esclave, et Altaï conclut en fataliste : « On ne
relève pas une femme tombée, et toujours la chute est mortelle. »
Il eût été difficile à Barbey d’Aurevilly, avec sa claire vue ironique
des indigences humaines, de s’en tenir à de folâtres chimères, de
croire à la bonté de l’espèce et à la souveraineté de la raison. Le
danger, pour un byronien épris de Stendhal, paraissait plutôt de finir
dans un pessimisme insultant ; les perverses leçons du XVIIIe siècle,
dont il ne fut pas indemne, — et c’est pourquoi il l’eut si fort en
exécration, — l’incitaient à envisager l’existence comme une
fantasmagorie d’art, ou une grimace de vanité plus ridicule encore
que féroce, et derrière laquelle il n’y a rien. Il serait alors devenu ce
qu’une malveillance radoteuse s’entête à déprécier en lui, un homme
tout de décor et d’attitude, un cabotin de haute parade.
Son retour au catholicisme disciplina ses penchants, rectifia les
oscillations de son intelligence, ouvrit à ses énergies instables un
champ de certitude et d’alacrité. Eugénie de Guérin le définissait
auparavant « un beau palais où il y avait un labyrinthe ». Désormais,
le labyrinthe simplifié se convertit peu à peu en une crypte aux
assises granitiques, mâle et pure dans son ensemble, quoique
précieuse d’ornementations et traversée encore de souffles lascifs.
Quant au palais, toutes ses fenêtres s’embrasèrent, comme si un
concile œcuménique y fût venu siéger.
Cette conversion se fit par un travail lent, sans coup de foudre,
attendu qu’il n’avait jamais rompu désespérément avec ses
croyances. Les supports de la foi, sinon la foi, lui restaient : tels, au
donjon de Chandos, à Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, ces puissants
gonds des portes arrachées qui s’enfoncent, intacts, au vif des
murailles géantes. Lorsqu’il séjournait chez son père, il assistait aux
offices le dimanche ; il aimait les traditions liturgiques, dédaigneux
cependant du moyen âge, et il eût « donné, disait-il, toutes les
cathédrales pour une tresse de Diane de Poitiers ».
Ce ne fut ni l’esthétisme ni une exaltation de sensibilité qui
rapprochèrent des sèves catholiques sa vie intérieure. A cet égard,
son catholicisme se révèle autrement sérieux que celui d’un
Chateaubriand et d’un Lamartine. Sa raison positive fut reconquise
en même temps que ses facultés de poète.
Un attrait dominateur le tournait vers l’histoire ; en étudiant les
gestes de la Papauté (l’Innocent III de Hurter) il admira de plus en
plus « l’imposance » du point de vue catholique. Il lisait avec
enivrement Joseph de Maistre [31] ; cet indomptable logicien de la
théocratie unitaire le gagna sans effort à une thèse qui rencontrait au
fond de son tempérament des concordances impérieuses. La
stabilité de l’Église, son entente du gouvernement des âmes et des
états, tout ce qui a le plus mis en rébellion contre elle des cerveaux
anarchiques et inconsistants, c’est là que d’Aurevilly trouva un motif
initial de croire. Il ne concevait rien en ce monde au-dessus du
prêtre, parce que le prêtre est, plus que nul autre, fait pour
commander, étant investi d’une puissance tellement formidable que
Dieu même, une fois qu’il l’y a constitué, ne peut plus l’en faire
déchoir. Les plus éclatantes figures de l’histoire laïque lui
paraissaient d’une piètre mine auprès des saints et des porteurs de
tiare ou de pourpre qui ont mené, depuis le pré-moyen âge
jusqu’aux siècles révolutionnaires, les affaires surnaturelles et
temporelles de tous les grands peuples.
[31] « Lu la moitié du second volume de de Maistre
sur Bacon. J’ai une jouissance inexprimable à lire cet
homme ; ce sont des frémissements de plaisir que
j’éprouve quand je me plonge dans l’eau vive des
abstractions au sein desquelles son merveilleux esprit ne
l’abandonne jamais. » (Deuxième mémorandum, p. 189.)