Solutions for the second day problems at the IMC 2000 Problem 1.

a) Show that the unit square can be partitioned into n smaller squares if n is large enough. b) Let d 2. Show that there is a constant N (d) such that, whenever n N (d), a d-dimensional unit cube can be partitioned into n smaller cubes. Solution. We start with the following lemma: If a and b be coprime positive integers then every suciently large positive integer m can be expressed in the form ax + by with x, y non-negative integers. Proof of the lemma. The numbers 0, a, 2a, . . . , (b1)a give a complete residue system modulo b. Consequently, for any m there exists a 0 x b 1 so that ax m (mod b). If m (b 1)a, then y = (m ax)/b, for which x + by = m, is a non-negative integer, too. Now observe that any dissection of a cube into n smaller cubes may be rened to give a dissection into n + (ad 1) cubes, for any a 1. This renement is achieved by picking an arbitrary cube in the dissection, and cutting it into ad smaller cubes. To prove the required result, then, it suces to exhibit two relatively prime integers of form a d 1. In the 2-dimensional case, a1 = 2 and a2 = 3 give the coprime numbers 22 1 = 3 and 32 1 = 8. In the general case, two such integers are 2d 1 and (2d 1)d 1, as is easy to check. Problem 2. Let f be continuous and nowhere monotone on [0, 1]. Show that the set of points on which f attains local minima is dense in [0, 1]. (A function is nowhere monotone if there exists no interval where the function is monotone. A set is dense if each non-empty open interval contains at least one element of the set.) Solution. Let (x , x + ) [0, 1] be an arbitrary non-empty open interval. The function f is not monoton in the intervals [x , x] and [x, x + ], thus there exist some real numbers x p < q x, x r < s x + so that f (p) > f (q) and f (r) < f (s). By Weierstrass theorem, f has a global minimum in the interval [p, s]. The values f (p) and f (s) are not the minimum, because they are greater than f (q) and f (s), respectively. Thus the minimum is in the interior of the interval, it is a local minimum. So each nonempty interval (x , x + ) [0, 1] contains at least one local minimum. Problem 3. Let p(z) be a polynomial of degree n with complex coecients. Prove that there exist at least n + 1 complex numbers z for which p(z) is 0 or 1. Solution. The statement is not true if p is a constant polynomial. We prove it only in the case if n is positive. For an arbitrary polynomial q(z) and complex number c, denote by (q, c) the largest exponent for which q(z) is divisible by (z c) . (With other words, if c is a root of q, then (q, c) is the roots multiplicity. Otherwise 0.) 1

Denote by S0 and S1 the sets of complex numbers z for which p(z) is 0 or 1, respectively. These sets contain all roots of the polynomials p(z) and p(z) 1, thus (p, c) =
cS0 cS1

(p 1, c) = n.

(1)

The polynomial p has at most n 1 roots (n > 0 is used here). This implies that (p , c) n 1.
cS0 S1

(2)

If p(c) = 0 or p(c) 1 = 0, then (p, c) (p c) = 1 or (p 1, c) (p c) = 1, respectively. Putting (1), (2) and (3) together we obtain S0 + S1 =
cS0

(3)

(p, c) (p , c) +
cS1

(p 1, c) (p , c) =

=
cS0

(p, c) +
cS1

(p 1, c)
cS0 S1

(p , c) n + n (n 1) = n + 1.

Problem 4. Suppose the graph of a polynomial of degree 6 is tangent to a straight line at 3 points A1 , A2 , A3 , where A2 lies between A1 and A3 . a) Prove that if the lengths of the segments A1 A2 and A2 A3 are equal, then the areas of the gures bounded by these segments and the graph of the polynomial are equal as well. A2 A3 , and let K be the ratio of the areas of the appropriate gures. Prove b) Let k = A1 A2 that 2 5 7 k < K < k5 . 7 2 Solution. a) Without loss of generality, we can assume that the point A2 is the origin of system of coordinates. Then the polynomial can be presented in the form y = a0 x4 + a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 x2 + a5 x, where the equation y = a5 x determines the straight line A1 A3 . The abscissas of the points A1 and A3 are a and a, a > 0, respectively. Since a and a are points of tangency, the numbers a and a must be double roots of the polynomial a0 x4 + a1 x3 + a2 x2 + a3 x + a4 . It follows that the polynomial is of the form y = a0 (x2 a2 )2 + a5 x. 2

The equality follows from the equality of the integrals

a0 x a x dx =
a 0

a0 x2 a2 x2 dx

due to the fact that the function y = a0 (x2 a2 ) is even. b) Without loss of generality, we can assume that a0 = 1. Then the function is of the form y = (x + a)2 (x b)2 x2 + a5 x, where a and b are positive numbers and b = ka, 0 < k < . The areas of the gures at the segments A1 A2 and A2 A3 are equal respectively to
0

(x + a)2 (x b)2 x2 dx =
a

a7 (7k 2 + 7k + 2) 210

and

(x + a)2 (x b)2 x2 dx =
0

a7 (2k 2 + 7k + 7) 210

Then K = k5 The derivative of the function f (k) =

2k 2 + 7k + 7 . 7k 2 + 7k + 2 is negative for 0 < k < . Therefore f (k)

2k2 +7k+7 7k2 +7k+2

decreases from to when k increases from 0 to . Inequalities the desired inequalities. R+

<

2k2 +7k+7 7k2 +7k+2

<

7 2

imply

Problem 5. Let R+ be the set of positive real numbers. Find all functions f : R+ such that for all x, y R+ f (x)f (yf (x)) = f (x + y).

First solution. First, if we assume that f (x) > 1 for some x R+ , setting y = x gives the contradiction f (x) = 1. Hence f (x) 1 for each x R+ , which implies f (x) 1 that f is a decreasing function. If f (x) = 1 for some x R+ , then f (x + y) = f (y) for each y R+ , and by the monotonicity of f it follows that f 1. Let now f (x) < 1 for each x R+ . Then f is strictly decreasing function, in particular injective. By the equalities f (x)f (yf (x)) = f (x + y) = 3

= f yf (x) + x + y(1 f (x)) = f (yf (x))f

x + y(1 f (x)) f (yf (x)) 1 f (1) , f (1)

we obtain that x = (x + y(1 f (x)))f (yf (x)). Setting x = 1, z = xf (1) and a = we get f (z) = 1 . 1 + az

1 for each x R+ , where 1 + ax a 0. Conversely, a direct verication shows that the functions of this form satisfy the initial equality. Second solution. As in the rst solution we get that f is a decreasing function, in particular dierentiable almost everywhere. Write the initial equality in the form Combining the two cases, we conclude that f (x) = f (yf (x)) 1 f (x + y) f (x) = f 2 (x) . y yf (x) It follows that if f is dierentiable at the point x R+ , then there exists the limit 1 f (z) 1 = a, =: a. Therefore f (x) = af 2 (x) for each x R+ , i.e. lim z0+ z f (x) 1 which means that f (x) = . Substituting in the initial relaton, we nd that b = 1 ax + b and a 0.

Problem 6. For an m m real matrix A, eA is dened as

1 n A . n!

(The sum is

convergent for all matrices.) Prove or disprove, that for all real polynomials p and m m real matrices A and B, p(eAB ) is nilpotent if and only if p(eBA ) is nilpotent. (A matrix A is nilpotent if Ak = 0 for some positive integer k.) Solution. First we prove that for any polynomial q and m m matrices A and B, the characteristic polinomials of q(eAB ) and q(eBA ) are the same. It is easy to check that

for any matrix X, q(eX ) =

cn X n with some real numbers cn which depend on q. Let

C=
n=1

cn (BA)n1 B =
n=1

cn B(AB)n1 .

Then q(eAB ) = c0 I + AC and q(eBA ) = c0 I + CA. It is well-known that the characteristic polynomials of AC and CA are the same; denote this polynomial by f (x). Then the characteristic polynomials of matrices q(eAB ) and q(eBA ) are both f (x c0 ). k Now assume that the matrix p(eAB ) is nilpotent, i.e. p(eAB ) = 0 for some positive integer k. Chose q = pk . The characteristic polynomial of the matrix q(eAB ) = 0 is xm , so the same holds for the matrix q(eBA ). By the theorem of Cayley and Hamilton, this m km implies that q(eBA ) = p(eBA ) = 0. Thus the matrix q(eBA ) is nilpotent, too.