Highway Engineering Ii: Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) Dept. of Civil Eng. Faculty of Technology Addis Ababa University

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II
Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.)

Dept. of Civil Eng.
Faculty of Technology
Addis Ababa University
9. Highway Drainage
 General
 Drainage Facilities on any highway or street should adequately provide for
the flow of water away from the surface and subsurface of the pavement to
properly designed channels and then discharge to the natural waterways.
 Inadequate drainage will eventually result in:
 Serious damage to highway structure
 Reduce pavement strength
 Swelling heave
 Stripping of asphalt
 Cause pumping in rigid pavements
 Frost heave and reduction of bearing capacity when melting
 Traffic operation problems
 Slow traffic movement by accumulated water on the pavement
 Cause traffic accidents as a result of hydroplaning and loss of visibility from
the splash and spray.
2/20/2019 Highway Eng. II Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) 2

9. Highway Drainage
 General
 The importance of adequate drainage is well recognized in highway
engineering and about 25 percent of highway construction cost is
estimated to be spent for erosion control and drainage structures,
such as culverts, bridges, channels, and ditches.
 There are two sources of water that the highway engineer is
primarily concerned to provide highway drainage facilities.
 Surface water: is that which occurs as rain or snow. Drainage
for runoff water on the surface from this source is referred to
as surface drainage.
 Ground water: is that which flows in underground streams.
This may become important in highway cuts or at locations
where a high water table exists near the pavement structure.
Drainage for seepage water and underground streams is
referred to as subsurface drainage.

9. Highway Drainage
 Surface Drainage
 Surface drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is
removed from the pavement and right of way of the highway or street.
 The surface drainage system includes:
 Transverse Slopes: - crowning of pavements and shoulders to
facilitate the removal of surface water from the pavement and
shoulder surfaces in the shortest possible time.
 Longitudinal Slopes: minimum gradient in the longitudinal
direction of the highway, generally:
• not be less than 0.2 percent for highways in very flat terrain
• zero percent grades on uncurbed pavements with adequate
cross slopes,
• a minimum of 0.5 percent for curbed pavements, but may be
reduced to 0.3 percent on suitably crowned high-type
pavements constructed on firm ground.

9. Highway Drainage
 Longitudinal Channels: - ditches constructed along the
sides of the highway to collect the surface water that runs
off from the pavement surface, subsurface drains, and
other areas of the highway right of way.
 Curbs and Gutters: - facilities more frequently used in
urban areas.
 Cross-Drainage Structures: - structures constructed to carry
traffic over natural waterways that flow below the right of
way of the highway.
 Sediment and Erosion Controls

9. Highway Drainage
 The design of surface drainage systems for a highway may be divided into
three major phases:
 An estimate of the quantity of water that may be expected to reach any
element of the system;
 The hydraulic design of each element of the system; and
 The comparison of alternative systems, alternative materials, and

other variables in order to select the most economical system that can
be devised.
 In the third phase, attention must be given to selecting the system that has
the lowest annual cost when all variables are taken into consideration.

9. Highway Drainage
 Surface Drainage : Flood Estimation
 The available methods of flood estimation may be categorized into
three groups:
 analysis of stream flow data,
 runoff modeling, and
 regionalized flood formula.
 Rational method (under the category of runoff modeling) is a method

most widely used rainfall runoff relation for ungauged areas.
 It is most suitable for small catchments of sizes up to five square
kilometers.

9. Highway Drainage
 For “gauged" sites, statistical analyses can be performed on the recorded
stream flow to provide an estimated peak design flow for a given "return
period."
 The term "return period" refers to the estimated frequency of rare events
such as floods.
 For example, if the system is designed for a return period of 25 years, the
statistical assumption is that the system will accommodate the most severe
storm to occur once in 25 years. It is apparent that selection of a return
period of 100 years instead of 25 would mean designing for a more severe
storm and, in general, a more costly system. Conversely, if the frequency is
10 years, the intensity of the design storm will be less and in most cases a
less costly drainage system will result, although economic losses from use
of the short time might offset the savings in construction costs.

9. Highway Drainage
 The estimation of peak runoff for drainage design is accomplished by consideration
of severe storms that occur at intervals and during which the intensity of rainfall
and runoff of surface water are far greater than at other periods.
 Rainfall intensity during the design storm is a function of
 occurrence,
 duration, and
 intensity.
 The intensity of rainfall for a particular return period varies greatly with the
duration of rainfall.
 An accurate estimate of the probable intensity, frequency, and duration of rainfall
in a particular location can be made only if sufficient data have been collected over
a period of time.
 If such information is available, standard curves may be developed to express
rainfall-intensity relationships with accuracy sufficient for drainage problems.

9. Highway Drainage
Surface Drainage
Typical rainfall
intensity-duration
curves (TCDE)

9. Highway Drainage
 Surface Drainage: Flood Estimation
 Rational method: The basic form of the equation is:
CIA
Q
360
where: Q = flood peak at catchment exit (m3/sec);
C = rational runoff coefficient;
I = average rainfall intensity over the whole catchment (mm/hr)
for a duration corresponding to the time of concentration; and
A = catchment area in hectares.
 The time of concentration is the time required for the surface runoff from the
remotest part of the drainage basin to reach the point where the drainage
facility is located. It depends on several factors including the size and shape of
the drainage area, the type of the surface cover, the slope of the drainage
catchment, the rainfall intensity, and whether the flow is entirely overloaded or
partly channalized.
 With the time of concentration known, the corresponding rainfall intensity can
then be obtained from the intensity-duration curve for the selected recurrence
interval (return period).

9. Highway Drainage
 Surface Drainage: Flood Estimation
 The drainage catchment area (the land that contributes to the runoff)
is normally determined from a topographic map.
 The runoff coefficient, C, is an integrated value representing the ratio
of runoff to rainfall for the drainage area.
 It depends on the type of ground cover, the slope of the drainage area,
storm duration, and prior wetting.
 In case where the drainage area consists of different ground
characteristics with different runoff coefficients, a representative value
Cw is computed by determining the weighted coefficients as:
n
C A i i
Cw  i 1
n
A
i 1
i

9. Highway Drainage
 Surface Drainage: Hydraulic Design of Surface Drainage Structures
 Hydraulic design is providing a suitable structure size that will economically
and efficiently dispose of the expected runoff without detrimental erosion and
sedimentation problem.
 Design of Side Ditches
 With the quantity of discharge known, the design of side ditches, gutters,
stream channels, and similar facilities is based on established principles of flow
in open channels. The principles also apply to flow in conduits with a free water
surface.
 In the design of open channels, an important design consideration is the flow
velocity.
 The flow velocity in the channel should not be as low as to cause deposits of
transported material, nor so high as to cause erosion of the channel.
 The most appropriate channel gradient range to produce the required velocity
is between 1 percent and 5 percent.
 The most commonly used formula to give reliable capacity estimate is Manning's
formula, which assumes uniform steady flow in the channel:
R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2
Q  Av  A
n
9. Highway Drainage
 Design Procedure: A simple design procedure that utilizes the Manning equation
may be outlined as follows:
 For the cover material in which the ditch will be running, select the Manning
roughness coefficient, n, the side slopes – normally controlled by the angle of
natural repose.
 Using the Manning formula, calculate the maximum permissible hydraulic
radius.
 Using the equation of continuity, calculate the minimum permissible cross-
section area required from the given discharge and permissible velocity.
Calculate the wetted perimeter for this area.
 Solve the expressions obtained in step (3) simultaneously for the bottom width
of the ditch and the depth of flow.
 Check the depth of flow whether it is greater than the critical depth or not.
 If the depth of flow is greater than the critical depth, add a suitable freeboard
and modify the section for practicality. In the case of side ditches the freeboard
should at least be equals the height above the bottom of the pavement. For
other channels, a value about 0.5 m is added as a freeboard.
 If the depth is less than the critical depth consideration should be given to
reduce the slope or provision should be sought to protect from erosion.
9. Highway Drainage
Manning’s n and maximum permissible velocity
Ditch lining n Vmax m/sec.

Rock 0.035–0.045 4.5-6.1
Soil 0.022–0.025 0.3-2.4
Vegetation
Avg. turf 0.030–0.070 0.9-1.5
Dense turf 0.040–0.200 1.2-2.4
Paved channel 0.012–0.033 2.4-6.1

9. Highway Drainage
 Example

9. Highway Drainage
 Depending on the class of highway, the volume of the stream flow to be
crossed, the site conditions, and economic factors, the following cross-
drainage structures may be considered:
 Fords: the simplest river crossings that utilize the existing riverbed
and are appropriate for shallow, slow moving watercourses with
little probability of flood. The traffic volume may be up to about
100 vehicles per day. Gravel or stones can be used to line the
bottom of the ford to provide a firm footing for vehicles.
 Drifts: Drifts are crossing structures as fords, but here a concrete
slab is constructed where the bed of the river is not able to carry
vehicles. They are suitable as a crossing where fords cannot be
used due to risk of flood.

9. Highway Drainage
 Culverts: cross-drainage structures that convey water from
streams and side channels below the road. Culverts are to be found
in three general locations: at the bottom of depressions where no
natural watercourse exists; where natural streams intersect the
roadway; and at locations required for passing surface drainage
carried in side ditches beneath roads. Main differences b/n culvert
and bridge structures:
• The top of the culvert does not form part of the travelled roadway
• The span length --- structures having a span of 6 m or less are called culverts,
whereas those having spans of more than 6 m are bridges
• Culverts are usually designed to flow full under certain conditions, while
bridges are designed to pass floating debris or vessels.
 Highway Bridges: are structures required to carry the roadbed over
an established waterway; it may also be somewhat loosely applied to
grade separation structures and elevated highways in urban areas
(viaducts).

9. Highway Drainage
 Hydraulic Design of Culverts. Hydraulic design of culverts involves the
following general procedure:
 Obtain all site data and plot a roadway cross section at the culvert site,
including a profile of the stream channel.
 Establish the culvert invert elevations at the inlet and outlet and determine the
culvert length and slope.
 Determine the allowable headwater depth and the probable depth of tail water
during the design flood.
 Select a type and size of culvert that will accommodate the design flow under
the established conditions.
 Examine the need for energy dissipaters, and, where needed, provide
appropriate protective devices to prevent destructive channel erosion.
 Whenever a constriction such as a culvert is placed in a natural open
channel, there is an increase in the depth of water just upstream of the
constriction. The allowable level of the headwater upstream of the
culvert entrance is generally the principal control on the culvert size
and inlet geometry.

9. Highway Drainage
 Hydraulic Design of Culverts.
 The type of flow in a culvert depends on the total energy available
between the inlet and outlet, primarily of the difference in the
headwater and the tail-water elevations.
 Laboratory tests and field studies have shown that highway
culverts operate with two major types of controls: inlet and outlet
controls.
• Under inlet control, the discharge capacity of a culvert depends primarily on
the depth of headwater at the entrance and the entrance geometry (barrel
shape, cross-sectional area, and type of inlet edge). Inlet control commonly
occurs when the slope of the culvert is steep and the outlet is not submerged.
• In addition, the maximum flow in a culvert operating with outlet control
depends on the tail-water at the outlet and the slope, roughness, and length of
the culverts. It occurs on flat slopes, especially where downstream condition
causes the tail-water depth to be greater than the critical depth.
• On the basis of experimental work, analytical relationships have been
developed for analysis or design of culverts.

9. Highway Drainage
 Culvert types and materials.
 Types of culverts of different sizes:
• Circular
• Box
• Elliptical
• Arch
 Materials
• Reinforced concrete
• Corrugated metal
• Stone masonry
• Etc.
 The type of culvert selected for use in a given location is dependent on the hydraulic
requirements and the strength required to sustain the weight of a fill or moving
wheel loads.
 After the hydraulic and strength requirements are satisfied, the selection is largely a
matter of economics: durability and cost of the completed structure including cost
of transport and installation.

9. Highway Drainage
 Highway bridges.
 Location
 Alignment
 Foundation
 Traffic safety, operating conditions, and fulfilment of the purposes

of the road
 Constriction of flow
 Velocity of flow
 Scouring
 Flooding

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage
 Subsurface drainage systems are provided within the pavement structure to drain
water that:
 has percolated through cracks and joints in the pavement to the underlying
strata
 has moved upward through the underlying soil strata as a result of capillary
action
 exists in the natural ground below the water table, usually referred to as
ground water.
 The design of subsurface drainage should be carried out as an integral part of the
complete design of the highway, since inadequate subsurface drainage have
detrimental effects on the stability of slopes and pavement performance.
 The procedure usually adopted for subsurface drainage design is first to determine
the geometric and structural requirements of the highway based on standard design
practice, and then to subject these to a subsurface drainage analysis to determine
the subsurface drainage requirements.

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface drainage systems are usually classified into five general
categories:
 Longitudinal drains
 Transverse drains
 Horizontal drains
 Drainage blankets
 Well systems
 Longitudinal drains. Subsurface longitudinal drains usually consist of pipes

laid in trenches, within the pavement structure and parallel to the
centerline of the highway.
 These drains can be used to lower the water table below the pavement
structure, as shown in Figure 10- 2, or to remove any water that is seeping
into the pavement structure, as shown in Figure 10- 3.

9. Highway Drainage
Longitudinal drains
9. Highway Drainage
Longitudinal drains

9. Highway Drainage
 Transverse drains. Transverse drains are placed
transversely below the pavement, usually in a direction
perpendicular to the centreline, although they may be
skewed to form a herringbone configuration.
 An example of the use of transverse drain is shown in the
following slide where they are used to drain ground water
that has infiltrated through the joints of the pavement.

9. Highway Drainage
Transverse
drains.

9. Highway Drainage
 Horizontal Drains: are used to relieve pore pressures at slopes of cuts
and embankments on the highway.
 They usually consist of small-diameter, perforated pipes inserted
into the slopes of the cut or fill.
 The subsurface water is collected by the pipes and is then
discharged at the face of the slope through paved spillways to
longitudinal ditches.
 Well Systems: consists of a series of vertical wells, drilled into the
ground, into which ground water flows, thereby reducing the water
table and releasing the pore pressure.
 When used as a temporary measure for construction, the water
collected in the wells is continuously pumped out, or else it may be left
to overflow.

9. Highway Drainage
 Drainage Blankets.
 is a layer of material that has a very high coefficient of
permeability, usually greater than 10 m/day, and is laid beneath or
within the pavement structure such that its width and length in the
flow direction are much greater than its thickness.
 Drainage blankets can be used to facilitate the flow of subsurface
water away from the pavement, as well as to facilitate the flow of
ground water that has seeped through cracks into the pavement
structure or subsurface water from artesian sources.
 A drainage blanket can also be used in conjunction with
longitudinal drains to improve the stability of cut slopes by
controlling the flow of water on the slopes, thereby preventing the
formation of a slip surface.

9. Highway Drainage
Drainage
Blankets.

9. Highway Drainage
 The design procedure for subsurface drainage involves the
following:
 Summarize the available data.
 Determine the quantity of water for which the subsurface drainage
system is being designed.
 Determine the drainage system required.
 Determine the capacity and spacing of longitudinal and transverse
drains and select filter material, if necessary.
 Evaluate the design with respect to economic feasibility and long-
term performance.

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage: Summarize Available Data
 The data that should be identified and summarized can be divided into
the four following classes:
 The flow geometry  the flow geometry is given by the existing
subsurface characteristics of the area in which the highway is
located and by the geometric characteristics of the highway.
 The materials' properties  the material permeability that
indicates the extent to which water will flow through the material.
 The hydrologic and climatic characteristics  indicate
precipitation rates, the sources of subsurface water, and the
possibility of frost.
 Miscellaneous information  all other information that will aid in
the design of an effective and economic subsurface drainage
system, including any impact the subsurface drainage system may
have on future construction.

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage: Determination of Discharge Quantity
 The net amount of water to be discharged consists of the following
components:
 Water due to infiltration
 Ground water
 Water due to melting of ice, but not a significant problem in the
tropics (not discussed here)
 Water evaporating vertically from the pavement structure

9. Highway Drainage
 (i) Water due to infiltration, (qi).
 This is the amount of surface water that infiltrates into the
pavement structure through cracks in the pavement surface.
 The Federal Highway Administration recommends the use of the
following empirical relationship to estimate the infiltration rate:
 Nc Wc 
qi  I c     kp
 W W Cs 

9. Highway Drainage
 (ii) Ground Water.
 When it is not possible to intercept the flow of ground water or
lower the water table sufficiently before the water reaches the
pavement, it is necessary to determine the amount of ground water
seepage that will occur.
 A simple procedure to estimate the ground water flow rate due to
gravity drainage is to use the chart shown in the following figure.

9. Highway Drainage
(ii) Ground Water
Li = 3.8 (H – H0)
Average inflow rate to the drainage layer
and the drain pipe
q2
qg 
0.5 W
qL  (q1  q2 )
If there is no drainage pipe on the other side,
the average inflow rates
q1  2q2
qg 
W
qL  2(q1  q2 )
9. Highway Drainage
 (iii) For the case of artesian flow, the average inflow rate is simply
estimated using darcy’s law as:
H
qa  K
H0
 (iv) Vertical outflow, or evaporation (qv). Considered when the evaporation
of some of the accumulated water through the subgrade is significant.
 Net design flow. The net design inflow is the sum of inflow rates from all
sources less any amount attributed to vertical outflow through the
underlying soil.
 If there is no frost, no ground water, and no artesian flow,
qd = qi – qv
 If there is no frost and artesian flows, and the inflows are only due
to infiltration and ground water,
qd = qi + qg – qv
 If the inflows are only due to infiltration and artesian, then
q d = q i + q a- q v

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage:Design of Drainage Layer
 The design of the drainage layer involves either the determination of the
maximum depth of flow Hm when the permeability of the material K is known, or
the determination of the required permeability of the drainage material when the
maximum flow depth is stipulated.
 The drainage materials should consist of sound, clean, and open-graded and
must have a high permeability to accommodate the free passage of water and be
protected from clogging by means of filter.
 The amount of fine particles in drainage layer affects permeability and the
elimination of fines significantly increases permeability.
 A number of approximate relationships have been suggested between permeability
and grain sizes. The most frequently used approximations developed by Hazen for
filter sands and by Moulton for granular drainage and filter materials are
provided in the handout.

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage:Design of Drainage Layer
 The thickness of the drainage layer can be determined using a chart for a given
values of slope of drainage layer, and the length of the flow path based on steady
inflow and uniformly distributed across the surface of the pavement section.

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage:Design of Longitudinal Collector Pipes
 Circular pipes are generally used for longitudinal collectors and are usually
constructed of either porous concrete, perforated corrugated metal, or vitrified
clay.
 The pipes are laid in trenches located at depths that will allow the drainage of the
subsurface water from the pavement structure. The trenches are then backfilled
with porous granular material to facilitate free flow of the subsurface water into
the drains.
 Design of the longitudinal collectors involves the determination of pipe diameter
and the identification of a suitable backfill material.
 The diameter, D, of the collector pipe depends on the gradient of the pipe drain,
the amount of water per running linear length (q) that should be transmitted
through the pipe, Manning’s roughness coefficient of the pipe material, n, and
the distance between the outlets L0.
0.375
 3.208L0 qn 
D 
 
0.5
S
9. Highway Drainage
 Alternatively, the chart shown in in the following slide can also
be used either to determine the minimum pipe diameter when
the discharge, distance between the outlets, and the gradient
are specified, or to determine the maximum spacing between
the outlets for different combinations of gradient and pipe
diameters.
 In using the chart, it is first necessary to determine the amount
of inflow q (the flow rate in the drain pipe, m3/day/m) by the
following expression where qd is the design inflow
(m3/day/m2), and L is the length of the flow path (the width of
the drainage layer, m).
q = qd L

9. Highway Drainage

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage:Design of Backfill
 The material selected to backfill the pipe trench should be coarse enough to allow
the flow of water into the pipe and also fine enough to prevent the infiltration of
the drainage aggregates into the pipe.
 The following can be used to select suitable filter material.
D85 filter
 For slotted pipes:  1.2
Slot width
D85 filter
 For circular holes: 1
Hole diameter

9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage: Design of Filter
 Fine graded soil particles from the subgrade soil adjacent to the drainage layer
may be transmitted and clog the voids in the drainage material and eventually
reduce the permeability significantly and make less effective.
 In case where these criteria are not satisfied by the drainage material, protective
filter must be provided between the subgrade and the drainage layer to prevent
clogging. Any aggregate used for drainage must, therefore, satisfy the following
filter criteria:
 Clogging criteria – to prevent the adjacent fine materials from piping or
migrating into the filter material,
D15 filter
5
D85 protected soil
 Permeability criteria – to carry water without any significant resistance,
D15 filter
5
D15 protected soil
9. Highway Drainage
 Subsurface Drainage: Design of Filter
 Additional criteria – to make the grain size curves of filters and protected soils
somewhat parallel,
 to minimize segregation, the filter material must have the coefficient of
uniformity,
D50 filter
 25
D50 protected soil
 the amount of fines in the filter material,

D60
 25
D10
 D5 filter  0.074 mm
 if the protected soil contains a large %age of gravels the filters should be
designed on the bases of the material finer than 25.4 mm.

Highway Engineering Ii: Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) Dept. of Civil Eng. Faculty of Technology Addis Ababa University

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Highway Engineering Ii: Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) Dept. of Civil Eng. Faculty of Technology Addis Ababa University

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HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II

Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.)

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 The comparison of alternative systems, alternative materials, and

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 runoff modeling, and

 regionalized flood formula.

 Rational method (under the category of runoff modeling) is a method

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Ditch lining n Vmax m/sec.

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 Traffic safety, operating conditions, and fulfilment of the purposes

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 Longitudinal drains. Subsurface longitudinal drains usually consist of pipes

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2/20/2019 Highway Eng. II Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) 42

2/20/2019 Highway Eng. II Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) 43

2/20/2019 Highway Eng. II Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) 44

 the amount of fines in the filter material,

2/20/2019 Highway Eng. II Girma Berhanu (Dr.-Ing.) 46

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