The Principles of

Language Learning
INTRODUCTI
Many ON
of a teacher’s choices spring from established principles of
language teaching and learning. In this Lesson you will dwell on twelve
(12) overarching principles of second language teaching. Connect your
teaching practice in the classroom with theory for research-based
language teaching.

Brown’s principles of language are grouped into 3 domains: 1)

cognitive , 2) linguistic and 3) socioaffective. They are discussed in this
Lesson by domain.
 Cognitive Principles
1. Anticipation of reward- Learners are motivated to perform by the thought of a
reward, tangible or intangible , long or short-term. From B.F. Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory, human beings are universally driven to act, or ‘behave’, by the
anticipation of some sort of reward- tangible or intangible , short term or long term- that
will ensue as a result of the behavior (Brown, 1994). What are the implications of these are
language teaching?
1. Provide genuine praise, encouragement and compliments.
2. Remind student of long- term rewards in learning the target language.
3. Encourage students to compliment and support each other.
4. For poorly motivated students, external rewards such as gold star and stickers or
issuing certain privileges may spark some intense: Enable them to make noticeable progress
on difficult tasks.
5.Infect them with your enthusiasm for language learning.
2. Meaningful Learning – Providing a realistic context to use language is thought to
lead to better long term retention, as opposed to rate learning. Students learn language
faster by associating sounds, words, Structures and discourse elements with that which is
meaning in their daily life.

Here are some classroom implications:

1. Make lessons meaningful by appealing to students’ interests, academic and career
goals.
2. Link new topic or concept to something the students know to make the topic
meaningful. This was cited in MTB_MLE.
3. Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning such as:
a) too much grammar explanation
b) too many abstract principles and theories
c) too much drilling and or memorization – thus the term “ drill- to- kill”
d) activities whose purposes are not clear
 e) activites that do not contribute to accomplishing the goals of the lesson, unit or
course.
f) techniques that are so mechanical or tricky that students get centered on the mechanics
instead of the language or meanings (brown, 1994) In other words, observe these Don’ts:
• Too much grammar explanation
• Abstract principles and theories
• Too many drills and memories
• Activities with unclear purposes
• Extraneous activities
• Distractions that take the focus off of meaning
3. Automaticity – This is subconscious processing of language for fluency.
It can only be achieved without overanalyzing or without giving too much attention to
language forms. Automaticity is the road to fluency.
 Here are some implication of this principle to the classroom (Brown, 2002):

1. Automaticity isn't gained overnight. You have to be patient with your students as you
slowly help them to achieve fluency. Speaking the target language is like playing the guitar,
if you do not practice it you will forget it.
2. Don't overwhelm your students with grammar. It can block pathways to fluency.
3. A large proportion of your lessons are focused on the use of language in genuine and
natural context.
For Language teachers this means not overwhelming students with language rules and
balancing rules and practice.

4. Strategic Investment-Success in learning is dependent on the time and effort

learners spend in mastering the language. The methods that e learner employs to
internalize and to perform in the language are even important as the teacher's methods or
even more so considering that learning is an active process.
 Successful mastery of the 2nd language will be đue to a large extent to the learner's
own personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention in the second language.

Language teachers can help students by employing a variety of strategies that cater to
students' multiple intelligences and learning styles.
5. Intrinsic Motivation The most potent learning "rewards" to enhance performance are
those that stem from the needs, wants and desires within the learner (Brown, 1994).
Learning a new language itself is rewarding, therefore, extrinsic reward should not be
necessary at al1.

Linguistic Principles
1. Native Language Effect -A learner's native language creates both facilitating and
interfering effects on learning. Brown (1994) suggest some ways to counteract the
interfering language effects.
a) Acquaint the learner with the native language cause of the error
b)Help your students understand that not everything about their language will cause error.
c)Coax students into thinking directly in the target language and not an resort to translation as
they comprehend and produce language.
2. Communicative Competence Fluency and use are just as import as accuracy and usage.
Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just
usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to students’
eventual need to apply classroom learning to previously unrehearsed contexts in the real
world”(Brown, 1994, p. 69).

For Language teachers, this means 1) give grammar attention but do neglect the other
components of communicative competence (sociolinguistic strategic, discourse competence);
2) use language that students will actually encounter in the real world and provide genuine
techniques for the actual conveyance of information not just rote techniques.In the Lesson on
MTB-MLE, we learned that we teach for fluency, accuracy and meaning not fluency nor
accuracy only.

3. Interlanguage - In second language learning, learners manifest a systematic progression of

acquisition of sounds and words and structures and discourse features. In the process of
acquisition, learners- need feedback (teacher, peer and self) to eliminate logic errors and
achieve competence.
What does this imply for Language teachers? Language teachers must strike a balance
between positive and negative feedback. Avoid too much negative feedback to shut off
students' attempt at communication and too much positive cognitive feedback to reinforce and
fossilize errors. When you point out interlanguage errors assure students that these errors mea
that their brain is in "language learning mode”.
Socioaffective Domain
I. Language-Culture Connection
Learning a language also involves learning a complex system of cultural
customs, values and ways of thinking, feeling or acting (Brown, 2000).
What are the implications of this to Language teachers? 1) Discuss cultural
differences emphasizing that no culture is better than another. 2) Consciously
connect culture and language. 3) Include among your techniques certain activities
or materials that illustrate the connection between language and culture. 4) Don't
be culturally offensive in the class. 5) Use appropriate language. Language
appropriateness depends on:
• setting of the communication
• topic
• relationship among the people communicating
• knowing what the taboos are
• what politeness indices are used
• what the politically correct term would be for something
• how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness, courtesy) is expressed

2. Self-Confidence This is self-esteem or "I can do it" principle. Success in learning a language
requires that the learners believe that they can learn it (Brown, 1994). "Learners' belief that
they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing a task is at least partially a factor in their
eventual success in attaining the task (Brown, 1994, p. 62). What should Language teachers
do?
 1) Give ample verbal and non-verbal assurances to students. Affirming students ability
helps a lot. 2) Sequence techniques from easier to difficult to build confidence. This means
building confidence of students by beginning with what they can easily do then bring them
up to something that continuously challenges their ability. Brown (1994) claims that the
"eventual success that learners attain in a task is at least partially a factor of their belief that
they indeed are fully capable of| accomplishing the task.“
3. Risk-Taking - Students who are self-confident take risks and accomplish more.
Experimenting with language slightly "beyond' what is certain or known promotes language
development and growth. What can Language teachers do to encourage both accuracy and risk
taking?
1) Carefully sequence techniques to ensure learner success. 2) Create an atmosphere in
the classroom that encourages students to try out language, venture a response. 3) Provide
reasonable challenges. 4) Return students' risky attempts with positive affirmation.
 4. Language Ego - Alexander Guiora, a researcher in personality variables in second
language acquisition, defines language ego as "the identity a person develops in reference to
the language he or she speaks." Brown (2007) notes that Oneself-identity is inextricably bound
up with one's language, for it is in the communicative process... that such identities are
confirmed, shaped, and reshaped." When students study a second language, they will
experience a sense of inadequacy when they run out of words or a feeling of uneasiness when
they cannot pronounce words correctly. The experience is heightened if they have been
monolingual all their life.
The new language may sound funny and students laugh at funny pronunciation or
mispronunciation during speaking tasks. Or students may feel silly or unable to learn the
language and so do not participate in language activities. Or the students may perceive the
learning of a second language to be tantamount to rendering their first language obsolete, an
affront to their native-language-based egos (Brown, 1994).
 In these instances, what should the Language teacher do? Brown (1994) suggests the
following: 1) Display supportive attitude to students. Explain that confusion of developing that
second self in the second culture is a normal and natural process. Patience and understanding
on your part will also ease the process. Choice of technique needs to be cognitively
challenging but not affectively overwhelming. 2) Considering leaners' language ego states,
know who to call on; who to ask volunteer information; when to correct a student 's speech
error, who to place in small groups or pairs and how "tough' you can be to a student.
Approaches, Methods and
Activities in Language
Teaching
History of the Methods of Language teaching
The methodological history of language teaching is described ‘changing winds and shifting
sands'.
Today's communicative language teaching (CLT) method came about after several other
language teaching methods waxed and waned. This does not mean, however, that the past
method is gone forever. Each new method departed from the old but took with it some of the
positive aspects of the previous practices. A perfect example of this cyclical nature of the
development of language teaching methods is the audiolingual method. The audiolingual
method broke away from the grammar translation method, but borrowed tenets from the direct
method, its predecessor. Brown puts succinctly: "Nothing is taken as gospel; nothing is thrown
out of court without being put to the test. This "test" may always change its mechanics, but
fact remains that the changing winds and shifting sands of time and research- are turning the
desert into a longed-for oasis" (Brown, 2004).
 The first method cited in the history of language teaching is the classic method which
became known later as the grammar translation method.

At the time, it was important to focus on grammatical rules, syntactic structures, along
with rote memorization of vocabulary and translation of literary texts. There was no provision
for the oral use of the languages under study; after all, both Latin and Greek were not being
taught for oral communication but for the sake of their speakers' becoming "scholarly "or
creating an illusion of "erudition" (Brown, 2004). This method contributed very little to
language learning since the focus was on a dissected bod of nouns, adjectives and prepositions,
doing nothing to enhance a student’s communicative ability in the foreign language (Brown,
2004).

Gouin and Berlits – The Direct Method

 Then came the Series method of Francois Gouin which taught learns directly a "series" of
connected sentences that are easy to understand Nevertheless, this approach to language learning
was short-lived and, only generation later, gave place to the Direct Method of Charles Berlitz. In
the Direct Method second language learning is similar to first language learning. In this light,
there should be lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and
little, if any, analysis of grammatical rules and syntactic structures.
The Audiolingual Method, otherwise known as the Army Method, because it was the method
used to teach the American army to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and
enemies alike at the outbreak of World War II was also introduced. The popularity of
Audiolingual Method, however, waned. It fell short of promoting communicative ability as it
paid undue attention to memorization and drilling, while downgrading the role of context and
world knowledge in language learning. Language was not acquired through a process of habit
formation.
 Then came the "Designer" Methods of the 1970s which gave attention to the "deep structure" of
language and on the affective and interpersonal nature of learning. As a result, new methods were
proposed, which attempted to capitalize on the importance of psychological factors in language
learning. David Nunan (1989:97) referred to these methods as "designer" methods, on the grounds
that they took a "one-size-fits-all" approach. These are Community Language Learning,
Suggestopedia, the Silent Way, Total Physical Response, the Natural Approach. You may have the
feeling that they are not methods! In fact the last one in the list is Natural Approach. The need for
communication has been relentless leading to the emergence of the Communicative Language
Teaching approach. It is an approach because it transcends the boundaries of concrete methods. It is a
theoretical position about the nature of language and language learning and teaching.
The basic premises and features of each of these language teaching methods lifted from Douglas
Brown are given in the succeeding pages.
 The Language Teaching Methods* 1. Grammar Translation Method (first known as
Classical method)- The characteristics are:
a. Classes are taught in the mother tongue with little active use of the target language.
b. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
c. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
d. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together and instruction often focuses on
the form and inflection of words.
e. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early
f. Little attention is paid to the content of texts which are treated as exercises in
grammatical analysis.
g. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target
language into the mother tongue
h. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation. This does not enhance students'
communicative ability in a language.
 2. The Direct Method- This is premised on the principle that second language learning
should be more like first language learning- lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the
language, no translation between first and second languages and little or no analysis of
grammatical rules. Below are the characteristics of the direct method:
a. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
b. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
c. Oral communication classes were built up in a carefully traded progression organized around
question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
d. Grammar was taught inductively.
e. New teaching points were taught through modeling and practice.
f. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects and pictures. Abstract
vocabulary was taught through association of ideas.
g. Both speech and listening were taught.
h. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized..
The Audiolingual Method (ALM)
3. It is based on behavioristic theory that advocated conditioning and habit- formation models of
leaning that were perfectly in keeping with mimicry drills and pattern practices of audiolingual
method.
The following are the characteristics of the ALM:
a)New material is presented in dialog form.
b)There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and overlearning
c)Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught at one time. d)Structural
patterns are taught using repetitive drills,
e)There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than
deductive explanation.
f)Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
8)There is much use of tapes, language labs and visual aids.
h)Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
i)Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
j) Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
k) There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.

Failure of ALM - t didn't teach long-term communicative proficiency. Its popularity waned.
language was not really learned through a process of habit formation and overlearning

4. The -Designer" Methods are products of multidisciplinary researches after ALM waned.

a) Community Language Learning (CCL)- This is an affectively-based method. This reflect Carl
Rogers' view of education in which learners a classroom are regarded as a "group" rather than a
"class" in need of certain therapy and counseling. This is how CCL goes.
 The group of clients (learners), having first established in their native language an interpersonal
relationship and trust, are seated in a circle with the counselor (teacher) on the outside of the circle. .
When one of the clients wants to say something to the group or to an individual he/she says it in the
native language (e.g. Tagalog) and the counselor translates the utterance back to the learner in the
second language (e.g. English). The learner then repeats the sentence as accurately as possible.
Another client responds and the utterance is translated by the counselor; the client repeats it and the
conversation continues.

An advantage of this CCL method is the threat of making mistakes in foreign language learning
in front of classmates are removed. However, this demands translation expertise on the part of the
counselor-teacher who may become highly non-directive when initially in language learning there is
need for learners to be directed.
b) Suggestopedia - This grew from Bulgarian psychologist Georgi Lozanov's view that the human
brain could process great quantities of material if simply given the right conditions for learning,
among which are a state of relaxation and giving over of control to the teacher. Baroque music was
central to this method because Lozanov believed that the soft playing of Baroque music increases
alpha brain waves and decreases blood pressure and pulse rate and so one can take in tremendous
quantities of material.

Below is a description of the concert portion session of a Suggestopedia language class:

 At the beginning of the session, all comversation stops for a minute or two. And the teacher
listens to the music coming from a tape recorder He waits and listens to several passages in order to
enter into the mood of the music and then begins to read or recite the new text, his voice modulated
in harmony with the musical phrases. The students follow the text in their textbooks where each
lesson is translated into the mother tongue. Between the first and second part of the concert, there
are several minutes of solemn silence. In some cases, even longer pauses can be given to permit the
students to stir a little. Before the beginning of the second part of the concert, there are again several
minutes of silence and some phrases of the music are heard again before the teacher begins to read
the text. Now the students close their textbooks and listen to the teacher 3 reading. At the end, the
students silently leave the room. They are not told to do any homework on the lesson they have just
had except for reading it cursorily once before going to bed and again before getting up in the
morning (Brown, 1994).
 Why the name suggestopedia? In this method, students become suggestible' because they are
encouraged to be as 'childlike' as possible, sometimes assuming the roles (and names) of native
speakers of the target language, yielding all authority to the teacher.

Suggestopedia was seen to be highly impractical in an educational system where there is dearth
of comfortable chairs and music. It is more of memorization and is, therefore, far from the
comprehensive process of language acquisition.

c) The Silent Way- This method capitalized on discovery learning. It is based on the following
learning theories:
Learning is facilitated:

(a) if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned.
(b) by accompanying physical objects
(c) by problem solving involving the material to be learned (Richards and Rodgers, 1986).