2019 REVISION COURSE ON BASIC

MEDICAL SCIENCES FOR

CANDIDATES PREPARING FOR
PRIMARY IN RADIOLOGY

RADIOACTIVITY & X-RAY PRODUCTION

BY
AKINLADE BI, PhD
LECTURER & MEDICAL PHYSICIST
UCH, IBADAN
OUTLINE

• The structure of an Atom

• Radioactivity & Radioactive Decay
• X-ray Production
• Properties and Application of X-ray
• X-ray emission spectrum
• Factors affecting X-ray spectrum
Not all atoms are stable (i.e. Nuclei may be
stable or unstable)
STABLE AND UNSTABLE NUCLIDES

• Nuclear stability depends on the n:p ratio

• Radioactive decay occurs when the number of neutrons is above or
below a theoretical line of nuclear stability
Too many
neutrons
for stability

Too many
protons
for stability
Too many or too few neutrons in the nucleus cause INSTABILITY of the atom
• Unstable atom seeks to become stable by breaking and emits energy as RADIATION.
The process is called RADIOACTIVITY and the Atom is said to be Radioactive

Isotopes of elements which are radioactive are called

RADIONUCLIDES
 RADIOACTIVITY

• Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of

the nucleus of an atom
• The conversion of mass to energy and emission of
energetic particles or electromagnetic radiations
• The actual event is referred to as radioactive
decay or transformation
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

• Any material that exhibits radioactivity

• May also be referred to as:
 Radionuclide
 Radioisotope

a
• Denoted by: X or X a
• Example 192Ir or Ir-192
HALF LIFE, T 1/2

• Radioactive decay process is spontaneous and random

• The time when a particular atom will decay is not known

• Fraction of atoms that will decay in a given time span can be specified

• Rate of decay can uniquely be identified by the quantity half-life

• Half- life is the time required for one half of the atoms present to decay
•The less stable an element is, the faster is the rate at
which it breaks to gives off ENERGY in form of
RADIATION.
•The time it takes for half of the radionuclide to decay is
called HALF LIFE.
•The half-life is measured in years (y), days (d), hours
(h), minutes (m) or seconds
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
It is impossible to know at what time a certain radioactive nucleus
will decay. It is, however possible to determine the probability l
of decay in a certain time. In a sample of N nuclei the number of
decays per unit time is then:

dN
 N
dt
-  t
N(t) = N 0  e
ln 2
T1/ 2 

 EXAMPLE

0.693t / T1 / 2
A  Ao e
If
Ao  50Ci
T1 / 2  74days
t  10months  300days
 0.693300 / 74  2.81
A  50  e e  3.033Ci
Calculations like this are done preferably with a computer for
different values of t. The series of values of A obtained form
what is called a decay chart
 ACTIVITY

• Quantity of radioactive materials present at a particular time is

expressed in terms of rate of decay at that time called Activity
• Activity is the number of disintegration per second.
• The unit of Activity is Becqeurel (Bq)
• Another unit is the Curie (Ci)
• 1 Ci = 3.7 * 1010 Bq
• Activity ↔ the strength of a radioactive material
 FORMS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Fission
The nucleus is divided into two parts, fission fragments. and
3-4 neutrons. Examples: Cf-252 (spontaneous), U-235 (induced)

a-decay
The nucleus emits an a-particle (He-4). Examples: Ra-226, Rn-222
Ra 222 2 
226 4
86 84 Rn+
b-decay
Too many neutrons results in b- -decay. n p++ e- + n.
Example: H-3, C-14, I-131.

Too many protons results in b+ -decay or electron capture (EC).

p+ n + e++ n or p+ + e- n+n
Examples: O-16, F-18 and I-125, Tl-201

γ-ray decay
not a primary mode of decay but always accompanies all types of decay.
DECAY SCHEME

• a graphical presentation of all the

transitions occurring in a decay, and
of their relationships.

• These relations can be quite

complicated; a simple case is shown
here: the decay scheme of the
radioactive element Co-60
Each transformation releases one beta (0.314 MeV)
and two gammas (1.173 MeV and 1.332 MeV)
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

• The earth is made of the different elements, about 100 in all.

• Among these are the primordial elements 238U, 232Th and 40K which are radioactive
with half-lives comparable with the age of the earth.
• They therefore still exist in small amounts in the earth, soil and rocks. Both 238U and
232
Th have long decay series with members (226Ra, 222Rn, 214Bi etc.), all of which are
radioactive.
• Natural potassium, an ubiquitous element in the soil, contains 0.0119% radioactive
K-40.
• Radiations emitted by these three elements and members of the decay chains present
within 15 – 30 cm topsoil reach the earth surface.
• Radiation emitted from the primordial elements and those from the galaxies formed
background radiation in our environment.
•X-RAY PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

• In late 1895, a German physicist, W. C. Roentgen was working with a cathode ray tube in

his laboratory.
• He was working with tubes similar to our fluorescent light bulbs.
• He evacuated the tube of all air, filled it with a special gas, and passed a high electric

voltage through it.

• When he did this, the tube produced a fluorescent glow.
• Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and found that a green colored fluorescent light could be seen
coming from a screen placed a few distance away from the tube.
• He realized that he had produced a previously unknown "invisible light," or ray, that was being emitted from the
tube:
• A ray that was capable of passing through heavy paper used to cover the tube.
INTRODUCTION

• Through additional experiments, he also found that the new ray passed through most
substances casting shadows of solid objects on pieces of film.
• He named the new ray X-ray, because in mathematics "X" is used to indicated the
unknown quantity.
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS

• X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation, similar to light but of shorter wavelength, high
frequency and capable of penetrating material medium.
• Its wavelengths range from about 10−8 to 10−12 m while its corresponding frequencies range from
about 1016 to 1020 hertz (Hz).
• X-ray is a wave but it also exhibits particle-like properties of matter (duality of matter)
• They can be described as a flow of photons carrying discrete amounts of energy and momentum.

• X-rays are ionizing radiation i.e. when interact with matter, they are energetic enough to cause
ejection of electrons from the atom
• Through this ionization process the energy of the X-rays is deposited in the matter
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS

• When passing through living tissue, X-rays can cause harmful biochemical changes in
genes, chromosomes and other cell components.
• These biological effects of ionizing radiation are complex and highly dependent on the
duration and intensity of exposure
• Radiation Oncologists take advantage of these effects to combat the growth of malignant
tumours.
 APPLICATIONS

• The unique properties of X-ray, that is, their ability to penetrate optically opaque materials,
their wavelengths of atomic dimension, the high energy of individual X-ray photons have led
to their wide range of industrial, medical, and scientific applications
• X-ray images of internal structure of the body are an indispensable diagnostic tool in modern
medicine
• As with other forms of ionizing radiation, X-rays cause biological changes in living cells.
• The resulting radiation-induced chemistry can break the molecular bonds needed for cell growth and
can induce genetic (DNA) damage

• X-ray diffraction techniques (or crystallography) are used for determination of crystal
structures in organic, inorganic, and biological materials
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS

• X rays are produced in a highly evacuated glass bulb, called an X-ray tube, that
contains essentially two electrodes namely,
• An anode made of platinum, tungsten, or another heavy metal of high melting point, and
• A cathode
• When the filament (cathode) is heated to a very high temperature, electrons boil out
in a process called thermionic emission
• When a high voltage is applied between the electrodes, streams of electrons (cathode
rays) are accelerated from the cathode to the anode and produce X rays as they strike
the anode (focal spot).
X-RAY TUBE
X-RAY PRODUCTION

• X-Rays produced in the anode of the x-ray tube are of two

types:
• Characteristic radiation
• Bremsstrahlung radiation
CHARACTERISTICS RADIATION

• High speed electron from cathode slams into +

target knocking out inner shell orbital electron
• Orbital electron removed from the atom L
• Immediately, Electrons from higher energy shells K
-
cascade down to fill the vacancy
~ +
~ +
• Inner shell has lower energy state + ~
• Energy difference between these shells is emitted as -
-
characteristic x-ray
CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION

L
K
• Consists only of discrete x-ray energies corresponding -
to energy difference between electron shells of target ~ +
~ +
+ ~
• Specific energies are characteristic of target material
- -
-
• For Tungsten, 59 keV corresponds to the difference in
energy between K and L shells
CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION

• The threshold energy required

for incident electron (from cathode) L
to eject orbital electron (from anode)K
-
= electron’s binding energy
~ +
~ +
+ ~

-
BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION

• Occurs as a result of interaction of moving electron from the

filament with the nucleus of target atom
• Positively charged nucleus causes moving electron (-ve charge)
L
to change speed/direction
K
• Thereby causes kinetic energy lost -
which is emitted in the form of ~ +
~ +
Bremsstrahlung x-ray + ~

- -
-
BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION

• Bremsstrahlung means braking radiation

L
• Moving electrons have many Bremsstrahlung K
-
reactions ~ +
~ +
• small amount of energy is lost with each reaction + ~

- -
-
BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION

• Energy lost by moving electron is random and depends on:

• Distance from nucleus
• Charge (Z) of nucleus
• Bremsstrahlung Energy Spectrum
• 0 - peak tube kilovoltage (kVp)
• most x-ray photons are low energy
• lowest energy photons are also present
• easily filtered by tube enclosures or added filtration
X-RAY BEAM INTENSITY/STRENGTH

• Product of
• No of photons in beam
• Energy per photon
• Units
• Roentgens (R) per unit time, R/sec
• Measure of rate of ionization in air
• Depends on
• Tube Voltage, kVp
• Tube Current, mA
• Target material
• Filtration
• Waveform
 BEAM INTENSITY AND EXPOSURE PARAMETERS

• Beam intensity is directly proportional to tube loading (mA and time)

• Beam Intensity is directly proportional to kVp2

+ filament
voltage
source
high
voltage
source
INTENSITY AND TARGET MATERIAL

• Higher target atomic no. results in greater x-ray

production efficiency
• higher positive charge of nucleus causes more Bremsstrahlung
• Discrete energies of characteristic radiation is
determined by anode material
• Energy differences between shells
• molybdenum used in mammography unit
• characteristic radiation of 17 & 19 keV
• Tungsten used in conventional unit
• characteristic radiation of 20 & 80 keV
X-RAY SPECTRUM

• Generally, x-ray emission spectrum consists of

• Characteristic radiation (spikes)
• Bremsstrahlung radiation (Continuous)
X-RAY SPECTRUM - CHARACTERISTIC

• Graphical representation of characteristic (discrete) and bremsstrahlung radiation

(continuous)
• Y axis represents x-ray quantity
• Shown on vertical axis
• Height of the curve
• Change in amplitude means change in quantity
• X axis represents x-ray quality (keV)
• Shown on horizontal axis
• Change in horizontal axis position means change in quality
X-RAY SPECTRUM - BREMSSTRAHLUNG

• Graphed as continuous spectrum (wide range of energies)

• Selected tube voltage (kVp) will determine maximum Energy (keV) possible for any
photon
• Minimum keV could be just above zero
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY SPECTRUM

Tube Loading, mAs

• Tube current/Milliamperage (mA)
• Milliamperage-seconds (mAs): mA x time
• Quantity, number of photons
• Amplitude of continuous and discrete spectra are affected
• No change in position

• Change in mA results in a proportionate change in the amplitude of the x-ray emission spectrum at
all energies.
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY SPECTRUM

Tube Voltage
• Kilovoltage (kVp)
• Quality, penetrability
• Amplitude and position of continuous spectrum are affected
• Amplitude of discrete spectrum is affected

• Change in kVp results in an increase in the amplitude of the emission spectrum at all energies, but
a greater increase at high energies than at low energies. Therefore, the spectrum is shifted to the
right or high-energy side.
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY SPECTRUM

Energy, keV
• This effect is similar to that of tube voltage
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY SPECTRUM

Anode atomic number

• Slight change in Amplitude of continuous spectrum
• Amplitude and position of discrete spectrum is affected
• Discrete emission spectrum shifts to the right with an
increase in the atomic number of the target material.
• The continuous spectrum increases slightly in amplitude, particularly to the high-energy
side, with an increase in target atomic number.
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY SPECTRUM

Voltage Waveform
• Amplitude and position of continuous spectrum is affected
• Amplitude of discrete spectrum is affected
• Three-phase and high-frequency operation are considerably

more efficient than single-phase operation.

• Both the x-ray intensity (area under the curve) and the

effective energy (relative shift to the right) are increased.

• Shown in the diagram are representative spectra for 92-kVp operations.
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY SPECTRUM

Filtration

• Filtration
• Inherent (Glass or metal envelope , Dielectric oil bath, Glass window of housing )
• O.5 mm Al equivalent
• Added (Any filtration outside x-ray tube and housing)
• Aluminum added between tube housing and collimator, silver on
Collimator mirror
• 1.0 mm Al equivalent each
• Total Filtration = Inherent + Added
• 2.5 mm Al equivalent
FACTORS AFFECTING X-RAY SPECTRUM

Filtration Contd.
• Purpose of added filtration is to remove low energy,

long wavelength photons

• Amplitude and position of continuous spectrum is affected
• Amplitude of discrete spectrum is affected
• Adding filtration to an x-ray tube results in reduced x-ray intensity

but increased effective energy.

• The emission spectra shown in the diagram resulted from operation at the same mA and kVp but with different
filtration
X-RAY BEAM FILTRATION
•Thank you for
your attention