农业：修订间差异
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小 清理跨語言連結气候变化对农业的影响成為內部連結:編輯摘要的紅色內部連結乃正常現象，經繁簡轉換後存在，非bot錯誤編輯 (本次機械人作業已完成56.4%) |
小 清理跨語言連結低密度聚乙烯成為內部連結:編輯摘要的紅色內部連結乃正常現象，經繁簡轉換後存在，非bot錯誤編輯 (本次機械人作業已完成59.2%) |
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'''农业'''属于[[第一产业|第一級產業]]，包括[[种植业|作物种植]]、[[畜牧业|畜牧]]、[[水產養殖|渔业养殖]]、[[林业]]等活动，负责[[主食|主]][[副食]]和[[经济作物]]供应。<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4476en|title=The State of Food and Agriculture 2021. Making agrifood systems more resilient to shocks and stresses|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|year=2021|isbn=978-92-5-134329-6|location=Rome|doi=10.4060/cb4476en|s2cid=244548456|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035811/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cb4476en|dead-url=no}}</ref>农业的主要产品是食物、[[纤维]]、[[能源]]和原材料（例如[[橡膠|橡胶]]），其中食物包括谷物、蔬菜、水果、[[食用油]]、肉类、[[奶制品]]、蛋和[[真菌|菌类]]。全球农业年产出约110亿吨食物<ref>{{Cite web|title=FAOSTAT. New Food Balance Sheets|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS|access-date=2021-07-12|website=FAO|archive-date=2011-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx#data/FBS|dead-url=no}}</ref>，3200万吨自然纤维<ref>{{Cite web|title=Discover Natural Fibres Initiative – DNFI.org|url=https://dnfi.org/|access-date=2023-02-03|website=dnfi.org|archive-date=2023-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410102509/https://dnfi.org/|dead-url=no}}</ref>和40亿立方米[[木材]]。<ref>{{Cite web|title=FAOSTAT. Forestry Production and Trade|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO|access-date=2021-07-12|website=FAO|archive-date=2011-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx#data/FO|dead-url=no}}</ref>不过，其中有14%的食物在到达零售环节之前被浪费。<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca6122en|title=In Brief: The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|year=2019|location=Rome|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-02-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203112756/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/ca6122en|dead-url=no}}</ref>自20世纪开始，基于[[單一耕作|单一作物种植]]的[[工業化農業|工业化农业]]开始成为世界农业产出的主要来源。
农业的出现是[[文明|人类文明]]转向定居形式的里程碑，借
现代[[农学|农业技术]]、[[植物配種|植物育种]]、农业化学产品（例如[[殺蟲劑|杀虫剂]]和[[肥料|化肥]]）的发展显著增加了作物产量，但也引发了诸多生态与环境问题。[[人工選擇|选择育种]]和现代畜牧业技术发展增加了肉类制品产量，但也引发了[[動物福利|动物福利]]和环境忧虑。上述环境问题包括[[全球变暖|气候变化]]、[[含水层|地下含水层]]枯竭、[[森林砍伐]]、[[抗生素抗藥性|抗生素耐药性]]和农业相关污染。农业既是[[环境退化]]的原因，也深受其影响，[[生物多樣性|生物多样性]]丧失、[[沙漠化|荒漠化]]、[[土壤退化作用|土壤退化]]、气候变化等因素都会降低作物产量。進入21世紀後，[[可持續農業]]的比例漸漸提高，包括[[樸門]]和[[有機農業]]，著重在生態平衡與就近百里飲食。[[遗传修饰生物体|转基因作物]]被广泛使用，但也有部分国家{{Le|基因工程监管|Regulation of genetic engineering|禁止此类作物种植}}。
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=== 起源 ===
{{Main|新石器革命}}得益于农业发展，世界人口数量相比[[狩獵採集|狩猎采集]]时代有了显著增长。<ref name="Bocquet-Appel">{{cite journal |author=Bocquet-Appel, Jean-Pierre |date=2011-07-29 |title=When the World's Population Took Off: The Springboard of the Neolithic Demographic Transition |journal=Science |volume=333 |issue=6042 |pages=560–561 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..560B |doi=10.1126/science.1208880 |pmid=21798934 |s2cid=29655920}}</ref>农业独立起源于多个地区<ref name="Stephens 897–902">{{Cite journal |last1=Stephens |first1=Lucas |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian |last3=Boivin |first3=Nicole |last4=Rick |first4=Torben |last5=Gauthier |first5=Nicolas |last6=Kay |first6=Andrea |last7=Marwick |first7=Ben |last8=Armstrong |first8=Chelsey Geralda |last9=Barton |first9=C. Michael |date=2019-08-30 |title=Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use |journal=Science |volume=365 |issue=6456 |pages=897–902 |bibcode=2019Sci...365..897S |doi=10.1126/science.aax1192 |issn=0036-8075 |hdl=10150/634688 |pmid=31467217 |s2cid=201674203 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>，根据[[分類單元|分类单元]]至少可归为11个[[起源中心]]。<ref name="Larson2014">{{cite journal |last1=Larson |first1=G. |last2=Piperno |first2=D. R. |last3=Allaby |first3=R. G. |last4=Purugganan |first4=M. D. |last5=Andersson |first5=L. |last6=Arroyo-Kalin |first6=M. |last7=Barton |first7=L. |last8=Climer Vigueira |first8=C. |last9=Denham |first9=T. |last10=Dobney |first10=K. |last11=Doust |first11=A. N. |year=2014 |title=Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies |journal=PNAS |volume=111 |issue=17 |pages=6139–6146 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6139L |doi=10.1073/pnas.1323964111 |pmc=4035915 |pmid=24757054 |doi-access=free |last12=Gepts |first12=P. |last13=Gilbert |first13=M. T. P. |last14=Gremillion |first14=K. J. |last15=Lucas |first15=L. |last16=Lukens |first16=L. |last17=Marshall |first17=F. B. |last18=Olsen |first18=K. M. |last19=Pires |first19=J.C. |last20=Richerson |first20=P. J. |last21=Rubio De Casas |first21=R. |last22=Sanjur |first22=O.I. |last23=Thomas |first23=M. G. |last24=Fuller |first24=D.Q.}}</ref>早在10.5万年前，人们就已开始采集并食用野生谷物。<ref name=":9">{{cite magazine|last1=Harmon|first1=Katherine|date=2009-12-17|title=Humans feasting on grains for at least 100,000 years|url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/humans-feasting-on-grains-for-at-least-100000-years/|magazine=Scientific American|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917013143/http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/humans-feasting-on-grains-for-at-least-100000-years/|archive-date=2016-09-17|access-date=2016-08-28|url-status=live}}</ref>在23,000年前新石器时代的[[黎凡特]]，人们开始在[[加利利海]]附近种植[[二粒小麦]]、[[大麦]]和[[燕麦]]。<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Snir |first1=Ainit |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Groman-Yaroslavski |first3=Iris |last4=Melamed |first4=Yoel |last5=Sternberg |first5=Marcelo |last6=Bar-Yosef |first6=Ofer |last7=Weiss |first7=Ehud |date=2015-07-22 |title=The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0131422 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1031422S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4511808 |pmid=26200895 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title=First evidence of farming in Mideast 23,000 years ago: Evidence of earliest small-scale agricultural cultivation|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150722144709.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423041305/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150722144709.htm|archive-date=2022-04-23|access-date=2022-04-23|website=ScienceDaily|language=en}}</ref>中国先民于13,500-8200年驯化了[[水稻]]，已知最早耕种时间距今约7,700年<ref name=":12">{{cite journal |last1=Zong |first1=Y. |last2=When |first2=Z. |last3=Innes |first3=J. B. |last4=Chen |first4=C. |last5=Wang |first5=Z. |last6=Wang |first6=H. |year=2007 |title=Fire and flood management of coastal swamp enabled first rice paddy cultivation in east China |journal=Nature |volume=449 |issue=7161 |pages=459–462 |bibcode=2007Natur.449..459Z |doi=10.1038/nature06135 |pmid=17898767 |s2cid=4426729}}</ref>，而后[[绿豆]]、[[大豆]]、[[紅豆|红豆]]也在此区域驯化。[[美索不达米亚]]人于13,000
=== 古代文明 ===
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在中国地区，公元前5世纪开始出现[[穀倉|谷仓]]建筑，以及以获取[[丝绸]]为目的的[[蠶業|蚕业]]。<ref name=":22">[[农业#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 6, Part 2, pp. 55–57.</ref>公元1世纪开始使用水磨<ref name=":23">[[农业#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 4, Part 2, pp. 89, 110, 184.</ref>和水利灌溉<ref name=":24">[[农业#Needham|Needham]], Vol. 4, Part 2, p. 110.</ref>，公元2世纪晚期开始出现带有金属犁铧和犁板的重型犁<ref name="greenberger 2006 11-12">Greenberger, Robert (2006) ''The Technology of Ancient China'', Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 11–12. {{ISBN|1404205586}}</ref><ref name=":25">Wang Zhongshu, trans. by K. C. Chang and Collaborators, ''Han Civilization'' (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982).</ref>，随后这些技术向西在欧亚大陆传播。<ref name=":26">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA270|author=Glick, Thomas F.|page=270|title=Medieval Science, Technology And Medicine: An Encyclopedia|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-415-96930-7|series=Volume 11 of The Routledge Encyclopedias of the Middle Ages Series|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035807/https://books.google.com/books?id=SaJlbWK_-FcC&pg=PA270|dead-url=no}}</ref>借助[[分子鐘|基因分子钟]]估算，亚洲水稻的驯化时间大约在8,200-13,500年前<ref name="pnas1">{{Cite journal |last1=Molina |first1=J. |last2=Sikora |first2=M. |last3=Garud |first3=N. |last4=Flowers |first4=J. M. |last5=Rubinstein |first5=S. |last6=Reynolds |first6=A. |last7=Huang |first7=P. |last8=Jackson |first8=S. |last9=Schaal |first9=B. A. |last10=Bustamante |first10=C. D. |last11=Boyko |first11=A. R. |year=2011 |title=Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=20 |pages=8351–8356 |bibcode=2011PNAS..108.8351M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1104686108 |pmc=3101000 |pmid=21536870 |doi-access=free |last12=Purugganan |first12=M. D.}}</ref>，驯化地点位于中国西南部的[[珠江]]流域，原始物种为[[野生稻]]。<ref name="nature1">{{cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Xuehui |last2=Kurata |first2=Nori |last3=Wei |first3=Xinghua |last4=Wang |first4=Zi-Xuan |last5=Wang |first5=Ahong |last6=Zhao |first6=Qiang |last7=Zhao |first7=Yan |last8=Liu |first8=Kunyan |last9=Lu |first9=Hengyun |last10=Li |first10=Wenjun |last11=Gu |first11=Yunli |display-authors=8 |year=2012 |title=A map of rice genome variation reveals the origin of cultivated rice |journal=Nature |volume=490 |issue=7421 |pages=497–501 |bibcode=2012Natur.490..497H |doi=10.1038/nature11532 |pmc=7518720 |pmid=23034647 |doi-access=free |last12=Lu |first12=Yiqi |last13=Zhou |first13=Congcong |last14=Fan |first14=Danlin |last15=Weng |first15=Qijun |last16=Zhu |first16=Chuanrang |last17=Huang |first17=Tao |last18=Zhang |first18=Lei |last19=Wang |first19=Yongchun |last20=Feng |first20=Lei |last21=Furuumi |first21=Hiroyasu |last22=Kubo |first22=Takahiko |last23=Miyabayashi |first23=Toshie |last24=Yuan |first24=Xiaoping |last25=Xu |first25=Qun |last26=Dong |first26=Guojun |last27=Zhan |first27=Qilin |last28=Li |first28=Canyang |last29=Fujiyama |first29=Asao |last30=Toyoda |first30=Atsushi}}</ref>[[古希腊]]和[[古罗马]]种植的主要谷物为小麦、二粒小麦和大麦，蔬菜包括豌豆、大豆和[[油橄欖|橄榄]]，绵羊和山羊养殖主要是为获取奶制品。<ref name="koester 1995 p76-77">Koester, Helmut (1995), ''History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age'', 2nd edition, Walter de Gruyter, pp. 76–77. {{ISBN|3-11-014693-2}}</ref><ref name="White">White, K. D. (1970), ''Roman Farming''. Cornell University Press.</ref>
[[File:Tomb_of_Nakht_(2).jpg|left|thumb|古埃及壁画中的农业活动场景，公元前15世纪
中美洲驯化的谷物有[[南瓜]]、大豆、[[可可樹|可可]]<ref name="Murphy2011">{{cite book|author=Murphy, Denis|title=Plants, Biotechnology and Agriculture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etQsieKuRH8C&pg=PA153|year=2011|publisher=CABI|isbn=978-1-84593-913-7|page=153|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035817/https://books.google.com/books?id=etQsieKuRH8C&pg=PA153|dead-url=no}}</ref>，其中可可是由居住在[[亚马孙河]]上游的{{Le|馬由-欽奇佩文化|Mayo-Chinchipe}}先民驯化，时间大约在公元前3,000年。<ref name=":27">{{cite news|last1=Davis|first1=Nicola|title=Origin of chocolate shifts 1,400 miles and 1,500 years|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/oct/29/origin-of-chocolate-shifts-1400-miles-and-1500-years-cacao-ecuador|access-date=2018-10-31|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2018-10-29|archive-date=2018-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030234709/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/oct/29/origin-of-chocolate-shifts-1400-miles-and-1500-years-cacao-ecuador|url-status=live}}</ref>[[火雞|火鸡]]可能在墨西哥或美洲西南部驯化。<ref name="Speller">{{cite journal |last1=Speller |first1=Camilla F. |display-authors=etal |date=2010 |title=Ancient mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals complexity of indigenous North American turkey domestication |journal=PNAS |volume=107 |issue=7 |pages=2807–2812 |bibcode=2010PNAS..107.2807S |doi=10.1073/pnas.0909724107 |pmc=2840336 |pmid=20133614 |doi-access=free}}</ref>中美洲[[阿茲特克|阿茲特克人]]发展了灌溉系统，在山坡上耕作[[梯田]]，为土壤施肥，建造人工[[奇南帕|浮田]]和人工岛。生活在美洲中部的[[瑪雅文明|玛雅人]]从公元前400年开始大量建造人工河道，以在沼泽地带开拓农田。<ref name=":28">{{cite journal |author=Mascarelli, Amanda |date=2010-11-05 |title=Mayans converted wetlands to farmland |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101105/full/news.2010.587.html |url-status=live |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/news.2010.587 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423014836/https://www.nature.com/news/2010/101105/full/news.2010.587.html |archive-date=2021-04-23 |access-date=2013-05-17}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{cite journal |author=Morgan, John |date=2013-11-06 |title=Invisible Artifacts: Uncovering Secrets of Ancient Maya Agriculture with Modern Soil Science |journal=Soil Horizons |volume=53 |issue=6 |page=3 |doi=10.2136/sh2012-53-6-lf |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Spooner 2005 14694–99">{{cite journal |last1=Spooner |first1=David M. |last2=McLean |first2=Karen |last3=Ramsay |first3=Gavin |last4=Waugh |first4=Robbie |last5=Bryan |first5=Glenn J. |year=2005 |title=A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]] |volume=102 |issue=41 |pages=14694–14699 |bibcode=2005PNAS..10214694S |doi=10.1073/pnas.0507400102 |pmc=1253605 |pmid=16203994 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="online">{{cite book|author=Office of International Affairs|title=Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation|date=1989|url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030904264X&page=92|work=nap.edu|isbn=978-0-309-04264-2|page=92|doi=10.17226/1398|access-date=2018-04-01|archive-date=2012-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202134137/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=030904264X&page=92|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="John Michael Francis 2005">{{cite book|author=Francis, John Michael|title=Iberia and the Americas|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA867|isbn=978-1-85109-426-4|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035809/https://books.google.com/books?id=OMNoS-g1h8cC&pg=PA867|dead-url=no}}</ref>古柯由南美洲[[安第斯山脉]]先民驯化，在同一地区驯化的作物还有[[花生]]、[[番茄]]、[[烟草]]和[[菠萝]]。<ref name="Murphy2011" />棉花在公元前3,600年的[[秘鲁]]驯化<ref name="Broudy1979 p81">{{cite book|last=Broudy|first=Eric|title=The Book of Looms: A History of the Handloom from Ancient Times to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC&pg=PA81|year=1979|publisher=UPNE|isbn=978-0-87451-649-4|page=81|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035756/https://books.google.com/books?id=shN5_-W1RzcC&pg=PA81|dead-url=no}}</ref>，同在此地驯化的动物还包括羊驼、大羊驼、豚鼠。<ref name="RischkowskyPilling2007">{{cite book|last1=Rischkowsky|first1=Barbara|last2=Pilling|first2=Dafydd|title=The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture|url={{google books|plainurl=y|id=Skpj197tU0oC|page=10 }}|year=2007|publisher=Food & Agriculture Organization|isbn=978-92-5-105762-9|page=10}}</ref>北美东部原住民驯化了[[向日葵]]、烟草<ref name=":30">{{cite journal |last1=Heiser |first1=Carl B. Jr. |year=1992 |title=On possible sources of the tobacco of prehistoric Eastern North America |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_current-anthropology_1992-02_33_1/page/54 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=33 |pages=54–56 |doi=10.1086/204032 |s2cid=144433864}}</ref>、南瓜和[[藜属]]作物<ref name=":31">{{cite book|author=Ford, Richard I.|page=75|title=Prehistoric Food Production in North América|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeuzAAAAIAAJ|year=1985|publisher=University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology, Publications Department|isbn=978-0-915703-01-2|access-date=2019-04-23|archive-date=2020-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309085458/https://books.google.com/books?id=eeuzAAAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":32">Adair, Mary J. (1988) ''Prehistoric Agriculture in the Central Plains.'' Publications in Anthropology 16. University of Kansas, Lawrence.</ref>，人们也从野外采集野生稻米和[[枫糖]]。<ref name="Smith2013">{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Andrew|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|year=2013|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-973496-2|page=1|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035806/https://books.google.com/books?id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1|dead-url=no}}</ref>人工驯化的[[草莓]]源自智利和北美野生物种的杂交，后由欧洲与北美人进一步驯化。<ref name=":33">{{cite web|last1=Hardigan|first1=Michael A.|title=P0653: Domestication History of Strawberry: Population Bottlenecks and Restructuring of Genetic Diversity through Time|url=https://pag.confex.com/pag/xxvi/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/28409|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164429/https://pag.confex.com/pag/xxvi/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/28409|archive-date=2018-03-01|access-date=2018-02-28|publisher=Pland & Animal Genome Conference XXVI 13–17 January 2018 San Diego, California}}</ref>北美西南部和[[太平洋西北地区]]原住民[[森林園藝|种植树林]]，并有计划的引燃林火。原住民会控制树林火势，将其限制在特定区域，借此创造有利于[[永續農業|农业持续发展]]的{{Le|林火生态|Fire ecology}}。<ref name=":34">{{cite book|title=Fire in California's Ecosystems|url=https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi|url-access=limited|editor1=Sugihara, Neil G.|editor2=Van Wagtendonk, Jan W.|editor3=Shaffer, Kevin E.|editor4=Fites-Kaufman, Joann|editor5=Thode, Andrea E.|publisher=University of California Press|year=2006|page=[https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi/page/n433 417]|chapter=17|isbn=978-0-520-24605-8}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{cite book|editor=Blackburn, Thomas C.|editor2=Anderson, Kat|year=1993|title=Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians|publisher=Ballena Press|isbn=978-0-87919-126-9}}</ref><ref name="Cunningham2010">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135|pages=135, 173–202|last=Cunningham|first=Laura|title=State of Change: Forgotten Landscapes of California|publisher=Heyday|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59714-136-9|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035821/https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135|dead-url=no}}</ref><ref name=":36">{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=M. Kat|title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge And the Management of California's Natural Resources|url=https://archive.org/details/tendingwildnativ0000ande|url-access=registration|publisher=University of California Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-520-24851-9}}</ref>北美原住民还发展了一种名为“{{Le|三姐妹 (农业)|Three Sisters (agriculture)|三姐妹}}”的{{Le|同伴种植|Companion planting}}系统，这三种作物为{{Le|冬南瓜|Winter squash}}、玉米和[[荷包豆]]。<ref name="wilson">{{cite book|title=Agriculture of the Hidatsa Indians: An Indian Interpretation|last=Wilson|first=Gilbert|year=1917|publisher=Dodo Press|isbn=978-1-4099-4233-7|pages=25 and passim|url=http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press|ref=wilson1917|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314055513/http://www.bookdepository.com/publishers/Dodo-Press|archive-date=2016-03-14}}</ref><ref name="landon">{{cite journal |last=Landon |first=Amanda J. |year=2008 |title=The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro |url-status=live |journal=Nebraska Anthropologist |pages=110–124 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054240/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro |archive-date=2013-09-21 |access-date=2018-04-01}}</ref>
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=== 近现代 ===
[[File:Crescenzi_calendar.jpg|thumb|意大利人{{Le|彼得羅·德爾·克雷森齊|Pietro de' Crescenzi}}于公元1470年创作的农业日历
相比罗马时期，[[中世纪|中世纪欧洲]]人更注重农业的自给自足。农业人口在[[封建制度 (歐洲)|封建制度]]下组织成大型庄园，这些庄园通常有上百英亩土地，土地所有者一般是[[天主教會|罗马天主教会]]及其牧师。<ref name="NatGeographic2015">{{cite book|author=National Geographic|title=Food Journeys of a Lifetime|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2Q5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|year=2015|publisher=[[National Geographic Society]]|isbn=978-1-4262-1609-1|page=126|access-date=2023-02-28|archive-date=2023-04-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413035806/https://books.google.com/books?id=h2Q5BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126|dead-url=no}}</ref>得益于
15世纪[[克里斯托弗·哥伦布|哥伦布发现美洲]]后，旧大陆与新大陆之间[[哥倫布大交換|交换了大量农业产品]]，美洲大陆的玉米、马铃薯、番茄、番薯、[[木薯]]等作物传入欧洲，而旧世界的小麦、大麦、稻米、[[芜菁]]等作物，以及马、牛、绵羊、山羊等牲畜传入新大陆。<ref name=":41">{{cite web|author=Crosby, Alfred|title=The Columbian Exchange|url=http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703092537/http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange|archive-date=2013-07-03|access-date=2013-05-11|publisher=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History}}</ref>
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== 类型 ==
[[File:Reindeer_herding.jpg|thumb|生活在[[北极地区]]的牧民和他们的牧群
[[File:Unload_wheat_by_the_combine_Claas_Lexion_584.jpg|thumb|使用[[联合收割机]]收割小麦。|left]]
[[游牧]]是畜牧的一种形式，牧民依据不同时间草场、饲料和水源变化，定期迁徙牧群。这种农业形式主要分布在[[撒哈拉地区|撒哈拉]]干旱与半干旱地区、[[中亚]]，以及印度部份区域。<ref>{{cite book|last=Blench|first=Roger|title=Pastoralists in the new millennium|publisher=FAO|date=2001|pages=11–12|url=http://www.odi.org.uk/work/projects/pdn/eps.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201000745/http://www.odi.org.uk/work/projects/pdn/eps.pdf|archive-date=2012-02-01}}</ref>
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=== 现状 ===
自20世纪以来，[[集約農業|集约农业]]大量提高了粮食产量。如今，小型[[农场]]的食物产出约占世界总量的三分之一，但大型农场正变得十分普遍。占据前1%大小的农场平均面积超过50公顷，所管理的土地面积占所有[[耕地]]面积70%。将近40%的耕地属于面积超过1,000公顷的巨型农场。不过，六分之五的农场面积仍小于2公顷。<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Lowder |first1=Sarah K. |last2=Sánchez |first2=Marco V. |last3=Bertini |first3=Raffaele |date=2021-06-01 |title=Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated? |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X2100067X |language=en |volume=142 |pages=105455 |doi=10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455 |issn=0305-750X |s2cid=233553897 |access-date=2023-02-28 |archive-date=2023-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216070721/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X2100067X |dead-url=no }}</ref>化肥和杀虫剂等化学产品有助于农业产出，却也造成了水污染问题。如今，农业面临的主要问题是[[土壤退化作用|土壤退化]]与植物疾病（例如[[稈銹病|秆锈病]]）<ref>{{cite web|title=Wheat Stem Rust – UG99 (Race TTKSK)|url=http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107064545/http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/|archive-date=2014-01-07|access-date=2014-01-06|publisher=FAO}}</ref>，世界上大约40%的耕地已严重退化。<ref>Sample, Ian (31 August 2007). [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food "Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429094959/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food|date=2016-04-29}}, ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=2006-12-14|title=Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025|work=Mongabay|url=http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html|url-status=dead|access-date=2016-07-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127175559/http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html|archive-date=2011-11-27}}</ref>鉴于传统农业带来的诸多环境问题，人们开始寻找替代方法，例如[[有機農業|有机农业]]、{{Le|可再生农业|Regenerative agriculture}}或是[[永續農業|永续农业]]。<ref name="motherjones1" /><ref>{{cite web|author=Scheierling, Susanne M.|year=1995|title=Overcoming agricultural pollution of water: the challenge of integrating agricultural and environmental policies in the European Union, Volume 1|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605112426/http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936|archive-date=2013-06-05|access-date=2013-04-15|publisher=The World Bank}}</ref>[[欧洲联盟|欧盟]]是农业改革的主要推动者，它于1991年开始认证[[有機食品|有机食品]]，并在2005年修改了[[共同農業政策|共同农业政策]]，取消了农业补贴与特定商业作物的联系。<ref>{{cite web|year=2003|title=CAP Reform|url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101017124251/http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm|archive-date=2010-10-17|access-date=2013-04-15|publisher=European Commission}}</ref>有机农业的发展也促成了一些旧有研究领域的复兴，例如{{Le|综合虫害管理|Integrated pest management}}、选择育种<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Poincelot|first1=Raymond P.|title=Toward a More Sustainable Agriculture|chapter=Organic Farming|pages=14–32|doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-1506-3_2|year=1986|isbn=978-1-4684-1508-7}}</ref>、{{Le|控制环境农业|Controlled-environment agriculture}}。<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.agweek.com/business/agriculture/4527042-cutting-edge-technology-will-change-farming|title=The cutting-edge technology that will change farming|work=Agweek|date=2018-11-09|access-date=2018-11-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117020138/http://www.agweek.com/business/agriculture/4527042-cutting-edge-technology-will-change-farming|archive-date=2018-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|author=Charles, Dan|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/11/02/561462293/hydroponic-veggies-are-taking-over-organic-and-a-move-to-ban-them-fails|title=Hydroponic Veggies Are Taking Over Organic, And A Move To Ban Them Fails|work=[[全国公共广播电台|NPR]]|date=2017-11-03|access-date=2018-11-24|archive-date=2018-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124055050/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/11/02/561462293/hydroponic-veggies-are-taking-over-organic-and-a-move-to-ban-them-fails|url-status=live}}</ref>然而，也有人担忧有机农业相对较低的产量可能会危机全球[[粮食安全]]。<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Knapp |first1=Samuel |last2=van der Heijden |first2=Marcel G. A. |date=2018-09-07 |title=A global meta-analysis of yield stability in organic and conservation agriculture |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=3632 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-05956-1 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=6128901 |pmid=30194344}}</ref>与此相关的科学研究包括[[基因改造食品|转基因食品]]的生产制作。<ref>[http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf GM Science Review First Report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016100707/http://www.bis.gov.uk/files/file15655.pdf|date=2013-10-16}}, Prepared by the UK GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman David King, p. 9</ref>
[[File:Agricultural_output_of_China.svg|thumb|中华人民共和国自1961年来的农业产值趋势（以2015年的美元价值估算）]]
截至2015年，中华人民共和国的农业产出居世界首位，其次是欧盟、印度和美国。<ref name=UNCTAD2017>{{cite web |url=http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95 |title=UNCTADstat – Table view |access-date=2017-11-26 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020072414/http://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=95 |archive-date=2017-10-20}}</ref>经济学家估算如今美国农业的[[全要素生产率]]约为1948年的1.7倍。<ref>{{cite web|date=2012-07-05|title=Agricultural Productivity in the United States|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/agproductivity/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130201021133/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/AgProductivity/|archive-date=2013-02-01|access-date=2013-04-22|publisher=USDA Economic Research Service}}</ref>
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=== 劳动力 ===
农业提供了全球大约四分之一的劳动岗位，[[撒哈拉以南非洲]]有超过一半的人口从事农业，而在部分低收入国家这一比例甚至超过60%。<ref>{{Cite web|year=2021|title=World Bank. 2021. Employment in agriculture (% of total employment) (modeled ILO estimate)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS|access-date=2021-05-12|website=The World Bank|place=Washington, DC|archive-date=2019-10-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007214142/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS|dead-url=no}}</ref>随着社会发展，许多农业人口会转向其它行业，而新技术的运用也允许农业在降低劳动力的情况下维持充足产量。<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Michaels |first1=Guy |last2=Rauch |first2=Ferdinand |last3=Redding |first3=Stephen J. |date=2012 |title=Urbanization and Structural Transformation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23251993 |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=535–586 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjs003 |issn=0033-5533 |jstor=23251993 |access-date=2023-03-01 |archive-date=2023-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203112755/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23251993 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gollin |first1=Douglas |last2=Parente |first2=Stephen |last3=Rogerson |first3=Richard |date=2002 |title=The Role of Agriculture in Development |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3083394 |journal=The American Economic Review |volume=92 |issue=2 |pages=160–164 |doi=10.1257/000282802320189177 |issn=0002-8282 |jstor=3083394 |access-date=2023-03-01 |archive-date=2023-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203112750/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3083394 |dead-url=no }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=W. Arthur |date=1954 |title=Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1954.tb00021.x |journal=The Manchester School |language=en |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=139–191 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9957.1954.tb00021.x |issn=1463-6786 |access-date=2023-03-01 |archive-date=2023-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203112755/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9957.1954.tb00021.x |dead-url=no }}</ref>随时间推移，从事农业的人口比例会逐步降低。<ref>{{Cite web|title=FAOSTAT: Employment Indicators: Agriculture|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home|access-date=2022-02-06|website=FAO|publication-place=Rome|publication-date=2022|archive-date=2016-11-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112130804/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home|dead-url=no}}</ref>
[[File:Transition_from_agriculture_to_developed_economy.svg|thumb|随着经济发展，[[克拉克大分类法|三级产业]]中的农业（最左侧的绿色数据）占比逐渐降低
在16世纪的欧洲，大约有55-75%的人口从事农业，而到了19世纪，則下降至35-65%。<ref>{{cite journal |author=Allen, Robert C. |title=Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800 |url=http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=European Review of Economic History |volume=3 |pages=1–25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141027195415/http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf |archive-date=2014-10-27}}</ref>如今，这些国家的农业人口低于10%。<ref name="LaborForce">{{cite web|title=Labor Force – By Occupation|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522214333/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html|archive-date=2014-05-22|access-date=2013-05-04|website=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>在20世纪初，全世界有约三分之一的人口从事农业，总人数大约10亿人。这占到全球儿童劳动力的70%，农业在许多国家也是女性从业比例最高的行业。<ref name=ILO>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/codes/WCMS_161135/lang--en/index.htm |title=Safety and health in agriculture |publisher=International Labour Organization |access-date=2018-04-01 |date=2011-03-21 |archive-date=2018-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318105845/http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/codes/WCMS_161135/lang--en/index.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>从2007年起，[[第三产业|服务业]]取代了农业成为全球从业人口最多的行业。<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279|title=Services sector overtakes farming as world's biggest employer: ILO|agency=Associated Press|date=2007-01-26|access-date=2013-04-24|newspaper=The Financial Express|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013062206/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279|archive-date=2013-10-13}}</ref>
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=== 气候变化影响 ===
{{Main|[[气候变化对农业的影响]]}}
[[File:Winnowing_The_Grain,_Axum,_Ethiopia_(Detail)_(3157508890).jpg|thumb|[[埃塞俄比亚]]农民在[[揚穀|扬谷]]：全球暖化可能会对低纬度地区（例如埃塞俄比亚）农业产量造成影响
农业与全球范围内的[[全球变暖|气候变化]]紧密相关。[[全球变暖的效应|全球暖化]]改变了四季均温、[[降水]]、并引发[[極端天氣|极端天气]]（例如风暴和[[热浪]]）；影响作物疾病和昆虫活动；改变大气[[二氧化碳]]和地表[[臭氧]]浓度；改变部分食物的营养价值<ref name="science-news">{{cite news|last=Milius|first=Susan|date=2017-12-13|title=Worries grow that climate change will quietly steal nutrients from major food crops|work=Science News|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/nutrition-climate-change-top-science-stories-2017-yir|access-date=2018-01-21|archive-date=2019-04-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423165315/https://www.sciencenews.org/article/nutrition-climate-change-top-science-stories-2017-yir|url-status=live}}</ref>；导致[[海平面上升]]。<ref>Hoffmann, U., Section B: Agriculture – a key driver and a major victim of global warming, in: Lead Article, in: Chapter 1, in {{cite book|url=http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666|title=Trade and Environment Review 2013: Wake up before it is too late: Make agriculture truly sustainable now for food security in a changing climate|publisher=United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)|year=2013|editor=Hoffmann, U.|location=Geneva, Switzerland|pages=3, 5|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128140551/http://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=666|archive-date=2014-11-28}}</ref>全球暖化已对各地农业造成影响，影响程度因地理位置不同而有差异。<ref name="porter summary">Porter, J. R., ''et al.''., Executive summary, in: [http://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf Chapter 7: Food security and food production systems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105164634/https://ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf|date=2014-11-05}}(archived ), in {{cite book|author=IPCC AR5 WG2 A|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/|title=Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II (WG2) to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|editor=Field, C. B.|pages=488–489|display-editors=etal|access-date=2018-03-26|archive-date=2014-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416051047/http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/|url-status=live}}</ref>未来的气候变化可能导致[[热带|低纬度地区]]粮食产量降低，而对[[纬度|北纬]]地区的影响可能混合有积极与消极影响。<ref name="porter summary" />这些影响可能危及部分弱势群体（例如[[貧窮|穷人]]）的粮食安全。<ref>Paragraph 4, in: Summary and Recommendations, in: {{cite book|author=HLPE|url=http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/|title=Food security and climate change. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts (HLPE) on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security|date=June 2012|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|location=Rome, Italy|page=12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141212075812/http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-hlpe/reports/hlpe-food-security-and-climate-change-report-elaboration-process/en/|archive-date=2014-12-12}}</ref>
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=== 植物配种 ===
{{Main|植物配種}}
[[File:Wheat selection k10183-1.jpg|left|thumb|可种植在高[[鹽度|盐度]]环境的小麦品种（左）与普通小麦（右）的对比
人类-{zh-hans:通过;zh-tw:經由}-配种来筛选植物理想性状的实践已有数千年历史。在作物后代选育的过程中，一些特定的性状被保留并得到了增强，例如更大的果实、抗旱抗虫性等。得益于19世纪奥地利生物学家[[孟德爾|孟德尔]]关于[[显性|显隐性基因]]的研究，人类对植物遗传和配种有了更深入的理解，致使植物配种技术的進展頗為可觀。作物配种方法包括筛选理想性状、{{Le|自花授粉|Self-pollination}}、异花授粉，以及在分子层面修改遗传基因。<ref>{{cite web|date=2004-01-29|title=History of Plant Breeding|url=http://www.cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/history.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121061931/http://cls.casa.colostate.edu/TransgenicCrops/history.html|archive-date=2013-01-21|access-date=2013-05-11|publisher=Colorado State University}}</ref>
在过去几个世纪，驯化作物的产量显著增加，抗旱与抗虫性提升，并更易于收割，营养价值也有提升。1950年代，在[[X射线]]和[[紫外线]][[突變原|诱变]]技术的帮助下，诞生了首批现代商业作物，例如小麦、玉米和大麦的特殊物种。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stadler |first=L. J. |author2=Sprague, G.F. |date=1936-10-15 |title=Genetic Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation in Maize: I. Unfiltered Radiation |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=572–578 |bibcode=1936PNAS...22..572S |doi=10.1073/pnas.22.10.572 |pmc=1076819 |pmid=16588111 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024233407/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/22/10/579.pdf |archive-date=2007-10-24 |access-date=2007-10-11 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Berg|first=Paul|author2=Singer, Maxine|title=George Beadle: An Uncommon Farmer. The Emergence of Genetics in the 20th century|url=https://archive.org/details/georgebeadleunco0000berg|url-access=registration|publisher=Cold Springs Harbor Laboratory Press|date=2003-08-15|isbn=978-0-87969-688-7}}</ref>
[[File:Seedlings_in_Green_House.jpg|thumb|种植在[[溫室|温室]]中用作植物配种的幼苗
20世纪中叶的[[绿色革命]]促进了作物[[雜交種|杂交种]]的普及，由此创造的“高产品种”极大提升了粮食产量。例如，美国在20世纪初的玉米产量为每公顷2.5吨，到21世纪初则提升到每公顷9.4吨。世界范围内小麦产量也从20世纪初的每公顷1吨，提升到20世纪90年代的每公顷2.5吨。其中南美洲平均小麦产量为每公顷2吨，非洲不到每公顷1吨，埃及和阿拉伯在灌溉下可达到每公顷3.5-4吨，而法国每公顷甚至超过8吨。上述产量差距源于气候、作物基因和农业技术的差异，其中技术差异包括化肥和杀虫剂的使用，生长控制避免倒伏等。<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ruttan |first=Vernon W. |date=December 1999 |title=Biotechnology and Agriculture: A Skeptical Perspective |url=http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n1/v2n1a10-ruttan.pdf |url-status=live |journal=AgBioForum |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=54–60 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521021149/http://www.agbioforum.org/v2n1/v2n1a10-ruttan.pdf |archive-date=2013-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Cassman |first=K. |date=1998-12-05 |title=Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: The Challenge of increasing crop yield potential and precision agriculture |url=http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |url-status=dead |journal=Proceedings of a National Academy of Sciences Colloquium, Irvine, California |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024001804/http://www.lsc.psu.edu/nas/Speakers/Cassman%20manuscript.html |archive-date=2007-10-24 |access-date=2007-10-11}}</ref><ref>Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat=60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg. 1 bushel of maize=56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg</ref>
=== 基因工程 ===
{{Main|基因工程|转基因作物}}
[[File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_382_Genetically_Modified_Potatoes.jpg|thumb|相比普通马铃薯（右），经[[转基因作物|基因改造]]的马铃薯（左）可抵抗病毒疾病
[[遗传修饰生物体|基因改造生物]]是指由[[分子克隆|基因重组技术]]而被修改遗传材料的生物体。基因工程扩大了育种者可选择的范围，作物可借这项技术获得更强的环境耐性，更高的营养价值，抗病与抗虫性，对除草剂的抗性等。<ref>{{cite web|title=20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods|url=https://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130327015739/http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/index.html|archive-date=2013-03-27|access-date=2013-04-16|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref>不过，基因改造生物也引发了部分群体的担忧，有人认为这些作物可能存在未知的安全问题。一些国家限制基因改造生物的生产或进口<ref>{{cite web|author=Whiteside, Stephanie|date=2012-11-28|title=Peru bans genetically modified foods as US lags|url=http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324013255/http://current.com/groups/news-blog/93975745_peru-bans-genetically-modified-foods-as-us-lags.htm|archive-date=2013-03-24|access-date=2013-05-07|publisher=Current TV}}</ref>，国际协定《{{Le|卡塔黑納生物安全議定書|Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety}}》也限制了这类产品的贸易。各地关于转基因食品的标签有不同规定，例如欧盟要求转基因食品必须有标注，而美国则没有这类要求。<ref>{{cite book|author=Shiva, Vandana|title=Earth Democracy: Justice, Sustainability, and Peace|publisher=South End Press|location=Cambridge, MA|year=2005}}</ref>
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=== 影响与损失 ===
[[File:Water_pollution_in_the_Wairarapa.JPG|thumb|新西兰一处因农业活动造成的[[水污染]]
农业即是[[环境退化]]的原因，也深受其影响。诸如
上述环境影响带来的损失包括化学物质对自然环境的伤害、营养流失、水资源浪费，以及生态环境破坏。根据2000年的一项估计，英国在1996年因农业造成的经济损失约为134.3亿英镑，相當於每公顷土地损失208英镑。<ref name="Pretty2000">{{cite journal |last1=Pretty |first1=J. |last2=Brett |first2=C. |last3=Gee |first3=D. |last4=Hine |first4=R. E. |last5=Mason |first5=C. F. |last6=Morison |first6=J. I. L. |last7=Raven |first7=H. |last8=Rayment |first8=M. D. |last9=Van Der Bijl |first9=G. |display-authors=1 |year=2000 |title=An assessment of the total external costs of UK agriculture |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222549141 |url-status=live |journal=Agricultural Systems |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=113–136 |doi=10.1016/S0308-521X(00)00031-7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113233847/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222549141 |archive-date=2017-01-13 |doi-access=free}}</ref>而根据另一项2005年的分析，美国因农业种植造成的经济损失约为50-160亿美元，约合每公顷30-96美元，而畜牧业造成的损失则为7.14亿美元。<ref name="Tegtmeier2005">{{cite journal |last1=Tegtmeier |first1=E. M. |last2=Duffy |first2=M. |year=2005 |title=External Costs of Agricultural Production in the United States |url=http://www.organicvalley.coop/fileadmin/pdf/ag_costs_IJAS2004.pdf |url-status=live |journal=The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Agriculture |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205134016/http://www.organicvalley.coop/fileadmin/pdf/ag_costs_IJAS2004.pdf |archive-date=2009-02-05}}</ref>这两项研究都关注了农业造成的外部成本，并认为有必要将这些成本内化，以更好地衡量其真实的社会与环境成本。这两项分析研究都未将[[農業補貼|农业补贴]]考虑在内，但它们也提到农业补贴也可对农业活动的社会成本造成影响。<ref name="Pretty2000" /><ref name="Tegtmeier2005" />
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=== 畜牧业环境问题 ===
[[File:Biogas.jpg|thumb|[[厭氧消化|厌氧消化]]设施可将废弃植物和家畜粪便转化为[[生物燃氣|生物燃气]]
联合国高级官员亨宁·斯坦菲尔德曾表示，畜牧驯养是引发环境问题的最主要因素之一。<ref>{{cite web|date=2006-11-29|title=Livestock a major threat to environment|url=http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080328062709/http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html|archive-date=2008-03-28|access-date=2013-04-24|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization}}</ref>畜牧业用地占农业总用地面积的70%，或占总陆地面积30%。其为最主要的[[温室气体]]排放源头，占[[温室气体排放|全球总排放]]的18%，相比之下，所有交通工具的温室气体排放只占总排放的13.5%。畜牧业还产生了大量[[一氧化二氮]]气体，占总排放的65%，这类气体的暖化效应是二氧化碳的296倍，此外也产生了37%的[[甲烷]]、64%的[[氨]]。畜牧业扩张被认为是造成[[森林砍伐]]的主要原因。[[亞馬遜盆地|亚马孙盆地]]中70%被砍伐的森林转变为了牧场，剩余的也被用作种植饲料，<ref name="LEAD">{{cite web|last1=Steinfeld|first1=H.|last2=Gerber|first2=P.|last3=Wassenaar|first3=T.|last4=Castel|first4=V.|last5=Rosales|first5=M.|last6=de Haan|first6=C.|year=2006|title=Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental issues and options|url=http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625012113/http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf|archive-date=2008-06-25|access-date=2008-12-05|publisher=U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization|location=Rome}}</ref>生物多样性也受此影响。根据[[联合国环境署]]的声明，如果依照当前的增长趋势，至2030年全球{{Le|甲烷排放|Methane emissions}}将增长60%。<ref name="unep.org" />
=== 土地与水资源问题 ===
{{Seealso|{{le|灌溉的环境影响|Environmental effects of irrigation}}}}
[[File:Crops_Kansas_AST_20010624.jpg|left|thumb|位于美国[[堪薩斯州|堪萨斯州]]的灌溉土地，其中绿色的为生长良好的[[玉米]]和[[高粱屬|高粱]]农田（高粱颜色略浅），金色的是[[小麦]]，最近被收割、耕种或休耕的土地为灰色
人类对土地的转化，也即把自然土地转变为农业生产服务用地，可对地球[[生态系统]]造成巨大影响，并引发
农业活动可能造成[[水域生态系统]][[富营养化]]，从而引致[[水华]]或[[缺氧水體|消耗水体氧气]]，导致{{Le|鱼类死亡|Fish kill}}、生物多样性丧失，受污染水体也不再适合饮用或工业用途。种植土地上过度使用化肥与粪肥，或过高密度的畜牧业可造成养分随[[地表逕流|地表径流]]流入水体，这些污染物属于{{Le|非点源污染|Nonpoint source pollution}}，是导致水域生态系统富营养化和[[地下水]]污染的主要因素。<ref name="Eutr">{{cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=S. R. |last2=Caraco |first2=N. F. |last3=Correll |first3=D. L. |last4=Howarth |first4=R. W. |last5=Sharpley |first5=A. N. |last6=Smith |first6=V. H. |year=1998 |title=Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_ecological-applications_1998-08_8_3/page/559 |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=559–568 |doi=10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0559:NPOSWW]2.0.CO;2 |hdl=1808/16724 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>化肥的过度使用也会让陆地上部份物种获得过度生存优势，从而导致生物多样性降低。<ref name="Hautier Niklaus Hector">{{cite journal |last1=Hautier |first1=Y. |last2=Niklaus |first2=P. A. |last3=Hector |first3=A. |date=2009 |title=Competition for Light Causes Plant Biodiversity Loss After Eutrophication |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/18666/2/Hautier_2009.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Science |type=Submitted manuscript |volume=324 |issue=5927 |pages=636–638 |bibcode=2009Sci...324..636H |doi=10.1126/science.1169640 |pmid=19407202 |s2cid=21091204 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102011324/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/18666/2/Hautier_2009.pdf |archive-date=2018-11-02 |access-date=2018-11-03}}</ref>
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=== 可持续性 ===
{{Main|永續農業}}
[[File:TerracesBuffers.JPG|thumb|美国[[艾奥瓦州|爱荷华州]]的一个农场，其采用了[[梯田]]、[[耕作#保护耕作|保护耕作]]、保护缓冲区等方式降低土壤侵蚀与水污染
由于水资源短缺、土壤侵蚀和肥力降低等因素的影响，现行的农业实践已不可持续。因此，必须重新考虑农业生产与水、土地和[[生态系统]]之间的关系。其中一个解决方向是赋予生态系统实际价值，认识农业生产活动消耗的生态成本，并平衡各方利益。<ref>{{cite web|year=2011|editor-last=Boelee|editor-first=E.|title=Ecosystems for water and food security|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/topics/ecosystems/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523025920/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Topics/Ecosystems/|archive-date=2013-05-23|access-date=2013-05-24|publisher=IWMI/UNEP}}</ref>但是，这些措施也可能会导致不平等，例如水资源的分配失衡（富裕群体获得更多资源）、将土地强制转化为更具生产力的农业活动、或保护[[湿地]]而限制渔业权利等问题。<ref>{{cite web|last=Molden|first=D.|title=Opinion: The Water Deficit|url=http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news_room/pdf/The-scientist_com-Opinion_The%20Water_Deficit.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113125654/http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/news_room/pdf/The-scientist_com-Opinion_The%20Water_Deficit.pdf|archive-date=2012-01-13|access-date=2011-08-23|publisher=The Scientist}}</ref>
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=== 能源消耗 ===
[[File:Baumwoll-Erntemaschine_auf_Feld.jpeg|left|thumb|[[农业机械化]]从20世纪40年代开始发展，类似[[采棉机]]的机械可替代50个工人劳作，但代价是增加了化石燃料消耗
自20世纪40年代以来，机械化的广泛应用以及化肥和杀虫剂产业的发展使全球农业产量有了大幅增长。<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html|title=World oil supplies are set to run out faster than expected, warn scientists|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101021233714/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/world-oil-supplies-are-set-to-run-out-faster-than-expected-warn-scientists-453068.html|archive-date=2010-10-21|work=[[The Independent]]|date=2007-06-14|access-date=2016-07-14}}</ref>1960年代至1980年代的[[绿色革命]]将农业技术推广到全球各地，使农业产量进一步增长（不同地区小麦产量增长60%至390%，水稻产量增长60%至150%）<ref>{{cite web|last=Herdt|first=Robert W.|date=1997-05-30|title=The Future of the Green Revolution: Implications for International Grain Markets|url=http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/06132caf-3d72-49e4-817d-ae89e0249d18.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019153636/http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/06132caf-3d72-49e4-817d-ae89e0249d18.pdf|archive-date=2012-10-19|access-date=2013-04-16|publisher=The Rockefeller Foundation|page=2}}</ref>，[[世界人口|全球人口]]数量翻了一倍。但是，对[[化石燃料]]的过度依赖也引发了部分人对未来能源短缺的担忧，这可能会增加农业成本并影响农业产出。<ref name="ncseonline.org">{{cite web|last=Schnepf|first=Randy|date=2004-11-19|title=Energy use in Agriculture: Background and Issues|url=http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/crs/RL32677.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190908/http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/wp-content/uploads/assets/crs/RL32677.pdf|archive-date=2013-09-27|access-date=2013-09-26|website=CRS Report for Congress|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]}}</ref>
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=== 塑料污染 ===
{{Main|塑料污染|{{le|农用塑料|Plasticulture}}}}
塑料在农业中应用广泛，用途包括增加作物产量，优化水资源和化学产品利用率。常见的农业塑料产品包括：覆盖温室的塑料薄膜、覆盖土壤的[[地膜]]（用于抑制杂草生长、保水保温、增加肥料利用率）、遮光材料、杀虫剂包装、育苗盆、保护网和灌溉管道等。这些塑料产品的主要成分包括
农业中使用的塑料产品总量难以估计。一项2012年的研究表明，全球每年使用的塑料总量约为650万吨，预计到2015年，这个数字将增加至730-900万吨。农业中大量使用地膜，即用于覆盖土壤的塑料薄膜。这些塑料因天气影响而快速老化，最终会分解成微小碎片混入自然环境。这些塑料碎片可能在土壤中堆积，有研究表明每公顷土地中的薄膜碎片可能多达50-260千克，其中许多已存在于土壤中十多年。这些塑料是环境中大颗粒塑料和[[微塑料|塑料微粒]]的主要来源。<ref name=":0" />
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=== 农业经济学 ===
{{Main|農業經濟學}}
农业经济学是一门应用[[经济学]]，关注农业产品与服务的生产、分配和销售。<ref>{{cite web|title=Agricultural Economics|url=http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401181613/http://www.uidaho.edu/cals/aers/agriculturaleconomics|archive-date=2013-04-01|access-date=2013-04-16|publisher=University of Idaho}}</ref>该学科始于19世纪末，是农业和[[市场经济|市场经济学]]的结合，自20世纪开始得到广泛应用。<ref>{{cite web|last=Runge|first=C. Ford|date=June 2006|title=Agricultural Economics: A Brief Intellectual History|url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13649/1/wp06-01.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021133005/http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/13649/1/wp06-01.pdf|archive-date=2013-10-21|access-date=2013-09-16|publisher=Center for International Food and Agriculture Policy|page=4}}</ref>尽管这门学科相对较新，但历史上农业对于国家和国际经济的一直都有重大影响，从[[南北战争|美国内战]]后的南方的[[佃農|佃农]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Conrad|first=David E.|title=Tenant Farming and Sharecropping|url=http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/t/te009.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527204119/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/T/TE009.html|archive-date=2013-05-27|access-date=2013-09-16|website=Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture|publisher=Oklahoma Historical Society}}</ref>，到欧洲的[[封建制度 (歐洲)|封建]][[庄园]]经济<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YjJc_c4BxsC|title=Medieval Castles|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|last=Stokstad|first=Marilyn|isbn=978-0-313-32525-0|year=2005|access-date=2016-03-17|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516160241/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=_YjJc_c4BxsC&hl=en|page=43|archive-date=2022-05-16}}</ref>，这些都可以从农业经济学的视角得到解释。粮食的处理、分配和农业营销称为“价值链”，相比过去，这些成本有所上升，而农业生产成本却在下降。其原因在于农业产品加工的复杂性增加（也即更高的{{Le|附加價值|Value added}}），以及农业生产效率的提高。农业市场集中度也在增加。更加集中的市场有助于提高效率，并导致[[經濟剩餘|经济剩余]]在生产者（农民）和消费者之间的再分配，但也可能对乡村社区产生负面影响。<ref name="Sexton2000">{{cite journal |last=Sexton |first=R. J. |year=2000 |title=Industrialization and Consolidation in the US Food Sector: Implications for Competition and Welfare |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-agricultural-economics_2000-12_82_5/page/1087 |journal=American Journal of Agricultural Economics |volume=82 |issue=5 |pages=1087–1104 |doi=10.1111/0002-9092.00106}}</ref>
政府施行的各种政策，如税收、补助、关税等，可对农产品市场产生显著影响。<ref name="LloydCroserAnderson2013">{{cite web|last1=Lloyd|first1=Peter J.|last2=Croser|first2=Johanna L.|last3=Anderson|first3=Kym|date=March 2009|title=How Do Agricultural Policy Restrictions to Global Trade and Welfare Differ across Commodities?|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605125346/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/4101/WPS4864.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2013-06-05|access-date=2013-04-16|website=Policy Research Working Paper #4864|publisher=The World Bank|pages=2–3}}</ref>自20世纪60年代以来，贸易壁垒、[[匯率制度|汇率制度]]和农业补贴的综合作用对全球农民产生了深远影响。在20世纪80年代，由于[[農業補貼|农业补贴]]导致的人为降低农产品价格，为无补贴的[[发展中国家]]农民带来了不利影响。从1980年代中期到21世纪初，一些国际协议对农业关税、补贴和其他贸易限制作出了约束。<ref>{{cite web|last1=Anderson|first1=Kym|last2=Valenzuela|first2=Ernesto|date=April 2006|title=Do Global Trade Distortions Still Harm Developing Country Farmers?|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8699/wps3901.pdf?sequence=1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605145451/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/8699/wps3901.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=2013-06-05|access-date=2013-04-16|website=World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3901|publisher=[[World Bank]]|pages=1–2}}</ref>
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