Article contents
Information Operations and the Question of Illegitimate Interference under International Law
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 16 June 2020
Abstract
The article examines the legal qualification of state-led information operations that aim to undermine democratic decision-making processes in other states. After a survey of the legal attitudes of states towards such operations during the Cold War, the impact of the digital transformation on the frequency and quality of information operations is explained. The article assesses scholarly responses to the outlined paradigm shift regarding the prohibition of intervention, respect for sovereignty, and the principle of self-determination. The study then inquires whether it is possible to detect a change in how states qualify adversarial information operations by tracking recent state practice and official statements of opinio juris. The survey concludes that there is insufficient uniformity to allow for an inference that the content of the analysed rules of customary international law has already shifted towards more restrictive treatment of foreign interference. As a possible way forward, the article ends with a proposal to focus on deceptive and manipulative conduct of information operations as the most viable path to outlaw such state behaviour in the future. Instead of attempting to regulate the content of information, this approach is better suited to safeguard freedom of speech and other potentially affected civil rights.
Keywords
- Typ
- Artikel
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © Cambridge University Press and The Faculty of Law, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 2020
Footnotes
The author would like to thank the Israel Public Policy Institute and the Heinrich Böll Stiftung in Tel Aviv for funding the research as part of the ‘European-Israeli Dialog on Policies for the Post-Truth Era: Disinformation in the Digital Public Sphere’, and the research staff of the Lipkin-Shahak Program at the Institute for National Security Studies at Tel Aviv University, in particular, David Siman-Tov, Pnina Shuker and Itai Brun.
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72 Nye (n 24).
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77 Sean Watts, ‘International Law and Proposed U.S. Responses to the D.N.C. Hack’, Just Security, 14 October 2016, https://www.justsecurity.org/33558/international-law-proposed-u-s-responses-d-n-c-hack; Jamnejad and Wood (n 39) 367.
78 Tsagourias (n 62).
79 Schmitt (n 27) 51.
80 Steven J Barela, ‘Cross-Border Cyber Ops to Erode Legitimacy: An Act of Coercion’, Just Security, 12 January 2017, https://www.justsecurity.org/36212/cross-border-cyber-ops-erode-legitimacy-act-coercion.
81 ibid.
82 Barela (n 22).
83 See Raynova (n 50) 6.
84 Nicaragua (n 51) 205.
85 Baade (n 48) 1363.
86 ibid 1364.
87 Nye (n 24).
88 ibid.
89 Baade (n 48) 1364.
90 Dominik Steiger, ‘International Law and New Challenges to Democracy in the Digital Age: Big Data, Privacy and Interferences with the Political Process’ in Norman Witzleb, Janice Richardson and Moira Peterson (eds), Big Data, Political Campaigning and the Law: Privacy and Democracy in the Age of Micro-Targeting (2019) 22, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3430035.
91 Schmitt (n 27) 51.
92 Tsagourias, Nicholas, ‘Electoral Cyber Interference, Self-Determination and the Principle of Non-Intervention in Cyberspace’ in Broeders, Dennis and van den Berg, Bibi (eds), Governing Cyberspace: Behaviour, Power and Diplomacy (Rowman & Littlefield 2020 forthcoming) 14Google Scholar, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3438567; see also Harriet Moynihan, ‘The Application of International Law to State Cyberattacks: Sovereignty and Non-Intervention’, Chatham House Research Paper, December 2019, 41–42.
93 Jens D Ohlin, ‘Election Interference: The Real Harm and the Only Solution’, Cornell Law School Research Paper 18–50, 2018, 7.
94 Tsagourias (n 62).
95 Island of Palmas (Netherlands v US) 2 RIAA 829, 838 (1928).
96 Schmitt (n 27) 40.
97 For a good overview see Moynihan (n 92) 9.
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102 Ministère des Armées de la République Française, ‘Droit International Appliqué aux Opérations dans le Cyberspace’, 2019, 6–7.
103 Schmitt (n 27) 45; see also Moynihan (n 92) 42–43.
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110 Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action (Beacon Press 1981).
111 Bayer and others (n 2) 61–62.
112 Tsagourias (n 62).
113 ibid.
114 Ohlin (n 93) 10.
115 ibid 12–13.
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121 Schmitt (n 27) 55–57; similarly Steiger (n 90).
122 Thürer and Burri (n 108) 22.
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127 North Sea Continental Shelf (Germany v Denmark and the Netherlands), Judgment [1969] ICJ Rep 1, [44].
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130 ibid 126–27.
131 In this sense explicitly Ohlin (n 93) 24–26.
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135 North Sea Continental Shelf (n 127) dissenting opinion of Judge Tanaka, [181].
136 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (entered into force 27 January 1980) 1155 UNTS 331 (VCLT).
137 Weisburd (n 133) 295.
138 Ministère des Armées (n 102) 5.
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142 Letter dated 9 January 2015 from the Permanent Representatives of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General (13 January 2015), UN Doc A/69/723.
143 ibid.
144 ibid para 2(3).
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146 Osgood (n 32).
147 ‘Russia Tells Google Not To Advertise “Illegal” Events after Election Protests’, Reuters, 11 August 2019, https://reut.rs/2pBdVDy.
148 Steven Lee Myers, ‘In Hong Kong Protests, China Angrily Connects Dots Back to U.S.’, The New York Times, 5 September 2019.
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152 Jessica Brandt and Joshua Rudolph, ‘A New National Security Framework for Foreign Interference’, Just Security, 27 September 2019, https://www.justsecurity.org/66357/a-new-national-security-framework-for-foreign-interference.
153 See Shane (n 23).
154 Egan (n 139).
155 ‘Japan Plans To Take Steps against “Fake News” by June’, The Japan Times, 14 January 2019, http://bit.ly/2PImnvf.
156 Ministère des Armées (n 102); Government of the Netherlands, ‘Letter to the Parliament on the International Legal Order in Cyberspace’, 5 July 2019, https://www.government.nl/ministries/ministry-of-foreign-affairs/documents/parliamentary-documents/2019/09/26/letter-to-the-parliament-on-the-international-legal-order-in-cyberspace.
157 Wright (n 101).
158 See below.
159 European Commission, ‘Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The European Council, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Europe in May 2019: Preparing for a More United, Stronger and More Democratic Union in an Increasingly Uncertain World’, 30 April 2019, 22, http://bit.ly/2pCaGf8.
160 European Commission, ‘A Europe that Protects: The EU Steps Up Action Against Disinformation’, Press Release, 5 December 2018, https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-18-6647_en.htm.
161 Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the Protection of Natural Persons with regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC (General Data Protection Regulation) [2016] OJ L 119/1.
162 Ursula von der Leyen, ‘A Union that Strives for More: My Agenda for Europe’, 2019, 21, http://bit.ly/2NBaNzv.
163 G7, ‘Charlevoix Commitment on Defending Democracy from Foreign Threats’, 9 June 2018, https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000373846.pdf.
164 G7, ‘Defending Democracy: Addressing Foreign Threats’, 23 April 2018, http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/foreign/180423-democracy.html.
165 G7, ‘Foreign Ministers Joint Communiqué’, 23 April 2018, http://www.g8.utoronto.ca/foreign/180423-communique.html.
166 G7, ‘Foreign Ministers Communiqué’, 6 April 2019, http://www.g7.utoronto.ca/foreign/190406-communique.html.
167 ‘“Foreign Country” Intends to Intervene in Israeli Elections, Shin Bet Chief Says’, Ha'aretz, 8 January 2019, http://bit.ly/2C8lZhN.
168 See Ruth Levush, ‘Initiatives to Counter Fake News in Selected Countries: Israel’, The Law Library of Congress, April 2019, 41, 44.
169 ‘Australia Passes Foreign Interference Laws amid China Tension’, BBC News, 28 June 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-44624270.
170 Gareth Hutchens, ‘Brandis Reveals Plans to Curb “Unprecedented” Foreign Influence on Politics’, The Guardian, 14 November 2017.
171 Egan (n 139).
172 Radsan, A John, ‘The Unresolved Equation of Espionage and International Law’ (2007) 28 Michigan Journal of International Law 595Google Scholar, 601 et seq; but see critically Beim, Jared, ‘Enforcing a Prohibition on International Espionage’ (2018) 18 Chicago Journal of International Law 647Google Scholar.
173 ILC (n 129) 132.
174 For this see, eg, Rebecca J Cook and Lisa M Kelly, ‘Polygyny and Canada's Obligations under International Human Rights Law’, Department of Justice Canada, 2006 (analysing national attitudes towards polygyny in order to derive a rule of customary human rights law).
175 Beim (n 172) 653.
176 See Rachel Blundy, ‘Tactics to Fight Disinformation in Thailand, Indonesia, Japan, The Philippines and India’, Global Ground Media, 23 April 2019, https://www.globalgroundmedia.com/2019/04/23/tactics-to-fight-disinformation-in-thailand-indonesia-japan-the-philippines-and-india; Emma Goodman, ‘The Online Harms White Paper: Its Approach to Disinformation, and the Challenges of Regulation’, LSE Media Policy Project Blog, 10 April 2019, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/medialse/2019/04/10/the-online-harms-white-paper-its-approach-to-disinformation-and-the-challenges-of-regulation; Peter Roudik, ‘Initiatives to Counter Fake News in Selected Countries: Comparative Summary’, The Law Library of Congress, April 2019, https://www.loc.gov/law/help/fake-news/index.php.
177 Bradshaw, Neudert and Howard (n 73) 8.
178 ‘Vietnam Unveils 10,000-Strong Cyber Unit to Combat “Wrong Views”’, Reuters, 4 January 2018, http://bit.ly/2C9LTS6.
179 Bradshaw, Neudert and Howard (n 73) 8.
180 Nick Bonyhady, ‘Australian Anti-Foreign Interference Laws a Model for Singapore’, The Sydney Morning Herald, 5 March 2019.
181 Daniel Funke and Daniela Flamini, ‘A Guide to Anti-Misinformation Actions Around the World’, Poynter, 2019, https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/anti-misinformation-actions.
182 ‘Singapore “Fake News” Law Set to Come into Force on Wednesday, Reuters, 1 October 2019, https://reut.rs/2WDWzC8.
183 Salil Tripathi, ‘Singapore: Laboratory of Digital Censorship’, NYR Daily, 19 July 2019, https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2019/07/19/singapore-laboratory-of-digital-censorship.
184 Lucas Robinson, ‘Fake News Persists in Argentina as Election Draws Near’, Buenos Aires Times, 14 September 2019, https://www.batimes.com.ar/news/argentina/fake-news-persists-in-argentina-as-election-draws-near.phtml.
185 Melanie Ehrenkranz, ‘Brazil's Federal Police Says It Will “Punish” Creators of “Fake News” Ahead of Elections’, Gizmodo, 10 January 2018, https://gizmodo.com/brazil-s-federal-police-says-it-will-punish-creators-of-1821945912.
186 US Department of Justice, Justice Manual, Title 9: Criminal, 9-90.730 – Disclosure of Foreign Influence Operations, September 2018, https://www.justice.gov/jm/jm-9-90000-national-security#9-90.730.
187 FBI, ‘What We Investigate’ (undated), https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/counterintelligence/foreign-influence.
188 US Government Publication Office, ‘National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019’, 13 August 2018, https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/5515/text.
189 Alina Polyakova and Daniel Fried, ‘Democratic Defense Against Disinformation 2.0’, Atlantic Council, 2019, 9, https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Democratic_Defense_Against_Disinformation_2.0.pdf.
190 Standing Senate Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs, ‘Controlling Foreign Influence in Canadian Elections’, June 2017, 2, http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2017/sen/yc24-0/YC24-0-421-17-eng.pdf.
191 Funke and Flamini (n 181).
192 Polyakova and Fried (n 189) 7.
193 ‘Government Announces Anti-Fake News Unit’, BBC News, 23 January 2018.
194 Funke and Flamini (n 181).
195 ibid.
196 Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency, ‘If Crisis or War Comes: Important Information for the Population of Sweden’, May 2018, 12.
197 Polyakova and Fried (n 189) 5.
198 Davey Alba and Sheera Frenkel, ‘Russia Tests New Disinformation Tactics in Africa to Expand Influence’, The New York Times, 30 October 2019.
199 Abed Kataya, ‘Do New Sudanese Laws Regulate Digital Space or Limit Freedom of Expression?’, SMEX, 23 July 2018, https://smex.org/do-new-sudanese-laws-regulate-digitalspace-or-limit-freedom-of-expression.
200 Besson (n 124) 121.
201 ILC (n 129) 136.
202 eg, for the US, Coppins (n 21).
203 See Casey Michel, ‘The Kremlin's California Dream’, Slate, 4 May 2017, https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2017/05/why-russia-cultivates-fringe-groups-on-the-far-right-and-far-left.html; Michael Carpenter, ‘Russia Is Co-opting Angry Young Men’, The Atlantic, 29 August 2018, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2018/08/russia-is-co-opting-angry-young-men/568741.
204 Alex Pascal and Tim Hwang, ‘War Is as War Does: World Order and the Future of Conflict’, Just Security, 26 August 2019, https://www.justsecurity.org/65959/war-is-as-war-does-world-order-and-the-future-of-conflict; on this concept more generally see Malcolm Chalmers, ‘Which Rules? Why There Is No Single “Rules-Based International System”’, Royal United Services Institute, April 2019, https://rusi.org/sites/default/files/201905_op_which_rules_why_there_is_no_single_rules_based_international_system_web.pdf.
205 Raynova (n 50) 7.
206 Adam Segal, ‘The Development of Cyber Norms at the United Nations Ends in Deadlock. Now What?’, Council on Foreign Relations, 29 June 2017, https://www.cfr.org/blog/development-cyber-norms-united-nations-ends-deadlock-now-what.
207 Moynihan (n 92) 55.
208 Andy Greenberg, ‘The Wired Guide to Cyberwar’, Wired, 23 August 2019, https://www.wired.com/story/cyberwar-guide.
209 Raynova (n 50) 7.
210 Noah Feldman, ‘Free Speech in Europe Isn't What Americans Think’, Bloomberg, 19 March 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2017-03-19/free-speech-in-europe-isn-t-what-americans-think; Michael Chertoff, ‘Fake News and the First Amendment’, Harvard Law Review Blog, 10 November 2017, https://blog.harvardlawreview.org/156-2.
211 Quinn Mulholland, ‘Fighting Words: The Free Speech Fundamentalists’, Harvard Political Review, 6 April 2018, https://harvardpolitics.com/columns-old/fightwords1.
212 Chertoff (n 210).
213 Pomerantsev (n 3).
214 See Sally Adee, ‘The Global Internet Is Disintegrating. What Comes Next?’, BBC Future, 15 May 2019, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20190514-the-global-internet-is-disintegrating-what-comes-next.
215 Anders Fogh Rasmussen, ‘The West's Dangerous Lack of Tech Strategy’, Politico, 11 March 2019, https://www.politico.eu/article/opinion-the-wests-dangerous-lack-of-tech-strategy.
216 Annegret Bendiek and Eva Pander Maat, ‘The EU's Regulatory Approach to Cybersecurity’, SWP Working Paper, October 2019, 24, https://www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/arbeitspapiere/WP_Bendiek_Pander_Maat_EU_Approach_Cybersecurity.pdf; Pawlak, Patryk, ‘The EU's Role on Shaping the Cyber Regime Complex’ (2019) 24 European Foreign Affairs Review 167Google Scholar.
217 Heiko Maas, ‘Speech by Minister for Foreign Affairs, Heiko Maas at the National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies in Tokyo, Japan’, 25 July 2018, https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/newsroom/news/maas-japan/2121846.
218 See Hurel, Louise Marie and Lobato, Luisa Cruz, ‘Unpacking Cyber Norms: Private Companies as Norm Entrepreneurs’ (2018) 3 Journal of Cyber Policy 61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
219 Especially Ohlin (n 93).
220 ibid.
221 See Noam Cohen, ‘Will California's New Bot Law Strengthen Democracy?’, The New Yorker, 2 July 2019, https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/will-californias-new-bot-law-strengthen-democracy.
222 Bradley Hanlon and Laura Rosenberger, ‘Countering Information Operations Demands a Common Democratic Strategy’, Alliance for Securing Democracy, 14 October 2019, https://securingdemocracy.gmfus.org/countering-information-operations-demands-a-common-democratic-strategy.
223 Markus Reuter, ‘Was nicht erkannt werden kann, sollte nicht reguliert werden’, netzpolitik.org, 9 May 2019, https://netzpolitik.org/2019/social-bots-was-nicht-erkannt-werden-kann-sollte-nicht-reguliert-werden.
224 Toi Staff, ‘Election Judge Bars Anonymous Internet Ads Despite Likud Objection’, The Times of Israel, 23 February 2019, https://www.timesofisrael.com/election-judge-bars-anonymous-internet-adds-despite-likud-objection.
225 Hanlon and Rosenberger (n 222); Robert D Blackwill and Philip H Gordon, ‘Containing Russia: How to Respond to Moscow's Intervention in U.S. Democracy and Growing Geopolitical Challenge’, Council on Foreign Relations, January 2018, 21, https://backend-live.cfr.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/CSR80_BlackwillGordon_ContainingRussia.pdf; Elizabeth Bodine-Baron and others, ‘Countering Russian Social Media Influence’, RAND Corporation, 2018, 32–36, https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR2700/RR2740/RAND_RR2740.pdf.
226 See tentatively likewise Moynihan (n 92) 43.
227 UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment 25 to the ICCPR (12 July 1996), UN DOC CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7 (emphasis added).
228 See similarly Bayer and others (n 2) 61–63.
229 Similarly, Nye (n 24).
230 UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, ‘Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda’, 3 March 2017.
231 ibid.
232 UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression (22 May 2015), UN Doc A/HRC/29/32, 7.
233 Shane (n 23).
234 In this sense, however, Ohlin (n 93) 24.
235 See likewise Nye (n 24).
236 Goldsmith (n 150).
237 ibid.
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