The epidemiology of depression has been studied across the world. Depression is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, as the epidemiology has shown.[1] Lifetime prevalence estimates vary widely, from 3% in Japan to 17% in India. Epidemiological data shows higher rates of depression in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and the United States than in other regions and countries.[2] For most countries among the 10 studied, the number of people who experience depression during their lifetimes falls within an 8–12% range.[3][4]
In North America, the probability of having a major depressive episode within any year-long period is 3–5% for males and 8–10% for females.[5][6]
Demographic dynamics
editPopulation studies have consistently shown major depression to be about twice as common in women as in men, although it is not yet clear why this is so.[7] The relative increase in occurrence is related to pubertal development rather than chronological age, reaches adult ratios between the ages of 15 and 18, and appears associated with psychosocial more than hormonal factors.[7]
People are most likely to suffer their first depressive episode between the ages of 30 and 40, and there is a second, smaller peak of incidence between ages 50 and 60.[8] The risk of major depression is increased with neurological conditions such as stroke, Parkinson's disease, or multiple sclerosis and during the first year after childbirth.[9] The risk of major depression has also been related to environmental stressors faced by population groups such as war combatants or physicians in training.[10][11]
It is also more common after cardiovascular illnesses, and is related to a poor outcome of cardiovascular diseases.[12][13] Studies conflict on the prevalence of depression in the elderly, but most data suggest there is a reduction in this age group.[14] Depressive disorders are most common in urban than in rural population and, in general, the prevalence is higher in groups with adverse socio-economic factors (for example in homeless people).[15]
Data on the relative prevalence of major depression among different ethnic groups have reached no clear consensus. However, the only known study to have covered dysthymia in the US specifically found it to be more common in African and Mexican Americans than in European Americans.[16]
Projections indicate that depression may be the second leading cause of life lost after heart disease by 2020.[17]
In 2016, a study, published by JAMA Psychiatry, and written by Charlotte Wessel Skovlund, found an association between hormonal contraception and depression.[18]
By country and category
editAge-standardised disability-adjusted life year (DALY) rates per 10,000 inhabitants in 2017.[19]
| Kategorie | 1990 | 2017 | Absolute change | Relative change |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Afghanistan | 439.81 | 443.57 | +3.75 | <1% |
| Albanien | 306.48 | 308.44 | +1.96 | <1% |
| Algerien | 454.02 | 455.36 | +1.34 | <1% |
| Amerikanisch-Samoa | 299.00 | 301.44 | +2.43 | <1% |
| Andean Latin America | 395.14 | 395.61 | +0.47 | <1% |
| Andorra | 462.69 | 466.65 | +3.96 | <1% |
| Angola | 300.38 | 307.07 | +6.68 | +2% |
| Antigua und Barbuda | 423.69 | 423.07 | –0.63 | >–1% |
| Argentinien | 554.67 | 555.27 | +0.60 | <1% |
| Armenien | 235.57 | 235.64 | +0.07 | <1% |
| Australasia | 588.29 | 588.66 | +0.36 | <1% |
| Australien | 564.71 | 564.13 | –0.58 | >–1% |
| Österreich | 473.10 | 470.30 | –2.81 | >–1% |
| Aserbaidschan | 237.12 | 235.03 | –2.09 | >–1% |
| Bahamas | 426.25 | 425.91 | –0.34 | >–1% |
| Bahrain | 428.36 | 426.75 | –1.61 | >–1% |
| Bangladesch | 390.09 | 399.43 | +9.34 | +2% |
| Barbados | 427.13 | 425.42 | –1.71 | >–1% |
| Weißrussland | 262.09 | 261.92 | –0.16 | >–1% |
| Belgien | 454.81 | 453.91 | –0.90 | >–1% |
| Belize | 417.94 | 421.10 | +3.16 | <1% |
| Benin | 270.23 | 272.67 | +2.43 | <1% |
| Bermuda | 425.79 | 426.62 | +0.83 | <1% |
| Bhutan | 348.85 | 351.02 | +2.17 | <1% |
| Bolivien | 393.70 | 393.43 | –0.27 | >–1% |
| Bosnien und Herzegowina | 308.44 | 307.51 | –0.92 | >–1% |
| Botswana | 321.91 | 319.57 | –2.34 | >–1% |
| Brasilien | 513.45 | 554.75 | +41.30 | +8% |
| Brunei | 315.25 | 318.63 | +3.37 | +1% |
| Bulgarien | 325.36 | 325.40 | +0.04 | <1% |
| Burkina Faso | 269.71 | 273.79 | +4.07 | +2% |
| Burundi | 340.21 | 335.02 | –5.19 | –2% |
| Kambodscha | 306.36 | 306.09 | –0.26 | >–1% |
| Kamerun | 269.81 | 271.78 | +1.97 | <1% |
| Kanada | 484.22 | 450.76 | –33.46 | –7% |
| Kap Verde | 278.10 | 274.58 | –3.52 | –1% |
| Caribbean | 422.38 | 421.72 | –0.66 | >–1% |
| Zentralafrikanische Republik | 300.76 | 303.45 | +2.69 | <1% |
| Central Asia | 235.74 | 234.85 | –0.89 | >–1% |
| Central Europe | 307.09 | 306.99 | –0.09 | >–1% |
| Central Europe, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia | 271.76 | 268.25 | –3.51 | –1% |
| Central Latin America | 264.02 | 270.29 | +6.27 | +2% |
| Central Sub-Saharan Africa | 300.88 | 304.43 | +3.55 | +1% |
| Tschad | 270.61 | 269.81 | -0.80 | >–1% |
| Chile | 553.66 | 550.58 | –3.08 | >–1% |
| China | 289.57 | 275.39 | –14.18 | –5% |
| Kolumbien | 244.81 | 230.00 | –14.81 | –6% |
| Komoren | 334.19 | 339.17 | +4.98 | +1% |
| Congo | 303.07 | 304.40 | +1.33 | <1% |
| Costa Rica | 264.62 | 267.24 | +2.62 | <1% |
| Côte d'Ivoire | 266.99 | 269.37 | +2.38 | <1% |
| Kroatien | 310.58 | 309.13 | –1.45 | >–1% |
| Cuba | 421.37 | 421.70 | +0.33 | <1% |
| Zypern | 470.31 | 472.29 | +1.98 | <1% |
| Czechia | 309.12 | 307.16 | –1.96 | >–1% |
| Democratic Republic of Congo | 300.71 | 303.61 | +2.90 | <1% |
| Dänemark | 470.42 | 469.49 | –0.93 | >–1% |
| Dschibuti | 327.85 | 330.88 | +3.03 | <1% |
| Dominica | 422.36 | 418.16 | –4.20 | >–1% |
| Dominikanische Republik | 424.23 | 420.58 | –3.65 | >–1% |
| East Asia | 290.12 | 276.32 | –13.80 | –5% |
| Eastern Europe | 262.88 | 262.56 | –0.32 | >–1% |
| Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa | 336.34 | 340.89 | +4.55 | +1% |
| Ecuador | 395.69 | 396.44 | +0.75 | <1% |
| Ägypten | 398.29 | 398.86 | +0.57 | <1% |
| El Salvador | 266.25 | 270.06 | +3.81 | +1% |
| England | 395.05 | 395.14 | +0.09 | <1% |
| Äquatorial-Guinea | 304.76 | 303.81 | -0.94 | >–1% |
| Eritrea | 331.15 | 339.69 | +8.54 | +3% |
| Estland | 261.91 | 261.21 | -0.70 | >–1% |
| Eswatini | 322.64 | 318.73 | –3.90 | –1% |
| Äthiopien | 347.39 | 349.31 | +1.92 | <1% |
| Fidschi | 299.92 | 300.46 | +0.54 | <1% |
| Finnland | 333.44 | 329.68 | –3.76 | –1% |
| Frankreich | 576.00 | 576.03 | +0.03 | <1% |
| Gabun | 303.27 | 306.57 | +3.31 | +1% |
| Gambia | 268.55 | 271.49 | +2.94 | +1% |
| Georgien | 238.24 | 235.38 | –2.87 | –1% |
| Deutschland | 564.54 | 565.03 | +0.48 | <1% |
| Ghana | 272.17 | 274.68 | +2.51 | <1% |
| Griechenland | 512.06 | 511.19 | –0.87 | >–1% |
| Grönland | 492.10 | 500.98 | +8.89 | +2% |
| Grenada | 423.74 | 417.51 | –6.23 | –1% |
| Guam | 299.44 | 301.30 | +1.86 | <1% |
| Guatemala | 263.12 | 267.56 | +4.45 | +2% |
| Guinea | 271.79 | 273.08 | +1.29 | <1% |
| Guinea-Bissau | 271.17 | 272.76 | +1.59 | <1% |
| Guyana | 418.26 | 420.11 | +1.84 | <1% |
| Haiti | 417.74 | 420.25 | +2.50 | <1% |
| High SDI | 462.62 | 463.66 | +1.04 | <1% |
| High-income | 489.63 | 494.52 | +4.89 | <1% |
| High-income Asia Pacific | 318.28 | 318.18 | –0.10 | >–1% |
| High-middle SDI | 329.26 | 342.11 | +12.86 | +4% |
| Honduras | 264.60 | 266.37 | +1.77 | <1% |
| Ungarn | 308.84 | 309.31 | +0.47 | <1% |
| Island | 469.33 | 469.26 | –0.06 | >–1% |
| Indien | 309.28 | 306.76 | –2.53 | >–1% |
| Indonesien | 304.31 | 304.18 | –0.12 | >–1% |
| Iran | 689.12 | 692.26 | –6.25 | >–1% |
| Iraq | 427.22 | 430.09 | +2.87 | <1% |
| Irland | 506.29 | 511.29 | +5.00 | <1% |
| Israel | 274.39 | 274.00 | –0.40 | >–1% |
| Italien | 512.79 | 499.21 | –13.58 | –3% |
| Jamaika | 424.62 | 422.32 | –2.30 | >–1% |
| Japan | 257.27 | 224.62 | –12.69 | >–1% |
| Jordanien | 447.61 | 445.91 | –1.70 | >–1% |
| Kasachstan | 235.88 | 236.01 | +0.13 | <1% |
| Kenia | 337.41 | 339.52 | +2.10 | <1% |
| Kiribati | 302.20 | 303.25 | +1.04 | <1% |
| Kuwait | 430.22 | 444.44 | +14.22 | +3% |
| Kirgisistan | 235.31 | 235.09 | –0.22 | >–1% |
| Laos | 388.45 | 390.62 | +2.17 | <1% |
| Latin America and Caribbean | 393.06 | 405.65 | +12.59 | +3% |
| Lettland | 261.95 | 261.48 | –0.46 | >–1% |
| Libanon | 545.72 | 547.07 | +1.35 | <1% |
| Lesotho | 320.94 | 318.40 | –2.54 | >–1% |
| Liberia | 266.73 | 267.44 | +0.71 | <1% |
| Libyen | 443.86 | 449.94 | +6.08 | +1% |
| Litauen | 261.63 | 261.43 | –0.19 | >–1% |
| Low SDI | 326.04 | 329.76 | +3.72 | +1% |
| Low-middle SDI | 332.91 | 337.68 | +4.77 | +1% |
| Luxemburg | 468.43 | 467.04 | –1.39 | >–1% |
| Madagaskar | 332.44 | 336.98 | +4.53 | +1% |
| Malawi | 335.11 | 341.69 | +6.58 | +2% |
| Malaysia | 392.10 | 389.83 | –2.26 | >–1% |
| Malediven | 295.24 | 291.29 | –3.96 | –1% |
| Mali | 268.90 | 270.70 | +1.80 | <1% |
| Malta | 472.67 | 468.46 | –4.21 | >–1% |
| Marshallinseln | 299.32 | 299.31 | –0.02 | >–1% |
| Mauretanien | 272.46 | 273.97 | +1.51 | <1% |
| Mauritius | 303.11 | 302.78 | –0.33 | >–1% |
| Mexiko | 271.36 | 289.05 | +17.69 | +7% |
| Micronesia (country) | 299.20 | 299.84 | +0.64 | <1% |
| Middle SDI | 306.44 | 306.98 | +0.54 | <1% |
| Moldawien | 260.72 | 261.03 | +0.31 | <1% |
| Mongolei | 233.62 | 234.85 | +1.23 | <1% |
| Montenegro | 309.18 | 308.71 | –0.47 | >–1% |
| Marokko | 452.71 | 453.82 | +1.11 | <1% |
| Mosambik | 336.20 | 341.61 | +5.41 | +2% |
| Myanmar | 300.93 | 307.06 | +6.13 | +2% |
| Namibia | 320.84 | 322.18 | +1.34 | <1% |
| Nepal | 348.75 | 359.13 | +10.38 | +3% |
| Niederlande | 579.45 | 578.84 | –0.62 | >–1% |
| Neuseeland | 705.21 | 722.98 | +17.77 | +3% |
| Nicaragua | 264.58 | 265.73 | +1.15 | <1% |
| Niger | 271.34 | 272.82 | +1.47 | <1% |
| Nigeria | 268.96 | 272.57 | +3.61 | +1% |
| North Africa and Middle East | 448.40 | 450.80 | +2.39 | <1% |
| North America | 561.85 | 561.25 | –0.60 | >–1% |
| North Korea | 304.06 | 297.84 | –6.22 | –2% |
| North Macedonia | 308.26 | 307.40 | –0.86 | >–1% |
| Northern Ireland | 651.12 | 660.19 | +9.07 | +1% |
| Nördliche Marianen | 296.39 | 300.91 | +4.52 | +2% |
| Norwegen | 673.49 | 665.89 | –7.59 | –1% |
| Oceania | 296.33 | 297.51 | +1.18 | <1% |
| Oman | 421.68 | 413.70 | –7.97 | –2% |
| Pakistan | 349.19 | 353.29 | +4.10 | +1% |
| Palestine | 455.01 | 451.42 | –3.59 | >–1% |
| Panama | 263.33 | 264.25 | +0.92 | <1% |
| Papua-Neuguinea | 294.77 | 296.24 | +1.48 | <1% |
| Paraguay | 553.15 | 552.96 | –0.19 | >–1% |
| Peru | 395.29 | 395.88 | +0.59 | <1% |
| Philippinen | 302.25 | 302.49 | +0.24 | <1% |
| Polen | 309.40 | 309.37 | –0.04 | >–1% |
| Portugal | 472.59 | 473.61 | +1.01 | <1% |
| Puerto Rico | 427.30 | 425.85 | –1.45 | >–1% |
| Katar | 403.81 | 391.06 | –12.75 | –3% |
| Rumänien | 292.12 | 292.61 | +0.49 | <1% |
| Russland | 262.99 | 262.58 | –0.42 | >–1% |
| Ruanda | 338.57 | 343.75 | +5.18 | +2% |
| St. Lucia | 424.55 | 421.42 | –3.13 | >–1% |
| St. Vincent und die Grenadinen | 421.10 | 417.18 | –3.92 | >–1% |
| Samoa | 299.55 | 300.51 | +0.96 | <1% |
| São Tomé and Príncipe | 273.98 | 273.61 | –0.37 | >–1% |
| Saudi-Arabien | 430.80 | 435.29 | +4.49 | +1% |
| Scotland | 421.09 | 419.01 | –2.08 | >–1% |
| Senegal | 271.34 | 271.99 | +0.66 | <1% |
| Serbien | 308.40 | 307.93 | –0.47 | >–1% |
| Seychellen | 305.21 | 300.90 | –4.30 | –1% |
| Sierra Leone | 271.01 | 270.96 | –0.05 | >–1% |
| Singapur | 319.22 | 326.20 | +6.98 | +2% |
| Slowakei | 309.64 | 309.22 | –0.42 | >–1% |
| Slowenien | 309.55 | 306.52 | –3.03 | >-1% |
| Salomonen | 296.00 | 298.91 | +2.91 | <1% |
| Somalia | 327.47 | 333.31 | +5.84 | +2% |
| Südafrika | 367.94 | 365.43 | –2.51 | >–1% |
| South Asia | 320.86 | 320.95 | +0.09 | <1% |
| Südkorea | 338.46 | 335.96 | –2.50 | >–1% |
| South Sudan | 317.40 | 329.08 | +11.67 | +4% |
| Southeast Asia | 291.86 | 292.91 | +1.05 | <1% |
| Southeast Asia, East Asia, and Oceania | 289.93 | 280.40 | –9.53 | –3% |
| Southern Latin America | 554.25 | 554.08 | –0.18 | >–1% |
| Southern Sub-Saharan Africa | 349.41 | 348.08 | –1.33 | >–1% |
| Spanien | 444.92 | 463.69 | +18.77 | +4% |
| Sri Lanka | 301.85 | 307.85 | +6.00 | +2% |
| Sub-Saharan Africa | 307.47 | 308.98 | +1.51 | <1% |
| Sudan | 452.15 | 452.80 | +0.65 | <1% |
| Surinam | 419.61 | 421.18 | +1.57 | <1% |
| Schweden | 469.30 | 467.41 | –1.89 | >–1% |
| Schweiz | 468.85 | 468.55 | –0.30 | >–1% |
| Syria | 452.10 | 453.39 | +1.29 | <1% |
| Taiwan | 307.25 | 306.89 | –0.36 | >–1% |
| Tadschikistan | 234.35 | 232.74 | –1.62 | >–1% |
| Tansania | 335.95 | 341.24 | +5.30 | +2% |
| Thailand | 305.63 | 306.91 | +1.28 | <1% |
| Timor | 295.90 | 300.52 | +4.63 | +2% |
| Togo | 272.10 | 274.16 | +2.05 | <1% |
| Tonga | 302.76 | 302.51 | –0.25 | >–1% |
| Trinidad und Tobago | 419.97 | 419.20 | –0.77 | >–1% |
| Tropical Latin America | 514.41 | 554.73 | +40.32 | +8% |
| Tunesien | 455.67 | 459.67 | +4.00 | <1% |
| Türkei | 342.96 | 352.71 | +9.74 | +3% |
| Turkmenistan | 236.15 | 233.30 | –2.85 | –1% |
| Uganda | 317.76 | 330.35 | +12.59 | +4% |
| Ukraine | 263.10 | 262.92 | –0.18 | >–1% |
| Vereinigte Arabische Emirate | 390.77 | 386.30 | –4.46 | –1% |
| Vereinigtes Königreich | 406.06 | 406.09 | +0.03 | <1% |
| Vereinigte Staaten | 570.31 | 573.38 | +3.06 | <1% |
| United States Virgin Islands | 428.12 | 428.10 | –0.02 | >–1% |
| Uruguay | 555.13 | 557.10 | +1.96 | <1% |
| Usbekistan | 234.56 | 234.50 | –0.05 | >–1% |
| Vanuatu | 295.97 | 298.94 | +2.97 | +1% |
| Venezuela | 265.18 | 264.86 | –0.32 | >–1% |
| Vietnam | 192.79 | 192.17 | –0.62 | >–1% |
| Wales | 423.11 | 421.79 | –1.32 | >–1% |
| Western Europe | 502.89 | 499.26 | –3.63 | >–1% |
| Western Sub-Saharan Africa | 269.65 | 272.36 | +2.70 | +1% |
| World | 348.53 | 345.69 | –2.84 | >–1% |
| Jemen | 442.49 | 446.34 | +3.85 | <1% |
| Sambia | 334.01 | 337.31 | +3.30 | <1% |
| Simbabwe | 286.38 | 286.72 | +0.34 | <1% |
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ "The world health report 2001 – Mental Health: New Understanding, New Hope". WHO website. World Health Organization. 2001. Archived from the original on December 11, 2004. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
- ^ Ferrari, Alize J.; Charlson, Fiona J.; Norman, Rosana E.; Patten, Scott B.; Freedman, Greg; Murray, Christopher J.L.; Vos, Theo; Whiteford, Harvey A. (2013). "Burden of Depressive Disorders by Country, Sex, Age, and Year: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010". PLOS Medicine. 10 (11): e1001547. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001547. PMC 3818162. PMID 24223526.
- ^ Andrade L, Caraveo-A. (24 March 2006) [2003]. "The epidemiology of major depressive episodes: Results from the International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology (ICPE) surveys". Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 12 (1): 3–21. doi:10.1002/mpr.138. PMC 6878531. PMID 12830306.
- ^ Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O (2003). "The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R)". JAMA. 289 (203): 3095–105. doi:10.1001/jama.289.23.3095. PMID 12813115.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (2005). "Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication". Archives of General Psychiatry. 62 (6): 593–602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593. PMID 15939837.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Murphy JM, Laird NM, Monson RR, Sobol AM, Leighton AH (2000). "A 40-year perspective on the prevalence of depression: The Stirling County Study". Archives of General Psychiatry. 57 (3): 209–15. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.3.209. PMID 10711905.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Kuehner, C (2003). "Gender differences in unipolar depression: An update of epidemiological findings and possible explanations". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 108 (3): 163–74. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.00204.x. PMID 12890270. S2CID 19538251.
- ^ Eaton WW, Anthony JC, Gallo J (1997). "Natural history of diagnostic interview schedule/DSM-IV major depression. The Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area follow-up". Archives of General Psychiatry. 54 (11): 993–99. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830230023003. PMID 9366655.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Rickards H (2005). "Depression in neurological disorders: Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and stroke". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 76 (Suppl 1): i48–i52. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2004.060426. PMC 1765679. PMID 15718222.
- ^ Rotenstein, Lisa S.; Ramos, Marco A.; Torre, Matthew; Segal, J. Bradley; Peluso, Michael J.; Guille, Constance; Sen, Srijan; Mata, Douglas A. (2016-12-06). "Prevalence of Depression, Depressive Symptoms, and Suicidal Ideation Among Medical Students: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". JAMA. 316 (21): 2214–2236. doi:10.1001/jama.2016.17324. ISSN 1538-3598. PMC 5613659. PMID 27923088.
- ^ Douglas A. Mata; Marco A. Ramos, Narinder Bansal, Rida Khan, Constance Guille, Emanuele Di Angelantonio & Srijan Sen (2015). "Prevalence of Depression and Depressive Symptoms Among Resident Physicians: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA. 314 (22): 2373–2383. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.15845. PMC 4866499. PMID 26647259.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Alboni P, Favaron E, Paparella N, Sciammarella M, Pedaci M (2008). "Is there an association between depression and cardiovascular mortality or sudden death?". Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine (Hagerstown, Md.). 9 (4): 356–62. doi:10.2459/JCM.0b013e3282785240. PMID 18334889. S2CID 11051637.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Strik JJ, Honig A, Maes M (2001). "Depression and myocardial infarction: relationship between heart and mind". Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 25 (4): 879–92. doi:10.1016/S0278-5846(01)00150-6. PMID 11383983. S2CID 45722423.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Jorm AF (2000). "Does old age reduce the risk of anxiety and depression? A review of epidemiological studies across the adult life span". Psychological Medicine. 30 (1): 11–22. doi:10.1017/S0033291799001452. PMID 10722172. S2CID 20822498.
- ^ Psychiatry, 4th edition – Oxford University Press, 2012, by John Geddes, Jonathan Price, Rebecca McKnight page 222
- ^ Stephanie A. Riolo; et al. (June 2005). "Prevalence of Depression by Race/Ethnicity: Findings From the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III". American Journal of Public Health. 95 (6): 998–1000. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.047225. PMC 1449298. PMID 15914823.
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- ^ Wessel Skovlund, Charlotte (September 28, 2016). "Association of Hormonal Contraception With Depression". JAMA Psychiatry. 73 (11): 1154–1162. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.2387. PMID 27680324. Retrieved October 7, 2016.
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