Schism of the Russian Church

The Schism of the Russian Church, also known as Raskol (Russian: раскол, pronounced [rɐˈskoɫ], meaning "split" or "schism"), was the splitting of the Russian Orthodox Church into an official church and the Old Believers movement in the mid-17th century. It was triggered by the reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653, which aimed to establish uniformity between Greek and Russian church practices. Nikon had been a part of a group known as the Zealots of Piety in the 1630s and 1640s, a circle of church reformers whose acts included amending service books in accordance with the "correct" Russian tradition. When Nikon became Patriarch in 1652, he continued the practice of amending books under the guidance of Greek Orthodox advisors, now changing practices in the Russian Church to align with the Greek rite. This act, along with the acceptance of the Nikonian reforms by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and the state, led to the rupture between Old Believers and the newly reformed church and state.

The schism contributed to popular uprisings in the late 17th century, including the Solovetsky Monastery uprising and the Moscow uprising of 1682, but by the time of Peter the Great in the early 18th century, much of the popular uproar had calmed. Old Believer communities have persisted despite persecution to today, and the church schism plays a foundational role in their belief that they practice the uncorrupted rite of the Russian Church.

Earlier reforms

At the beginning of the 17th century, the Orthodox Church in Russia was threatened by a period of political crisis known as the Time of Troubles. In 1598, Tsar Feodor I died without an heir, leaving Russia in a state of apparent lawlessness until the ascension of tsar Michael I in 1613.^[1] During this time, the Orthodox Church was twice threatened. First, the usurper False Dmitry I was crowned tsar in 1605^[2] and converted to Catholicism^[3] before being assassinated during an uprising in 1606.^[4] Second, Moscow was occupied from 1610 to 1612 by the Catholic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Polish-Russian War.^[5] These threats to the Orthodox Church and the entire period of violent instability aroused a renewal of religious fervor among some Russians who perceived the events as divine retribution for a lack of devotion.^[6]

This heightened religiosity was materialized in the Zealots of Piety, a renewal movement aimed at reforming liturgy and embracing piety. The movement's early members included the Archbishop of Novgorod Nikon and Archpriests Ivan Nerov, Stephen Vonifatiev, and Avvakum, with secular support from Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his supporters Fyodor Rtishchev and Boris Morozov.^[7] In the 1630s and 1640s, during the reign of Patriarch of Moscow Joseph, the Zealots of Piety were concerned primarily with reforming a disordered liturgy and suppressing impious pre-Christian festivals, issues which were known at least since the Stoglav Sobor of 1551. In 1636, Nerov and other priests sent a petition to the Patriarch from Nizhny Novgorod requesting aid in reforming "liturgical shortcuts." Complaints included the use of mnogoglasie, the practice of chanting multiple parts of the services at the same time, singing evening vespers in the morning, and omitting parts of the service altogether.^[8] The Patriarch responded by ordering parish clergy to prohibit such behavior. The petition further cited the observance among villagers of pre-Christian festivals such as Koliada, to which Tsar Alexei responded by decreeing a ban on the pagan entertainment.^[9]

Nikon's reforms

Detail of the painting Boyarynya Morozova by Vasily Surikov depicting the arrest of Feodosia Morozova by the Nikonians in 1671. She holds two fingers raised, showing the pre-reform way of making the sign of the cross.

In 1652, Patriarch Joseph died. Many members of the Zealots of Piety urged Tsar Alexei to appoint Stephen Vonifatiev to the position, as he was the movement's informal leader, but the Tsar instead appointed Nikon to the seat, as Nikon had been the Tsar's spiritual advisor and companion since 1646.^[10] In 1653, with support from the Tsar, Patriarch Nikon began the process of changing the Russian divine service books to align with their contemporary Greek counterparts and changed certain liturgical rituals. Nikon's reforms of the service books were performed on the advice of Ukrainian and Greek monks and advisors. The former were a more learned and reactionary group than native Muscovite priests, having adapted Catholic counter-reformation rhetoric to the defense of the Orthodox Church,^[11] while the latter had an obvious bias in favor of the Greek rite. Among liturgical rituals, the most controversial changes included replacing the two-finger sign of the cross by one with three fingers and pronouncing "hallelujah" three times instead of two.^[12] These new reforms met with resistance from both the clergy and the people, who disputed the legitimacy and correctness of these reforms.

The major claim made by Nikon's opposition was that the Russian pre-reform faith more closely adhered to the practices of the early church, since the fall of Constantinople had corrupted the Greek rite while Russians had preserved the church.^[13] This idea of the Moscow patriarchy as uncorrupted meant that observance of the Greek practices was apostasy. This tension between reformation and preservation of texts had been an issue in the Russian Church long before Nikon, as the Zealots of Piety and other reformers understood that consistent texts were necessary for consistent worship. However, while the conservative Zealots viewed the original Muscovite texts as inviolable and sacred,^[14] and viewed the reformation as a process of consolidating a preserved faith, Nikon was convinced by his advisors that the Russian practices were in error compared to the unalloyed Greek rite.^[12] Nikon was following the guidance of the 1593 Council of Constantinople, which required adherence of the newly created Moscow Patriarchate to the Greek rite, while opponents of the reforms protested that the "correct" Greek books had been printed in Venetian, Catholic print houses for the Greek church of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. Since Nikon's reforms held that not only the service books but the liturgical practices of the pre-reform rite were heretical, he implied that pre-reform saints were also in error, a point often brought up by opponents of the reforms.^[15]

A traditional, widespread view of these reforms is that they only affected the external ritualistic side of the Russian Orthodox faith and that the Schism concerned only fanatics who superstitiously clung to pre-reform Russian customs.^[13] However, these reforms alienated the largely illiterate peasantry, for whom rituals such as the sign of the cross were inseparable from orthodox doctrine. Furthermore, the reforms established radically different relations between the church and the faithful. Nikon used his reforms for the purpose of centralization of the church and strengthening of his own authority; for example, Nikon would would seize land and use the Russian Church's wealth to found his own monastic ventures such as the New Jerusalem Monastery.^[16] The earlier reforms of the Zealots of Piety were aimed at consolidating the power of priests in their parish, but the Nikonian reforms were aimed at consolidating the Patriarch's control over the parishes.^[17] These offenses which alienated the Tsar, first leading to Nikon's escape from Moscow to one of his monasteries and later to Nikon's deposition at the Great Moscow Synod of 1666, a council convened by the Tsar himself.^[18] The official reason for the gathering was to try Nikon for dereliction of duty during his absence from Moscow, but as part of its proceedings the council also declared the Stoglav Sobor of 1551 heretical, as it had dogmatized pre-reform Russian practices such as the two-finger sign of the cross, which was unacceptable under the Greek rite. The council was the consummation of the Nikonian reformation crisis, and marked the beginning of the Old Believer movement, as it was at this synod that Avvakum and other Old Believer priests were finally anathematized and exiled.^[19]

Uprisings and persecution

A Muscovite Voivode Putting Down the Solovetsky Monastery uprising. An early 19th-century hand-drawn lubok, attributed to Mikhail Grigoriev.

The case brought by the defenders of the old faith found many supporters among different strata of the Russian society. Some of the old faith low-ranking clergy protested against the increase of feudal oppression coming from the church leaders in the form of monastic serfdom, while some members of the high-ranking clergy joined the Raskol movement due to their discontent over Nikon's authoritative aspirations and the arbitrariness of his church reforms. The unification of such heterogeneous forces against what had become the "official" church could be explained by the somewhat contradictory ideology of the Raskol movement. A certain idealization and conservation of traditional values and old traditions, a critical attitude towards innovations, the conservation of national originality, and the acceptance of martyrdom in the name of the old faith were intertwined with criticism the traditional practices of feudalism and serfdom. Different social strata were attracted to different sides of this ideology.^[20]

In the upper strata of ecclesiastic elites, Nikon's former friends among the Zealots of Piety were his most outspoken critics. Ivan Neronov spoke against the strengthening of patriarch's authority and demanded democratization of ecclesiastic management, while Avvakum directly protested the reformed rituals.^[21] However, both had already come into conflict with the Church before their participation in the Raskol: Neronov was engaged in a dispute over the collection of taxes,^[22] and Avvakum quarreled over assuming Neronov's position as Archpriest after Neronov's exile from Moscow.^[23] The first true martyr for the pre-reform belief was Bishop Paul of Kolomna, who was burned in Novgorod in 1656 for defending the pre-reform texts.^[24] Secular aristocrats also participated in the Raskol movement, such as Boyarynya Feodosia Morozova and her sister Princess Evdokia Urusova, who openly supported the defenders of the old faith and were also martyred. Avvakum had been Morozova's confessor, and she followed Avvakum in rejected the Nikonian reforms. After convincing her sister to join the Raskol, the two were arrested by the Tsar in 1671 and were starved to death in 1675.^[25]

In the lower strata of the popular, peasant defense of the old traditions, opposition often materialized as popular uprisings. Some of the supporters of the Old Believers took part in Stepan Razin's rebellion in 1670–1671.^[20] After Razin's beheading, many of his supporters joined other Raskol popular movements, such as the Solovetsky Monastery uprising and the Moscow uprising of 1682. At the Solovetsky Monastery, both monks and enserfed peasants rebelled against Tsarist authority, opposing what they saw as the exploitation of secular power: for the monks, this was the consolidation of central authority during the church schism, and for the peasants, this was feudal system which supported the centralizing Nikonian reforms. Both groups were united in their defense of the Old Belief.^[20] In the Moscow uprising of 1682, Old Believers openly preached to the Moscow Streltsy regiments who were in rebellion due to discontent with their superiors, and one of the leaders of the rebels, Prince Ivan Andreevich Khovansky, openly supported the pre-reform traditions.^[26] While occupying the capital, part of the Streltsy's conditions were that the official church must agree to a public disputation with the Old Believer priest Nikita Pustosvyat; his well-known debate with Patriarch Joachim of Moscow led to his beheading and to the Moscow uprising's alternative title as the "Raskolnik rebellion".^[27]

Old Believers movement

A scene from the times of the Raskol, by Sergey Ivanov

In the wake of the persecutions of the 17th century, it was clear to many schismatics that reunion with the Russian Orthodox Church would be impossible. As a result of their conflict with official church hierarchy, the Old Believers never formed a united movement. Instead, it was largely a movement of independent factions on the edges of the Russian empire, far from persecution and state authority.^[28] Old Believers fled to the dense forests of Northern Russia and Volga region, the southern borders of Russia, Siberia, and even abroad, where they would organize their own obshchinas.^[28] Many of the members of the old faith migrated west, seeking refuge bordering the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which allowed them to practice their faith freely.^[29] In 1684, Princess Sophia, with active support from the Russian Orthodox Church, began to persecute the so-called raskolniki (раскольники, "schism-makers"). Up to this point, Old Believers had merely been anathematized, but following Sophia's ukaz, local governments were commanded to burn all schismatics at the stake unless they submitted to the Nikonian reforms.^[30] The majority of Old Believers were peasants or cossacks, but this persecution inadvertently attracted members of the merchant class to the schismatics. Merchants were expected to collect taxes for the state, but since schismatics were persecuted by the government, schismatic merchants were exempt from this duty.^[28]

The memory of their schism with the official Russian Orthodox Church is fundamental to the Old Believers movement. Much of their literary canon consists of letters written by priests such as Avvakum, Epifanii, and Lazar during Nikon's reforms, as well as literature depicting Nikon as a devil or Antichrist.^[9]

Apocalypticism

An Old Believer miniature depicting the beast and the Antichrist.

The most radical defenders of the Old Belief preached a message of apocalypticism and the coming of the Antichrist in connection with Nikon's reforms. The more famous early schismatics, such as Avvakum and his brothers-in-exile at the Pustozyorsk prison, often justified the Old Believer uprisings of the 17th century as God's punishment of the ecclesiastic and tsarist authorities for their erroneous reforms. Nikon, being the figurehead of the reforms, was often framed in Old Believer tales either as an accomplice to the Antichrist, or even the Antichrist himself.^[31] Other state authorities, especially those who persecuted the Old Believers, such as Tsar Alexei, would also be decried by schismatics as agents of the Devil.^[32] The reforms of Nikon were seen by some Old Believers as direct manifestations of the Antichrist, being compared to the mark of the beast, and the year of the 1666 Moscow Synod was seen as indicating the number of the beast.^[33]

These ideas of the Antichrist's arrival on Earth and of the end-times would find a broad response among the Russian people, sympathizing with the ideology of these more radical apologetes. The most dramatic practices of the Raskol included the practice of ognenniye kreshcheniya (огненные крещения, or baptism by fire), or self-immolation, practiced by those who thought that the end of the world was near. Rather than submit to apostasy or to the Antichrist, Old Believers would burn themselves alive. These practices were inspired by the martyrs of the early Christian church, as well as the practices of earlier fringe ascetic movements, such as the self-immolating followers of Kapiton in the middle of the 17th century.^[34] This practice of active martyrdom gradually died out as the schism cooled down at the beginning of the 18th century. During the reign of Peter the Great, Old Believers who were not active political dissidents were no longer persecuted, so Old Believers no longer needed to martyr themselves rather than submit to the rule of what they perceived as agents of the Antichrist.^[35]

References

^ Dunning 2004, pp. 6, 299.
^ Dunning 2004, p. 137.
^ Dunning 2004, p. 88.
^ Dunning 2004, pp. 154–156.
^ Dunning 2004, pp. 275, 297.
^ Zenkovsky 1957, p. 39.
^ Zenkovsky 1957, p. 40.
^ Crummey 2011, p. 34.
^ ^a ^b Crummey 2011, p. 36.
^ Spinka 1941, p. 349.
^ Crummey 2011, p. 38.
^ ^a ^b Crummey 2011, p. 39.
^ ^a ^b Spinka 1941, p. 358.
^ Zhivov 2009, pp. 32–33.
^ Zenkovsky 1957, p. 42.
^ Michels 1993, p. 485.
^ Zenkovsky 1957, pp. 43–44.
^ Spinka 1941, p. 359.
^ Meyendorff 1991, pp. 66–68.
^ ^a ^b ^c Buganov 1984, p. 208.
^ Spinka 1941, p. 357.
^ Michels 1993, p. 500.
^ Michels 1993, p. 491.
^ Michels 1993, p. 484.
^ Ziolkowski 2000, p. i.
^ Solovyov.
^ Buganov 1984, p. 209.
^ ^a ^b ^c Crummey 1970, pp. 22–23.
^ Bednarczuk 2013, p. 31.
^ Crummey 1970, pp. 40–41.
^ Cherniavsky 1966, pp. 13–14.
^ Kelsiev 1860, pp. 42–43.
^ Smirnov 1898, pp. 44–45.
^ Crummey 1970, pp. 44–45.
^ Crummey 1970, pp. 56–57.

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