Examine individual changes

'{{coord|37|00|13|N|76|18|27|W|region:US-VA_type:landmark|display=title}} {{Infobox military unit |unit_name=Harbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay |image=Fort Monroe Aerial.jpg |image_size=275px |caption=Fort Monroe in 2004 |country={{USA}} |allegiance= |type=[[Coastal artillery|Coast artillery]] |branch=[[United States Army Coast Artillery Corps]] |dates=1897–1950<ref name=CDSG1>[https://cdsg.org/the-harbor-defenses-of-chesapeake-bay/ Harbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay at cdsg.org]</ref> |specialization=[[Harbor Defense Command]] |command_structure=*[[First United States Army|First Army]] (1933–1941) *[[Eastern Defense Command]] (1941–1945) |size= |current_commander= |garrison=[[Fort Monroe]], [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]], [[Virginia]] (1897–1950)<ref name=Stan478>Stanton, p. 478</ref> |ceremonial_chief= |nickname= |motto= |colors= |march= |mascot=[[Oozlefinch]] |battles= |notable_commanders= |anniversaries= }} [[File:A Plan of the entrance of Chesapeak Bay, with James and York rivers (2675178594).jpg|thumb|right|Hampton Roads and the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, October 1781, with American, French, and British forces of the Yorktown campaign shown]] [[File:Captain-John-Smith-Chesapeake-NHT-map.png|thumb|right|Chesapeake Bay]] [[File:Cape Charles and Cape Henry.jpg|thumb|right|Hampton Roads and the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, 1826]] The '''Harbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay''' was a [[United States Army Coast Artillery Corps]] [[Harbor Defense Command|harbor defense command]].<ref name=CDSG1/> It coordinated the [[coastal defence and fortification|coast defenses]] of the entrance to [[Chesapeake Bay]] from the Atlantic Ocean from 1897 to 1950, beginning with the [[Board of Fortifications|Endicott program]]. These included both [[coastal artillery|coast artillery]] [[fort]]s and [[Submarine mines in United States harbor defense|underwater minefields]]. The immediate area protected included the cities of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]], [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]], and at least two major shipyards, along with the [[Naval Station Norfolk|Norfolk naval base]] after 1917. The command also guarded the water approaches to [[Washington, DC]] and [[Baltimore]]. It originated circa 1896 as an Artillery District and became the '''Coast Defenses of Chesapeake Bay''' in 1913, with defenses initially at [[Fort Monroe]] on [[Old Point Comfort]] in [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]], [[Virginia]] and [[Fort Wool]] on [[Rip Raps]] Island nearby. In 1925 the command was renamed as a Harbor Defense Command.<ref name=Stanton455>Stanton, pp. 455-481</ref><ref name=CACOrg1>[http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACorg2011.pdf ''Coast Artillery Organization: A Brief Overview'' at the Coast Defense Study Group website]</ref><ref name=Rinaldi165>Rinaldi, pp. 165-166</ref><ref name=Berhow427>Berhow, pp. 427-434</ref> ==History== ===Early forts in Tidewater Virginia=== ====Colonial period==== {{main|History of Jamestown, Virginia (1607–1699)}} In May 1607 three ships landed English colonists from the [[Virginia Company of London]] at what soon became [[Jamestown, Virginia]], a peninsula in the [[James River]] chosen for being easy to defend. This established the British [[Colony of Virginia]]. They quickly began building a fort there, which was completed in mid-June following a [[Native American]] attack. The immediate area proved to be swampy and the river water [[brackish]], which led to many deaths from disease. The first two [[Jamestown supply missions|supply missions]] arrived in January and October 1608; the fort burned down around the time of the first mission's arrival but was rebuilt later that year. Another supply mission arrived in August 1609; however, two of its nine ships had been lost. This included the ''[[Sea Venture]]'' which was wrecked on [[Bermuda]], and another ship lost at sea. The result was that more colonists than supplies arrived with that mission.<ref name=Starv1>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.org/Foundation/journal/Winter07/starving.cfm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306161448/www.history.org/Foundation/journal/Winter07/starving.cfm |title=We are starved : The Colonial Williamsburg Official History & Citizenship Site|work=history.org |date=Winter 2007 |archivedate=6 March 2018 }}</ref> The colony's early years were difficult due to drought, resulting in inadequate food. Relations with the native confederation the colonists called the [[Powhatan]]s ran the gamut from friendly trade to open hostility over the years. Some of the original colonists stated that they would not have survived the first years without food from the Powhatans.<ref name=Starv1/> The colony's worst point was a severe drought and harsh winter, compounded by a Powhatan denial of food, called the "[[Starving Time|starving time]]" in 1609–10, in which a reported 440 of 500 settlers died.<ref name=Starv1/> Despite supplies finally arriving on two ships built in Bermuda from the ''Sea Venture''{{'}}s wreckage and local materials in May, the settlers abandoned the colony in June 1610.<ref name=Starv1/> However, while still in the James River, the evacuees' ships met three ships arriving on another supply mission from England. This included a new governor, [[Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr]], later called "Lord Delaware", who persuaded the settlers to turn around and try again. Captain [[John Smith (explorer)|John Smith]], a former president of the colony and prolific author, was injured in a gunpowder accident and returned to England in October 1609; a 1608 book of his about the colony had stimulated interest and investment in it, including this supply mission.<ref>Lemay 1991, p. 80</ref> Several outlying colonies with forts were built in the Jamestown colony's early years. In 1609 [[Fort Algernon]] was built on [[Old Point Comfort]], site of the 19th-century [[Fort Monroe]]. It was soon renamed the Point Comfort Fort with 25 men and was abandoned some time after 1622; various later forts were built on the site.<ref name=AFNHamp1>{{cite web |title=Hampton Roads Area - Coast and Harbor Defenses of Hampton Roads |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varoads.html#hampton |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=8 August 2020}}</ref> Two forts established in 1610 were at the mouth of the [[Hampton River]], protecting the settlement of [[Kecoughtan, Virginia|Kecoughtan]] in present-day [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]], named Fort Henry and Fort Charles with 15 men each. Unlike Jamestown, Kecoughtan was never abandoned. Fort Henry lasted until 1637, while Fort Charles was abandoned at an unknown date.<ref name=AFNHamp2>{{cite web |title=Hampton Roads Area - Early Hampton Forts |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varoads.html#hampton2 |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=8 August 2020}}</ref> An attempt was made to settle what is now the [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] area in 1609. This included Fort West and Fort Nonsuch, which were soon abandoned. De La Warr's Fort was built there in 1610, but was also short-lived. The Richmond area was not permanently settled until 1676.<ref name=AFNRich1>{{cite web |title=Greater Richmond Area - Early Richmond Forts |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varich.html#rich |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=8 August 2020}}</ref> In 1611 the [[Henricus]] settlement was established on the James about 12 miles southeast of Richmond, defended by four forts including Fort Charity. This was abandoned after the [[Indian massacre of 1622|Native American uprising in 1622]].<ref name=AFNRich2>{{cite web |title=Greater Richmond Area - Coxendale Forts |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varich.html#cox |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=10 August 2020}}</ref><ref>Roberts, p. 805</ref> In 1612 [[John Rolfe]], most likely assisted by his future wife [[Pocahontas]], began exporting [[tobacco]] from Jamestown. This resulted in an economic boom for the colony.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bayjournal.com/article.cfm?article=1757|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928160736/http://www.bayjournal.com/article.cfm?article=1757|url-status=dead|title=Chesapeake Bay Journal: Even stripped of Hollywood hype, Pocahontas remains a legend – September 2000 |archivedate=28 September 2007 |accessdate=10 August 2020}}</ref> The Jamestown settlement outgrew its fort that year, and two [[blockhouse]]s were built outside it in 1614. After 1618 an outer [[palisade]] was built. Circa 1625 the lumber of the fort and palisade was salvaged.<ref name=AFNJames1>{{cite web |title=James River Area - James' Fort |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/vajames.html#james1 |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=8 August 2020}}</ref> In August 1619 a British-owned Dutch-flagged [[privateer]], the ''[[White Lion (ship)|White Lion]]'', appeared off Old Point Comfort. Its cargo included between 20-30 [[Africa]]ns captured from the slave ship ''São João Bautista''. Traded for work and supplies from the colonists, they were the first Africans to come ashore on British-occupied land in what would become the United States. The arrival of these [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] people from [[Angola]] is considered to mark the beginning of [[Slavery in the colonial history of the United States|slavery in colonial America]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://time.com/5653369/august-1619-jamestown-history/ |title=Where the Landing of the First Africans in English North America Really Fits in the History of Slavery |last=Waxman |first=Olivia B. |date=August 20, 2019 |work=Time |access-date=2020-08-10 |language=en}}</ref> In March 1622 a coordinated [[Indian massacre of 1622|Native American attack]] on the Virginia colony's settlements took place.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4246389 William S. Powell, "Aftermath of the Massacre]: The First Indian War, 1622–1632", ''The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography'', Vol. 66, no. 1 (Jan., 1958), p. 44</ref> Jamestown itself received warning of the attack from a friendly Indian boy and had few casualties. One result of this and other factors was the dissolution of the Virginia Company, with Virginia becoming a [[crown colony]] in 1624.<ref name=Rob811>Roberts, pp. 811–812</ref> In 1623–1624 the Fort at [[Warrosquyoake Shire|Warroskoyack]] (also called "The Castle" and later named [[Fort Boykin]]) was built in the future [[Isle of Wight County]] opposite present-day [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]] to guard against further attacks.<ref name=AFNBoyk>{{cite web |title=James River Area - Fort Boykin |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/vajames.html#boykin |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=10 August 2020}}</ref> In [[Anglo-Powhatan Wars#Third Anglo-Powhatan War|1644 colonial-native hostilities]] resumed, resolved by a 1646 treaty.<ref>Tucker, Arnold & Wiener, pp. 17–19</ref> In 1632 the "Fort at [[Old Point Comfort]]" was built. It was abandoned in 1665 and succumbed to a hurricane in 1667.<ref name=AFNHamp1/> In that year two small forts were built at Jamestown to guard against Dutch raids. They were abandoned circa 1680 and 1716.<ref name=AFNJames1/> One result of [[Bacon's Rebellion]] in 1676 was the destruction and rebuilding of Jamestown.<ref>Waldrup, p. 86</ref> In 1699 the Virginia Colony moved its capital to [[Williamsburg, Virginia|Williamsburg]] and Jamestown was abandoned as a town. In 1727 Old Point Comfort was re-fortified with the 20-gun [[Fort George (Virginia)|Fort George]]. Its masonry walls were destroyed by a hurricane in 1749, but the wooden buildings in the fort were used by a reduced force from circa 1755 until at least 1775; the fort may have been rebuilt with 25 guns in 1755.<ref name=AFNHamp1/> ====Revolutionary War==== {{main|Virginia in the American Revolution}} Virginia's part in the [[American Revolution]] began with opposition by [[Patrick Henry]] and/or the [[House of Burgesses]] and [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] to several acts by various British government entities under [[George III of England|King George III]] that interfered in the colony's affairs or imposed unpopular taxes. These events began in 1763 with Henry's role in arguing the [[Parson's Cause]] case.{{sfn|McCants|1990|pp=118–119}} Henry was elected to the Burgesses in 1765. In the [[French and Indian War]] (1754–1763) the British succeeded in forcing France to abandon all territory east of the Mississippi River. This removed a significant threat to the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. Also, combined with the expenses of the parallel [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763), the British [[national debt]] had nearly doubled. The British attempted to address this deficit by taxing the colonies via the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act of 1765]]. Virginia was among several of the American colonies that protested this on the basis of "[[no taxation without representation]]", with both the legislature's [[Virginia Resolves]] (initiated by Patrick Henry) and public protest.<ref>Morgan 1948, pp. 314–315</ref> The Burgesses were dissolved by the governor after the Resolves in June 1764, and not called into session again until November 1766; this precluded them sending representatives to the [[Stamp Act Congress]]. The act was repealed in March 1766. In 1767 the [[Gosport Shipyard]] was established in [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]], later to become the Norfolk Naval Shipyard.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.navsea.navy.mil/Home/Shipyards/Norfolk/About-Us/History/| title=History| access-date=25 August 2021| work=navsea.navy.mil}}</ref> The first incident of the [[American Revolutionary War]] on Virginia soil was on 20 April 1775, the day after the [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]]. Royal marines were sent to remove gunpowder from Williamsburg's [[gunpowder magazine|magazine]] to a British ship. Patrick Henry opposed this at the head of a group of Virginia militia. A compromise was reached, with the British paying for the powder, but the royal governor [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]] no longer felt safe in Williamsburg and fled to a British warship. [[File:A plan of Portsmouth Harbour in the province of Virginia shewing the works erected by the British forces for its defence, 1781. LOC gm71000689.tif|thumb|1781 British map showing forts in the Norfolk/Portsmouth area. Fort Nelson is the fort on "Mill Point". The Revolutionary War fort on the site of the later Fort Norfolk is also shown.]] In 1775 a battery on the future site of [[Fort Norfolk (Norfolk, Virginia)|Fort Norfolk]] was built with local resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/VLR_to_transfer/PDFNoms/122-0007_Fort_Norfolk_1976_Final_Nomination.pdf|title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Fort Norfolk|author=Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission Staff|date=December 1975|publisher=Virginia Department of Historic Resources}} and [https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/VLR_to_transfer/Photos/122-0007_Fort_Norfolk_VLR_4th_Edition.jpg ''Accompanying photo'']</ref><ref name=AFNNorfolk>{{cite web |title=Hampton Roads Area - Fort Norfolk |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varoads.html#norfolk |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=15 August 2020}}</ref> On 9 December 1775 Virginia militia counterattacked British forces in the [[Battle of Great Bridge]] south of [[Portsmouth, Virginia]], taking the minor Fort Murray,<ref>{{cite web |title=Hampton Roads Area - Fort Murray |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varoads.html#great |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=13 August 2020}}</ref> which guarded the land route from Portsmouth to Norfolk. The militia occupied [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] a few days later, with British forces and Governor Dunmore retreating to British warships near the city. The [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] forces and the British engaged in a tense standoff, with the mostly [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] citizens of Norfolk abandoning the town. In late December the British asked to purchase supplies rather than "take them by force", followed by a request that the Patriot forces not parade and change the guard along the waterfront. The British also suggested that women and children leave the town. On 1 January 1776 the British opened fire in what was later called the "[[Burning of Norfolk]]". [[Landing party|Landing parties]] were deployed to seize supplies and set fire to Patriot sniper nests. The British ceased firing in the evening. The Patriots took the opportunity over the next few days to loot the property of Loyalists who had fled the city.<ref>Russell 2000, p. 74</ref> [[Fort Nelson (Virginia)|Fort Nelson]], named for a patriot governor of Virginia, was built in late 1776 on Hospital Point in [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]], with supervision by [[Benedict Arnold]] (a patriot at the time). In 1779, a British fleet commanded by [[George Collier|Admiral Sir George Collier]] confiscated its artillery and supplies and destroyed most of the [[Parapet#Parapets in fortification|parapet]]; the garrison evacuated the fort before it was captured. During 1781, both Benedict Arnold (having defected to the British) and [[Lord Cornwallis]] occupied the fort.<ref name=AFNNelson>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varoads.html#nelson Fort Nelson (2) at American Forts Network]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://vcris.dhr.virginia.gov/HistoricMarkers/|title=Department of Historic Resources|work=virginia.gov}}</ref> A 1781 British map of fortifications erected by them on the Elizabeth River indicates that they rebuilt Fort Nelson, and shows the fort on the future site of Fort Norfolk. In that year the British also occupied [[Old Point Comfort]] and built several batteries there.<ref name=AFNHamp1/> Eventually, the American victory in the [[Yorktown campaign]] on October 19, 1781 proved to be the key to independence; the British received word of it on November 25. This precipitated a collapse of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]]'s [[Tory]] government in March 1782. The new [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] government suspended offensive operations in the Thirteen Colonies and commenced lengthy peace negotiations, culminating in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] that ended the war on September 3, 1783.{{sfn|Paterson|2009|p=20}} ====1783–War of 1812==== [[File:Plan of Fort Norfolk 1860.jpg|thumb|Plan of Fort Norfolk in 1860]] In 1794–5, new [[earthwork (military)|earthwork]] forts were built by the federal government on the sites of two Revolutionary War forts, [[Fort Norfolk (Norfolk, Virginia)|Fort Norfolk]]<ref name=AFNNorfolk/> and [[Fort Nelson (Virginia)|Fort Nelson]], both as part of what was later termed the [[Seacoast defense in the United States|first system of U.S. fortifications]]. Both forts were rebuilt in the 1800s as part of the second system of U.S. fortifications, due to tensions with Britain and France that culminated in the [[War of 1812]]. Fort Nelson was rebuilt of earth lined with brick in 1802–1804, with a capacity of 37 guns.<ref name=AFNNelson/>{{sfn|Wade|2011|p=238, 245}} In 1807 the [[Chesapeake–Leopard affair|''Chesapeake–Leopard'' affair]] off the coast near Norfolk caused a heightened state of alert at the forts and touched off more rebuilding.{{sfn|Wade|2011|pp=117–118}} Fort Norfolk was rebuilt with masonry in 1807–1809, with a capacity of 30 guns. Fort Nelson had new batteries added, with 33 guns mounted. Both forts were garrisoned in the War of 1812, though neither were attacked in that war. A defensive [[Boom (navigational barrier)|chain]] was placed between the two forts to prevent British vessels from entering the river.<ref name=AFNNorfolk/>{{sfn|Wade|2011|p=130, 143, 238, 245}} After the United States declared war on the United Kingdom on June 18, 1812, the [[Craney Island Fort]] was built at the mouth of the Elizabeth River; an approaching waterborne enemy would encounter it before reaching Fort Norfolk or Fort Nelson. It had seven cannon on hand in June 1813.<ref>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Craney_Island_Fort Craney Island Fort at FortWiki.com]</ref> On June 22, 1813 the fort repulsed an attack by a superior British force in the [[Battle of Craney Island]], preventing the British from reaching Norfolk or Portsmouth. There were few British and no American casualties in the battle, though two days later the British occupied the then-undefended [[Old Point Comfort]] and burned and sacked the nearby town of [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp951001/09290198.htm |title=Craney Island Battle Led to Burning of Hampton |last=Flanders |first=Alan |date=October 1, 1995 |work=[[The Virginian-Pilot]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415172344/http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/VA-news/VA-Pilot/issues/1995/vp951001/09290198.htm |access-date=August 23, 2021 |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 15, 2008 |df=mdy }}</ref> In April 1814 British Rear Admiral [[Sir George Cockburn, 10th Baronet|George Cockburn]], as ordered by his superior Vice Admiral [[Alexander Cochrane]], began raiding the southern portion of Chesapeake Bay. Determining that American defenses were limited, Cochrane planned a land expedition to raid [[Washington, DC]]. The plan was to burn portions of the city and then withdraw, in part retaliating for American raids on the Canadian side of [[Lake Erie]], including the [[raid on Port Dover]].{{sfn|Cruikshank|2006|p=402}} On June 31 the British force landed at [[Benedict, Maryland]] on the [[Patuxent River]] and marched on Washington.<ref name=NPSFtWash1/> On August 24 the American forces were defeated in the [[Battle of Bladensburg]], just east of Washington, and the British entered the city. They proceeded to [[Burning of Washington|set fire to the Capitol]] (which also housed the [[Library of Congress]]), the [[White House]], and other government facilities, but did little damage to private residences. The burning of the Library of Congress destroyed many government records,<ref>{{cite web| title=Jefferson's Legacy: A Brief History of the Library of Congress| publisher=Library of Congress| url=https://www.loc.gov/loc/legacy/loc.html| date=March 30, 2006| access-date=August 24, 2021}}</ref> including the drawings for most of the first and second system forts. The British withdrew after three days; local tradition credits a severe storm and tornado for hastening their departure and putting out the fires.<ref>{{cite AV media |date=2005 |title=The War of 1812, ''Scene 5 "An Act of Nature"'' |medium=Television production |language=English |publisher=History Channel }}</ref> On August 27 British ships proceeding up the [[Potomac River|Potomac]] came opposite [[Fort Washington Park|Fort Washington]], a few miles south of the city in Maryland. With only a small garrison of 56 men and not much left to defend, the fort's commander decided to abandon the fort and detonate the magazine. The British naval force completed the fort's destruction, then moved upriver to loot [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]].<ref name=NPSFtWash1>{{cite web |url=http://www.nps.gov/fowa/learn/historyculture/warburton.htm |title=Fort Warburton |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Fort Washington Park Maryland |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=25 August 2021}}</ref> The British force that had burned Washington marched back to their ships on the Patuxent, and soon decided to proceed to Baltimore. The [[battle of Baltimore]] took place September 12–14, beginning with British land attacks on the 12th and 13th that drove the Americans back to the city's inner defenses. The British then apparently decided to await the result of the parallel bombardment of [[Fort McHenry]] that began at dawn on the 13th; the British army commander had been ordered not to attack unless he were certain that less than 2,000 men remained in the fort.{{sfn|Borneman|2004|p=247}} In the early hours of the 14th, the British land force returned to their ships, though some were landed that night west of the fort in an attempt at a diversion. Somewhat later, after 25 hours of bombardment, only four of the fort's 1,000 defenders had been killed and 24 wounded, and the British forces withdrew. The raising of a large flag on the morning of the 14th, replacing a smaller flag that had flown through much of the bombardment, inspired [[Francis Scott Key]] to write ''[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]''. The British fleet and troops withdrew from Chesapeake Bay and Hampton Roads, proceeding to [[New Orleans]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.bcpl.net/~etowner/battle.html| title = The Battle of Baltimore| publisher = The Patriots of Fort McHenry, Incorporated| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070608020336/http://www.bcpl.net/~etowner/battle.html| archive-date = 2007-06-08| access-date = 2021-08-24}}</ref> ====1815–1860==== *{{main|Fort Monroe}} [[File:Fort Monroe Map.jpg|thumb|Map of Fort Monroe by [[Robert Knox Sneden]], 1862, showing casemated water battery, redoubt, and gorge position; the redoubt was protected by a secondary moat. The outer moat shown for the water battery did not exist.]] In March 1819, President [[James Monroe]]'s [[United States Department of War|War Department]] developed a plan to build a network of greatly strengthened coastal defenses, later called the [[Seacoast defense in the United States|third system of U.S. fortifications]]. The program eventually produced the largest masonry forts ever built by the United States. One of the goals of this program was to prevent a repeat of the British sailing up the Chesapeake or Potomac unopposed, as had happened in the War of 1812. In 1819 construction began on [[Fort Monroe]] on [[Old Point Comfort]], the stone-and-brick fort which would become the safeguard for Chesapeake Bay and the largest fort by area ever built in the United States.<ref name=AFNMonroe>{{cite web |title=Hampton Roads Area - Fort Monroe |url=https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/varoads.html#hampton |publisher=American Forts Network |accessdate=24 August 2021}}</ref> It was intended as the headquarters for the third system of forts and was named for President James Monroe. It was originally named Fortress Monroe, but was officially renamed as Fort Monroe in 1832, though it has often been called by the earlier name ever since.<ref name=AFNHamp1/>{{sfn|Weaver II|2018|pp=41, 179–186}} It was first garrisoned in 1823, though work continued for nearly 25 years.<ref name="Fort Monroe During the Civil War">{{cite web |url=http://encyclopediavirginia.org/Fort_Monroe_During_the_Civil_War |publisher=Kenmore Stamp Company |title=Fort Monroe During the Civil War |accessdate=4 February 2011}}</ref> The fort was designed by brevet Brigadier General of engineers [[Simon Bernard]], formerly a French brigadier general of engineers and later commissioned in the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]].{{sfn|Weaver II|2018|pp=179–186}} The fort's walls were up to ten feet thick and the moat was eight feet deep. The initial design provided for up to 380 guns and was later expanded to 412 guns, intended for a garrison of 600 troops in peacetime and up to 2,625 troops in wartime. However, the fort was never fully armed.<ref name=FWikiMon1>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Monroe Fort Monroe at FortWiki.com]</ref>{{sfn|Weaver II|2018|pp=179–186}} As a young first lieutenant and engineer in the U.S. Army, [[Robert E. Lee]] was stationed at Fort Monroe from 1831 to 1834 and played a major role in its final construction and its opposite, Fort Calhoun (renamed [[Fort Wool]] in 1862).<ref name=VAnom2>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhr.virginia.gov/registers/Cities/Hampton/114-0002-0005_Quarters_17_Ft_Monroe_2010_nomination_FINAL.pdf |title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Quarters 17 |author=Katherine D. Klepper |date=n.d.|publisher=Virginia Department of Historic Resources}}</ref> Fort Calhoun was built on a [[man-made island]] called the [[Rip Raps]] across the navigation channel from [[Old Point Comfort]] in the middle of the mouth of Hampton Roads. The Rip Raps had considerable [[subsidence]] that continued despite corrective efforts; construction was halted in 1861 with one tier of casemates completed and an upper tier of open-top casemates on about two-thirds of the fort's perimeter.{{sfn|Weaver II|2018|pp=186–190}} For most of the period 1824 to 1907 Fort Monroe was the site of the Army's main artillery school. From 1907 to 1946 Fort Monroe hosted the coast artillery school. Fort Monroe also hosted the Old Point Comfort Proving Ground for testing artillery and ammunition from the 1830s to 1861; after the Civil War this function relocated to the [[Sandy Hook Proving Ground]] in New Jersey.<ref name=AFNMonroe/> ====1861–1885==== {{main|Battle of Hampton Roads}} {{main|Peninsula campaign}} [[Burnside's North Carolina Expedition]] *[[Contraband (American Civil War)]] *[[Fort Huger]] [[Bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 1861)|bombardment of Fort Sumter]] April 12–13, 1861. VA secedes April 17, 1861. Gosport Navy Yard burned and captured April 21, 1861. [[Fort Norfolk (Norfolk, Virginia)|Fort Norfolk]] and [[Fort Nelson (Virginia)|Fort Nelson]] occupied then or soon after. [[Fort Monroe]] remained in Union hands throughout the war. On April 20 the Union Navy burned and evacuated the [[Norfolk Navy Yard]], destroying nine ships in the process, keeping Fort Monroe at Old Point Comfort as the last bastion of the United States in [[Tidewater region of Virginia|Tidewater Virginia]]. The Confederacy's occupation of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] gave it a major shipyard and thousands of heavy guns, but they held it for only one year. Confederate Brigadier General [[Walter Gwynn]], who commanded the Confederate defenses around Norfolk, erected batteries at [[Sewell's Point]], to protect Norfolk and to control Hampton Roads. The Union dispatched a fleet to Hampton Roads to enforce the blockade. On May 18–19, 1861, Federal gunboats based at Fort Monroe exchanged fire with the Confederate batteries at Sewell's Point. The little-known [[Battle of Sewell's Point]] resulted in minor damage to both sides. Several land operations against Confederate forces were mounted from the fort, notably the [[Battle of Big Bethel]] in June 1861. [[Image:Fort monroe doctrine cartoon.jpg|thumb|right|Slaves escape to the fort after Gen. Butler's decree that all slaves behind Union lines would be protected. The policy was called the "[[Fort Monroe Doctrine]]", alluding to Butler's headquarters at the Fort.]] On May 27, 1861, Major General [[Benjamin Butler (politician)|Benjamin Butler]] made his famous "[[contraband (American Civil War)|contraband]]" decision, or "[[Fort Monroe Doctrine]]", determining that escaping male slaves who reached Union lines would be considered "contraband of war" (captured enemy property) and not be returned to bondage. Prior to this, the Union had generally enforced the [[Fugitive Slave Act of 1850|Fugitive Slave Act]], returning escaped slaves to the Confederacy and slavery. The order resulted in thousands of slaves fleeing to Union lines around Fort Monroe, which was Butler's headquarters in Virginia. Fort Monroe became called "Freedom's Fortress", as any slave reaching it would be free. In the Summer of 1861, one escaped slave named Harry Jarvis made his way to Fort Monroe and insisted General Butler let him enlist. Butler refused because he believed "it wasn't a black man's war." Jarvis replied, "It would be a black man's war," due to the presence of the incoming of thousands of runaway slaves. This marked a sudden shift in the war.<ref>Hahn, Steven. The Nathan I. Huggins Lectures : The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom. Cambridge, US: Harvard University Press, 2009. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 16 October 2016.Copyright © 2009. Harvard University Press.</ref> By the fall, the Army had built the [[Great Contraband Camp]] to try to house the families. It was the first of more than 100 that would be established by war's end, and the [[Freedmen's Colony of Roanoke Island|Roanoke Island Freedmen's Colony]] (1863–1867), which started as a contraband camp. Many contrabands were employed by the Union Army in support roles such as cooks, wagon drivers, and laborers. Beginning in January 1863, the [[United States Colored Troops]] were formed, with many contrabands enlisting; these units were composed primarily of white officers and African-American enlisted men, and eventually numbered over 180,000 soldiers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gladstone |first1=Gladstone, William A. |title=United States Colored Troops, 1863–1867 | pages= 9, 120 |publisher=Thomas Publications |location=Gettysburg, PA |year=1990 |isbn=0-939631-16-4 }}</ref> The Union Army reoccupied the Norfolk and Portsmouth area on May 10, 1862 after Major General [[John E. Wool]] landed at Willoughby and marched on the city of Norfolk.<ref name=VAnom>{{cite web|url=https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/VLR_to_transfer/PDFNoms/122-0007_Fort_Norfolk_1976_Final_Nomination.pdf|title=National Register of Historic Places Inventory/Nomination: Fort Norfolk|author=Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission Staff|date=December 1975|publisher=Virginia Department of Historic Resources}} and [https://www.dhr.virginia.gov/VLR_to_transfer/Photos/122-0007_Fort_Norfolk_VLR_4th_Edition.jpg ''Accompanying photo'']</ref> This caused the Confederates to evacuate both Fort Norfolk and Fort Nelson, resulting in the area's surrender. In 1881, [[Collis P. Huntington]] extended the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Railway]] from [[Richmond]] to [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]], with another branch serving [[Phoebus, Virginia|Phoebus]] near Fort Monroe the following year. In 1886 he founded the [[Newport News Shipbuilding]] and Drydock Company to repair ships servicing the Hampton Roads transportation hub. The shipyard went on to build numerous warships for the [[U.S. Navy]], including all of its nuclear-powered [[aircraft carrier]]s, a number of other carriers, and numerous nuclear submarines. The yard also built the unique [[SS United States|SS ''United States'']], the fastest [[ocean liner]] ever built. ===Endicott period=== [[File:Fort Greble, R.I. (4515412788).jpg|thumb|right|{{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} mortars, similar to those at Fort Monroe]] [[File:Old-Style-Pit.jpg|thumb|right|This photo shows a mortar pit of the Abbot Quad period. This illustrates the difficulty of reloading four mortars in this configuration. Three of four mortars and 30 soldiers are visible in the crowded space.]] The [[Board of Fortifications]] was convened in 1885 under [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[William Crowninshield Endicott]] to develop recommendations for a full replacement of existing coast defenses. Most of its recommendations were adopted, and construction began in 1896 on new batteries and [[Submarine mines in United States harbor defense|controlled minefields]] to defend Chesapeake Bay. The board is often called the "Endicott board" and the fortification period of 1885–1905 the "Endicott period".<ref name=Berhow212>Berhow, p. 212</ref><ref name=CDSGChes>[https://cdsg.org/the-harbor-defenses-of-chesapeake-bay/ Harbor Defenses of Chesapeake Bay at CDSG.org]</ref> In 1898 a battery of two [[QF 4.7-inch Gun Mk I–IV|{{convert|4.72|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] was added outside the fort due to the Spanish–American War; most of the Endicott batteries in the area were years from completion and it was feared the Spanish fleet would bombard the [[East Coast of the United States|U.S. east coast]].<ref name=ComRep1>[https://books.google.com/books?id=RUtZAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3780 Congressional serial set, 1900, ''Report of the Commission on the Conduct of the War with Spain'', Vol. 7, pp. 3778–3780, Washington: Government Printing Office]</ref> [[Fort DuPont]] had a battery of sixteen [[12-inch coast defense mortar|{{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} mortars]] in an "Abbot Quad" arrangement for concentrated fire. Two {{convert|12|in|adj=on|0}} guns on [[barbette]] carriages and two [[8-inch gun M1888|{{convert|8|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] on disappearing carriages were in an unusual arrangement: the 12-inch guns were on either side of the pair of 8-inch guns. Two two-gun batteries, one with [[5-inch gun M1900|{{convert|5|in|adj=on|0}} guns]] and one with 3-inch guns, completed the armament. ===World War I=== The [[American entry into World War I]] brought many changes to the Coast Artillery and the Coast Defenses of the Delaware (CD Delaware). Numerous temporary buildings were constructed at the forts to accommodate the wartime [[mobilization]]. As the only component of the Army with heavy artillery experience and significant manpower, the Coast Artillery was chosen to operate almost all US-manned heavy and [[railway artillery]] in that war. At most coast defense commands, garrisons were drawn down to provide experienced gun crews on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]], mostly using French- and British-made weapons. At least one company from CD Delaware was used to form the [[60th Air Defense Artillery Regiment|60th Artillery]] (Coast Artillery Corps), which saw action in France.<ref name=CACWWIHUN/><ref>[http://freepages.rootsweb.com/~cacunithistories/military/60thartycac.htm 60th Artillery in WWI at Rootsweb.com]</ref>{{sfn|Rinaldi|2004|p=163}} Some weapons were removed from forts with the intent of getting US-made artillery into the fight. 5-inch and 6-inch guns became [[field gun]]s on wheeled carriages.{{sfn|Williford|2016|pp=92-99}} 12-inch mortars were also removed as railway artillery or to improve reload times by reducing the number of mortars in a pit from four to two; this happened at Fort DuPont to provide mortars elsewhere. The remounted 5-inch and 6-inch guns were sent to France, but their units did not complete training in time to see action.<ref name=CACWWIHUN>[http://freepages.military.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~cacunithistories/defeating_the_hun.htm Coast Artillery Corps Units in France in WWI]</ref> In 1918 a two-gun [[antiaircraft]] battery armed with [[3-inch gun M1917|M1917 {{convert|3|in|adj=on}} guns]] on fixed mounts was built at Fort DuPont. In 1917 one 6-inch gun each was placed at the [[Cape May Military Reservation]] and the [[Cape Henlopen Military Reservation]], at the mouth of [[Delaware Bay]]. These guns were removed after the war.<ref name=Berhow212/><ref name=CDSGDel/> References indicate that the authorized strength of CD Chesapeake Bay in World War I was 17 companies, including five from the [[Virginia Army National Guard|Virginia National Guard]].{{sfn|Rinaldi|2004|p=165}} ===Between the wars=== In 1919-1920 several weapon types were declared obsolete and removed from coast defenses. These included all 5-inch guns, all Armstrong guns (6-inch and 4.72-inch), and 3-inch M1898 guns. Only in rare cases were these weapons replaced. On 1 July 1924 the harbor defense garrisons completed the transition from a company-based organization to a regimental one, and on 9 June 1925 the commands were renamed from "Coast Defenses..." to "Harbor Defenses..." as [[Harbor Defense Command]]s.<ref name=CACOrg1/><ref name=Berhow427/> The 3rd Battalion, [[7th Coast Artillery]] of the [[Regular Army (United States)|regular army]] became the garrison of HD Delaware, which was in [[caretaker (military)|caretaker]] status between the wars. Headquarters and Headquarters Battery (HHB) 3rd Battalion and Battery E, 7th CA were the initial caretaker units. On September 1, 1935 the HHB was deactivated. In May 1936 the [[261st Coast Artillery (United States)|261st Coast Artillery]] Battalion (Harbor Defense) (HD) of the [[Delaware Army National Guard|Delaware National Guard]] was organized as the National Guard component of HD Delaware.<ref name=Gaines1>Gaines Regular Army, pp. 5, 10</ref><ref name=CDSGNGReg>[http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CAregNG.pdf National Guard Coast Artillery regiment histories at the Coast Defense Study Group]</ref> ===World War II=== [[File:16-inch-Casemated.jpg|thumb|right|{{convert|16|in|adj=on|0}} casemated gun, similar to those at Fort Story and Fort John Custis]] Early in World War II numerous temporary buildings were again constructed at the forts to accommodate the rapid mobilization of men and equipment. In 1940–41 the [[21st Coast Artillery (United States)|21st Coast Artillery]] Regiment was mobilized at Fort DuPont with a strength of one battalion to garrison the Harbor Defenses of the Delaware (HD Delaware). On January 27, 1941 the [[261st Coast Artillery (United States)|261st Coast Artillery]] Battalion was activated and moved to Fort DuPont, with elements moving to Fort Miles on June 5, 1941. On April 15, 1941 the 21st CA deployed [[155 mm gun M1918|155 mm gun]] batteries at [[Fort Miles]] and activated [[Fort Saulsbury]].{{sfn|Stanton|1991|pp=459, 472, 492}}<ref name=Gaines1/><ref name=CDSGNGReg/> The first batteries at Fort Miles and Cape May were four mobile 155&nbsp;mm GPF guns each, deployed in April 1941 at Fort Miles and some time later in 1941 at the [[Cape May Military Reservation]] in New Jersey. After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] on December 7, 1941 building up Fort Miles became a higher priority. By mid-1942 concrete "[[Panama mount]]s" were completed for the 155&nbsp;mm gun batteries.<ref>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Miles Fort Miles at FortWiki.com]</ref><ref>[http://www.fortwiki.com/Cape_May_Military_Reservation Cape May Military Reservation at FortWiki.com]</ref><ref name=CDSGDel/> On March 14, 1942 Battery C of the [[52nd Coast Artillery]] (CA) (Railway) regiment arrived with four [[8-inch Mk. VI|{{convert|8|in|adj=on|0}} railway guns]]. By September 10 this battery was joined by Battery D with the same armament; Batteries C and D were initially the 2nd Battalion of the 52nd CA, and were redesignated as the 287th Coast Artillery (Railway) Battalion on May 1, 1943.<ref name=Gaines1/> After the [[Fall of France]] in 1940 the Army decided to replace all existing heavy coast defense guns, except the long-range 12-inch guns, with 16-inch guns. In HD Delaware this meant an all-new fort at the mouth of [[Delaware Bay]] at [[Cape Henlopen]], later named [[Fort Miles]]. The fort's largest armament was Battery 118, later named Battery Smith, built in 1942–43 with two ex-Navy [[16"/50 caliber Mark 2 gun|{{convert|16|in|adj=on|0}} Mark 2 guns]]. This battery effectively superseded all other heavy weapons in HD Delaware, the third time new defenses were built seaward as gun ranges increased. An additional 16-inch battery, Battery 119, was proposed but not built. Instead, two of Fort Saulsbury's 12-inch guns were relocated to Fort Miles as Battery 519, completed in August 1943. These batteries at Fort Miles were built [[casemate]]d, with heavy concrete enclosures for protection against air attack. Fort Miles also had a [[Submarine mines in United States harbor defense|controlled minefield]].<ref name=Berhow212/><ref name=CDSGDel/> The 16-inch batteries were supplemented by new two-gun [[6-inch gun M1903|{{convert|6|in|adj=on|0}} batteries]]. These included heavy earth-covered concrete bunkers for ammunition and [[Coast Artillery fire control system|fire control]], with the guns protected by open-back shields. The guns for these batteries were mostly the 6-inch guns removed in World War I for field service and stored since that war; a new [[6-inch gun M1]] of similar characteristics was developed when this supply of guns began to run out. Three of these batteries were in HD Delaware, two at Fort Miles (Batteries 221 and 222) and one at [[Cape May Military Reservation]], New Jersey (Battery 223).<ref name=Berhow212/> Three [[90 mm Gun M1/M2/M3|90 mm gun]] (3.5&nbsp;inch) Anti-Motor Torpedo Boat (AMTB) batteries were built in HD Delaware. These had 90&nbsp;mm dual-purpose (anti-surface and [[anti-aircraft]]) guns. Each battery was authorized two 90&nbsp;mm guns on fixed mounts, two on towed mounts, and two single [[40 mm Bofors]] guns, although the weapons on hand may have varied. Two batteries were at Fort Miles and one was at Cape May.<ref name=Berhow212/> Following mobilization in 1940 HD Chesapeake Bay was subordinate to [[First Army (United States)|First Army]]. On 24 December 1941 the Eastern Theater of Operations (renamed the [[Eastern Defense Command]] three months later) was established, with all [[East Coast of the United States|east coast]] harbor defense commands subordinate to it, along with [[antiaircraft]] and fighter assets. This command was disestablished in 1946.<ref>Conn, pp. 33-35</ref> The [[US Navy]] also participated in defending Chesapeake Bay with [[net defense]]s and [[naval mine]]s in areas not covered by the Army's controlled minefields. The increasingly remote threat of an enemy surface attack and an Army-wide shift from a regimental to a battalion-based system meant drawdowns in HD Chesapeake Bay, starting in early 1944. ===Cold War=== Following the war, it was soon determined that gun defenses were obsolete, and they were scrapped by the end of 1948, with remaining harbor defense functions turned over to the Navy.<ref name=Berhow212/> In 1950 the Coast Artillery Corps and all Army harbor defense commands were dissolved. Today the [[Air Defense Artillery Branch (United States)|Air Defense Artillery]] carries the lineage of some Coast Artillery units. For air defense in the [[Cold War]], an extensive system of [[90 mm Gun M1/M2/M3|90 mm]] [[antiaircraft]] guns was emplaced in the Philadelphia area in the early 1950s,<ref>[http://ed-thelen.org/gunsitesusa.html AAA gun sites at Ed-Thelen.org]</ref><ref>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/pa.html#cold Cold War AAA Defenses of Philadelphia at American Forts Network]</ref><ref>[https://www.northamericanforts.com/East/njsouth.html#cold Cold War AAA Defenses of Philadelphia in New Jersey at American Forts Network]</ref> followed by [[Nike missile]] systems in the late 1950s (see [[List of Nike missile sites#Pennsylvania]] and [[List of Nike missile sites#New Jersey]]). The Nike missiles were removed in the early 1970s. Battery 221 a.k.a. Battery Herring, originally covered with sand like all the other batteries, was excavated and expanded for use as a [[U.S. Navy]] [[SOSUS]] station during the Cold War as part of Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Lewes. It is now abandoned. ==Present== [[File:16 in gun Fort John Custis VA1.jpg|thumb|16-inch Mark 7 gun at Battery Winslow, Fort John Custis.]] ==Heraldry== ===Harbor Defenses of the Delaware=== '''[[Coat of arms]]''' *Blazon **Shield: Azure, three lions' heads erased or, two and one.<ref name=CoatDel>[http://sill-www.army.mil/ada-online/coast-artillery-journal/_docs/1928/8/Aug%201928.pdf Coat of Arms for the Harbor Defenses of the Delaware, ''Coast Artillery Journal'', August 1928, vol. 69 no. 2, p. 161]</ref> **Crest: On a wreath of the colors a griffin's head erased azure, beaked and eared or.<ref name=CoatDel/> **Motto: The motto ''Semper Paratus'' (Always ready).<ref name=CoatDel/> *Symbolism: The history of this region shows that it was colonized and occupied by the Swedish, Dutch, and English, who are shown on these arms by the three lions' heads, each of those countries having a gold lion on their coat of arms. The color blue is common to all three flags and also to the flag of the United States. The griffin's head is taken from the crest of [[Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr|Lord Delaware]] for whom the state, river, and defenses were named.<ref name=CoatDel/> ==See also== {{Portal|American Revolutionary War|American Civil War|World War I|World War II||Virginia}} * [[Seacoast defense in the United States]] * [[Harbor Defense Command]] * [[List of coastal fortifications of the United States]] ==References== {{Reflist}} ===Bibliography=== * {{cite book | last1 = Berhow | first1 = Mark A., Ed. | title = American Seacoast Defenses, A Reference Guide, Third Edition | location = McLean, Virginia | publisher = CDSG Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 978-0-9748167-3-9}} *{{cite book| last=Borneman| first=Walter R.| author-link=Walter R. Borneman| title=1812: The War That Forged a Nation| url=https://archive.org/details/1812warthatforge0000born| url-access=registration| location=New York| publisher=Harper Perennial| year=2004| isbn=978-0-06-053112-6}} * {{Cite book | last=Conn| first=Stetson| last2=Engelman| first2=Rose C.| last3=Fairchild| first3=Byron| title=Guarding the United States and its Outposts|trans-title=| url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/Guard-US/index.htm#contents| accessdate=| series=United States Army in World War II| volume=| origyear=1964| year=2000| publisher =Center of Military History, United States Army| location=Washington, D.C.|ref=harv}} * {{cite book |last=Cruikshank |first=Ernest |year=2006 |orig-year=1814 |title=The Documentary History of the campaign upon the Niagara frontier. (Part 1-2) |url=http://www.nosracines.ca/e/page.aspx?id=769621 |publisher=University of Calgary |access-date=May 11, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527184843/http://www.nosracines.ca/e/page.aspx?id=769621 |archive-date=May 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }} * [http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACreg1.pdf Gaines, William C., Coast Artillery Organizational History, 1917-1950, Regular Army regiments, ''Coast Defense Journal'', vol. 23, issue 2] * [http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CAregNG.pdf Gaines, William C., Historical Sketches Coast Artillery Regiments 1917-1950, National Guard Army Regiments 197-265] * {{cite book |last=Lemay |first=J. A. Leo |title=The American Dream of Captain John Smith |page=80 |location=Charlottesville |publisher=University Press of Virginia |year=1991|ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last = Lewis | first = Emanuel Raymond | authorlink = | title = Seacoast Fortifications of the United States | publisher = Leeward Publications | year = 1979 | location = Annapolis | isbn = 978-0-929521-11-4 }} * {{cite book|last=McCants|first=David A.|title=Patrick Henry, the Orator|year=1990|pages=118–119|location=Westport, CT|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-26210-4|ref=harv }} * [[Edmund S. Morgan|Morgan, Edmund S.]] ''Colonial Ideas of Parliamentary Power 1764–1766.'' William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 3 (Jul., 1948) * {{cite book | last = Rinaldi | first = Richard A. | authorlink = | title = The U. S. Army in World War I: Orders of Battle | publisher = General Data LLC | year = 2004 | location = | isbn = 0-9720296-4-8 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book | last = Roberts | first = Robert B. | authorlink = | title = Encyclopedia of Historic Forts: The Military, Pioneer, and Trading Posts of the United States | publisher = Macmillan | year = 1988 | location = New York | isbn = 0-02-926880-X |ref=harv}} * {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5DFy0eWaPxIC&pg=PA74|title=The American Revolution in the Southern colonies |first=David Lee |last=Russell |publisher=McFarland |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7864-0783-5 |location=Jefferson, NC |oclc=248087936}} * {{cite book |last=Stanton |first=Shelby L. |title=World War II Order of Battle |publisher=Galahad Books |year=1991 |pages= |location= |isbn=0-88365-775-9 |ref=harv}} * {{cite book|author1=Spencer C. Tucker |author2=James R. Arnold |author3=Roberta Wiener |title=The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JsM4A0GSO34C |accessdate=30 March 2013 |date=30 September 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-697-8 }}</ref> * {{cite book | last1 = Wade | first1 = Arthur P. | title = Artillerists and Engineers: The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794–1815 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Py7DBgAAQBAJ | publisher = CDSG Press | year = 2011 | page = | isbn = 978-0-9748167-2-2}} * Waldrup, Carole Chandler, ''Colonial Women: 23 Europeans Who Helped Build a Nation'', McFarland, 1999 * {{cite book |last1=Weaver II |first1=John R. |title=A Legacy in Brick and Stone: American Coastal Defense Forts of the Third System, 1816-1867, 2nd Ed. | pages= |publisher=Redoubt Press |location=McLean, VA |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-7323916-1-1 |ref=harv}} ==Further reading== * {{cite book | last1 = Morgan | first1 = Mark L. | last2 = Berhow | first2 = Mark A. | title = Rings of Supersonic Steel: Air Defenses of the United States Army 1950-1979, 3rd Edition | publisher = Hole in the Head Press | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-09761494-0-8}} ==External links== {{commonscat|Forts in Virginia}} * [http://www.fortwiki.com/Category:Harbor_Defense_of_Chesapeake_Bay Map of HD Chesapeake Bay at FortWiki.com] * [http://cdsg.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/FORTS/CACunits/CACinsignia.pdf Insignia of the Coast Artillery Corps at the Coast Defense Study Group] * [http://www.northamericanforts.com/ American Forts Network, lists forts in the US, former US territories, Canada, and Central America] * [http://cdsg.org/fort-and-battery-list/ List of all US coastal forts and batteries] at the Coast Defense Study Group, Inc. website * [http://www.fortwiki.com/Fort_Wiki FortWiki, lists most CONUS and Canadian forts] [[Category:Military units and formations in Virginia [[Category:Forts in Virginia [[Category:United States Army Coast Artillery Corps [[Category:Military units and formations established in 1896 [[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1950'