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Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|none}}
{{for|the academic discipline|Art history}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 3/3
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = left
| align = right
| image1 = VenusHohlefels2.jpg
| image2 = Lascaux2.jpg
| image3 = CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg
| image5 = Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg
| caption1 = [[Venus of Hohle Fels]]
| image4 = Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg
| image6 = Les_Demoiselles_d'Avignon.jpg
| caption2 = Horse painting from [[Lascaux]] cave system
| caption4 = ''[[Venus de Milo]]'', [[Alexandros of Antioch]]
| caption6 = ''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]'', [[Pablo Picasso]]
| caption5 = ''[[Mona Lisa]]'', [[Leonardo da Vinci]]
| caption3 = [[Mask of Tutankhamun]]
}}
{{History of art sidebar}}
The '''history of art''' focuses on objects made by humans for any number of spiritual, narrative, philosophical, symbolic, conceptual, documentary, decorative, and even functional and other purposes, but with a primary emphasis on its [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] visual form. [[Visual arts|Visual art]] can be classified in [[art#Forms, genres, media, and styles|diverse ways]], such as separating [[fine art]]s from [[applied arts]]; inclusively focusing on human creativity; or focusing on different media such as [[architecture]], [[sculpture]], [[painting]], [[film]], [[photography]], and [[graphic arts]]. In recent years, technological advances have led to [[video art]], [[Digital art|computer art]], [[performance art]], [[animation]], [[television]], and [[Video game|videogames]].
The history of art is often told as a chronology of [[masterpiece]]s created during each [[civilization]]. It can thus be framed as a story of [[high culture]], epitomized by the [[Wonders of the World]]. On the other hand, [[vernacular]] art expressions can also be integrated into art historical narratives, referred to as [[folk arts]] or [[craft]]. The more closely that an art historian engages with these latter forms of [[low culture]], the more likely it is that they will identify their work as examining [[visual culture]] or [[material culture]], or as contributing to fields related to art history, such as [[anthropology]] or [[archaeology]]. In the latter cases, art objects may be referred to as [[Artifact (archaeology)|archeological artifacts]].
==Prehistory==
{{Main|Prehistoric art}}
Prehistoric art includes a broad range of art made by painters and sculptors from illiterate cultures, including some of the earliest human artifacts. Among the first art objects are decorative artifacts from [[Middle Stone Age]] Africa.<ref name="Henshilwood 2002">{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood |first1=Christopher |title=Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa |journal=Science |date=2002 |volume=295 |issue=5558 |pages=1278–1280 |display-authors=etal |doi=10.1126/science.1067575 |pmid=11786608 |bibcode=2002Sci...295.1278H|s2cid=31169551 }}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood et al. 2009">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005 |pmid=19487016 |title=Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=27–47 |year=2009 |last1=Henshilwood |first1=Christopher S. |last2=d'Errico |first2=Francesco |last3=Watts |first3=Ian}}</ref><ref name="Texier">{{cite journal | last1 = Texier | first1 = P. J. | last2 = Porraz | first2 = G. | last3 = Parkington | first3 = J. | last4 = Rigaud | first4 = J. P. | last5 = Poggenpoel | first5 = C. | last6 = Miller | first6 = C. | last7 = Tribolo | first7 = C. | last8 = Cartwright | first8 = C. | last9 = Coudenneau | first9 = A. | last10 = Klein | first10 = R. | last11 = Steele | first11 = T. | last12 = Verna | first12 = C. | year = 2010 | title = A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 107 | issue = 14| pages = 6180–6185 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0913047107 | pmid = 20194764 | pmc = 2851956 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.6180T | doi-access = free }}</ref> Containers from that period have also been discovered in South Africa that may have been used to hold paints dating as far back as 100,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/14/science/14paint.html |work=The New York Times |title=African Cave Yields Evidence of a Prehistoric Paint Factory |date=13 October 2011}}</ref>
A form of prehistoric art found all over the world, especially in Europe, small prehistoric statuettes known as [[Venus figurine]]s with exaggerated breasts and bellies were made, the most famous ones being the [[Venus of Hohle Fels]] and the [[Venus of Willendorf]], found in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. Most have small heads, wide hips, and legs that taper to a point. Arms and feet are often absent, and the head is usually small and faceless.
The Venus of Hohle Fels is one of the numerous objects found at the [[Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura]] [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], where the oldest non-stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC.<ref name = "unesco">{{cite web |url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/229 |title = Place Stanislas, Place de la Carrière and Place d'Alliance in Nancy |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-figurative-art-now-world-treasure-180964035/ | title=World's Oldest Figurative Art is Now an Official World Treasure }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-18196349 | title=Earliest music instruments found | work=BBC News | date=24 May 2012 }}</ref>{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=12|Fortenberry|2017|2pp=1 & 2}}
The best-known prehistoric artworks are the large [[Paleolithic]] [[cave painting]]s that depict animals in continental Europe, particularly the ones at [[Lascaux]] in the [[Dordogne]] region of France. Several hundred decorated caves are known, spanning the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period ({{c.}} 38,000–12,000 BC). There are examples in [[Ukraine]], [[Italy]] and [[Great Britain]], but most of them are in [[France]] and [[Spain]]. Many theories have been suggested about the art's purpose, the most accepted being that it was part of religious rituals, possibly to evoke hunting success.
<gallery widths="150" heights="150">
File:Riesenhirsch Fussknochen Einhornhöhle Gravur.jpg|''[[Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle|Giant deer bone of Einhornhöhle]]'' {{c.}} 49,000 BC; Megaloceros bone; Einhornhöhle, Germany
File:Loewenmensch1.jpg|{{lang|de|[[Lion-man|Löwenmensch]]}}; {{c.}} 41,000–35,000 BC; [[Hohlenstein-Stadel]] caves [[Swabian Jura]], Germany
File:16 PanneauDesLions(CentreGauche)RhinocérosEnFuite.jpg|Painting of [[rhinoceros]]es; {{c.}} 32,000–14,000 BC; [[charcoal]] on rock; length: {{c.}} 2 m; [[Chauvet Cave]] ([[Ardèche]], France){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=2}}
File:Venus of Willendorf frontview retouched 2.jpg|[[Venus of Willendorf]]; {{c.}} 25,000 BC; [[limestone]] with [[ochre]] colouring; height: 11 cm; [[Natural History Museum, Vienna|Natural History Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=3}}
</gallery>
==Antiquity==
{{Main|Ancient art}}
===Ancient Near East===
{{Main|Mesopotamian art}}
Ancient [[Near East]] stretched from [[Turkey]] and the Mediterranean seaboard in the west to [[Iran]] and the [[Arabian peninsula]] in the east. Over time, multiple civilizations appeared, lived and disappeared here. One of the key regions was [[Mesopotamia]], which witnessed during the 4th millennium BC the emergence of the first cities and the earliest form of writing. Ancient Mesopotamia covers present-day Iraq, and parts of [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]. Its northern half forms part of the so-called [[Fertile Crescent]], where important [[Neolithic]] developments such as early farming and the establishment of permanent village settlements first appeared. Because the region is situated within the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris–Euphrates river delta]], numerous civilizations lived here, notably [[Sumer]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]], [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]]. [[Architecture of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian architecture]] was characterized by the use of [[brick]]s, [[lintel (architecture)|lintels]], and [[Art of Uruk#Architecture|cone mosaic]]. Notable examples are the [[ziggurat]]s, large [[temple]]s in the form of [[step pyramid]]s.
The political, economic, artistic and architectural traditions of the Sumerians lead to the foundation of [[Western culture|Western civilization]]. Multiple things appeared for the first time in Sumer: the first [[city-state]] ([[Uruk]]), ruled by king [[Gilgamesh]]; the first organized religion, based on a hierarchical structure of gods, people and rituals; the first known writing, the [[cuneiform]]s; the first irrigation system and the first vehicles with wheels. [[Cylinder seal]]s appeared here as well, engraved with little inscriptions and illustrations. Another civilization that developed here was the [[Akkadian Empire]], the world's first great empire.
During the early 1st millennium BC, after the Akkadians, an empire called [[Assyria]] came to dominate the whole of Middle East, stretching from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Its cities were filled with impressive buildings and art. Assyrian art is best known for its detailed stone reliefs, depicting scenes of court life, religious practice, hunting and epic battles. These reliefs were initially painted in bright colours and placed in palaces. Besides their beauty, they also show us Assyrian life and views of the world, including Assyrian clothing and furniture.
Later, the [[Babylonia]]ns conquered the Assyrian Empire. During the 6th century BC, [[Babylon]] became the largest city in the world. Upon entering Babylon, visitors were greeted with the impressive [[Ishtar Gate]], with its walls covered in vivid blue glazed bricks and reliefs showing dragons, bulls and lions. This gate is named after [[Ishtar]], the goddess of war and love.
In the mid-6th century BC, after a series of military campaigns, the Babylonian Empire fell to the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ruled by King [[Cyrus II]], stretching across the Middle East and [[Central Asia]], from Egypt to the [[Indus Valley]]. Its art incorporates elements from across the empire, celebrating its wealth and power. [[Persepolis]] ([[Iran]]) was the capital of the empire, and it is full of impressive sculptures showing religious images and people of the empire. There are also the ruins of a palace here, with a big audience hall for receiving guests.
Besides Mesopotamia and Iran, there were Ancient civilizations who produced art and architecture in other regions as well. In [[Anatolia]] (present-day [[Turkey]]), the [[Hittite Empire]] appeared. During Antiquity, [[South Arabia]] was important in the production and trade of aromatics, bringing wealth to the kingdoms that were in this region. Before circa 4000 BC, the climate of Arabia was wetter than today. In south-west, several kingdoms appeared, like [[Sheba|Saba’]]. The south Arabian human figure is usually stylized, based on rectangular shapes, but with fine details.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gipson|first1=Ferren|title=The Ultimate Art Museum|date=2021|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-1-83866-2967|pages=20, 21|url=|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=20|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150" heights="150">
File:Denis Bourez - British Museum, London (8747049029) (2).jpg|[[Standard of Ur]] (Sumerian); {{circa}}2600-2400 BC; shell, red limestone and [[lapis lazuli]] on wood; length: 49.5 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4}}
File:Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden).jpg|King of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]] ([[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]]); {{c.}} 2250 BC; copper alloy; height: 30 cm; Iraq Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4}}
File:Vessel terminating in the forepart of a stag MET DT871.jpg|Stag [[rhyton]] ([[Hittite art|Hittite]]); {{circa}}1400-1200 BC; silver with gold inlay; height: 13 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=12}}
File:Incense burner MET DT893.jpg|Incense burner ([[Ancient South Arabian art|Pre-Islamic South Arabian]]); {{circa}} mid-1st millennium BC; bronze; height: 27.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=13}}
File:Assyrian monumental bas-relief -(30626865213).jpg|[[Lamassu|Winged bulls]] ([[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]]); {{circa}}710 BC; [[alabaster]]; height (max): 4.2 m; [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=66|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Persépolis, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 50 (cropped section).jpg|Delegation bearing gifts ([[Persian art|Persian]] [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]]); {{circa}}490 BC; limestone; {{circa}}260 x 150 cm; in situ, [[Persepolis]] ([[Iran]])<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=82|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===Egypt===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian art}}
One of the first great civilizations arose in [[Egypt]], which had elaborate and complex works of art produced by professional artists and craftspeople. Egypt's art was religious and symbolic. Given that the culture had a highly centralized power structure and hierarchy, a great deal of art was created to honour the [[pharaoh]], including great monuments. Egyptian art and culture emphasized the religious concept of immortality. Later Egyptian art includes [[Coptic art|Coptic]] and [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] art.
The [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|architecture]] is characterized by monumental structures, built with large stone blocks, lintels, and solid [[column]]s. Funerary monuments included [[mastaba]], tombs of rectangular form; [[pyramid]]s, which included step pyramids ([[Saqqarah]]) or smooth-sided pyramids ([[Giza pyramid complex|Giza]]); and the [[hypogeum]], underground tombs ([[Valley of the Kings]]). Other great buildings were the [[temple]], which tended to be monumental complexes preceded by an avenue of [[sphinx]]es and [[obelisk]]s. Temples used [[pylon (architecture)|pylons]] and [[trapezoid]] walls with [[hypaethros]] and [[hypostyle]] halls and [[shrine]]s. The temples of [[Karnak]], [[Luxor]], [[Philae]] and [[Edfu]] are good examples. Another type of temple is the [[rock temple]], in the form of a [[hypogeum]], found in [[Abu Simbel]] and [[Deir el-Bahari]].
Painting of the Egyptian era used a juxtaposition of overlapping planes. The images were represented hierarchically, i.e., the Pharaoh is larger than the common subjects or enemies depicted at his side. Egyptians painted the outline of the head and limbs in profile, while the torso, hands, and eyes were painted from the front. [[Applied arts]] were developed in Egypt, in particular [[Cabinet making|woodwork]] and [[Goldsmith|metalwork]]. There are superb examples such as [[cedrus|cedar]] furniture [[Inlay|inlaid]] with [[ebony]] and [[ivory]] which can be seen in the tombs at the [[Egyptian Museum]]. Other examples include the pieces found in [[Tutankhamun]]'s tomb, which are of great artistic value.{{sfn|Azcárate|1983|pp=29–34}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Tomb of Nebamun.jpg|[[Nebamun]] Hunting in the Marshes; {{c.}} 1380 BC; paint on [[plaster]]; 98 × 83 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=19}}
Relief depicting Akhenaton and Nefertiti with three of their daughters under the rays of Aton 01 (cropped).jpg|[[Akhenaten]] and [[Nefertiti]] with Daughters; {{circa}}1345 BC; painted [[limestone]]; 32.5 x 39 cm; [[Egyptian Museum of Berlin]] (Germany)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=48|url=|language=en}}</ref>
CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|[[Mask of Tutankhamun]]; {{c.|1327 BC}}; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; [[Egyptian Museum]] ([[Cairo]])
Nofretete Neues Museum.jpg|[[Nefertiti Bust]]; 1352–1336 BC; painted [[limestone]]; height: 50 cm; [[Neues Museum]] ([[Berlin]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=16}}
Philae temple at night.jpg|Temple of [[Philae]] (Egypt), 380 BC-117 AD{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=30}}
</gallery>
===Indus Valley Civilization===
{{main|Indus Valley Civilisation#Arts_and_crafts}}
Discovered in 1922, long after the contemporary cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, aka the Harappan Civilization ({{c.}} 2400–1900 BC) is now recognized as extraordinarily advanced, comparable in some ways with those cultures. Its sites span an area stretching from today's northeast [[Afghanistan]], through much of [[Pakistan]], and into western and northwestern [[India]]. Major cities of the culture include [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], located respectively in [[Punjab]] and in [[Sindh]] province in northern Pakistan, and the port city [[Lothal]], in the state of [[Gujarat]] ([[India]]). The most numerous artefacts are square and rectangular [[stamp seal]]s and seal impressions, featuring animals, usually bulls, very short [[Harappan script|Harappan texts]]. Many stylized terracotta figurines have also been found in Harappan sites, and a few stone and bronze sculptures, more naturalistic than the ceramic ones.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
IndusValleySeals.JPG|Seals with [[Indus script]] and impressions; 2500-2000 BC; [[steatite]]; various sizes, mostly {{circa}}3 cm; [[British Museum]] (London)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=India - A History in Objects|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-48064-9|page=28|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg|''[[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]]''; {{c.}} 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; [[National Museum, New Delhi|National Museum]] ([[New Delhi]], India){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
Shiva Pashupati.jpg|[[Pashupati seal|Proto-Shiva Stamp Seal]]; {{c.}} 2400-1900 BC; steatite; height: 3.6 cm; National Museum (New Delhi){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|''[[Priest-King (sculpture)|Priest-King]]''; {{c.}} 2400–1900 BC; steatite; height: 17.5 cm; [[National Museum of Pakistan]] ([[Karachi]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
Clevelandart 1973.160.jpg|Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; {{c.}} 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 × 3.2 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)
</gallery>
===China===
{{main|Chinese art#Bronze casting|Chinese ritual bronzes|Sanxingdui}}
{{Further|Shang dynasty|Zhou dynasty}}
[[File:Terracotta Army (6143565126).jpg|thumb|Warriors of the [[Terracotta Army]]; {{c.|214 BC}}; terracotta; height (average soldier): {{c.|1.8 m}}; [[Lintong District]] ([[Xi'an]], [[Shaanxi]], [[China]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=74}}]]
The first metal objects produced in China were made almost 4000 years ago, during the [[Xia dynasty]] ({{circa}}2100–1700 BC). During the [[Chinese Bronze Age]] (the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] dynasties) court intercessions and communication with the spirit world were conducted by a shaman (possibly the king himself). In the [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa}}1600–1050 BC), the supreme deity was [[Shangdi]], but aristocratic families preferred to contact the spirits of their ancestors. They prepared elaborate banquets of food and drink for them, heated and served in [[Chinese ritual bronzes|bronze ritual vessels]]. These bronze vessels had many shapes, depending on their purpose: for wine, water, cereals or meat, and some of them were marked with readable characters, which shows the development of writing. This kind of vessels, of a very high quality and complexity, were discovered on the Valley of the [[Yellow River]] in the [[Henan]] province, in sites like [[Erlitou]], [[Anyang]] or [[Zhengzhou]]. They were used in religious rituals to cement the Dhang authority, and when the Shang capital fell, around 1050 BC, its conquerors, the Zhou ({{circa}}1050–156 BC), continued to use these containers in religious rituals, but principally for food rather than drink. The Shang court had been accused of excessive drunkenness, and the Zhou, promoting the imperial [[Tian]] ("Heaven") as the prime spiritual force, rather than ancestors, limited wine in religious rites, in favour of food. The use of ritual bronzes continued into the early [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC–220 AD).
One of the most commonly used motifs was the ''[[taotie]]'', a stylized face divided centrally into two almost mirror-image halves, with nostrils, eyes, eyebrows, jaws, cheeks and horns, surrounded by incised patterns. Whether ''taotie'' represented real, mythological or wholly imaginary creatures cannot be determined.
The enigmatic bronzes of [[Sanxingdui]], near [[Guanghan]] (in [[Sichuan province]]), are evidence for a mysterious sacrificial religious system unlike anything elsewhere in [[ancient China]] and quite different from the art of the contemporaneous Shang at [[Anyang]]. Excavations at Sanxingdui since 1986 have revealed four pits containing artefacts of [[bronze]], [[jade]] and [[gold]]. There was found a great bronze statue of a human figure which stands on a plinth decorated with abstract elephant heads. Besides the standing figure, the first two pits contained over 50 bronze heads, some wearing headgear and three with a frontal covering of [[gold leaf]]. Tubular bronze fragments with little branches were discovered here as well, probably representing trees, and also bronze leaves, fruits and birds. Over 4000 objects were found at Sanxingdui in 1986.
Succeeding the Shang Dynasty [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] (1050–221 BC) ruled more than any other one from Chinese history. Its last centuries were characterized by violence, the era being known as the [[Warring States period]]. During this troubling time, some philosophical movements appeared: [[Confucianism]], [[Daoism]] and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]].
The Warring States period was ended by [[Qin Shi Huang|Qinshi Huangdi]], who united China in 221 BC. He ordered a huge tomb, guarded by the [[Terracotta Army]]. Another huge project was a predecessor of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]], erected for rejecting pillaging tribes from the north. After the death of the emperor, his dynasty, the [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] (221–206 BC), lasted only three years. Qinshi Huangdi was followed by the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC-220 AD), during which the [[Silk Road]] developed considerably, bringing new cultural influences in China.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=71}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=42, 43, 44|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Liu Ding.jpg|[[Ding (vessel)|Ding]]; {{c.|1384-1050 BC}}; bronze; height: 22.9 cm; [[Shanghai Museum]] ([[Shanghai]], [[China]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=71}}
Bronze Standing Figure.jpg|Lifesize figure; {{c.|1200–1000 BC}}; bronze; height: 2.62 m; [[Sanxingdui Museum]] ([[Guanghan]], [[Sichuan]], China){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=72}}
File:Middle Western Zhou Bronze "Yi" Fangyi.jpg|Fang Lei; {{c.|925–875 BC}}; bronze; height: 22.8 cm; [[National Museum of China]] ([[Beijing]], China){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=71}}
Mawangdui silk banner from tomb no1.jpg|Funerary banner; {{circa}}180 BC; silk; 205 x 92 cm (upper part); [[Hunan Museum]] ([[Changsha]], [[Hunan]], China)<ref name="Farthing44">{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=44|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Jade Monster Mask and Ring.jpg|Ornamental handle with a ''[[Bi (jade)|bi]]'' disc; {{circa}}100 BC; [[jade]]; 18 x 14 cm; [[Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King]] ([[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]], China)<ref name="Farthing44" />
</gallery>
===Greek===
{{main|Ancient Greek art}}
{{multiple image
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| direction = horizontal
| image1 = Agrigento Concordia Tempel mit Geruest.jpg
| image2 = Oxford. Ashmolean Museum. Gods in Colour. Kore as Artemis.jpg
| footer = Unlike how most of us see them today, all [[Ancient Egyptian art|Egyptian]], [[Ancient Greek art|Greek]] and [[Roman art|Roman]] sculptures and temples were initially painted in bright colours. They became white because of hundreds of years of neglect and vandalism provoked by Christians during the [[Early Middle Ages]], who saw them as 'pagan' and believed that they promoted idolatry.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nixey|first1=Catherine|title=[[The Darkening Age|The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World]]|date=2017|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]]|isbn=978-0544800885|page=|url=|language=}}</ref> To us they look odd, although all of them were very colourful back in Ancient times
}}
Through harmonious proportion and a focus on aesthetics, ancient Greek and Roman art became the foundation and inspiration of all Western art, being the standard to which most European artists aspired, until the 19th century.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=13}} The Latin poet [[Horace]], writing in the age of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Augustus]] (1st century BC to 1st century AD), famously remarked that although conquered on the battlefield, "captive Greece overcame its savage conqueror and brought the arts to rustic Rome." The power of Greek art lies in its representation of the human figure and its focus on human beings and the anthropomorphic gods as chief subjects. The artworks of the Greeks were meant to decorate temples and public buildings, to celebrate battle victories and remarkable personalities, and to commemorate the dead. They were also given as offerings to the gods.
Although there was no definitive transition, the art is usually divided stylistically into the four periods of Geometric, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. During the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] (5th and 4th centuries BC), realism and idealism were delicately balanced. In comparison, the works of the earlier Geometric (9th to 8th centuries BC) and Archaic (7th to 6th centuries BC) ages can seem appear primitive, but these artists had different goals: naturalistic representation was not necessarily their aim. [[Greek art|Greek]] and artists built on the artistic foundations of Egypt, further developing the arts of sculpture, painting, architecture, and ceramics. Among the techniques they perfected include methods of carving and casting sculptures, fresco painting and building magnificent buildings.
[[Roman art]] lovers collected ancient Greek originals, Roman replicas of Greek art, or newly created paintings and sculptures fashioned in a variety of Greek styles, thus preserving for posterity works of art otherwise lost. Wall and panel paintings, sculptures and mosaics decorated public spaces and private homes. Greek imagery also appeared on Roman jewellery, vessels of gold, silver, bronze and terracotta, and even on weapons and commercial weights. Rediscovered during the early [[Renaissance]], the arts of ancient Greece, transmitted through the [[Roman Empire]], have served as the foundation of Western art until the 19th century.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=25}}
Since the advent of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical Age]] in [[Athens]], in the 5th century BC, the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and, indeed, of civilization itself.{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=6}} From circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD, [[ancient Greek culture]] flourished on the [[Greek mainland]], on the [[Peloponnese]], and on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] islands. Five of the [[Wonders of the World]] were Greek: the [[Temple of Artemis]] at [[Ephesus]], the [[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]], the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]], the [[Colossus of Rhodes]], and the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]]. However, Ancient Greek architecture is best known for [[Ancient Greek temple|its temples]], many of which are found throughout the region, and the [[Parthenon]] is a prime example of this. Later, they will serve as inspiration for [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] architects during the late 18th and the 19th century. The most well-known temples are the [[Parthenon]] and the [[Erechtheion]], both on the [[Acropolis of Athens]]. Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.
Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and to make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture was [[polychrome]]d in much of the Ancient world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings, the [[Parthenon]] ({{c.}} 447–432 BC) in [[Athens]], had details painted with vibrant reds, blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never completely white. Most had colored highlights on [[capital (architecture)|capitals]] and [[column]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zukowsky|first1=John|title=A Chronology of Architecture|date=2019|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-34356-2|page=23|url=|language=en}}</ref> This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance. This is because [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and other Renaissance artists, including [[Michelangelo]], promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages, became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were during the Renaissance.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmanny|title=Gods in Color – polychromy in the ancient world|date=2017|publisher=Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Legion of Honor|isbn=978-3-7913-5707-2|page=13|url=|language=en}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Bronze horse MET DT11722.jpg|Horse figurine ([[Geometric art|Geometric]]); {{c.|800-700 BC}}; bronze; height: 17.6 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Terracotta krater MET DT258.jpg|Pedestalled krater (Geometric); {{c.|750 BC}}; terracotta; height: 108.3 cm, diameter: 72.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=30}}
Marble statue of a kouros (youth) MET DT263.jpg|[[New York Kouros]] ([[Archaic Greece#Art|Archaic]]); {{c.|600 BC}}; marble and pigment; height: 1.95 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=33}}
Terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora MET DT5492.jpg|[[Panathenaic amphora]] (Archaic); {{c.|530 BC}}; ceramic; height: 62.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David Michael|title=Pocket Museum - Ancient Greece|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51958-5|page=163|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Red-figure cup showing the death of Pentheus and a Maenad by Douris, Kimbell Art Museum (bottom).jpg|[[Red-figure pottery|Red-figure]] [[kylix]] ([[Classical Greece|Classical]]); {{c.|480 BC}}; ceramic; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 27.2 cm; [[Kimbell Art Museum]] ([[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], [[Texas]], US)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David Michael|title=Pocket Museum - Ancient Greece|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51958-5|page=178|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Bronze statue of Zeus or Poseidon from Artemision, Euboea. ca. 460 BC.jpg|[[Artemision Bronze|Zeus of Artemision]] (Classical); {{c.|460 BC}}; bronze; height: 209 cm; [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens|National Archaeological Museum]] ([[Athens]], Greece)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Susan Woodford|title=Greek and Roman Art|date=2020|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29525-0|page=29|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Segesta AncientGreekTemple 0932.jpg|Temple of [[Segesta]] ([[Calatafimi-Segesta]], present-day Italy), 5th century BC{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=32}}
File:Erechtheum Acropolis Athens.jpg|[[Erechtheion]] (Athens), with its [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns and [[caryatid]] [[portico|porch]], 421-405 BC{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=32}}
Terracotta vase MET DT1069 (cropped).jpg|[[Centuripe ware|Centuripe vase]] ([[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]]); {{circa}}300-100 BC; ceramic; height: 9.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<ref>{{cite book|last1=Susan Woodford|title=Greek and Roman Art|date=2020|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29525-0|page=265|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===Rome===
{{main|Roman art}}
{{multiple image|total_width=230
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = Estátua de César Augusto.jpg
| image2 = Statue-Augustus.jpg
| footer = [[Augustus of Prima Porta]] (left: a painted reconstruction; right: the original statue); {{c.|20 BC}}; [[marble]]; height: 2.06 m; [[Vatican Museums]] ([[Vatican City]]).{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=52}}
}}
No civilization has had an impact as enduring and powerful on Western art as the [[Roman Empire]]. The legacy of ancient Rome is evident through the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[Early Modern period|early modern periods]], and Roman art continue to be reused in the modern era in both traditionalist and [[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] artworks.{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=46}} Sometimes it is viewed as derived from Greek precedents, but also has its own distinguishing features, some of them inherited from [[Etruscan art]]. Roman sculpture is often less idealized than its Greek precedents, being very realistic. Roman architecture often used [[concrete]], and features such as the [[round arch]] and [[dome]] were invented. Luxury objects in [[metal-work]], [[engraved gem|gem engraving]], [[ivory carving]]s, and [[Roman glass|glass]] are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art,{{sfn|Toynbee|1971|pp=439–442}} although this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries. An innovation made possible by the Roman development of glass-blowing was [[Cameo (carving)|cameo glass]]. A white 'shell' was first created, into which coloured glass was then blown so as to produce an interior lining. The white shell was then cut down to create relief patterns of white against a darker background. They also made [[mosaic]]s, this way producing durable pictorial art with cut-stone cubes (''tesserae'') and/or chips of coloured terracotta and glass. Some villas of wealthy Romans had their walls covered with [[fresco]]s, aimed at dazziling and entertaining guests. Much of Roman wall painting that survives comes from sites around the Bay of [[Naples]], in particular [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]], thriving towns that were preserved under metres of volcanic debris when Mount [[Vesuvius]] erupted in 79 AD. As a result, Roman wall painting is often discussed in terms of four 'Pompeian styles'.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=57, 56, 55}}
The Romans were deeply influenced by all aspects of [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic culture]]. In architecture, just like in other [[List of art media|art media]], they essentially adopted the Classical language and adapted it to new situations and uses. The Romans also have their own innovations brought to Classical architecture. They used the [[Doric order|Doric]], [[Ionic order|Ionic]] and [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] [[Classical order|orders]] in a far freer manner than the Greeks had, creating their own version of the Doric and using the Corinthian far more frequently. They also added two new orders to the repertoire: the [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]], a simpler, more massive version of the Doric derived from [[Etruscan architecture]]; and the [[Composite order|Composite]], a combination of the scroll-like [[volute]]s of the Ionic with the Corinthian's [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves. Other important innovations include the [[arch]], and the [[dome]]. Using arches, they built [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] and monumental [[triumphal arch]]es. Roman emperors were proud of their conquests, and commemorated them at home and in the conquered territories through triumphal arches, a good example of this being the [[Arch of Constantine]] in Rome. Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and civil and military engineer [[Marcus Vitruvius Pollio]] published a majore treatise, ''[[De Architectura]]'', which influenced architects around the world for centuries.{{sfnm|Hopkins|2014|1p=12|Hodge|2019|2p=16}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonathan|first1=Glancey|title=Architecture A Visual History|date=2006|publisher=DK, [[Penguin Random House]]|isbn=978-0-2412-8843-6|page=63|url=|language=}}</ref>
After the [[Middle Ages]], with the [[Renaissance]] that started in [[Florence]] ([[Italy]]), a growing interest for ancient Rome started. During it, for the first time since [[Classical Antiquity]], art became convincingly lifelike. The Renaissance also sparked interest for ancient Greek and Roman literature, not just for art and architecture.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|pp=16 & 18}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Roman fresco Villa dei Misteri Pompeii 005.jpg|Mysteries Fresco; mid-1st century BC; [[fresco]]; height: 1.62 m; [[Villa of the Mysteries]] ([[Pompeii]], [[Italy]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=51}}
Portland Vase BM Gem4036 n5.jpg|[[Portland Vase]]; late 1st century BC; glass; height: 24 cm; [[British Museum]] ([[London]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=57}}
Maison Carree in Nimes (16).jpg|The [[Maison Carrée]] ([[Nîmes]], France), one of the best-preserved [[Roman temple]]s, {{c.|2nd century AD}}
Marine mosaic (central panel of three panels from a floor) - Google Art Project.jpg|Marine [[mosaic]] (central panel of three panels from a floor); 200–230; mosaic (stone and glass tesserae); 2,915 mm x 2,870 mm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US)
500px photo (217110515).jpeg|[[Arch of Constantine]] (Rome), that commemorates the triumph of [[Constantine the Great]] after his victory over [[Maxentius]] in the [[Battle of the Milvian Bridge]], 316{{sfn|Irving|2019|p=36}}
</gallery>
==Islamic==
{{main|Islamic art}}
Islamic art is well-known since the Middle Ages for the use of elaborate [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric patterns]], colourful tiles, stylized natural motifs and detailed calligraphy. Rarely has lettering had such a profound impact on applied arts and architecture. Islam appeared in western [[Arabia]] in the 7th century AD through revelations delivered to the prophet [[Muhammad]] in [[Mecca]]. Within a century of Muhammad's death the Islamic empires controlled the [[Middle East]], Spain and parts of Asia and Africa. Because of this, similarly with [[Roman art]], Islamic art and architecture had regional versions. As the Islamic world extended into centres of late antique culture, it was enriched by philosophical and intellectual movements. The translation of Greek works into Arabic and advances in mathematics and science were encouraged by early caliphates. This is in contrast with the modern perception that Islamic art is dogmatic and unchanging. Human and animal representation wasn't rare. Only certain periods restricted it (similar with the Byzantine [[Iconoclasm]]).{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=117}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Pyxis MET DT4840.jpg|Perfume box; 950–975; [[ivory]]; height: 11.7 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=119}}
Mezquita de Cordoba Mihrab.jpg|[[Mihrab]]; 961–976; [[stucco]] and glass mosaic; diameter (internal arch): {{c.|2.3 m}}; [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]] ([[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Spain]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=119}}
Mosque Lamp for the Mausoleum of Amir Aydakin al-'Ala'i al-Bunduqdar MET 17.190.985.jpg|Mosque lamp; {{c.|1285}}; glass, enamels and gold; height: 26.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=125}}
Alhambra Löwenhof mit Löwenbrunnen 2014.jpg|[[Court of the Lions]] ([[Alhambra]], [[Granada]], [[Spain]]), 1362-1391{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=120}}
Ardabil Carpet.jpg|[[Ardabil Carpet]]; 1539–1540; wool pile on silk; length: 10.51 m; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] ([[London]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=128}}
</gallery>
==Americas==
{{main|Pre-Columbian art}}
===Mesoamerica===
{{main|Ancient Maya art|Aztecs#Art and cultural production}}
Some of the first great civilizations in the Americas developed in [[Mesoamerica]] (meaning 'middle Americas'), the most well known being the [[Maya civilization|Mayans]] and the [[Aztecs]].
The [[Olmecs]] ({{circa}}1400–400 BC) were the first major civilization in modern-day Mexico. Many elements of Mesoamerican civilizations, like the practice of building of pyramids, the complex calendar, the pantheon of gods and hieroglyphic writing have origins in Olmec culture. They produced jade and ceramic figurines, [[Olmec colossal heads|colossal heads]] and pyramids with temples at the top, all without the advantage of metal tools. For them, jadeite was a stone more precious than gold and symbolized divine powers and fertility. 17 [[Olmec colossal heads]] have been discovered, each weighing a few tons. Each head, with the flattened nose and thick lips, wears a helmet, similar with the ones worn during official ball games, possibly representing kings of officials.
The [[Maya civilization]] began around 1800 BC and grew until the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 1500s. They occupied southeast Mexico, [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], and parts of [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]]. The Mayans were trading with cities, like [[Teotihuacán]], but also with many Mesoamerican civilizations, like the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotecs]] or the other groups from central or coast areas of Mexico, and also with populations that did not inhabit Mesoamerican territories, like the [[Taíno]] from the [[Caribbean]]. They produced impressive king portraits, [[polychromy|polychrome]] ceramic vessels, earthenware figures, wooden sculptures, [[Stele|stelas]], and built complex cities with pyramids. Most of the well preserved polychrome ceramic vessels were discovered in the tombs of nobles.
Arising from humble beginnings as a nomadic group, the Aztecs created the largest empire in Mesoamerican history, lasting from 1427 to 1521. They did not call themselves 'Aztecs', but Mexica. The term Aztecs was assigned by historians. They transformed the capital of their empire, [[Tenochtitlan]], into a place where artists of Mesoamerica created impressive artworks for their new masters. The present-day [[Mexico City]] was built over the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gipson|first1=Ferren|title=The Ultimate Art Museum|date=2021|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-1-83866-2967|pages=92, 93, 94|url=|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=229, 232, 234}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=34, 35|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Cabeza Colosal 8.jpg|[[Olmec colossal heads|Colossal head]]; {{circa}}1050 BC; [[steatite]]; height: 2.2 m; [[Museo de Antropología de Xalapa]] ([[Xalapa]], [[Mexico]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=229}}
Seated ruler in ritual pose, Highland Olmec culture, San Martin Texmelucan, Puebla state, Middle Formative period, c. 900-500 BC, serpentine, cinnabar - Dallas Museum of Art - DSC04572.jpg|Seated shaman in ritual pose-shaped pendant ([[Olmecs|Olmec]]); 9th-5th century BC; [[Serpentine subgroup|serpentine]] and [[cinnabar]]; height: 18.5 cm; [[Dallas Museum of Art]] ([[Dallas]], [[Texas]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=229}}
Mascara Dios Murcielago.jpg|Bat effigy ([[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]]); {{circa}}50 BC; [[jadeite]] and shell; height: 28 cm; [[National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)|National Museum of Anthropology]] ([[Mexico City]])<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=129|url=|language=en}}</ref>
K'inich Janaab Pakal I v2.jpg|Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I ([[Ancient Maya art|Maya]]; 615–683; [[stucco]]; height 43 cm; National Museum of Anthropology{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=232}}
Vessel, Throne Scene MET DT4514.jpg|Vessel with a throne scene (Maya); late 7th–8th century; ceramic; 21.59 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Yaxchilan Lintel 24.jpg|[[Yaxchilan|Yaxchilán]] [[Lintel]] 24 (Maya); 702; limestone; 109 x 74 cm; [[British Museum]] (London)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=174|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Telamones Tula.jpg|Warrior columns ([[Toltec]]); {{circa}}1000; basalt; height: {{circa}}460 cm; [[Tula de Allende]] (Mexico)
Double headed turquoise serpentAztecbritish museum.jpg|[[Double-headed serpent]] ([[Aztecs#Art and cultural production|Aztec]]); {{circa}} 1450–1521; cedar, [[turquoise]], shell and traces of gilding; length: 43.3 cm; British Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=234}}
File:Mexico-3980 - Coyolxauhqui Stone (2508259597).jpg|[[Coyolxauhqui Stone]] (Aztec); {{circa}} 1469–1481; stone; diameter: 3 m; [[Templo Mayor]] Museum ([[Mexico City]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=234}}
Tlaloc Vasija.jpg|[[Tlāloc]] effigy vessel (Aztec); {{circa}} 1440–1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm; Templo Mayor Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=234}}
</gallery>
=== Colombia ===
{{further|Muisca art}}
Similarly with Mesoamerica, the present-day territory of [[Colombia]] is an area where multiple cultures developed before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. Here, gold body accessories were produced, many golden ones, but also many other ones made of [[tumbaga]], a non-specific [[alloy]] of [[gold]] and [[copper]] given by Spanish [[Conquistadors]] to metals composed of these elements found in widespread use in [[pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]] in North America and [[South America]].
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Calima Animal-Headed Figure Pendant MET DT11629 (cropped).jpg|Animal-headed figure pendant ([[Calima culture#Yotoco culture|Yotoco]]); 1st–7th century; gold; height: 6.35 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Lime Container (Poporo) MET DT1262.jpg|Lime container ([[Quimbaya civilization|Quimbaya]]); 5th–9th century; gold; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Male Figure (tunjo) MET DP215691.jpg|Male figure/''[[tunjo]]'' ([[Muisca art|Muisca]]); 10th–mid-16th century; gold; height: 14.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Figure Pendant MET DT4860.jpg|Pendant ([[Tairona]]); 10th–16th century; gold; height: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>
=== Andean regions ===
{{Further|Chavín culture#Art|Paracas culture|Nazca culture|Moche culture#Material culture|Sican culture#Art and ideology|Tiwanaku#Structures|Inca empire#Arts and technology}}
[[File:Man's mantle - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Mantle ([[Paracas culture|Paracas]]); 50–100 AD; embroidered wool; height: 1.01 m; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=238}}]]
The ancient civilizations of [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] nurtured unique artistic traditions, including one of the world's most aesthetically impressive fibre art traditions. Two of the first important cultures from this land are the [[Chavín culture|Chavín]] and the [[Paracas culture]].
The Paracas culture of the south coast of Peru is best known for its complex patterned textiles, particularly mantels. The [[Moche culture|Moche]] controlled the river valleys of the north coast, while the [[Nazca culture|Nazca]] of southern [[Peru]] held sway along the coastal deserts and contiguous mountains. The Nazca are best known for the famous [[Nazca Lines]], a group of [[geoglyph]]s in a desert in southern Peru. They also produced polychrome ceramics and textiles influenced by the Paracas, and used a palette of at least 10 colours for their pottery. Both cultures flourished around 100–800 AD. Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. In the north, the [[Huari culture|Wari]] (or Huari) Empire are noted for their stone architecture and sculpture accomplishments.
The Chimú were preceded by a simple ceramic style known as [[Sican culture#Early Sican|Sicán]] (700–900 AD). The Chimú produced excellent portrait and decorative works in metal, notably gold but especially silver. Later, the [[Inca Empire]] (1100–1533) stretched across the [[Andes Mountains]]. They crafted precious metal figurines, and like other civilizations from the same area, complex textiles. Llamas were important animals, because of their wool and for carrying loads.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gipson|first1=Ferren|title=The Ultimate Art Museum|date=2021|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-1-83866-2967|page=95|url=|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=238, 239, 240}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=19, 113|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Líneas de Nazca, Nazca, Perú, 2015-07-29, DD 52.JPG|The Hummingbird, one of the [[Nazca Lines]] ([[Nazca culture|Nazca]]); {{circa}}200 BC-600 AD; rocks, gravel and dirt; length: 50 m; [[Nasca Province|Nasca]] and [[Palpa Province|Palpa]] Provinces (Peru)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=18|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Portrait Head Bottle MET 82.1.28.jpeg|[[Moche portrait vessel|Portrait head bottle]] ([[Moche culture|Moche]]); 3rd–6th century; painted ceramic; overall: 26.35 x 16.21 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Peru Huari Standing Dignitary 1 Kimbell.jpg|Mosaic figurine of a noble man ([[Wari culture|Wari]]); 7th-9th century; wood, shell, stone and [[silver]]; height: 10.2 cm; [[Kimbell Art Museum]] ([[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], [[Texas]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=240}}
Ceremonial Knife (Tumi) MET DP215693.jpg|Ceremonial knife/''[[tumi]]'' ([[Sican culture|Sican]]); 10th–13th century; gold, turquoise, greenstone and shell; height: 33 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=238}}
Tupa-inca-tunic.png|Royal tunic ([[Inca Empire|Inca]]); 1476–1534; camelid fibre and cotton; height: 91 cm; [[Dumbarton Oaks]] ([[Washington, D.C.]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=241}}
</gallery>
==Asian==
{{main|History of Asian art}}
[[Eastern world|Eastern civilization]] broadly includes Asia, and it also includes a complex tradition of art making. One approach to Eastern art history divides the field by nation, with foci on [[Indian art]], [[Chinese art]], and [[Japanese art]]. Due to the size of the continent, the distinction between Eastern Asia and Southern Asia in the context of arts can be clearly seen. In most of Asia, pottery was a prevalent form of art. The pottery is often decorated with geometric patterns or abstract representations of animals, people or plants. Other very widespread forms of art were, and are, sculpture and painting.
===Central Asia===
{{main|Central Asian art}}
Central Asian art developed in [[Central Asia]], in areas corresponding to modern [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], and parts of modern Mongolia, China and Russia.<ref name= "1a">{{cite book|author=Tamara Talbot Rice|title=Visual Arts|date=July 2011 |publisher=Oxford}}</ref><ref name="1b">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Fahir|last1= İz|title=Central Asian arts|encyclopedia = Britannica|first2 = Turrell V.|last2 = Wylie |first3 = Tamara Talbot|last3 = Rice|date = 7 December 2023|url = https://www.britannica.com/art/Central-Asian-arts}}</ref> The art of ancient and medieval Central Asia reflects the rich history of this vast area, home to a huge variety of peoples, religions and ways of life. The artistic remains of the region show a remarkable combinations of influences that exemplify the multicultural nature of Central Asian society. The [[Silk Road transmission of art]], [[Scythian art]], [[Greco-Buddhist art]], [[Serindian art]] and more recently [[Persianate]] culture, are all part of this complicated history. Central Asia has always been a crossroads of cultural exchange, the hub of the so-called [[Silk Road]] – that complex system of trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean. Already in the [[Bronze Age]] (3rd and 2nd millennium BC), growing settlements formed part of an extensive network of trade linking Central Asia to the [[Indus]] Valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=66}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Seated female MET DT867.jpg|Seated figurine ([[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactrian]]); 3rd-2nd millennia BC; [[chlorite]] and [[limestone]]; height: 9 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=66}}
Belt buckle with paired felines attacking ibexes MET DT5088.jpg|Belt buckle; 3rd-1st centuries BC; gold; height: 7.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=67}}
Bagram Guimet 12.JPG|Goblet showing The Rape of [[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]] and of [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], part of the [[Bagram]] Treasure; 1st century AD; painted glass; height: 16 cm, diameter: 10 cm; [[Guimet Museum]] (Paris)<ref>{{cite magazine| author = <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | title =Mussée National des Arts Asiatiques Guimet| url = | magazine =Conaissance des Arts| location = | publisher = | date =| access-date = | language = en}}</ref>
God and Female Musician, Kizil, Cave 171, 417-435 AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01720.JPG|Goddess and celestial musician ([[Buddhist art|Buddhist]]); 7th century; pigments on plaster; height: 2.03 m; [[Museum of Asian Art]] ([[Berlin]], Germany)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barkman|first1=Adam|title=Making sens of Islamic art & architecture|date=2015|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29171-9|page=68|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Samarcanda, Gur-e Amir 19.jpg|[[Gur-e-Amir|Gur-i Amir Mausoleum]] ([[Samarkand]], [[Uzbekistan]]), 15th century<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barkman|first1=Adam|title=Making sens of Islamic art & architecture|date=2015|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29171-9|page=40|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===Indian===
{{main|Indian art}}
Early [[Buddhists]] in India developed symbols related to [[Buddha]]. The major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the period after the [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryans]], within North India [[Kushan Empire|Kushan art]], the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]] and finally the "classic" period of [[Gupta art]]. Additionally, there was the Andhra school which appeared before the Gandhara school and which was based in South India.{{sfn|Keiko|2010|pp=57–63}} Good quantities of sculpture survives from some key sites such as [[Sanchi]], [[Bharhut]] and [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]], some of which remain ''in situ'', with others in museums in India or around the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved [[torana]]s or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions. These are in stone, though clearly adopting forms developed in wood. They and the walls of the stupa itself can be heavily decorated with reliefs, mostly illustrating the lives of the Buddha. Gradually life-size figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief, but then free-standing.{{sfn|Harle|1994|pp=26–47, 105–117}} [[Mathura art]] was the most important centre in this development, which applied to Hindu and Jain art as well as Buddhist.{{sfn|Harle|1994|pp=59–70}} The facades and interiors of rock-cut ''[[chaitya]]'' prayer halls and monastic ''[[vihara]]s'' have survived better than similar free-standing structures elsewhere, which were for long mostly in wood. The caves at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], [[Karla Caves|Karle]], [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja]] and elsewhere contain early sculpture, often outnumbered by later works such as iconic figures of the Buddha and [[bodhisattva]]s, which are not found before 100 AD at the least.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg|The Great [[Stupa]] of [[Sanchi]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]], India), 3rd century-{{circa}} 100 BC{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=15}}
Sarnath_capital.jpg|[[Lion Capital of Ashoka]]; {{circa}} 250 BC; polished [[sandstone]]; height: 2.2 m; [[Sarnath Museum]] (India){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=210}}
Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|[[Buddha Preaching his First Sermon (Sarnath)|Seated Buddha]]; {{circa}} 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=213}}
022 Cave 1, Padmapani (33896247830).jpg|''Bodhisattva Padmapani''; {{circa}} 450–490; pigments on rock; height: {{circa}} 1.2 m; [[Ajanta Caves]] (India){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=213}}
Shiva Nataraja Musée Guimet 25971.jpg|[[Shiva]] as lord of the dance; {{circa}} 11th century; bronze; height: 96 cm; [[Musée Guimet]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=215}}
Beauty of khajuraho temple.jpg|[[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] ([[Khajuraho]], India), {{circa}}1030{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=114}}
MET DT238.jpg|[[Durga]] killing the buffalo demon; {{circa}}1150; [[argilite]]; height: 13.5 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=228|url=|language=en}}</ref>
MET DP22193.jpg|[[Ganesha]]; {{circa}} 14th-15th century; [[ivory]]; height: 18.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=215}}
Basawan. Akbar Taming Mad Elephant Hawai. Composition by Basawan, coloring by Chitra. (left part) Akbarnama, ca. 1590, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.jpg|Basawan Akbarnama; {{circa}} 1590; watercolor on paper; 33 x 20 cm; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=217}}
Taj Mahal, Agra, India.jpg|[[Taj Mahal]] ([[Agra]], India), an iconic example of [[Mughal architecture]], 1632-1648{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=99}}
</gallery>
===Chinese===
{{main|Chinese art}}
In Eastern Asia, painting was derived from the practice of calligraphy, and portraits and landscapes were painted on silk cloth. Most of the paintings represent landscapes or portraits. The most spectacular sculptures are the [[Chinese ritual bronzes|ritual bronzes]] and the bronze sculptures from [[Sanxingdui]]. A very well-known example of Chinese art is the ''[[Terracotta Army]]'', depicting the armies of [[Qin Shi Huang]], the first Emperor of China. It is a form of [[funerary art]] buried with the emperor in 210–209 BC whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.
Chinese art is one of the oldest continuous traditional arts in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since the [[Renaissance]] as the [[decorative arts]] are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in [[Chinese ceramics]]. The range and quality of goods that decorated Chinese palaces and households, and their inhabitants, is dazzling. Materials came from across China and far beyond: gold and silver, [[mother of pearl]], ivory and rhinoceros horn, wood and [[lacquer]], [[jade]] and [[soap stone]], silk and paper.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg|[[Pagoda of Fogong Temple|Buddha Pagoda]] (Fogong Monastery, [[Yingxian]], China), 1056{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=140}}
Guo Xi - Early Spring (large).jpg|Early Spring; by [[Guo Xi]]; 1072; hanging scroll, ink on silk; 1.58 x 1.08 m; [[National Palace Museum]] ([[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=82}}
Liao Dynasty Avalokitesvara Statue Clear.jpeg|Guanyin of the Southern Seas; 11th-12th century; painted and gilded wood; height: 2.41 m; [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] ([[Kansas City]], [[Missouri]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=75}}
Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk (捣练图) by Emperor Huizong (1082–1135).jpg|Ladies Preparing Silk; after Zhang Xuan; early 12th century; ink and colours on silk; 0.37 x 1.47 m; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=79}}
Chao Meng-fu Couleurs d'automne sur les monts Qiao et Hua.jpg|Autumn Colours on the Qiao and Hua Mountains; by [[Zhao Mengfu]]; 1296; handscroll (detail), ink and colours on paper; 28.4 x 93.2 cm; [[National Palace Museum]] ([[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=84}}
明初 剔紅庭園高士圖漆盤-Dish with garden scene MET DP256068.jpg|[[Lacquer]] dish with garden scene; late 14th century; carved red lacquer; diameter: 19.7 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
The David Vases.jpg|[[David Vases]]; 1351; glazed porcelain; height: 63.5 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=78}}
SFEC BritMus Asia 023.JPG|Assistant to a judge of hell; {{circa}} 1522–1620; [[stoneware]]; height: 137 cm; British Museum{{sfn|British Museum|2014|p=159}}
File:11 Temple of Heaven.jpg|Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, [[Temple of Heaven]] (Beijing), 1545, rebuilt in 1890{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=242}}
Chinese - Covered Box - Walters 44543.jpg|[[Cloisonné]] box; 18th century; cloisonné enamels on copper with gilt bronze; 20.5 × 19.8 cm; [[Walters Art Museum]] ([[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], US)
</gallery>
===Japanese===
{{main|Japanese art}}
Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including [[Jōmon pottery|ancient pottery]], [[Japanese sculpture|sculpture]], [[Ink wash painting|ink painting]] and [[Japanese calligraphy|calligraphy]] on silk and paper, ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' paintings and [[woodblock printing|woodblock prints]], ceramics, [[origami]], and more recently [[manga]]—modern Japanese [[cartoon]]ing and comics—along with a myriad of other types.
The first settlers of Japan, the [[Jōmon]] people ({{Circa|11,000}}–300 BC). They crafted [[Jomon pottery|lavishly decorated pottery storage vessels]], clay figurines called ''[[dogū]]''. Japan has been subject to sudden invasions of new ideas followed by long periods of minimal contact with the outside world. Over time the Japanese developed the ability to absorb, imitate, and finally assimilate those elements of foreign culture that complemented their aesthetic preferences. The earliest complex art in Japan was produced in the 7th and 8th centuries in connection with [[Buddhism]]. In the 9th century, as the Japanese began to turn away from China and develop indigenous forms of expression, the secular arts became increasingly important; until the late 15th century, both religious and secular arts flourished. After the [[Ōnin War]] (1467–1477), Japan entered a period of political, social, and economic disruption that lasted for over a century. In the state that emerged under the leadership of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], organized religion played a much less important role in people's lives, and the arts that survived were primarily secular.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Kinkaku-ji the Golden Temple in Kyoto overlooking the lake - high rez.JPG|[[Kinkaku-ji|Temple of the Golden Pavilion]] ([[Kitayama]], [[Kyoto]]), a [[Zen]] [[Buddhist temples in Japan|Buddhist temple]] in [[Kyoto]], 1398{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=144}}
色絵婦人立像-Figure of a Standing Beauty MET DP220704.jpg|Female figure; {{circa}} 1670–1690; porcelain with overglaze polychrome enamels; height: 39.7 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
胴箔地南天冊子模様縫箔-Noh Costume (Nuihaku) with Books and Nandina Branches MET DT289471.jpg|Noh robe; 1750–1800; silk embroidery and [[gold leaf]] on silk satin; length: 1.66 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=105}}
Tsunami by hokusai 19th century.jpg|''[[The Great Wave off Kanagawa]]'', by [[Katsushika Hokusai]]; {{circa}} 1830–1832; full-colour [[Woodblock printing|woodblock print]]; 25.7 x 37.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=103}}
De pruimenboomgaard te Kameido-Rijksmuseum RP-P-1956-743.jpeg|''[[Plum Park in Kameido]]''; by [[Hiroshige]]; 1857; full-colour woodblock print; 36.4 x 24.4 cm; [[Rijksmuseum]] ([[Amsterdam]], the [[Netherlands]])
</gallery>
==Sub-Saharan Africa==
{{main|African art}}
{{Further|Igbo art|Yoruba art|Benin art|Kuba art|Luba art}}
Sub-Saharan African art includes both [[African sculpture|sculpture]], typified by the brass castings of the [[Benin art|Benin people]], [[Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo Ukwu]] and the Kingdom of [[Ifẹ]], and terracottas of [[Djenne-Jeno]], Ife, and the more ancient [[Nok culture]], as well as [[African folk art|folk art]]. Concurrent with the European Middle Ages, in the eleventh century AD a nation that made grand architecture, gold sculpture, and intricate jewelry was founded in [[Great Zimbabwe]]. Impressive sculpture was concurrently being cast from brass by the [[Yoruba art|Yoruba people]] of what is now Nigeria. In the [[Benin art|Benin Kingdom]], also of southern Nigeria, which began around the same time, elegant altar tusks, brass heads, plaques of brass, and palatial architecture were created. The Benin Kingdom was ended by the British in 1897, and little of the culture's art now remains in Nigeria. Today, the most significant arts venue in Africa is the [[Johannesburg Biennale]].
Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by a high density of cultures. Notable are the, [[Dogon people]] from [[Mali]]; [[Edo people|Edo]], [[yoruba people|Yoruba]], [[Igbo people|Igbo]] people and the [[Nok civilization]] from [[Nigeria]]; [[Kuba Kingdom|Kuba]] and [[Luba people]] from [[Central Africa]]; [[Ashanti people]] from [[Ghana]]; [[Zulu people]] from [[Southern Africa]]; and [[Fang people]] from [[Equatorial Guinea]] (85%), Cameroon and Gabon; the [[Sao civilization]] people from Chad; [[Kwele people]] from eastern Gabon, [[Republic of the Congo]] and Cameroon.
The myriad forms of African art are components of some of the most vibrant and responsive artistic traditions in the world and are integral to the lives of African people. Created for specific purposes, artworks can reveal their ongoing importance through physical transformations that enhance both their appearance and their potency. Many traditional African art forms are created as conduits to the spirit world and change appearance as materials are added to enhance their beauty and potency. The more a work is used and blessed, the more abstract it becomes with the accretion of sacrificial matter and the wearing down of original details.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|Seated figure; by artists of the [[Nok culture]]; 5th century BC-5th century AD; earthenware (central Nigeria); height: 38 cm; [[Musée du Quai Branly]], Paris{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=309}}
Bronze pot, 9th century, Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria.jpg|Pot; from [[Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo-Ukwu]] ([[Nigeria]]); 9th century; bronze; unknown dimensions; [[Nigerian National Museum]], [[Lagos]]
Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 02.JPG|Head of a king or dignitary; by artists of the [[Yoruba people]]; 12th-15th century; terracotta; 19 cm; discovered at [[Ife]] (Nigeria); [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]], Germany
Seated Figure MET DT1213.jpg|Seated figure; by artists of the [[Djenné-Djenno#Terra-cotta figurines from the Inner Niger Delta region|Djenné-Djenno culture]] (Mali); 13th century; earthenware; width: 29.9 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=309}}
British Museum - Room 25 (18020107461).jpg|[[Benin ivory mask|Pendant mask]]; by artists of the [[Edo people]] (Nigeria); 16th century (?); [[ivory]] and iron; height: 24.5 cm; [[British Museum]], London{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=311}}
Brooklyn Museum 61.33 Ndop Portrait of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul (5).jpg|[[Ndop (Kuba)|N'dop]], king Mishe miShyaang maMbul; by artists of the [[Kuba Kingdom]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]); 18th century; wood; 49.5 cm; [[Brooklyn Museum]], New York City{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=314}}
Trône Bamum-Musée ethnologique de Berlin.jpg|''Mandu Yenu'' (throne of Nsangu); by artists of the [[Bamum people|Kingdom of Bamun]]; {{circa}}1870; wood, beads of glass, porcelain and shell; height: 1.75 m; Ethnological Museum of Berlin<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=1040|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Helmet Mask MET DT1234.jpg|Royal mask; by artists of the [[Bamum people]] (Cameroon); before 1880; wood, copper, glass beads, raffia and shells; height: 66 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=314}}
Rep. dem. del congo, kuba, maschera ngaady-a-mwaash, xx secolo.jpg|Ngaad-A-Mwash mask; by artists of the Kuba people; late 19th-early 20th centuries; wood, shells, glass beads, raffia and pigment; height: 82 cm; [[Detroit Institute of Arts]], [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]], US{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=314}}
Appuie-tête Luba-RDC.jpg|Headrest; by artists of the [[Luba people]]; 19th century; wood; height: 18.5 cm; [[Musée du quai Branly]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=318}}
</gallery>
==Oceania==
{{main|Oceanian art}}
Oceanian art includes the geographic areas of [[Micronesia]], [[Polynesia]], Australia, New Zealand, and [[Melanesia]]. One approach treats the area thematically, with foci on [[ancestry]], warfare, the body, gender, trade, religion, and [[tourism]]. Unfortunately, little ancient art survives from Oceania. Scholars believe that this is likely because artists used perishable materials, such as wood and feathers, which did not survive in the tropical climate, and there are no historical records to refer to most of this material. The understanding of Oceania's artistic cultures thus begins with the documentation of it by Westerners, such as Captain [[James Cook]], in the 18th century. At the turn of the 20th century the French artist [[Paul Gauguin]] spent significant amounts of time in Tahiti, living with local people and making modern art — a fact that has become intertwined with Tahitian visual culture to the present day.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} The indigenous [[Australian art|art of Australia]] often looks like abstract modern art, but it has deep roots in local culture.
The art of [[Oceania]] is the last great tradition of art to be appreciated by the world at large. Despite being one of the longest continuous traditions of art in the world, dating back at least fifty millennia, it remained relatively unknown until the second half of the 20th century.
The often ephemeral materials of Aboriginal art of Australia makes it difficult to determine the antiquity of the majority of the forms of art practised today. The most durable forms are the multitudes of rock engravings and rock paintings which are found across the continent. In the Arnhem Land escarpment, evidence suggests that paintings were being made fifty thousand years ago, antedating the Palaeolithic rock paintings of [[Cave of Altamira|Altamira]] & [[Lascaux]] in Europe.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
British Museum (6424973639).jpg|[[Hoa Hakananai'a]], an example of a [[moai]]; {{circa}} 1200 AD; flow lava; height: 242 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|British Museum|2014|p=65}}
British Museum (2082156178).jpg|[[Statue of A'a from Rurutu]]; probably 18th century; wood; height: 117 cm; British Museum{{sfn|British Museum|2014|p=52}}
Nuova zelanda, isola del nord, maori, prua di piroga taurapa, 1800-20 ca.jpg|''Taurapa'' ([[māori people|māori]] canoe sternpost); late 18th-early 19th century; wood and sheel; height: 148 cm; [[Musée du Quai Branly]] (Paris){{sfn|Brunt|Thomas|Salmond|Kasarherou|2018|p=104}}
Australie Aborigene ancetre totemique kangourou.jpg|Australian painting of a kangaroo totemic ancestor; {{circa}} 1915; painting on bark; 92.5 × 35.5 cm; Musée du Quai Branly
</gallery>
==European==
{{main|Art of Europe}}
===Medieval===
{{main|Medieval art}}
With the decline of the [[Roman Empire]] from {{circa | 300 AD}}, a period subsequently defined as the [[Medieval art|Medieval era]] began. It lasted for about a millennium, until the beginning of the [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]] {{circa | 1400}}. [[Early Christian art]] typifies the early stages of this period, followed by [[Byzantine art]], [[Anglo-Saxon art]], [[Viking art]], [[Ottonian art]], [[Romanesque art]] and [[Gothic art]], with [[Islamic art]] dominating the eastern Mediterranean. Medieval art grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], mixed with the "barbarian" artistic culture of northern Europe.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=15}}
In Byzantine and [[Gothic art|Gothic]] art of the [[Middle Ages]], the dominance of the [[Christian Church|church]] resulted in a large amount of [[religious art]]. There was extensive use of gold in paintings, which presented figures in simplified forms.
====Byzantine====
{{main|Byzantine art}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_(focused_on_the_original_Roman_building).jpg
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| image4 = Hagia Sophia Southwestern entrance mosaics 2.jpg
| footer = The [[Hagia Sophia]] ([[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]), {{circa}} 532–537 BC, by [[Anthemius of Tralles]] and [[Isidore of Miletus]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=62}}
}}
Byzantine art consists of the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman]] (Byzantine) Empire,{{sfn|Cavarnos|Michelis|1956|p= 506}}{{sfn|Weitzmann|1981|p=?}} as well as of the nations and states that inherited culturally from that empire. Though the Byzantine empire itself emerged from Rome's decline and lasted until the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453,<ref>{{harvnb|Kitzinger|1977|pp=1‒3}}.</ref> the start-date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] states in Eastern and Central Europe, as well as to some degree the [[Muslim world|Muslim]] states of the eastern [[Mediterranean]], preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.
Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious, and - with exceptions at certain periods - is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church [[theology]] into artistic terms. Painting in [[fresco]], in [[illuminated manuscript]]s and on wood panels, and (especially in earlier periods) [[mosaic]] were the main media, and figurative [[sculpture]] occurred very rarely except for small [[ivory carving|carved ivories]]. [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|Manuscript painting]] preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rice|1968}}; {{Harvnb|Weitzmann|1982}}.</ref> Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on [[medieval art]] until near the end of the medieval period. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on [[Italian Renaissance]] art. But few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style. With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rice|1968|loc=Chapters 15–17}}; {{Harvnb|Weitzmann|1982|loc=Chapters 2–7}}; {{Harvnb|Evans|2004|pp=389–555}}.</ref> Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania.
Byzantine architecture is notorious for the use of [[domes]]. It also often featured marble columns, [[coffer]]ed ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of [[mosaic]]s with golden backgrounds. The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which the Ancient Greeks had appreciated so much. The Byzantines used mostly stone and brick, and also thin [[alabaster]] sheets for windows. Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where [[fresco]] wouldn't resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in [[Hagios Demetrios]] in [[Thessaloniki]] (Greece), the [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] and the [[Basilica of San Vitale]] (both in [[Ravenna]] in Italy), and in [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Istanbul]]. Greco-Roman temples and Byzantine churches differ substantially in terms of their exterior and interior aspect. In Antiquity, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, because in the interior, which contained the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built, only the priest had access. Temple ceremonies in Antiquity took place outside, and what the worshippers viewed was the facade of the temple, consisting of columns, with an [[entablature]] and two pediments. But Christian liturgies played out in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=George D. Hurmuziadis|title=Cultura Greciei|date=1979|publisher=Editura științifică și enciclopedică |page= 92 & 93|language=ro}}</ref>{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=17}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
"The good Shepherd" mosaic - Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.jpg|Christ as the [[Good Shepherd]]; {{circa}} 425–430; mosaic; width: {{circa}} 3 m; [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] ([[Ravenna]], Italy){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=108}}
KHM Wien Kaiserin Ariadne X 39.jpg|Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: 26.5 cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=114}}
Officina costantinopolitana, tesoro di asyut (egitto), V-VI sec ca. 01 collier.JPG|Collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, an [[emerald]], a [[sapphire]], [[amethyst]]s and [[pearl]]s; diameter: 23 cm; from a [[Constantinopol]]itan workshop; [[Antikensammlung Berlin]] ([[Berlin]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=115}}
Byzantium, Constantinople, 11th century - Gospel Book with Commentaries - 1942.152 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Page of the Gospel Book with Commentaries: Portrait of Mark; 1000–1100; ink, [[tempera]], gold, [[vellum]] and leather binding; sheet: 28 × 23 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)
The Ladder of Divine Ascent Monastery of St Catherine Sinai 12th century.jpg|''[[Ladder of Divine Ascent (icon)|Ladder of Divine Ascent]]''; late 12th century; tempera and [[gold leaf]] on panel; 41 x 29.5 cm; [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] ([[Sinai Peninsula]], [[Egypt]])<ref>{{cite book|last1= Farthing|first1= Stephen|title= ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date= 2020|publisher= rao|isbn= 978-606-006-392-6|page= 76 |url=|language=ro}}</ref>
</gallery>
====Ottonian====
{{main|Ottonian art}}
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| footer = The [[Essen cross with large enamels]] with gems and large ''[[senkschmelz]]'' enamels, {{circa | 1000}}. Otto II, by the [[Gregory Master]]. Apotheosis of Otto III, [[Liuthar Gospels]]. Henry II being crowned by Christ, from the [[Sacramentary of Henry II]].
}}
Ottonian art is a [[style (visual arts)|style]] in [[Pre-Romanesque art|pre-romanesque]] [[German art]], covering also some works from the [[Low Countries]], northern Italy and eastern France. It was named by the art historian [[Hubert Janitschek]] after the [[Ottonian dynasty]] which ruled Germany and northern Italy between 919 and 1024 under the kings [[Henry the Fowler|Henry I]], [[Otto I]], [[Otto II]], [[Otto III]] and [[Emperor Henry II|Henry II]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://arthistorians.info/janitschekh |title=Dictionary of Art Historians: Janitschek, Hubert |access-date= 2013-07-18}}</ref> With [[Ottonian architecture]], it is a key component of the [[Ottonian Renaissance]] (circa 951–1024). However, the style neither began nor ended to neatly coincide with the rule of the dynasty. It emerged some decades into their rule and persisted past the Ottonian emperors into the reigns of the early [[Salian dynasty]], which lacks an artistic "style label" of its own.<ref name="Suckale-Redlefsen, 524">Suckale-Redlefsen, 524</ref> In the traditional scheme of art history, Ottonian art follows [[Carolingian art]] and precedes [[Romanesque art]], though the transitions at both ends of the period are gradual rather than sudden. Like the former and unlike the latter, it was very largely a style restricted to a few of the small cities of the period, to important [[monastery|monasteries]], as well as to the court circles of the emperor and his leading [[vassal]]s.
After the decline of the 9th-century [[Carolingian Empire]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was re-established under the [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxon]] Ottonian dynasty. From this emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire and a reformed Church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervour. In this atmosphere masterpieces were created that fused the traditions from which Ottonian artists derived their inspiration: models of Late Antique, Carolingian, and Byzantine origin. Surviving Ottonian art is very largely religious, in the form of [[illuminated manuscript]]s and metalwork, and was produced in a small number of centres for a narrow range of patrons in the circle of the Imperial court, as well as for important figures in the church. However much of it was designed for display to a wider public, especially to pilgrims.<ref>Beckwith, 81–86; Lasko, 82; Dodwell, 123–126</ref>
The style is generally grand and heavy, sometimes to excess, and initially less sophisticated than the Carolingian equivalents, with less direct influence from [[Byzantine art]] and less understanding of its classical models, but around 1000 a striking intensity and expressiveness emerge in many works, as "a solemn monumentality is combined with a vibrant inwardness, an unworldly, visionary quality with sharp attention to actuality, surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright colours with passionate emotionalism".<ref name="Honour and Fleming, 277">Honour and Fleming, 277</ref>
====Romanesque====
{{main|Romanesque art}}
The Romanesque, the first pan-European style to emerge after the [[Roman Empire]], spanned the mid-tenth century to the thirteenth. The period saw a resurgence of monumental stone structures with complex structural programmes.
[[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] churches are characterized by rigid articulation and geometric clarity, incorporated into a unified volumetric whole. The architecture is austere but enlivened by decorative sculpting of capitals and portals, as well as frescoed interiors. Geometric and foliate patterning gives way to increasingly three-dimensional figurative sculpture.
[[St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim]], Germany, 1001–1030, is seen by some as a Proto-Romanesque church.<ref name=HG>{{cite book |last1=Gardner |first1=Helen |author-link=Helen Gardner (art historian) |first2=Fred S. |last2=Kleiner |title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global History |edition=13th |location=Australia |publisher=[[Thomson/Wadsworth]] |year=2009}}
</ref>{{request quotation|date=December 2023}}
From the mid-eleventh to the early thirteenth centuries, Romanesque paintings were two-dimensional, defined by bold, linear outlines and geometry, particularly in the handling of drapery; painters emphasised symmetry and frontality. Virtually all Western churches were painted, but probably only a few wall-painters were monks; instead, itinerant artists carried out most of this work. Basic blocking-out was done on wet [[plaster]] with earth colours. A limited palette, dominated by white, red, yellow ochres and azure, was employed for maximum visual effect, with dense colouring forming a backdrop of bands, a practice that originated in late Classical art as an attempt to distinguish earth and sky.
During the later eleventh and twelfth centuries, the great age of Western monasticism, Europe experienced unprecedented economic, social and political change, leading to burgeoning wealth among landowners, including monasteries. There was increasing demand for books, and economic wealth encouraged the production of richly [[illuminated manuscript]]s.
One of the outstanding artefacts of the age is the 70 m long [[Bayeux Tapestry]].{{sfn|Caviness|2001|p=106}}{{sfn|Koslin|1990|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|Musset|Bertrand|1966|p=23}} It depicts the events leading up to the [[Norman conquest of England]] with protagonists [[William the Conqueror|William, Duke of Normandy]], and [[Harold Godwinson|Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England]], and culminating in the [[Battle of Hastings]] of 1066. It is thought to date from the 11th century. It tells the story from the point of view of the conquering Normans, but is now agreed to have been made in England - most likely by women, although the designer is unknown. It is housed in [[France]].
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Arte carolingia, volto santo di sansepolcro, VIII-IX secolo circa con policromia del XII secolo.JPG|'Holy Face'; 904–1018; wood with polychromy; height: 2.9 m; [[Sansepolcro Cathedral]] ([[Sansepolcro]], Italy){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=146}}
Aerial image of the Speyer Cathedral (view from the southwest).jpg|[[Speyer cathedral]] ([[Speyer]], Germany), 1030-1106<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.dom-speyer.de/daten/domspeyer/seiten/bauwerk.html |title= Der Kaiserdom zu Speyer - Bauwerk |access-date=2009-03-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083038/http://www.dom-speyer.de/daten/domspeyer/seiten/bauwerk.html |archive-date=2016-01-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
File:Glees Germany Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg|[[Maria Laach Abbey]] ([[Rhineland-Palatinate]], Germany), 1093-1230{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=24}}
Pope Alexander head reliquary, from Abbey Saint-Remacle de Stavelot, Mosan workshop, c. 1145 AD, silver partially gilt, brass, enamel, precious stones - Cinquantenaire Museum - Brussels, Belgium - DSC08823.jpg|Head of pope Alexander; 1145; wood, silver, gilt bronze, gems, pearls and champlevé enamel; height: {{circa}} 45 cm; [[Art & History Museum]] ([[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=147}}
Klosterkirche Müstair Freske Steinigung Stephanus.jpg|The stoning of Saint Stephen; 1160s; fresco; height: 1.3 m; [[Saint John Abbey, Müstair|Saint John Abbey]] ([[Val Müstair]], [[Canton of Grisons]], [[Switzerland]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=144}}
</gallery>
===Gothic===
{{main|Gothic art}}
Gothic art developed in Northern France out of Romanesque in the 12th century AD, and led by the concurrent development of [[Gothic architecture]]. It spread to all of [[Western Europe]], and much of [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Central Europe]], never quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of [[International Gothic]] developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century.
[[Brick Gothic]] was a specific style of Gothic architecture common in [[Baltic region|Northeast]] and [[Central Europe]] especially in the regions in and around the [[Baltic Sea]], which do not have resources of standing rock. The buildings are essentially built using [[brick]]s.
The imposing Gothic cathedrals, with their sculptural programmes and stained glass windows, epitomize the Gothic style.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=149}} It differs from Romanesque through its rib-shaped [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]], and the use of [[ogive]]s. Instead of the thick Romanesque walls, Gothic buildings are thin and tall. Spiral stairs in towers are specific to Gothic architecture.{{sfn|Graur|1970|pp=52–53}}
Gothic painting, much of it executed in [[tempera]] and, later, oils on panel, as well as fresco, and with an increasingly broad palette of secondary colours, is generally seen as more 'naturalistic' than Romanesque. The humanity of religious narrative was highlighted, and the emotional state of the characters individualized.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=151}} The increased urbanity of the medieval economy and the rise of the clerical and lay patron saw a change in the nature of the [[art market]], which can be seen in developments in Gothic [[Illuminated manuscript|manuscript illumination]]. Workshops employed specialists for different elements of the page, such as figures or marginal vine motifs.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=152}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Chartres RosetteNord 121 DSC08241.jpg|North transept windows; {{circa}} 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; [[Chartres Cathedral]] ([[Chartres]], France){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=153}}
Sainte Chapelle Interior Stained Glass.jpg|The [[Sainte-Chapelle]] (Paris), 1243–1248, by [[Pierre de Montreuil]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Melvin|first1=Jeremy|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale|date=2006|publisher=Enciclopedia RAO|isbn=973-717-075-X|page=39|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Naumburg Dom Stifterfiguren Uta und Ekkehard 2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg|Ekkehard and Uta; attributed to the Master of Namburg; 1245–1260; limestone and [[polychrome|polychromy]]; height: {{circa}} 1.9 m; [[Naumburg Cathedral]] ([[Naumburg]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=150}}
4 Jean Pucelle. Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux. 1325-28, Metropolitan Museum, New-York.jpg|Arrest of Christ and Annunciation of the Virgin; by [[Jean Pucelle]]; 1324–1328; [[grisaille]] and temprea on vellum; 8.9 x 12.4 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=152}}
Anonimo inglese o francese, dittico wilton, 1395-99 ca. 01.jpg|The ''[[Wilton Diptych]]''; {{circa}} 1395–1459; tempera and gold on panel; 53 × 37 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=151}}
Marienkirche am Abend.jpg|[[St. Mary's Church, Lübeck|St. Mary's Church]], 1265-1352, in [[Lübeck]], [[Germany]]
Stralsunder Rathaus mit Schaufassade, dahinter die Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg|Town Hall and [[St. Nicholas' Church, Stralsund|St. Nicholas' church]] in [[Stralsund]], from around 1250 to 1400, [[Germany]]
00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg|Brick Gothic with some decoration of stone, [[Old St. John's Hospital]], 13th to 15th century, in [[Bruges]], [[Belgium]]
</gallery>
===Renaissance===
{{Main|Renaissance art}}
Encompassing Early, Northern and High Renaissance, the term Renaissance describes the 'rebirth' in Europe of a new interest for [[Classical antiquity]]. For the first time since antiquity, art became convincingly lifelike. Besides the ancient past, Renaissance artists also studied nature, understanding the human body, animals, plants, space, perspective and the qualities of light. The most common theme were religious subjects, but depictions of mythological stories were produced as well. Also, there was no uniform Renaissance style. Each artist developed their own distinct visual language, influenced by their predecessors and contemporaries.
The Early Renaissance was a period of great creative and intellectual activity when artists broke away completely from the parameters of [[Byzantine art]]. It is generally accepted that it started in [[Florence]] in present-day [[Italy]] in the early 15th century. It is characterized by a surge of interest in [[classical literature]], philosophy and art, the growth of commerce, the discovery of new continents, and new inventions. There was a revival of interest in the art and literature of [[ancient Rome]], and the study of [[Ancient Greek literature|ancient Greek]] and [[Latin literature|Latin texts]] instigated concepts of individualism and reason, which became known as [[humanism]]. Humanists considered life in the present and emphasized the importance of individual thought, which affected artists' approaches.
Despite being highly associated with Italy, particularly with Florence, Rome, and Venice, the rest of Western Europe participated to the Renaissance as well.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Little|first1=Stephen|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Arta|date=2005|publisher=Enciclopedia RAO|isbn=973-717-041-5|page=12|url=|language=ro}}</ref> The Northern Renaissance occurred in Europe north of the [[Alps]] from the early 15th century, following a period of artistic cross-fertilization between north and south known as 'International Gothic'. There was a big difference between the Northern and Italian Renaissance. The North artists did not seek to revive the values of ancient Greece and Rome like the Italians, while in the south Italian artists and patrons were amazed by the empirical study of nature and the human society, and by the deep colors that northern artists could achieve in the newly developed medium of [[oil paint]]. The [[Protestant Reformation]] increased the northern interest in secular painting, like portraits or landscapes. Two key northern artists are [[Hieronymus Bosch]], known for his surreal paintings filled with hybrid creatures like ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'', and [[Albrecht Dürer]], who brought the new art of printmaking to a new level.
The High Renaissance took place in the late 15th-early 16th centuries and was influenced by the fact that as papal power stabilized in Rome, several popes commissioned art and architecture, determined to recreate the city's former glory. [[Raphael]] and [[Michelangelo]] produced vast and grandiose projects for the popes. The most famous artwork of this part of the Renaissance is probably the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling|Sistine Chapel]].
[[Mannerism]] broke away from High Renaissance ideals of harmony and a rational approach to art, to embrace exaggerated forms, elongated proportions, and more vibrant colors. It developed in Italy between 1510 and 1520, among artists who prized originality above all. The name of this movement comes from the Italian ''maniera'', meaning 'style or 'manner'. The word was meant to describe the standard of excellence achieved during the High Renaissance, to which all art should now adhere, but in practice it led to stylization and art 'to show art', sometimes with great success, an example being [[Raphael]]'s pupil [[Giulio Romano]]. Mannerism has also been used more generally to describe a period following the Renaissance and preceding the Baroque.{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1pp=16, 17, 18, 19, 21|Fortenberry|2017|2p=156, 182, 188|Hodge|2019|3p=26}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Florence Duomo (167859687).jpeg|The [[Florence Cathedral]] ([[Florence]], [[Italy]]), 1294–1436, by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]], [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] and [[Emilio De Fabris]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=82}}
File:Giotto. the-crucifix-1290-1300 Florence, Santa Maria Novella.jpg|Crucifix; by [[Giotto]]; {{circa}} 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; [[Santa Maria Novella]] ([[Florence]], Italy){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=157}}
Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait.jpg|''[[Arnolfini Portrait]]''; by [[Jan van Eyck]]; 1434; oil on panel; 82.2 x 60 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=191}}
File:Florence - David by Donatello.jpg|''[[David (Donatello)|David]]''; by [[Donatello]]; {{circa}} 1460s; bronze; height: 1.6 m; [[Bargello]] (Florence){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=165}}
Paolo Uccello 047b.jpg|''[[Saint George and the Dragon (Uccello)|Saint George and the Dragon]]''; by [[Paolo Uccello]]; {{circa}} 1470; oil on canvas; 55.6 x 74.2 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=168}}
Botticelli-primavera.jpg|''[[Primavera (Botticelli)|Primavera]]''; by [[Sandro Botticelli]]; {{circa}} 1478; tempera on panel; 2 x 3.1 m; [[Uffizi|Uffizi Gallery]] (Florence){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=170}}
Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio.jpg|[[San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto|The Tempietto]] ([[San Pietro in Montorio]], Rome), 1502, by [[Donato Bramante]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=26}}
Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|''[[Mona Lisa]]''; by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]; {{circa}}1503-1519; [[Oil painting|oil]] on [[Populus|poplar]] panel; 77 × 53 cm; [[Louvre]]{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=68}}
The Garden of earthly delights.jpg|''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]''; by [[Hieronymus Bosch]]; {{circa}} 1504; oil on panel; 2.2 x 1.95 m; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], [[Spain]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=194}}
File:Sistine ceiling.jpg|[[Sistine Chapel ceiling]]; by [[Michelangelo]]; 1508–1512; [[fresco]]; 13.7 x 39 m; [[Sistine Chapel]] ([[Vatican City]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=177}}
"The School of Athens" by Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino.jpg|''[[The School of Athens]]''; by [[Raphael]]; 1509–1510; fresco; 5.8 x 8.2 m; [[Apostolic Palace]] (Vatican City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=175}}
The Rhinoceros (NGA 1964.8.697) enhanced.png|''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros|The Rhinoceros]]''; by [[Albrecht Dürer]]; 1515; [[woodcut]]; 23.5 × 29.8 cm; [[National Gallery of Art]] ([[Washington, D.C.]], US)
Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg|[[Château d'Azay-le-Rideau]] ([[Loire]], France), 1518-1527{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=47}}
Pieter Bruegel the Elder - The Tower of Babel (Vienna) - Google Art Project - edited.jpg|''[[The Tower of Babel (Bruegel)|The Tower of Babel]]''; by [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]]; 1563; oil on panel; 1.14 x 1.55 m; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=201}}
Armoire Louvre OA 6968.jpg|Cupboard; {{circa}} 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m; Louvre<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacquemart|first1=Albert|title=Decorative Art|date=2012|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-84484-899-7|page=67|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Rathaus Augsburg perspective.jpg|The [[Augsburg Town Hall]] ([[Augsburg]], [[Germany]]), 1615–1624, by [[Elias Holl]]
</gallery>
===Baroque===
{{main|Baroque}}
{{see also|Louis XIV style}}
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| header = The [[Palace of Versailles]] ([[Versailles]], France), one of the most iconic Baroque buildings, {{c.|1660}} – 1715, by [[Louis Le Vau]] and [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]]
| image1 = Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg
| caption1 = The Marble Court
| image3 = Panorama of the ceiling of Le salon d'Hercule (24275994646).jpg
| caption3 = The [[Salon d'Hercule]]
| image4 = Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg
| caption4 = The Royal Chapel
| image5 = Chateau Versailles Galerie des Glaces.jpg
| caption5 = The [[Hall of Mirrors]]
| image6 = Vue aérienne du domaine de Versailles le 20 août 2014 par ToucanWings - Creative Commons By Sa 3.0 - 22.jpg
| caption6 = [[Gardens of Versailles|The gardens]]
}}
The 17th century was a period of volatile change, both in science, through inventions and developments, such as the [[telescope]] or the [[microscope]], and in religion, as the Catholic Counter-Reformation contested the growing popularity of Protestant faith. After the [[Protestant Reformation]] the [[Catholic Church]] reacted with the [[Counter-Reformation]], decreeing that art should inspire viewers with passionate religious themes.
Succeeding [[Mannerism]], and developing as a result of religious tensions across Europe, Baroque art emerged in the late 16th century. The name may derive from 'barocco', the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word for misshaped pearl, and it describes art that combined emotion, dynamism and drama with powerful color, realism and strong tonal contrasts. Between 1545 and 1563 at the [[Council of Trent]], it was decided that religious art must encourage piety, realism and accuracy, and, by attracting viewers' attention and empathy, glorify the Catholic Church and strengthen the image of Catholicism. In the next century the radical new styles of Baroque art both embraced and developed High Renaissance models, and broke new ground both in religious art and in new varieties of secular art – above all landscape. The Baroque and its late variant the [[Rococo]] were the first truly global styles in the arts, dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1750. Born in the painting studios of [[Bologna]] and [[Rome]] in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout [[Italian Baroque architecture|Italy]], [[Spanish Baroque architecture|Spain]] and [[Baroque architecture in Portugal|Portugal]], Flanders, [[French Baroque architecture|France]], the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from [[Munich]] (Germany) to [[Vilnius]] ([[Lithuania]]). The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[French colonial empire|French]] empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as [[Lima]], [[Mozambique]], [[Goa]] and the [[Philippines]].
Just like paintings and sculptures, Baroque cathedrals and palaces are characterised by the use of illusion and drama as well. They also frequently use dramatic effects of light and shade, and have sumptuous, highly decorated interiors that blurred the boundaries between architecture, painting and sculpture. Another important characteristic of Baroque architecture was the presence of dynamism, done through curves, [[Solomonic column]]s and ovals. In France, Baroque is synonymous with the reign of [[Louis XIV]] between 1643 and 1715, since multiple monumental buildings were built in Paris, Versailles and other parts of France during his rule, such as the [[Palace of Versailles]], the [[Château de Maisons]], the [[Vaux-le-Vicomte|Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte]], the [[Louvre Colonnade]] or The Dôme [[Les Invalides|des Invalides]]. Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed has a role too. Baroque buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the [[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]] in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the [[Santiago de Compostela Cathedral]], designed to tower over the city. Applied arts prospered during this period as well. Baroque furniture could be as bombastic as the rooms they were meant to adorn, and their motifs and techniques were carefully calibrated to coordinate with the architect's overall decorative programme. One of the most prestigious furniture makers was [[André Charles Boulle]], known for his [[marquetry]] technique, made by gluing sheets of tortoiseshell and [[brass]] together and cut to form the design. His works were also adorned with gilded bronze mounts. Complex [[Gobelins Manufactory|Gobelins]] tapestries featured scenes inspired by [[classical antiquity]], and the [[Savonnerie manufactory]] produced big highly detailed carpets for the Louvre. These carpets with black or yellow backgrounds had a central motif or a [[Medallion (architecture)|medallion]]. [[Chinese porcelain]], [[Delftware]] and mirrors fabricated at [[Saint-Gobain#1665-1789: Manufacture royale|Saint-Gobain]] (France) spread rapidly in all princely palaces and aristocratic residences in France. During the reign of Louis XIV, big mirrors are put above [[fireplace mantel]]s, and this trend will last long after the Baroque period.{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=23|Fortenberry|2017|2p=243|Hopkins|2014|3pp=70, 73, 84|Bailey|2012|4pp=4, 205, 286|Graur|1970|5pp=175, 176}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Peter Paul Rubens - The Four Continents.jpg|''[[The Four Continents]]''; by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]; {{circa}}1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)
Château de Maisons-Laffitte 001.jpg|[[Château de Maisons]] (France), by [[François Mansart]], 1630-1651{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=85}}
Nicolas Poussin - L'Enlèvement des Sabines (1634-5).jpg|''[[The Rape of the Sabine Women]]''; by [[Nicolas Poussin]]; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=243}}
La ronda de noche, por Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg|''[[The Night Watch]]''; by [[Rembrandt]]; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; [[Rijksmuseum]] ([[Amsterdam]], the [[Netherlands]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=256}}
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa September 2015-2a.jpg|''[[Ecstasy of Saint Teresa]]''; by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; [[Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome|Santa Maria della Vittoria]] (Rome){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=252}}
Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''[[Las Meninas]]''; by [[Diego Velázquez]]; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], Spain){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=262}}
Maria van Oosterwijck, Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie - Vanitas-Stilleben - GG 5714.jpg|''Vanitas Still Life''; by [[Maria van Oosterwijck]]; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=304|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Carpet with Fame and Fortitude MET DP212204.jpg|Carpet with fame and fortitude; by the [[Savonnerie manufactory]]; 1668–1685; knotted and cut wool pile, woven with about 90 knots per square inch; 909.3 x 459.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides, 140309 2.jpg|Dôme [[Les Invalides|des Invalides]] (Paris), 1677–1706, by [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]]{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=238}}
Commode MET DP108742.jpg|Commode; by [[André Charles Boulle]]; {{circa}} 1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and [[marquetry]] of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=287}}
Beaker MET DP223288 (cropped).jpg|Part of a [[Meissen porcelain]] tea and chocolate service, c. 1725, given to [[Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia|Vittorio Amadeo II, King of Sardinia]] (1666–1732) by [[Augustus the Strong]], owner of the Meissen factory
100130 150006 Dresden Frauenkirche winter blue sky-2.jpg|[[Frauenkirche, Dresden|Frauenkirche]] in [[Dresden]], 1726-1743, by [[George Bähr]]
</gallery>
===Rococo===
{{main|Rococo}}
{{see also|Style Louis XV}}
[[File:Coiffure à l’indépendance ou Le triomphe de la liberté 14524 podl.jpg|thumb|Coiffure à l’Indépendance ou Le Triomphe de la Liberté, 1778, depicting a fashionable aristocratic woman is applying the finishing touches to her toilette<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marnie|first1=Fogg|title=Fashion: The Whole Story|date=2013|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=9780500291108|page=111 & 112|url=|language=ro}}</ref>]]
Originating in {{circa}}1720 Paris, Rococo is characterized by natural motifs, soft colours, curving lines, asymmetry and themes including love, nature and light-hearted entertainment. Its ideals were delicacy, gaiety, youthfulness and sensuality.
Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of [[Louis XIV]]'s court at the [[Palace of Versailles]], the rococo movement became associated particularly with the powerful [[Madame de Pompadour]] (1721–1764), the mistress of the new king [[Louis XV]] (1710–1774). Because of this, the style was also known as 'Pompadour'. The name of the movement derives from the French 'rocaille', or pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design. It began as a design and [[decorative arts]] style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes. Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture. The French painter with whom the term Rococo is most often associated is [[Jean-Antoine Watteau]], whose pastoral scenes, or ''fêtes galantes'', dominate the early part of the 18th century.
Although there are some important Bavarian churches in this style, such as the [[Pilgrimage Church of Wies|Wieskirche]], Rococo is most often associated with secular buildings, principally great palaces and salons where educated elites would meet to discuss literary and philosophical ideas. In Paris, its popularity coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in the Rococo style. Among the most characteristically elegant and refined examples is the Salon Oval de la Princesse of the [[Hôtel de Soubise]], one of the most beautiful 18th century [[hôtel particulier|mansions]] in Paris. The Rococo introduced dramatic changes to elite furniture, as it favoured smaller pieces with narrow, sinewy frames and more delicate, often asymmetrical decoration, often including elements of [[chinoiserie]]. The taste for [[Far East]]ern objects (mainly Chinese) lead to the use of Chinese painted and lacquered panels for furniture.
The movement spread quickly throughout Europe and as far as [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]] and China thanks to ornament books featuring [[cartouche (design)|cartouches]], [[arabesque]]s and shell work, as well as designs for wall panels and fireplaces. The most popular were made by [[Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier]] (1695–1750), [[Jacques-François Blondel]] (1705–1774), [[Pierre-Edmé Babel]] (1720–1775) and [[François de Cuvilliés]] (1695–1768).{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=24|Fortenberry|2017|2p=256|Hopkins|2014|3pp=92, 95|Bailey|2012|4pp=272, 288|Graur|1970|5pp=194, 195}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
L'Embarquement pour Cythere, by Antoine Watteau, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|''[[The Embarkation for Cythera]]''; by [[Jean-Antoine Watteau]]; 1718; oil on canvas; 1.29 x 1.94 m; Schloss Charlottenburg{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=265}}
Salon ovale de la princesse in the Hôtel de Soubise (11).jpg|The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the [[Hôtel de Soubise]] (Paris), 1737–1739, by [[Germain Boffrand]], [[Charles-Joseph Natoire]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=267}}
Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain - Candelabrum - 1946.81 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Candelabrum; by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain; {{circa}}1750; gilt bronze; overall: 72.4 x 49.3 x 39.7 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)
Fire MET DP104979.jpg|''Fire''; by [[Jean-Pierre Defrance]]; {{circa}}1750-1760; limestone; height: 223 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Side table (commode en console) MET DP105703.jpg|Side table (commode en console); by [[Bernard II van Risamburgh]]; {{circa}}1755-1760; Japanese lacquer, gilt-bronze mounts and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Madame de Pompadour.jpg|''[[Madame de Pompadour]]''; by [[François Boucher]]; 1756; oil on canvas; 2.01 x 1.57 m; [[Alte Pinakothek]] ([[Munich]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=267}}
Coffeepot MET DP103144 (cropped),.jpg|Coffeepot; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory - Covered Tureen (Terrine du roi) - 1949.15 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Covered tureen (terrine du roi); by the [[Manufacture nationale de Sèvres]] 1756; soft-paste porcelain with enamel and gilt decoration; overall: 24.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art
Fragonard - swing.jpg|''[[The Swing (Fragonard)|The Swing]]''; by [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]]; 1767; oil on canvas; 81 x 64 cm; [[Wallace Collection]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=267}}
Louise Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - Marie-Antoinette dit « à la Rose » - Google Art Project.jpg|''Marie-Antoinette with the Rose''; by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]]; 1783; oil on canvas; 130 x 87 cm; [[Palace of Versailles]] ([[Versailles]], France)
</gallery>
===Neoclassicism===
{{main|Neoclassicism}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David, Le Serment des Horaces.jpg|thumb|''[[Oath of the Horatii]]'', by [[Jacques-Louis David]], 1784, oil on canvas, [[Louvre]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=276}}]]
Inspired by the excavations of the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] from 1748, a renewed interest in the arts of antiquity occurred. Neoclassicism dominates Western art from the mid to late 18th century until the 1830s. Embracing order and restraint, it developed in reaction to the perceived frivolity, [[hedonism]] and decadence of Rococo and exemplifying the rational thinking of the '[[Age of Enlightenment]]' (aka the 'Age of Reason'). Initially, the movement was developed not by artists, but by Enlightenment philosophers. They requested replacing Rococo with a style of rational art, moral and dedicated to the soul.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=260|url=|language=ro}}</ref> This fitted well with a perception of Classical art as the embodiment of realism, restraint and order. Inspired by [[Ancient Greek art|ancient Greek]] and [[Roman art]], the classical history paintings of the French artist [[Nicolas Poussin]] (1594–1665) and the ideas of the German writer [[Anton Raphael Mengs]] (1728–1779) and the German archaeologist and art historian [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] (1717–1768), Neoclassicism began in Rome, but soon spread throughout Europe. Rome had become the main focus of the [[Grand Tour]] by the mid-18th century, and aristocratic travellers went there in search of Classical visions to recreate on their country estates, thus spreading the style across Europe, particularly in England and France. The tour was also an opportunity for collecting Classical antiquities. Neoclassical paintings tended to be populated with figures posed like Classical statues or reliefs, set in a locations filled with archaeological details. The style favoured Greek art over Roman, considering it purer and more authentically classical in its aesthetic goal.
In 1789, France was on the brink of [[French Revolution|its first revolution]] and Neoclassicism sought to express their patriotic feelings. Politics and art were closely entwined during this period. They believed that art should be serious, and valued drawings above painting; smooth contours and paint with no discernible brushstrokes were the ultimate aim. Both painting and sculpture exerted calmness and restraint and focused on heroic themes, expressing such noble notions as self-sacrifice and nationalism.
This movement paved the way for [[Romanticism]], that appeared when the idealism of the revolution faded away and after the Napoleonic period came to an end in the early 19th century. Neoclassicism should not be seen as the opposite of Romanticism, however, but in some ways an early manifestation of it.{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=25|Fortenberry|2017|2p=273}}{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=407}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Giovanni Paolo Panini - Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome - 61.62 - Museum of Fine Arts.jpg|''Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome'', by [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]], 1737, oil on canvas, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston|Museum of Fine Arts]], [[Houston]], US
The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . . (Campidoglio antico a cui si ascendeva per circa cento gradini . . .) MET DP827987.jpg|''The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . .'', by [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]], {{circa}}1750, etching, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City
L'Hôtel de la Marine (Paris) (51346237676).jpg|[[Hôtel de la Marine]], Paris, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]], 1761–1770<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Martin|first1=Henry|title=Le Style Louis XV|date=1925|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=|page=13|url=|language=fr}}</ref>
West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG|[[Petit Trianon]], [[Versailles]], France, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]], 1764{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=272}}
Wright of Derby, The Orrery.jpg|''[[A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery]]'', by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], {{circa}}1766, oil on canvas, [[Derby Museum and Art Gallery]], [[Derby]], [[England]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=275}}
Osterley House, entrance hall.jpg|The Hall, [[Osterley Park]], London, by [[Robert Adam]], 1767{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=274}}
Self-portrait with Her Daughter by Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun.jpg|''The Artist and her Daughter'', by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]], {{circa}}1785, oil on canvas, [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Honour|first1=Hugh|last2=Fleming|first2=John|title=A World History of Art - Revised Seventh Edition|date=2009|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-85669-584-8|page=616|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Washstand (athénienne or lavabo) MET DP106594.jpg|Washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Villers Young Woman Drawing.jpg|''[[Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes (Marie-Denise Villers)|Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes]]'', by [[Marie-Denise Villers]], 1801, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=419|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Canova - The Three Graces, between 1813 and 1816, Н.ск-506.jpg|''[[The Three Graces (Canova)|The Three Graces]]'', by [[Antonio Canova]], 1813–1816, marble, [[Hermitage Museum]], [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=278}}
</gallery>
== Western art after 1770 ==
[[File:William Blake 002.jpg|thumb|''[[The Ghost of a Flea]]''; by [[William Blake]]; 1819; tempera with gold on panel (21.4 × 16.2 cm); Tate Britain, London ]]
Many art historians place the origins of modern art in the late 18th century, others in the mid 19th century. Art historian [[H. Harvard Arnason]] stated "a gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=740}} Events such as the [[Age of Enlightenment]], revolutions and democracies in [[American Revolution|America]] and [[French Revolution|France]], and the [[Industrial Revolution]] had far reaching affects in western culture. People, commodities, ideas, and information could travel between countries and continents with unprecedented speed and these changes were reflected in the arts. The invention of photography in the 1830s further altered certain aspects of art, particularly painting. By the dawn of the 19th century, a long and gradual paradigm shift was complete, from the Gothic when artists were viewed as craftsmen in the service of the church and monarchies, to the idea of art for art's sake, where the ideas and visions of the individual artist were held in the high regard, with patronage from an increasingly literate, affluent, and urban middle and upper class population that had been emerging for 200 years (particularly in Paris and London). A dichotomy began in the late 18th century between neoclassicism and romanticism that subdivided and continued to run through virtually every new movement in modern art: "Spreading like waves, these "isms" defy national, ethnic, and chronological boundaries; never dominant anywhere for long, they compete or merge with each other in endlessly shifting patterns."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=767}}
Modern art has consistently moved toward international influences and exchanges, from the exotic curiosity of [[Orientalism]], the deeper influence of [[Japonisme]], to the arts of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas. Conversely modern art has increasingly extended beyond western Europe. In Russia and the US the arts were developing to a degree that rivaled the leading European countries by the end of the 19th century. Many of the major movements appeared in Latin America, Australia, and Asia too and geography and nationality became increasingly insignificant with each passing decade. By the 20th century important and influential artists were emerging around the world: e.g. [[Foujita]] (Japan), [[Arshile Gorky]] (Armenia), [[Diego Rivera]] and [[Frida Kahlo]] (Mexico), [[Wifredo Lam]] (Cuba), [[Edvard Munch]] (Norwegian), [[Roberto Matta]] (Chilean), [[Mark Rothko]] (Lithuanian-American), [[Fernando Botero Angulo]] (Colombia), [[Constantin Brâncuși]] and [[Victor Brauner]] (Romania).{{sfn|Starobinski|1964}}{{sfn|Keyser|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=221}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Étienne-Louis Boullée Memorial Newton Night.jpg|''Newton's Cenotaph, exterior by night''; by [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]]; 1784; ink and wash, 40.2 × 63.3 cm.; [[Bibliothèque Nationale]]
Goya Dog.jpg|''[[The Dog (Goya)|The Dog]]''; [[Francisco de Goya]]; ca. 1819–1823; mural transferred to canvas, 131.5 × 79.3 cm.; [[Museo del Prado]]
Joseph Mallord William Turner - Death on a pale horse - Google Art Project.jpg|''Death on a Pale Horse''; [[J. M. W. Turner]]; c. 1830; oil on canvas, 60 × 76 cm.; [[Tate Britain]]
Honoré daumier, le celebrità dell'Aurea mediocritas, terracotta, 1832-35, charles philipon.JPG|''Toothless Man Laughing, Charles Philipon form Célébrités du Juste milieu''; [[Honoré Daumier]]; 1832–33; painted clay, 6.12 high; [[Musée d'Orsay]]
Daguerre kynzvart.jpg|''[[Kynžvart Daguerreotype|Still life with statue of Jupiter Tonans]]''; by [[Louis Jacques Daguerre]]; c. 1839; daguerreotype
</gallery>
===19th century===
====Romanticism (c. 1790–1880)====
{{main|Romanticism#Visual arts}}
[[File:English landscape garden at Stourhead, England (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1|English landscape garden at [[Stourhead]] (the UK), the 1740s, by [[Henry Hoare]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weston|first1=Richard|title=100 Ideas That Changed Architecture|date=2011|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-78627-567-7|page=84|url=|language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Caspar David Friedrich Wanderer above the Sea of Fog.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|[[Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] by [[Caspar David Friedrich]]]]
[[Romanticism]] emerged in the late 18th century out of the German ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' movement and flourished in the first half of the 19th century with significant and international manifestations in music, literature, and architecture, as well as the visual arts. It grew from a disillusionment with the rationalism of 18th century Enlightenment. Despite being often viewed as the opposite of Neoclassicism, there were some stylistic overlapping with both movements, and many Romantic artists were excited by classicism. The movement focused on intense emotions, imagination, and on the impressive power of nature, a bigger and more powerful force than the one of men, with its potential for disaster. "Neoclassicism is a new revival of classical antiquity... while Romanticism refers not to a specific style but to an attitude of mind that may reveal itself in any number of ways."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}}
One of the earliest expressions of romanticism was in the [[English landscape garden]], carefully designed to appear natural and standing in dramatic contrast to the formal gardens of the time. The concept of the "natural" English garden was adopted throughout Europe and America in the following decades. In architecture, the romantics frequently turned to alternative sources other than the Greek and Roman examples admired by the neo-classicist. Romantic architecture often revived [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] forms and other styles such as exotic eastern models. The [[Palace of Westminster]] (Houses of Parliament), London is an example of romantic architecture that is also referred to as [[Gothic Revival]].{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} In painting romanticism is exemplified by the paintings of [[Francisco Goya]] in Spain, [[Eugène Delacroix]] and [[Théodore Géricault]] in France, [[William Blake]], [[Henry Fuseli]], [[Samuel Palmer]], and [[J. M. W. Turner|William Turner]] in England, [[Caspar David Friedrich]] and [[Philipp Otto Runge]] in Germany, [[Francesco Hayez]] in Italy, [[Johan Christian Claussen Dahl]] in Norway, and [[Thomas Cole]] in America. Examples of sculptors of the romantic period include [[Antoine-Louis Barye]], [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]], [[Auguste Préault]], and [[François Rude]]. As romanticism ran its course, some aspects of the movement evolved into symbolism.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=26}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=267|url=|language=ro}}</ref>{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Bris|1981|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1981|p=?}}
<gallery>
William Blake 008.jpg|''Elohim Creating Adam''; by [[William Blake]]; 1795; color print finished in ink and watercolour on paper; 43.1 × 53.6 cm; [[Tate Britain]] (London){{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=286}}
El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''[[The Third of May 1808]]''; by [[Francisco Goya]]; 1814; oil on canvas; 2.68 × 3.47 m; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], Spain){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=286}}
JEAN LOUIS THÉODORE GÉRICAULT - La Balsa de la Medusa (Museo del Louvre, 1818-19).jpg|''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]''; by [[Théodore Géricault]]; 1819; oil on canvas; 4.91 × 7.16 m; [[Louvre]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=280}}
Delacroix - La Mort de Sardanapale (1827).jpg|''[[The Death of Sardanapalus]]''; by [[Eugène Delacroix]]; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.92 × 4.96 m; Louvre{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=281}}
Parliament at Sunset.JPG|[[Palace of Westminster]] (London), 1840–1870, by [[Sir Charles Barry]] and [[Pugin|A. Welby Pugin]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=114}}
</gallery>
====Academism====
{{main|Academic art}}
Academism is the codification of art into rules that can be learned in art academies. It promotes the Classical ideals of beauty and artistic perfection. There was also a very strict hierarchy of subjects. At the top, there were paintings that depicted historic events, including the biblical and [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] ones, followed by the [[portrait]] and by the [[landscape]]. At the bottom of the hierarchy were [[still life]] and [[genre painting]]. [[Nicolas Poussin]] was the artist whose works and theories played the most significant role in the development of academism. The vales of academism were situated in the centre of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] project of discovering the basic principles and ideals of art.
During the 18th century, across all Europe, many academies were founded, that will later dominate the art of the 19th century. In order to study at an art academy, young artists had to take an admission exam, and after being admitted, they would study there for multiple years. Most of the 19th century French [[art movement]]s were exterior or even opposing the values of academism.
Some of the most important artists of the French academy were [[William Bouguereau]] (1825–1905), [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1824–1904), [[Alexandre Cabanel]] (1823–1889) and [[Thomas Couture]] (1815–1879). Academic art is closely related to [[Beaux-Arts architecture]], which developed in the same place and holds to a similar classicizing ideal. The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=276, 277|url=|language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Little|first1=Stephen|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Arta|date=2005|publisher=Rao|isbn=973-717-041-5|page=64|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery>
Paris Palais Garnier 2010-04-06 16.55.07.jpg|[[Palais Garnier]] (Paris), 1860–1875, by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]]{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=296}}
Jean-Leon Gerome Pollice Verso.jpg|''Pollice Verso'' (Thumbs Down); by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]]; 1872; oil on canvas; height: 96.5 cm; [[Phoenix Art Museum]] ([[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizona]], US)
The Birth of Venus by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1879).jpg|''[[The Birth of Venus (Bouguereau)|The Birth of Venus]]''; by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]]; 1879; oil on canvas; 300 x 215 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=278|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Alexandre Cabanel Phèdre.jpg|''Phaedra''; by [[Alexandre Cabanel]]; 1880; oil on canvas; 194 x 286 cm; [[Musée Fabre]] ([[Montpellier]], France)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=277|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
The Roses of Heliogabalus.jpg|''[[The Roses of Heliogabalus]]''; by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]; 1888; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 2.1 m; private collection of [[Juan Antonio Pérez Simón]]<ref>{{cite book|editor=Victoria Clarke |title=FLOWER: Exploring the World in Bloom|date=2020|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=|page=28|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===== Revivalism and Eclecticism =====
When it comes to architecture and applied arts, the 19th century is best known as the century of [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivals]]. One of the most well-known revivalist styles is the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] or Neo-Gothic, which first appeared in the mid-18th century in a few houses in [[England]], like the [[Strawberry Hill House]] in London. However, these houses were isolated cases, since the beginning of the 19th century was dominated by [[Neoclassicism]]. Later, between 1830 and 1840, a taste and nostalgia for the rediscovery of past styles, ranging from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, developed under the influence of romanticism. Approximatively until World War I, rehashes of the past dominated the world of architecture and applied arts. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian]] for prisons, [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] for churches, or [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the [[pharaoh]]s with [[death]] and [[eternity]], the [[Middle Ages]] with [[Christianity]], or the [[House of Medici|Medici family]] with the rise of banking and modern commerce. Sometimes, these styles were also seen in a nationalistic way, on the idea that architecture might represent the glory of a nation. Some of them were seen as 'national styles', like the Gothic Revival in the UK and the German states or the [[Romanian Revival architecture|Romanian Revival]] in Romania. [[Augustus Pugin]] called the Gothic style the 'absolute duty'<ref>{{cite book|last1=Luckhurst|first1=Roger|title=GOTHIC – An Illustrated History|date=2021|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-25251-2|page=19|url=|language=en}}</ref> of the English architect, despite the fact that the style is of French origin. This way, architecture and the applied arts were used to grant the aura of a highly idealized glorious past. Some architects and designers associated historic styles, especially the medieval ones, with an idealized fantasy organic life, which they put in comparison with the reality of their time.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=139, 141, 142}}
Despite revivalism being so prevalent, this doesn't mean that there was no originality in these works. Architects, [[ébéniste]]s and other craftsmen, especially during the second half of the 19th century, created mixes of styles, by extracting and interpreting elements specific to certain eras and areas. This practice is known as ''[[eclecticism]]''. This stylistic development occurred during a period when the competition of World's Fairs motivated many countries to invent new industrial methods of creation.
<gallery>
File:Coin cabinet MET DP103176.jpg|[[Egyptian revival decorative arts|Egyptian Revival]] - Coin cabinet; 1809–1819; [[mahogany]] (probably [[Swietenia mahagoni]]), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Vase (vase gothique Fragonard) (one of a pair) MET DP169251.jpg|[[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] - Pair of vases; manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844; hard-paste porcelain; 36.4 x 32.7 x 20 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Saint Augustin Church Paris.jpg|[[Eclecticism in architecture|Eclectic]] - [[Saint-Augustin, Paris|Église Saint-Augustin de Paris]], 1860–1868, by [[Victor Baltard]]
Musée des arts décoratifs Gründerzeit-Büffet (1).jpg|[[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] - Buffet; by [[Henri-Auguste Fourdinois]], Nivillier, Party, Hugues Protat, Primo and Maigret; 1867; walnut, [[jasper]] and [[lapis lazuli]] marquetry, and ivory and silver-inlayed interior; unknown dimensions; [[Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris|Musée des Arts Décoratifs]] (Paris)
Immeuble rue La Boétie, rue de Miromesnil, Paris 8e.jpg|[[Rococo Revival]] - Apartment building no. 8 on [[Rue de Miromesnil]] (Paris), 1900, by P. Lobrot
</gallery>
==== Realism (c. 1830–1890) ====
{{main|Realism (art movement)}}
Realism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, c. 1840, and had counterparts in sculpture, literature, and drama, often referred to as [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] in literature. In nineteenth-century painting, the term Realism refers more to the subject matter depicted than to the style or technique. Realist paintings typically represent ordinary places and people engaged in everyday activities, as opposed to grand, idealized landscapes, mythological gods, biblical subjects, and historical figures and events that had often dominated painting in western culture. Courbet said "I cannot paint an angel because I have never seen one".{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}}
Realism was also in part a reaction to the often dramatic, exotic, and emotionally charged work of romanticism. The term realism is applied relative to the idealized imagery of neo-classicism and the romanticized imagery of romanticism. Artists such as [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot]] and [[Honoré Daumier]] had loose associations with realism, as did members of the [[Barbizon School]], particularly [[Jean-François Millet]], but it was perhaps [[Gustave Courbet]] who was the central figure in the movement, self identifying as a realist, advocating realism, and influencing younger artists such as [[Édouard Manet]]. One significant aspect of realism was the practice of painting landscapes [[en plein air]] and its subsequent influence on [[impressionism]].
Beyond France, realism is exemplified by artists such as [[Wilhelm Leibl]] in Germany, [[Ford Madox Brown]] in England, and [[Winslow Homer]] in the United States. Art historian [[H. Harvard Arnason|H. H. Arnason]] wrote, "The chronological sequence of neo-classicism, romanticism, and realism is, of course, only a convenient stratification of movements or tendencies so inextricably bound up with one another and with the preceding movements that it is impossible to tell where one ended and another began",{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}} and this becomes even more pertinent and complex as one follows all of the movements and "isms" into the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{sfn|Leymarie|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1973|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1973|p=?}}{{sfn|Faunce|1993|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Courbet LAtelier du peintre.jpg|''[[The Painter's Studio]]''; by [[Gustave Courbet]]; 1854–1855; oil on canvas; 3.59 x 5.98 m; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=289}}
Jean-François Millet - Gleaners - Google Art Project 2.jpg|''[[The Gleaners]]''; by [[Jean-François Millet]]; 1857; oil on canvas; 0.84 x 1.12 m; Musée d'Orsay{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=289}}
Honoré Daumier, The Third-Class Carriage - The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|''[[The Third-Class Carriage]]''; by [[Honoré Daumier]]; {{circa}}1862–1864; oil on canvas; 65.4 x 90.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Adolph Menzel - Eisenwalzwerk - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Iron Rolling Mill''; by [[Adolph von Menzel]]; 1875; oil on canvas; 153 x 253 cm; [[Alte Nationalgalerie]] ([[Berlin]], [[Germany]])<ref name="Farthing302">{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=302|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Сбор угля бедными на выработанной шахте.jpg|''The Poor, Picking up Pieces of Coal''; by [[Nikolay Kasatkin]]; 1894; oil on canvas; 80 x 107 cm; [[Russian Museum]] ([[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]])<ref name="Farthing302" />
</gallery>
==== Impressionism (c. 1865–1885) ====
{{main|Impressionism}}
[[File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg|thumb|''[[Impression, Sunrise]]''; by [[Claude Monet]]; 1872; oil on canvas; 48.1 x 62.8 cm; [[Musée Marmottan Monet]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}]]
Impressionism emerged in France, under the influences of [[Realism (art movement)|Realism]], the [[Barbizon School]], and [[en plein air]] painters like [[Eugène Boudin]], [[Camille Corot]], [[Charles-François Daubigny|Charles- Francois Daubigny]], and [[Johan Barthold Jongkind]]. Starting in the late 1850s, several of the impressionists had made acquaintances and friendships as students in Paris, notably at the free [[Académie Suisse]] and [[Charles Gleyre]]'s studio. Their progressive work was frequently rejected by the conservative juries of the prestigious [[Académie des Beaux-Arts|Académie des Beaux Arts]] salons, a forum where many artist turned to establish their reputations, and many of the young artist were included in a highly publicized, but much ridiculed [[Salon des Refusés]] in 1863. In 1874 they formed the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, independent of the academy, and mounted the first of several impressionist exhibitions in Paris, through to 1886 when their eighth and final exhibition was held. Important figures in the movement included [[Frédéric Bazille]], [[Gustave Caillebotte]], [[Mary Cassatt]], [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Edgar Degas]], [[Armand Guillaumin]], [[Édouard Manet]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Berthe Morisot]], [[Camille Pissarro]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], and [[Alfred Sisley]]. Although impressionism was primarily a movement of painters, Degas and Renoir also produced sculptures and others like [[Auguste Rodin]] and [[Medardo Rosso]] are sometimes linked to impressionism. By 1885 impressionism had achieved some prominence, and yet a younger generation were already pushing the limits beyond impressionism. Artist from [[Museum of Russian impressionism|Russia]], [[Heidelberg School|Australia]], [[American Impressionism|America]] and Latin America soon adopted impressionist styles. A few of the original impressionist continued producing significant work into the 1910s and 1920s.{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Courthion|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Leymarie|1955|p=?}}
Although not unprecedented, many of the techniques used were in contrast to traditional methods. Paintings were often completed in hours or days with wet paint applied to wet paint (opposed to wet on dry paint, completed in weeks and months). Rather than applying glazes and mixed colors, pure colors were often applied side by side, in thick, opaque, [[impasto]] strokes; blending in the eye of the viewer when observed from a distance. Black was used very sparingly, or not at all, and defining lines replaced with nuanced strokes of color forming the subjects, contours, and shapes. Art historian H. W. Janson said "instead of adding to the illusion of real space, it strengthens the unity of the actual painted surface."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} Impressionist paintings typically depict landscapes, portraits, still lifes, domestic scenes, daily leisure and nightlife, all treated in a realist manner. Compositions were often based on unusual perspectives, appearing spontaneous and candid. The paintings were usually void of didactic, symbolic, or metaphoric meanings, and rarely addressed the biblical, mythological, and historical subjects that were so highly regarded by the academies or the darker and psychological interest explored by the symbolist. The nuances of light, shadow, atmosphere, and reflections of colors from surfaces were examined, sometimes emphasizing changes of these elements in time. The painting itself was the subject of the painting. It was [[art for art's sake]], an idea that had been floating around for a few of decades but it perhaps reached a new high and consistency in impressionism.{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Courthion|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Leymarie|1955|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Edgar Degas - At the Races in the Countryside - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[At the Races in the Countryside]]''; by [[Edgar Degas]]; 1869; oil on canvas; 36.5 x 56 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Claude Monet, 1873-74, Boulevard des Capucines, oil on canvas, 80.3 x 60.3 cm, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City.jpg|''[[Boulevard des Capucines (Monet)|Boulevard des Capucines]]''; by [[Claude Monet]]; 1873; oil on canvas; 80.5 x 60.2 cm; [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] ([[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]], [[Missouri]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Camille Pissarro - Gelée blanche, ancienne route d´Ennery, Pontoise - 1873.jpg|''Hoarfrost: Old Road to Ennery, Pontoise''; by [[Camille Pissarro]]; 1873; oil on canvas; 64.7 x 92.6 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Alfred Sisley, L'automne - Bords de la Seine pres Bougival (Autumn - Banks of the Seine near Bougival), 1873.jpg|''Banks of the Seine near Bougival''; by [[Alfred Sisley]]; 1873; oil on canvas; 46.2 x 62.1 cm; [[Montreal Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Montreal]], [[Canada]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg|''[[La Loge]]''; [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]; 1874; oil on canvas; 80 x 63.4 cm; [[Courtauld Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Gustave Caillebotte - The Floor Planers - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Les raboteurs de parquet|The Floor Scrapers]]''; by [[Gustave Caillebotte]]; 1875; oil on canvas; 1 x 1.54 m; Musée d'Orsay{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=293}}
Gustave Caillebotte - Paris Street; Rainy Day - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Paris Street; Rainy Day]]''; by [[Gustave Caillebotte]]; 1877; oil on canvas; 2.12 x 2.76 cm; [[Art Institute of Chicago]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=293}}
Berthe Morisot - Sommertag - 1879.jpeg|''[[Summer's Day]]''; by [[Berthe Morisot]]; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 cm × 75.2 cm; [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=293}}
Edouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère.jpg|''[[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]]''; by [[Édouard Manet]]; 1881–1882; oil on canvas; 0.96 × 1.30 cm.; [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=294}}
Nicolae Grigorescu - Car cu boi (8).jpg|''Ox-Drawn Cart''; by [[Nicolae Grigorescu]]; 1899; oil on canvas; 66 x 81 cm; [[National Museum of Art of Romania]] ([[Bucharest]], [[Romania]])
</gallery>
==== Symbolism (c. 1860–1915) ====
{{main|Symbolism (art)}}
Symbolism emerged in France and Belgium in the 3rd quarter of the nineteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the 1870s, and later to America to a lesser extent. It evolved from romanticism without a clear or defining demarcation point, although poetry, literature, and specifically the publication of [[Charles Baudelaire]]'s ''[[Les Fleurs du mal]]'' (''The Flowers of Evil'') in 1857 were significant in the development of symbolism. It had international expression in poetry, literature, drama, and music. In architecture, the applied arts, and decorative arts symbolism closely paralleled and overlapped into [[Art Nouveau]]. Symbolism is often inextricably linked to other contemporary art movements, surfacing and finding expression within other styles like [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Les Nabis]], the [[Decadent Movement]], the [[Fin de siècle|Fin-de Siecle]], [[Art Nouveau]], The [[Munich Secession]], The [[Vienna Secession]], [[Expressionism]], and even the [[Pre-Raphaelites]], which had formed before and influenced symbolism as well. Artist as diverse as [[James McNeill Whistler]], [[Eugène Carrière]], [[Ferdinand Hodler]], [[Fernand Khnopff]], [[Giovanni Segantini]], [[Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer]], [[Jean Delville]], and [[James Ensor]] all had varying degrees of association with symbolism. Art historian Robert L. Delevoy wrote "Symbolism was less a school than the atmosphere of a period."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}} It quickly began to fade with the onset of [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Futurism]] and had largely dissipated by the outbreak of the First World War, however it did find some sustained development and relevance in the [[Metaphysical art|metaphysical school]], which in turn had a profound influence on surrealism.{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}}
The subjects, themes, and meanings of symbolist art are frequently veiled and obscure, but at its best still manage to resonate deeply on psychological or emotional levels. The subjects are often presented as [[metaphors]] or [[allegories]], aiming to evoke highly subjective, personal, introspective emotions and ideas in the viewer, without clearly defining or addressing the subject directly. The poet [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] wrote "depict not the thing but the effect it produces"<ref name="nyt-morris-2007">{{cite web |last=Morris |first=Roderick Conway |date=2007-03-16 |title=The elusive Symbolist movement |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html |access-date=2021-04-30 |website=The New York Times |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and "To name an object is to suppress three quarters of the pleasure of the poem which is made to be understood little by little".{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} The English painter [[George Frederic Watts]] stated "I paint ideas, not things."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Head of Orpheus.jpg|''Thracian Girl with Head of Orpheus on his Lyre''; by [[Gustave Moreau]]; 1865; oil; 154 × 99.5 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris)
La vision après le sermon (Paul Gauguin).jpg|''[[Vision After the Sermon]]'' (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel); 1888; oil on canvas; 73 x 92 cm; [[Scottish National Gallery]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=307}}
Edvard Munch, 1893, The Scream, oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard, 91 x 73 cm, National Gallery of Norway.jpg|''[[The Scream]]''; by [[Edvard Munch]]; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; [[National Gallery (Norway)|National Gallery]] ([[Oslo]], [[Norway]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=307}}
Redon - Green Death c. 1905.jpg|''Green Death''; by [[Odilon Redon]]; {{circa}}1905; oil on canvas; 54.9 x 46.3 cm; Museum of Modern Art<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/works/80362|title=Odilon Redon. Green Death. c. 1905|website=moma.org|access-date=28 April 2022}}</ref>
Odilon Redon - The Cyclops, c. 1914.jpg|''[[The Cyclops (Redon)|The Cyclops]]''; by [[Odilon Redon]]; {{circa}}1914; oil on cardboard on panel; 64 x 51 cm; [[Kröller-Müller Museum]] ([[Otterlo]], the [[Netherlands]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=307}}
</gallery>
==== Post-Impressionism (c. 1885–1910) ====
{{main|Post-Impressionism}}
[[File:A Sunday on La Grande Jatte, Georges Seurat, 1884.jpg|thumb|''[[A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte]]''; by [[Georges Seurat]]; 1884–1886; oil on canvas; 2.08 x 3.08 m; [[Art Institute of Chicago]] {{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}]]
Post-Impressionism is a rather imprecise term applied to a diverse generation of artists. In its strictest sense, it pertains to four highly influential artists: [[Paul Cézanne]],{{sfn|Raynal|1954|p=?}}{{sfn|Schapiro|1962|p=?}} [[Paul Gauguin]],{{sfn|Estienne|1953a|p=?}}{{sfn|Goldwater|1972|p=?}} [[Georges Seurat]],{{sfn|Courthion|1988|p=?}}{{sfn|Alexandrian|1980|p=?}} and [[Vincent van Gogh]].{{sfn|Estienne|1953b|p=?}}{{sfn|Schapiro|1950|p=?}} Each passed through an impressionist phase, but ultimately emerged with four very original but different styles. Collectively, their work anticipated, and often directly influenced, much of the [[avant-garde]] art that appeared before the First World War including fauvism, cubism, expressionism, and early abstraction. Cézanne (particularly influential on cubism) and Van Gogh worked in relative isolation, away from Paris, at critical points in their careers, while Seurat and Gauguin worked in groups, more collaboratively, at key points in their development. Another important artist of the period is [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec|Toulouse-Lautrec]], an influential painter as well as graphic artist.{{sfn|Lassaigne|1950|p=?}}{{sfn|Cooper|1966|p=?}} In a broader sense, post-impressionism includes a generation of predominantly French and Belgian artist who worked in a range of styles and groups. Most had come under the sway of impressionism at some point, but pushed their work beyond it into a number of factions as early as the mid-1880s, sometimes as a logical development of impressionism, other times as a reaction against it. Post-Impressionists typically depicted impressionist subjects, but the work, particularly synthetism, often contained symbolism, spiritualism, and moody atmospheres that rarely appeared in impressionism. Unnatural colors, patterns, flat plains, odd perspectives and viewpoints pushed to extremes, all moved the center of modernism a step closer to abstraction with a standard for experimentation.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Raynal|1953|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}
'''[[Neo-Impressionism]]''' ([[Divisionism]] or [[Pointillism]], c. 1884–1894) explored light and color based on scientific color theories, creating mosaics of brush strokes in pure colors, sometimes laid out in rhythmic patterns with lines influenced by [[Art Nouveau]]. The leading artists were [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Signac]], others include [[Henri-Edmond Cross]], [[Maximilien Luce]], [[Albert Dubois-Pillet]], and for a period [[Pissarro]] and [[Van Gogh]]. It was influential on fauvism, and elements of the style appeared in expressionism, cubism, and early abstraction. '''[[Synthetism]]''' ([[Cloisonnism]] c. 1888–1903) Cloisonnism was conceived by [[Émile Bernard]] and immediately taken up and developed by [[Paul Gauguin]] and others while at an artists' colony in Pont-Aven (Brittany, France). The style resembled [[cloisonné enamel]] or [[stained glass]], with flat, bold colors outlined in black or dark colors. Synthetism, exemplified in the work of Gauguin and [[Paul Sérusier]], is slightly a broader term with less emphasis on dark outlines and cloisonné qualities. Other artist include [[Cuno Amiet]], [[Louis Anquetin]], [[Charles Filiger]], [[Meyer de Haan|Jacob Meyer de Haan]], [[Charles Laval]], and [[Armand Séguin (painter)|Armand Seguin]]. Their work greatly influenced fauvism and expressionism. '''[[Les Nabis]]''' (c. 1890–1905: Hebrew for prophets or illuminati) was a larger movement in France and Belgium that eclectically drew on progressive elements in synthetism, neo-impressionism, symbolism, and Art Nouveau. Perhaps more influential than the art, were the numerous theories, manifestoes, and infectious enthusiasm for the avant-garde, setting the tone for the proliferation of movements and "isms" in the first quarter of the 20th century. [[La Revue Blanche]] often published Les Nabis and symbolist content. The work of [[Édouard Vuillard]],{{sfn|Preston|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Warnod|1989|p=?}} and [[Pierre Bonnard]],{{sfn|Terrasse|1964|p=?}}{{sfn|Fermigier|1969|p=?}} ca. 1890–1910 is exemplary of Les Nabis, though both evolved in their styles and produced significant work into the 1940s. Other artist include [[Maurice Denis]], [[Maxime Dethomas]], [[Meyer de Haan]], [[Henri-Gabriel Ibels]], [[Georges Lacombe (painter)|Georges Lacombe]], [[Aristide Maillol]], [[Paul Ranson]], [[Ker-Xavier Roussel]], [[Armand Séguin]], [[Paul Sérusier]], [[Félix Vallotton]], [[Jan Verkade]], and others.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Raynal|1953|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Starry Night]]''; by [[Vincent van Gogh]]; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City)
Signac - Portrait de Félix Fénéon.jpg|''[[Opus 217. Against the Enamel of a Background Rhythmic with Beats and Angles, Tones, and Tints, Portrait of M. Félix Fénéon in 1890|Félix Fénéon]]''; by [[Paul Signac]]; 1890; oil on canvas; 73.5 x 92.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}
Eh quoi! Tu es jaloux? by Paul Gauguin.jpg|''[[Aha Oe Feii?]]'' (Are You Jealous?); by [[Paul Gauguin]]; 1892; oil on canvas; 68 x 92 cm; [[Pushkin Museum]] ([[Moscow]], [[Russia]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, At the Moulin Rouge.jpg|''[[At the Moulin Rouge]]''; by [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]; 1892/1895; oil on canvas, 1.23 × 1.41 m; [[Art Institute of Chicago]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}
Paul Cézanne, French - The Large Bathers - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Bathers (Cézanne)|The Bathers]]''; by [[Paul Cézanne]]; 1898–1905; oil on canvas; 210.5 cm × 250.8 cm; [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]] ([[Philadelphia]], US)
</gallery>
===Early 20th century===
{{See also|20th-century Western painting}}
The history of [[20th-century art]] is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. The art movements of [[Fauvism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Cubism]], [[abstract art]], [[Dada]]ism and [[Surrealism]] led to further explorations of new creative styles and manners of expression. Increasing [[globalization|global]] interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as [[Pablo Picasso]] being influenced by [[Iberian sculpture]], [[African art|African sculpture]] and [[Primitivism]]. [[Japonism]], and Japanese [[woodcut]]s (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent artistic developments. The influential example set by [[Paul Gauguin]]'s interest in [[Oceanic art]] and the sudden popularity among the [[Connoisseur|cognoscenti]] in early 20th century Paris of newly discovered African fetish sculptures and other works from non-European cultures were taken up by Picasso, [[Henri Matisse]], and many of their colleagues. Later in the 20th century, [[Pop Art]] and [[Abstract Expressionism]] came to prominence.
==== Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1914) ====
{{main|Art Nouveau}}
[[File:Paris Metro 2 Porte Dauphine Libellule.JPG|thumb|[[Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro)|Porte Dauphine Métro Station]] (Paris), by [[Hector Guimard]], 1900{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=141}}]]
Art Nouveau ({{lang-fr|new art}}) was an international and widespread art and design movement that emerged in the final decades of the 19th century until the First World War in 1914. It was catapulted into international prominence with the [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris]]. Developing almost simultaneously in parts of Europe and the US, it was an attempt to create a unique and modern form of expression that evoked the spirit of the new century. It manifested in painting, illustration, sculpture, jewellery, metalwork, glass, ceramics, textiles, graphic design, furniture, architecture, costume design and fashion. Art Nouveau artists aimed to raise the status of craft and design to the level of [[fine art]].
The movement is highly associated with sinuous organic forms, such as flowers, vines and leaves, but also insects and animals, through the works of artists like [[Alphonse Mucha]], [[Victor Horta]], [[Hector Guimard]], [[Antoni Gaudí]], [[René Lalique]] or [[Émile Gallé]]. Art Nouveau designs and buildings can often be asymmetrical. Although there are identifying characteristics, the style also displayed many regional and national interpretations.
Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the [[modern architecture]] and design of the 20th century. It was the first architectural style without historic precedent, the 19th century being notorious for a practice known as [[Historicism (art)|Historicism]], which is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous artistic era. Between {{c.}}1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression. Despite this, Art Nouveau was also heavily influenced by styles from the past such as [[Celtic art|Celtic]], [[Gothic art|Gothic]] and [[Rococo]] art, and also by the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], [[Aestheticism]], [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and especially by [[Japanese art]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bergdoll|first1=Barry|title=European Architecture 1750–1890|date=2000|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-284222-0|pages=269, 279|url=|language=en}}</ref>{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=31|Hopkins|2014|2pp=140, 141|Hodge|2019|3p=36}}
==== Fauvism (c. 1898–1909) ====
{{main|Fauvism}}
Fauvism emerged from post-impressionism, gradually developing into the first major movement of the 20th century. Its genesis was in 1895 when [[Henri Matisse]], the oldest and central figure, entered the studio of [[Gustave Moreau]] at the [[Ecole des Beaux Arts (Paris)|Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. There he met [[Georges Rouault]], [[Charles Camoin]], [[Henri Manguin]], and [[Albert Marquet]]. Marquet said "As early as 1898 Matisse and I were working in what was later to be called the Fauve manner. The first exhibitions at the Indepéndants in which we were, I believe, the only ones to paint in pure tones, go back to 1901."{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} By 1902–03 the circle of like-minded artist had grown to include [[Georges Braque]], [[André Derain]], [[Raoul Dufy]], [[Othon Friesz]], [[Jean Metzinger]], [[Jean Puy]], [[Louis Valtat]], [[Kees van Dongen]], and [[Maurice de Vlaminck]]. During this period a number of influential retrospective exhibitions were held in Paris: Seurat (1900, 1905), Van Gogh (1901, 1905), Toulouse-Lautrec (1902), Gauguin (1906), Cézanne (1907), all relatively unknown to the public at that time. Matisse and Derain collected African carvings, a novel but growing curiosity of the time. Matisse spent the summer of 1904 in [[Saint-Tropez]] painting with the neo-impressionist [[Paul Signac]] and [[Henri-Edmond Cross]], followed in 1905 by Camoin, Manguin, and Marquet. The artist exhibited regularity at the [[Salon Des Independants|Salon des Indepéndants]] and the [[Salon d'Automne]] 1903–1908 and in 1905 their work created a sensation and a scandal. Matisse stated "We were exhibiting at the Salon d'Automne, Derain, Manguin, Marquet, Puy, and a few others were hung together in one of the larger galleries. In the center of this room the sculptor [[Albert Marque|Marque]] exhibited a bust of a child very much in the Italian style. [[Louis Vauxcelles|Vauxcelles]] [art critic for [[Gil Blas (periodical)|Gil Blas]]] entered the room and said, Well! well! [[Donatello]] in the mist of wild beasts! [Donatello chez les fauves]."{{sfn|Clay|1978}} The movement had not been perceived as an entity by the public, but once published the name stuck. Unlike the impressionist and their long struggle for acceptance, the avant-garde had an eager audience by 1906–1907 and the fauvist were attracting collectors from America to Russia. However fauvism largely dissolved in 1908, as cubism appeared, most of the artist began exploring other styles and moving in different directions. Only Matisse and Dufy continued to explore fauvism into the 1950s.{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1978|p=?}}<ref name="Diehl (1972)">Diehl, Gaston (1972) The Fauves: Library of Great Art Movements. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York. 168 pp. {{ISBN|0-8109-0114-5}}</ref>{{sfn|Lassaigne|1959|p=?}}<ref name="Jacobus (1973)">Jacobus, J. (1973) Matisse: Library of Great Painters. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York, 184 pp.</ref>
The fauvist painted landscapes [[en plein air]], interiors, figures, and still lifes, following examples of realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. They applied paint with loose brushstrokes, in thick, unnatural, often contrasting, vibrant colors, at times straight from the tube. Gauguin's influence, with his exploration of the expressive values and spatial aspects of patterning with flat, pure colors, as well as his interest in [[primitivism]] were significant, as was neo-impressionism. Matisse explained – for a long time color served as a complement of design, the painters of the Renaissance constructed the picture by line, adding local color afterwards – writing: "From [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]] to Van Gogh and chiefly to Gauguin, by way of the Impressionist, who cleared the ground, and Cézanne, who gave the final impulse and introduced colored volumes, we can follow this rehabilitation of color's function, this restoration of its emotive power"{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} Fauvism was the culmination in a shift, from drawing and line as the fundamental foundations of design in painting to color, and they depicted their subjects on the verge of abstraction.{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1978|p=?}}<ref name="Diehl (1972)" />{{sfn|Lassaigne|1959|p=?}}<ref name="Jacobus (1973)" />
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg|''[[Woman with a Hat]]''; by [[Henri Matisse]]; 1905; oil on canvas; 80.7 x 59.7 cm; [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]] ([[San Francisco]], US){{sfn|Dempsey|2018|page=31}}
Fauvism Landscape; by Louis Valtat; oil on canvas, Speed Art Museum, Louisville, Kentucky II.jpg|''Fauve Landscape''; by [[Louis Valtat]]; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; [[Speed Art Museum]] ([[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]], [[Kentucky]], US)
Derain CharingCrossBridge.png|''Charing Cross Bridge, London''; by [[André Derain]]; 1906; oil on canvas, 80.3 × 100.3 cm.; [[National Gallery of Art]] ([[Washington, D.C.]], US)
LA CIOTAT.PNG|''La Ciotat''; by [[Othon Friesz]]; 1907; oil on canvas, 65.7 by 81 cm.; unknown collection
</gallery>
==== Expressionism (c. 1905–1930) ====
{{main|Expressionism}}
[[File:Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1913, Street, Berlin, oil on canvas, 120.6 x 91.1 cm, MoMA.jpg|thumb|''Street, Berlin''; by [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]]; 1913; oil on canvas; 1.21 x 0.91 m; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=335}}]] Expressionism was an international movement in painting, sculpture, the graphic arts, poetry, literature, theater, film, and architecture. Some associate the [[Second Viennese School]] and other music of the period with the movement. Most historians place the beginning of expressionism in 1905 with the founding of the [[Die Brücke]]. However, several artist were producing influential work that was in the spirit of expressionism c. 1885–1905 including [[Lovis Corinth]], [[James Ensor]], [[Käthe Kollwitz]], [[Paula Modersohn-Becker]], [[Edvard Munch]], [[Emil Nolde]], and [[Christian Rohlfs]] among others. Many of these artist later exhibited and associated with various expressionist groups. Expressionist painting is characterized by loose, spontaneous, frequently thick, [[impasto]] brushwork. It often conveyed how the artist felt about their subject, opposed to what it looked like, putting intuition and gut feelings over realistic representations or art theories. Expressionism was frequently infused with an angst or joy, and an overall engagement with contemporary life and social issues that was often absent from fauvism's focus on design and color applied to neutral subjects. [[Woodcut print]]s are particularly noteworthy in expressionism. Expressionism can sometimes overlap and integrate with other styles and movements, such as [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]], [[fauvism]], [[cubism]], [[futurism]], abstraction, and [[dada]]. Several groups and factions of expressionist appeared at various times and places.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
[[Die Brücke]] (The Bridge: 1905 -1913) aspired to connect "all revolutionary and surging elements."{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}} It was founded by four architectural students [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]], [[Erich Heckel]], [[Karl Schmidt-Rottluff]], and [[Fritz Bleyl]]. Sharing a studio in Dresden they produced paintings, carvings, prints, and organized exhibitions, separating in the summer to work independently. Their first exhibit was in 1905, later joined by [[Emil Nolde]] and [[Max Pechstein]] in 1906, and [[Otto Mueller]] in 1910 among others. Influences included [[Gothic art]], [[primitivism]], [[Art Nouveau]], and developments in Paris, particularly [[Van Gogh]] and [[fauvism]]. The group shifted to Berlin in 1911 and later dissolved in 1913. [[Der Blaue Reiter]] (The Blue Rider: 1911–1914), founded by [[Wassily Kandinsky]] and [[Franz Marc]], was a relatively informal group that organized exhibitions of art from Paris and Europe, as well their own. It was one in a series of increasingly progressive groups splitting from the Art Academy in Munich including The Munich Secession in 1892 (realist and impressionist), Phalanx in 1901 (postimpressionist), [[Neue Künstlervereinigung München|Neue Kunstler Vereiningung]] in 1909, and The Blue Rider in 1911. Artist associated with the latter two groups included the [[David Burliuk|Burliuk]] brothers, [[Heinrich Campendonk]], [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], [[Paul Klee]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Münter]], and [[Marianne von Werefkin]]. The euphonious almanac ''Der Blaue Reiter'', a collection of influential essays, and Kandinsky's ''[[Concerning the Spiritual in Art]]'' with his ideas on non-objective art were both published in 1912. The Blue Rider ended with the outbreak of World War I in which Macke and Marc both died.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
Other artists such as [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]], and [[Richard Gerstl]] emerged in Austria. French artist [[Georges Rouault]] and [[Chaïm Soutine]] had affinities with the movement. Sculptors include [[Ernst Barlach]], [[Wilhelm Lehmbruck]], [[Gerhard Marcks]], and [[William Wauer]]. Architects associated with expressionism include [[Max Berg]], [[Hermann Finsterlin]], [[Johann Friedrich Höger]], [[Michel de Klerk]], [[Erich Mendelsohn]], [[Hans Poelzig]], [[Hans Scharoun]], [[Rudolf Steiner]], and [[Bruno Taut]]. [[Der Sturm]] (The Storm 1910–1932) was a magazine with much expressionist content founded by [[Herwarth Walden]], with an associated gallery in Berlin opened in 1912 and a theater company and school in opened 1918. Films regarded as expressionistic, some considered as classics, include ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' ([[Robert Wiene]], 1920), ''[[Nosferatu]]'' ([[F. W. Murnau]],1922), and ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' ([[Fritz Lang]], 1927).{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
After World War I a tendency to withdraw from the avant-garde by many artist occurred, seen in the work of the original fauvists during the 1920s, [[Picasso]] and [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky's]] neoclassical periods, and [[Giorgio de Chirico|De Chirico's]] late work. This tendency was called '''[[New Objectivity]] (ca. 1919–1933)''' in Germany, and in contrast to the nostalgic nature of this work elsewhere, it was characterized by disillusionment and ruthless social criticisms. New objectivity artists mostly emerged from expressionist and [[dada]] milieus including [[Otto Dix]], [[Christian Schad]], [[Rudolf Schlichter]], [[Georg Scholz]], and [[Jeanne Mammen]]. [[Max Beckmann]] and [[George Grosz]] also had some association with new objectivity for a period. Although not intrinsically expressionistic, the '''[[Staatliches Bauhaus]] (School of Building: 1919–1933)''' was an influential German school merging crafts, decorative, and fine arts. Moving from Weimar, to Dessau, to Berlin, it changed and evolved in focus with time. Directors included architects [[Walter Gropius]] (1919–1928), [[Hannes Meyer]] (1928–1930), and [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] (1930–1933). At various points the faculty included [[Josef Albers]], [[Theo van Doesburg]], [[Lyonel Feininger]], [[Johannes Itten]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[El Lissitzky]], [[Gerhard Marcks]], [[László Moholy-Nagy]], [[Oskar Schlemmer]]. Bauhaus architects greatly influenced the [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]], which was characterized by simplified forms, a lack of ornamentation, a union of design and function, and the idea that mass production could be compatible with personal artistic vision. As the [[Nazi Party]] rose to power, modern art was dubbed "[[degenerate art]]" and the Bauhaus was closed in 1933, subduing modernism in Germany for several years.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Edvard Munch, 1893, The Scream, oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard, 91 x 73 cm, National Gallery of Norway.jpg|''[[The Scream]]''; by [[Edvard Munch]]; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; [[National Gallery of Norway]] ([[Oslo]]){{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=118}}
Franz Marc 028.jpg|''Tower of Blue Horses''; by [[Franz Marc]]; 1912; ink and [[guache]] on card; 14.3 x 9.4 cm; [[Bavarian State Painting Collections]] ([[Munich]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=335}}
Wassily Kandinsky Composition VII.jpg|''[[Composition VII]]''; by [[Wassily Kandinsky]]; 1913; oil on canvas; 2 x 3 m; [[Tretyakov Gallery]] ([[Moscow]], Russia){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=336}}
Einsteinturm 7443a.jpg|The [[Einstein Tower]] ([[Potsdam]], near [[Berlin]], Germany), 1920–1924, by [[Erich Mendelsohn]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=156}}
Paul klee actors mask 1924.jpg|''Actor's Mask''; by [[Paul Klee]]; 1924; oil on canvas mounted on board; 36.7 x 33.8 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=32}}
</gallery>
====Cubism (c. 1907–1914)====
{{main|Cubism}}
[[Cubism]] consisted in the rejection of perspective, which leads to a new organisation of space where viewpoints multiply producing a fragmentation of the object that renders the predilection for form over the content of the representation obvious. [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Georges Braque]] and other Cubist artists, were inspired by the sculptures of [[Iberian sculpture|Iberia]], [[African art|Africa]] and [[Oceanic art|Oceania]] exhibited in the [[Louvre]] and the ethnographic museum in the [[Trocadéro]], and which were being offered at flee markets and in sale rooms.
'A Picasso studies an object the way a surgeon dissects a corpse,' wrote the critic and poet [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] in 1913. Five years earlier, [[Pablo Picasso]] and [[Georges Braque]] – friends, colleagues and rivals – had begun to reject perspectival [[Realism (arts)|realism]] for a form of artistic autopsy: an utterly revolutionary painting style that looked inside and around objects, presenting them analytically, objectively and completely impersonally.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg|''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]''; by [[Pablo Picasso]]; 1907; oil on canvas; 2.43 × 2.3 m; [[Museum of Modern Art]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}}
Georges Braque, 1909-10, Pitcher and Violin, oil on canvas, 116.8 x 73.2 cm, Kunstmuseum Basel.jpg|''Violin and Pitcher''; by [[Georges Braque]]; 1909–1910; oil on canvas; 1.17 x 0.73 cm; [[Kunstmuseum Basel]] ([[Basel]], [[Switzerland]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}}
Robert Delaunay - Eiffel Tower - 1911 - Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum.jpg|''[[Eiffel Tower (Delaunay series)|The Eiffel Tower]]''; by [[Robert Delaunay]]; 1911; oil on canvas; 2.02 x 1.38 m; [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=332}}
1914 Gris Le Petit Déjeuner.jpg|''Breakfast''; by [[Juan Gris]]; 1914; gouache, oil and crayon on cut-and-pasted printed paper on canvas; 80.9 x 59.7 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=332}}
</gallery>
====Art Deco (c. 1920–1940)====
{{main|Art Deco}}
Art Deco appeared in France as a style of luxury and modernity. Soon, it spread quickly throughout the world, most dramatically in America, becoming more [[Streamline Moderne|streamlined]] though the 1930s. The style was named after the [[International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts]] held in Paris in 1925. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s. It had [[ancient Greek art|ancient Greek]], [[Roman art|Roman]], [[African art|African]], Aztec and [[Japanese art|Japanese]] influences, but also [[Futurism|Futurist]], [[Cubism|Cubist]] and [[Bauhaus]] ones. It sometimes blended with the [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian Revival]] style, due to the discovery in 1922 of the [[Tomb of Tutankhamun]] and the [[Egyptomania]] that it caused. Two examples of this are [[Le Louxor]] Cinema in Paris, 1919–1921, by [[Henri Zipcy]], and the [[Egyptian Theatre (DeKalb, Illinois)|Egyptian Theatre]] in [[DeKalb, Illinois|DeKalb]] ([[Illinois]], US), 1929–1930, by [[Elmer F. Behrns]]. In [[decorative arts]], including architecture, low-relief designs, and angular patterns and shapes were used. Predominant materials include [[chrome plating|chrome]], [[brass]], polished steel and [[aluminum]], inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.
Some of the most important Art Deco artists are the Paris-based Polish painter [[Tamara de Lempicka]], the Ukrainian-born French poster artist Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron, known as [[Cassandre]], and the French furniture designer and interior decorator [[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]].{{sfn|Dempsey|2018|page=70}}{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=44}}
==== Surrealism (c. 1924–1966) ====
[[Surrealism]] emerged as a faction of [[Dada]], formally announcing its inception in 1924 with [[André Breton]]'s ''Manifesto of Surrealism''.{{sfn|Breton|1924|p=?}} Originally a literary group of poets and writers in Paris, it soon developed into an international movement that included painters, sculptors, photographers, and filmmakers. A ''Second Manifeste du Surréalisme'' was published in 1929.{{sfn|Breton|1929|p=?}} Surrealism did not have significant expression in applied or decorative arts, architecture, or music, although a few isolated examples could be identified (e.g. chess sets, furniture, and [[Las Pozas]]). The small and short lived [[Metaphysical art|Metaphysical School]] (c. 1910–1921), with [[Giorgio de Chirico]] as its principal figure, was highly influential on surrealism. The surrealist explored a myriad of innovative techniques, some had recently been developed in Cubism and Dada, others were new, including [[collage]], found objects, assemblage, random chance, rayographs (photograms), painting on sand, dripping and flinging paint, [[decalcomania]], [[Frottage (art)|frottage]], [[fumage]], and raclage. Two fundamental approaches predominate surrealist art. [[Surrealist automatism|Automatism]] dominated in the early years which can be seen in the work of artist like [[André Masson]] and [[Joan Miró]]. Other artist, swayed by work of Giorgio de Chirico, used more traditional methods and mediums to illustrate unfiltered thoughts and incongruous juxtapositions, including [[Salvador Dalí]] and [[René Magritte]]. Significant artist include [[Jean Arp]], [[Hans Bellmer]], [[Victor Brauner]], [[Luis Buñuel]], [[Joseph Cornell]], [[Óscar Domínguez]], [[Max Ernst]], [[Wifredo Lam]], [[Yves Tanguy]], [[Man Ray]], [[Alberto Giacometti]], [[Méret Oppenheim]], and [[Roberto Matta]]. Other important artist informally accosted with surrealism include [[Marcel Duchamp]], [[Pablo Picasso]], and [[Frida Kahlo]]. Surrealist ideas and theories were discussed in a successive series of journals, ''[[La Révolution Surréaliste]]'' (1924–1929), ''[[Le Surrealisme au service de la revolution]]'' (1930–1933), ''[[Minotaure]]'' (1933–1939), ''[[VVV (magazine)|VVV]]'' (1942–1944). The automatic paintings produced by André Masson and Joan Miró, as well as latecomers to surrealism like Roberto Matta and [[Arshile Gorky]] had a considerable influenced on the [[abstract expressionist]] in the late 1940s.{{sfn|Waldberg|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Rubin|1968|p=?}}{{sfn|Schneede|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Passeron|1975|p=?}}{{sfn|Picon|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Jean|1980|p=?}}
With a measure of Dada's irreverence and contempt for the traditional political, religious, and bourgeois values of western culture that they believed had led the world into the First World War (Breton and other founding members were veterans); the surrealist explored the possibilities that had been opened up by [[Sigmund Freud]] regarding the subconscious mind: "Pure psychic automatism, by which one intends to express verbally, in writing or by any other method, the real functioning of the mind. Dictation by thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation."{{sfn|Breton|1924|p=?}} Surrealism sought to express pure thought, unfiltered and uncensored by political, religious, moral, or rational principles.{{sfn|Waldberg|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Rubin|1968|p=?}}{{sfn|Schneede|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Passeron|1975|p=?}}{{sfn|Picon|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Jean|1980|p=?}}
<gallery>
File:De Chirico's Love Song.jpg|''[[The Song of Love]]''; by [[Giorgio de Chirico]]; 1914; oil on canvas; 73 x 59.1 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=351}}
The Elephant Celebes.jpg|''[[The Elephant Celebes]]''; by [[Max Ernst]]; 1921; oil on canvas; 125.4 × 107.9 cm; [[Tate Modern]] (London)
</gallery>
===Mid and late 20th century===
{{Main|Abstract Expressionism|Pop art|Minimalism (visual arts)|Conceptual art}}
As Europe struggled to recover from World War II, America moved into a position of political, economic and cultural strength. During the 1940s and 1950s, [[Abstract Expressionism]] emerged as the first specifically American art movement to have an international impact. In consequence, the art world's focus shifted from Europe to New York. Abstract Expressionists were a small group of loosely associated artists who had similar outlooks but different approaches. They were influenced by Surrealism, and believed in spontaneity, freedom of expression and abandonment of the themes of American life that had characterized national art of recent decades. One of the most famous representative of this movement was [[Jackson Pollock]], known for his painting made by pouring, flicking and dripping paint on to huge canvases on the ground. Other artists include [[Willem de Kooning]], [[Franz Kline]], [[Robert Motherwell]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Mark Rothko]] and [[Clyfford Still]].
After World War II, consumerism and the mass media surged, and as a result, [[Pop art]] developed in both London and New York. In a London exhibition in 1956, the word 'Pop' was used in a collage created by [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]] (1922–2011) made of American magazines. Pop art was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, and interpreted ideas of pop culture. In celebrating and commenting on consumerism, pop artists, as they became known, produced colorful images based on advertising, the media and shopping, featuring film stars, comic strips, flags, packaging and food – things that everyone, rather than just a highbrow few, could relate to.
The term [[Minimalism (visual arts)|Minimalism]] was not new, but it gained momentum in the 1960s, specifically describing a style of art characterized by detached restraint. Originating in New York, it was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, but it also embraced [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivist]] ideas that art should be made of modern materials. Thus, Minimalist artists, primarily sculptors, often used non-traditional materials and production methods, often employing industrial or specialist fabricators to produce works to their specifications. The term was chiefly used to describe a group of American sculptors who re-evaluated the space around them, aiming to challenge assumptions and present familiar objects in new ways. Their artworks don't have any symbolism or hidden meaning, as they try to enable viewers to re-evaluate art and space around forms. Unlike a figural sculpture on which the viewer focuses to the exclusion of the room in which it stands, Minimalist art becomes one with its space. By focusing on the effects of context and the theatricality of the viewing experience, Minimalism exerted an indirect but powerful influence on later developments in [[Conceptual art|Conceptual]] and [[Performance art]], as well as providing a foil for the rise of [[Postmodernism]].
Despite developing almost 50 years after [[Marcel Duchamp]]'s ideas, [[Conceptual art]] showed that art does not always have to be judged aesthetically. It was never a single, cohesive movement, but an umbrella term that now covers several types of art and emerged more or less concurrently in America and Europe, first defined in New York. Conceptual artists promote the art of ideas, or concepts, suggesting that they can be more valid in the modern world than technical skill or aesthetics. No matter the art media of an artwork, it is considered as no more than a vehicle for presenting the concept. At its most extreme, Conceptual art foregoes the physical object completely, using verbal or written message to convey the idea.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|pp=42, 44, 46, 47}}{{sfn|Dempsey|2018|pages=104, 136}}{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=387}}
Traditionally, many creative acts such as [[sewing]], [[weaving]], and [[quilting]] have been considered as [[women's work]], described as [[craft]]s, and denied the cachet and public recognition of so-called [[Fine art|high or fine arts]] such as [[sculpture]] and [[painting]]. Many artists have now challenged this hierarchy by either expanding the scope of a fine art such as sculpture, by creating [[soft sculpture]]s using unconventional materials and practices, or by reclaiming and redefining the materials and methods of so-called craftwork, publicly exhibiting their work in museums and galleries and thus elevating the status of the decorative and applied arts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gipson |first=Ferren |title=Women's work: from feminine arts to feminist art |date=2022 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |isbn=978-0-7112-6465-6 |location=London}}</ref> Artists of the twentieth and twenty first centuries effecting this radical change include [[Maria Martinez]], [[Anni Albers]], [[Lucie Rie]], [[Lenore Tawney]], [[Louise Bourgeois]], [[Miriam Schapiro]], [[Faith Ringgold]], [[Magdalena Abakanowicz]], [[Sheila Hicks]], [[Marva Lee Pitchford-Jolly]], [[Judy Chicago]], and [[Dindga McCannon]].
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
IKB 191.jpg|''IKB 191''; by [[Yves Klein]]; 1962
Keith Haring Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg|''[[The Boxers (sculpture)|The Boxers]]''; by [[Keith Haring]]; 1987
Barcelona (3392396182).jpg|''[[El Cap de Barcelona]]''; by [[Roy Lichtenstein]]; 1991–1992
</gallery>
==See also==
{{Portal|History|The arts}}
{{Div col}}
* [[History of animation]]
* [[History of Asian art]]
* [[History of film]]
* [[History of literature]]
* [[History of music]]
* [[History of nude art]]
* [[History of painting]]
* [[History of photography]]
* [[History of poetry]]
* [[History of theatre]]
* [[History of video games]]
* [[List of art movements]]
* [[List of French artistic movements]]
* [[Periods in Western art history]]
* [[Timeline for invention in the arts]]
* [[Timeline of art]]
* [[Women artists]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|22em}}
==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
<!-- Ordered alphabetically by surname of first author -->
<!-- A -->
* {{cite book |last=Alexandrian |first=Sarane |title=Seurat |date=1980 |publisher=Crown |isbn=0-517-54106-8 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Arnason |first=H. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gup5wgEACAAJ |title=History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture |date=1977 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=0-13-390351-6 |edition=2d ed., rev. and enl. |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=Gup5wgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Azcárate |first=José María de |title=Historia del arte |date=1983 |publisher=Anaya |isbn=84-207-1408-9 |location=Madrid |language=es}}
<!-- B -->
* {{cite book|last1=Bailey|first1=Gauvin Alexander|title=Baroque & Rococo|date=2012|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-5742-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Blunden |first=Maria |title=Impressionists and impressionism |date=1976 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0047-4 |location=Geneva}}
* {{cite book |last=Bris |first=Michel Le |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9l_kzQEACAAJ |title=Romantics and Romanticism by Michel Le Bris |date=1981 |publisher=MacMillan |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://books.google.com/books?id=9l_kzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Breton |first=André |date=1929-12-15 |orig-year=1930 |editor-last=Kra |editor-first=Simon |title=Second Manifeste du Surréalisme |trans-title=Second manifesto of surrealism |url=https://inventin.lautre.net/livres/La-revolution-surrealiste-12.pdf |url-status=live |journal=La Révolution surréaliste |language=fr |location=Paris |publisher=Éditions Kra |volume=2 |issue=12 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308225152/https://inventin.lautre.net/livres/La-revolution-surrealiste-12.pdf }}
* {{Citation |last=Breton |first=André |title=Manifeste du Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble |url=https://tcf.ua.edu/Classes/Jbutler/T340/SurManifesto/ManifestoOfSurrealism.htm |volume=1st |year=1924 |trans-title=Manifesto of Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble |place=Paris |publisher=Aux du Sagittaire |language=fr |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181009/https://www.tcf.ua.edu/Classes/Jbutler/T340/SurManifesto/ManifestoOfSurrealism.htm |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=Masterpieces of the British Museum|date=2014|publisher=The British Museum|isbn=978-0-7141-5105-2|page=166|url=|language=en|ref={{sfnref|British Museum|2014}}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brunt |first1=Peter William |last2=Thomas |first2=Nicholas |last3=Salmond |first3=Anne |last4=Kasarherou |first4=Emmanuel |last5=Mel |first5=Michael A. |date=2018 |title=Oceania |publisher=Royal Academy of Arts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kS7swEACAAJ |isbn=978-1-910350-49-2 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=2kS7swEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- C -->
* {{cite book |last=Cassou |first=Jean |title=The concise encyclopedia of symbolism |date=1979 |publisher=Chartwell Books |isbn=0-89009-706-2 |location=Secaucus, N.J.}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cavarnos |first1=Constantine |last2=Michelis |first2=P. A. |date=1956 |orig-year=1946 |title=An Aesthetic Approach to Byzantine Art |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/aesthetic-approach-byzantine-art |journal=The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism |volume=14 |issue=4 |doi=10.2307/426006 |jstor=426006 |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220203/https://www.indianculture.gov.in/aesthetic-approach-byzantine-art |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Caviness |first=Madeline Harrison |url=http://dca.lib.tufts.edu/caviness/abstract.html |title=Reframing Medieval Art: Difference, Margins, Boundaries |date=2001 |publisher=Tufts University |location=Medford, MA |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/http://dca.lib.tufts.edu/caviness/abstract.html |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Clay |first=Jean |title=Impressionism |date=1973 |publisher=Chartwell Books Inc. |isbn=0-399-11039-9 |location=Secaucus}}
* {{cite book| editor-last=Clay |editor-first=Jean |year=1978 |title=From Impressionism to Modern Art 1890–1918 |publisher=Chartwell Books Inc |location=Secaucus, New Jersey |isbn=0-89009-544-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Clay |first=Jean |title=Romanticism |date=1981 |publisher=Chartwell Books, Inc. Secaucus |isbn= |location=New Jersey}}
* {{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ |title=Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec |date=1966 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0512-4 |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Courthion |first=Pierre |title=Impressionism |date=1979 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0202-8 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Courthion |first=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ |title=Georges Seurat |date=1988 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-1519-7 |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224307/https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- D -->
* {{cite book |last=Daval |first=Jean Luc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ |title=Modern art: The decisive years 1884–1914 |date=1979 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0212-4 |location=Geneva |language=fr |translator-last=Harrison |translator-first=Helga |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224305/https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Daval |first=Jean-Luc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ |title=Avant-garde art, 1914–1939 |date=1980 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0334-1 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Delevoy |first=Robert L. |title=Symbolists and Symbolism |date=1978 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0141-1 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=Amy|title=Modern Art|date=2018|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29322-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Dube |first=Wolf Dieter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ |title=Expressionists and expressionism |date=1983 |publisher=Skira |isbn=978-0-8478-0494-8 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- E -->
* {{cite book |last=Estienne |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ |title=Gauguin: Biographical and Critical Studies: The Taste of Our Time |date=1953a |volume=1 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Estienne |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ |title=Van Gogh: Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time |date=1953b |publisher=Skira |volume=2 |location=Geneva |language=fr |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Helen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumfaithpo0000unse |title=Byzantium, Faith and Power (1261–1557) |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-58839-114-8 |location=New York, NY |url-access=registration}}
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* {{cite book |last=Faunce |first=Sarah |title=Gustave Courbet |date=1993 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-3182-6 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Fermigier |first=André |title=Pierre Bonnard: The Library of Great Painters |date=1969 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0041-6 |edition=1st |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Fortenberry |first=Diane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |title=The Art Museum |date=2017 |publisher=Phaidon Press |isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6 |edition=Revised |location=London |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220204/https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
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* {{cite book |last=Goldwater |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YfA1yQEACAAJ |title=Paul Gauguin: The Library of Great Painters |date=1972 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224306/https://books.google.com/books?id=YfA1yQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|language=ro}}
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* {{cite book |last=Harle |first=J. C. |title=The art and architecture of the Indian subcontinent |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-06217-6 |edition=2nd |location=New Haven}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hodge|first1=Susie|title=The Short Story of Art|date=2017|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=978-1-78067-968-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hodge|first1=Susie|title=The Short Story of Architecture|date=2019|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=978-1-7862-7370-3|language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide|date=2014|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-178067-163-5 |language=en}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Irving |first1=Mark |title=1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die |date=2019 |publisher=Cassell Illustrated |isbn=978-1-78840-176-0 |language=en}}
<!-- J -->
* {{cite book |last=Janson |first=Anthony F. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17656707 |title=History of art, second edition, H.W. Janson. Instructor's manual |date=1977 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=0-13-389304-9 |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |oclc=17656707 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030500/https://www.worldcat.org/title/history-of-art-second-edition-hw-janson-instructors-manual/oclc/17656707 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Jean |first=Marcel |title=The Autobiography of Surrealism |date=1980 |publisher=Viking Press |isbn=0-670-14235-2 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last = Keiko |first = Yamada |title = Origin and Historical Evolution of the Identity of Modern Telugus | year = 2010 |publisher = Economic and Political Weekly}}
* {{cite book |last=Keyser |first=Eugénie de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ucHpAAAAMAAJ |title=The Romantic West, 1789–1850 |date=1965 |publisher=World Publishing Company, Cleveland |isbn=978-0-320-06349-7 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ucHpAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book|last=Kitzinger|first=Ernst|year=1977|title=Byzantine Art in the Making: Main Lines of Stylistic Development in Mediterranean Art, 3rd‒7th Century|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0571111541}}
* {{cite journal|last=Koslin|first=Desirée|year=1990|title=Turning Time in the Bayeux Embroidery|journal=Textile & Text|volume=13}}
<!-- L -->
* {{cite book |last=Lassaigne |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oTgzAEACAAJ |title=Lautrec: Biographical and Critical Studies, The Taste of Our Time |date=1950 |publisher=Skira |volume=3 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224302/https://books.google.com/books?id=2oTgzAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Lassaigne |first=Jacques |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ |title=Matisse: Biographical and Critical Study |date=1959 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |title=Impressionism, Vols. 11 & 12: The Taste of Our Time |date=1955 |publisher=Skira |volume=11–12 |location=Geneva}}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ |title=Fauvism: Biographical and Critical Study. Translated by James Emmons |date=1959 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva |volume=28 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ |title=French Painting: The Nineteenth Century |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224252/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Musset |first1=Lucien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ |title=La tapisserie de Bayeux: œuvre d'art et document historique |last2=Bertrand |first2=Simone |date=1966 |publisher=Zodiaque |isbn=978-2-7369-0170-7 |location=La Pierre-qui-Vire |language=fr |trans-title=The Bayeux tapestry: work of art and historical document |quote=et combien pauvre alors ce nom de broderie nous apparaît-il! |trans-quote=and how poor then this name of embroidery appears to us! |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
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* {{cite book |last=Passeron |first=René |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Surrealism |date=1975 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-664-3 |location=Secaucus, N.J.}}
* {{cite book |last=Picon |first=Gaëtan |title=Surrealists and Surrealism, 1919-1939 |date=1977 |publisher=Rizzoli International |isbn=0-8478-0041-5 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Ponente |first=Nello |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ |title=The Structures of the Modern World, 1850-1900 |date=1965 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224302/https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Preston |first=Stuart |title=Édouard Vuillard |date=1974 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams, Inc.}}
<!-- Q -->
<!-- R -->
* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ |title=Modern Painting: Painting, Color, History |date=1953 |publisher=Skira |language=fr |translator-last=Gilbert |translator-first=Stuart |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ |title=Cézanne: Biographical and Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time |date=1954 |publisher=Skira |volume=8 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Rice |first=David Talbot |title=Byzantine Art |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |date=1968 |edition=3rd |location=Harmondsworth |author-link=David Talbot Rice}}
* {{cite book |last=Richard |first=Lionel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Expressionism |date=1978 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-665-1 |location=Secaucus, N.J. |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last1=Rogers |first1=Richard |last2=Gumuchdjian |first2=Philip |last3=Jones |first3=Denna |title=Architecture The Whole Story |date=2014 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-29148-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Rubin |first=William |title=Dada and surrealist art |date=1968 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0060-2 |location=New York}}
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* {{cite book |last=Schneede |first=Uwe M. |title=Surrealism |date=1974 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0499-3 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ |title=Vincent van Gogh: The Library of Great Painters |date=1950 |publisher=Abrams |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ |title=Paul Cézanne |date=1962 |publisher=Abrams |isbn=978-0-8109-0052-3 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Starobinski |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ |title=The invention of liberty: 1700–1789 |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |language=es |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224251/https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- T -->
* {{cite book |last=Terrasse |first=Antoine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ |title=Bonnard: Biographical and Critical Study, The Taste of Our Time |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |volume=42 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224256/https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Toman |first=Rolf |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45588077 |title=Neoclassicism and Romanticism: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Drawings, 1750–1848 |date=2000 |publisher=Könemann |isbn=3-8290-1575-5 |location=Cologne |oclc=45588077 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030501/https://www.worldcat.org/title/neoclassicism-and-romanticism-architecture-sculpture-painting-drawings-1750-1848/oclc/45588077 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Toynbee |first=J. M. C. |date=December 1971 |title=Roman Art |journal=The Classical Review |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=439–442 |doi= 10.1017/S0009840X00221331 |jstor=708631|s2cid=163488573 }}
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* {{cite book |last=Waldberg |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ |title=Surrealismus |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |volume=37 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Warnod |first=Jeanine |title=E. Vuillard |date=1989 |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn=0-517-57277-X |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |title=Classical heritage in Byzantine and Near Eastern art |date=1981 |publisher=Variorum Reprints |isbn=0-86078-087-2 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |title=The Icon |publisher=Evans Brothers |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-237-45645-0 |location=London |author-link=Kurt Weitzmann}}
<!-- X -->
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{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|title=30,000 Years of Art: The Story of Human Creativity Across Time & Space|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=[[Phaidon Press]]|date=2015}}
* {{cite book|last=Adams|first=Laurie|title=Art across Time|edition=3rd|location=Boston|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=2007}}
* {{cite book |last=Andrew |first=Graham-Dixon |title=Art : the definitive visual guide |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-241-25710-4}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Bar-Yosef|first1=Ofer|title=The Archaeological Framework of the Upper Paleolithic Revolution |journal=Diogenes |volume=54 |issue=2 |year=2016 |pages=3–18|issn=0392-1921|doi=10.1177/0392192107076869|s2cid=145584993}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Belfer-Cohen |first1=Anna |last2=Bar-Yosef |first2=Ofer |date=1981 |title=The Aurignacian at Hayonim Cave |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1981_num_7_2_4296 |journal=Paléorient |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=19–42 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1981.4296 |access-date=2019-05-05 |archive-date=2019-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505194342/https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1981_num_7_2_4296 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last=Bell|first=Julian|title=Mirror of the World: A New History of Art|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|date=2010|isbn=978-0-500-28754-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Elizabeth P. |author-link=Elizabeth P. Benson|year=1996 |chapter=110. Votive Axe |title=Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico |editor1=Elizabeth P. Benson |editor2=Beatriz de la Fuente |edition=To accompany an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 30 June to 20 October 1996 |publisher=[[National Gallery of Art]] |location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0-89468-250-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Blundell |first1=Geoffrey |title=Origins: The Story of the Emergence of Humans and Humanity in Africa |date=2006 |publisher=Juta and Company Ltd |isbn=9781770130401 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63 |access-date=2019-05-11 |archive-date=2020-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124231600/https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }}
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* Molina, Antonio Luis Ramos. ''La magia de la química fotográfica: El quimigrama. Conceptos, técnicas y procedimientos del quimigrama en la expresión artística'', In: ''Tesis Doctoral'', Universidad de Granada 2018.
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* {{cite book|last=Pohl|first=Frances K.|title=Framing America: A Social History of American Art|location=New York|publisher=Thames & Hudson|date=2002}}
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{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Art history}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikibooks|Art History}}
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html "Art: The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism"] – ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306190600/http://witcombe.sbc.edu/arthlinks.html Art History resources]
* [http://www.arssummum.es/ Ars Summum Project]
===Timelines===
* [http://metmuseum.org/toah/ ''Timeline of Art History''] from [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
{{Westernart}}
{{Navboxes
|title= History of art by continent
|list=
{{Africa in topic|Art of}}
{{Asia in topic|Art of}}
{{Art of Europe}}
{{Oceania topic|Art of}}
{{North America topic|Art of}}
{{South America topic|Art of}}
}}
{{Art world}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Art}}
[[Category:Art history| ]]
[[Category:Art historians| ]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|none}}
{{for|the academic discipline|Art history}}
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{{multiple image
| perrow = 3/3
| total_width = 400
| caption_align = left
| align = right
| image1 = VenusHohlefels2.jpg
| image2 = Lascaux2.jpg
| image3 = CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg
| image5 = Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg
| caption1 = [[Venus of Hohle Fels]]
| image4 = Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg
| image6 = Les_Demoiselles_d'Avignon.jpg
| caption2 = Horse painting from [[Lascaux]] cave system
| caption4 = ''[[Venus de Milo]]'', [[Alexandros of Antioch]]
| caption6 = ''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]'', [[Pablo Picasso]]
| caption5 = ''[[Mona Lisa]]'', [[Leonardo da Vinci]]
| caption3 = [[Mask of Tutankhamun]]
}}
{{History of art sidebar}}
The '''history of art''' focuses on objects made by humans for any number of spiritual, narrative, philosophical, symbolic, conceptual, documentary, decorative, and even functional and other purposes, but with a primary emphasis on its [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] visual form. [[Visual arts|Visual art]] can be classified in [[art#Forms, genres, media, and styles|diverse ways]], such as separating [[fine art]]s from [[applied arts]]; inclusively focusing on human creativity; or focusing on different media such as [[architecture]], [[sculpture]], [[painting]], [[film]], [[photography]], and [[graphic arts]]. In recent years, technological advances have led to [[video art]], [[Digital art|computer art]], [[performance art]], [[animation]], [[television]], and [[Video game|videogames]].
The history of art is often told as a chronology of [[masterpiece]]s created during each [[civilization]]. It can thus be framed as a story of [[high culture]], epitomized by the [[Wonders of the World]]. On the other hand, [[vernacular]] art expressions can also be integrated into art historical narratives, referred to as [[folk arts]] or [[craft]]. The more closely that an art historian engages with these latter forms of [[low culture]], the more likely it is that they will identify their work as examining [[visual culture]] or [[material culture]], or as contributing to fields related to art history, such as [[anthropology]] or [[archaeology]]. In the latter cases, art objects may be referred to as [[Artifact (archaeology)|archeological artifacts]].
==Prehistory==
{{Main|Prehistoric art}}
Prehistoric art includes a broad range of art made by painters and sculptors from illiterate cultures, including some of the earliest human artifacts. Among the first art objects are decorative artifacts from [[Middle Stone Age]] Africa.<ref name="Henshilwood 2002">{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood |first1=Christopher |title=Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa |journal=Science |date=2002 |volume=295 |issue=5558 |pages=1278–1280 |display-authors=etal |doi=10.1126/science.1067575 |pmid=11786608 |bibcode=2002Sci...295.1278H|s2cid=31169551 }}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood et al. 2009">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005 |pmid=19487016 |title=Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=27–47 |year=2009 |last1=Henshilwood |first1=Christopher S. |last2=d'Errico |first2=Francesco |last3=Watts |first3=Ian}}</ref><ref name="Texier">{{cite journal | last1 = Texier | first1 = P. J. | last2 = Porraz | first2 = G. | last3 = Parkington | first3 = J. | last4 = Rigaud | first4 = J. P. | last5 = Poggenpoel | first5 = C. | last6 = Miller | first6 = C. | last7 = Tribolo | first7 = C. | last8 = Cartwright | first8 = C. | last9 = Coudenneau | first9 = A. | last10 = Klein | first10 = R. | last11 = Steele | first11 = T. | last12 = Verna | first12 = C. | year = 2010 | title = A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences| volume = 107 | issue = 14| pages = 6180–6185 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0913047107 | pmid = 20194764 | pmc = 2851956 | bibcode = 2010PNAS..107.6180T | doi-access = free }}</ref> Containers from that period have also been discovered in South Africa that may have been used to hold paints dating as far back as 100,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/14/science/14paint.html |work=The New York Times |title=African Cave Yields Evidence of a Prehistoric Paint Factory |date=13 October 2011}}</ref>
A form of prehistoric art found all over the world, especially in Europe, small prehistoric statuettes known as [[Venus figurine]]s with exaggerated breasts and bellies were made, the most famous ones being the [[Venus of Hohle Fels]] and the [[Venus of Willendorf]], found in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. Most have small heads, wide hips, and legs that taper to a point. Arms and feet are often absent, and the head is usually small and faceless.
The Venus of Hohle Fels is one of the numerous objects found at the [[Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura]] [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], where the oldest non-stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC.<ref name = "unesco">{{cite web |url = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/229 |title = Place Stanislas, Place de la Carrière and Place d'Alliance in Nancy |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization |access-date = 17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-figurative-art-now-world-treasure-180964035/ | title=World's Oldest Figurative Art is Now an Official World Treasure }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-18196349 | title=Earliest music instruments found | work=BBC News | date=24 May 2012 }}</ref>{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=12|Fortenberry|2017|2pp=1 & 2}}
The best-known prehistoric artworks are the large [[Paleolithic]] [[cave painting]]s that depict animals in continental Europe, particularly the ones at [[Lascaux]] in the [[Dordogne]] region of France. Several hundred decorated caves are known, spanning the [[Upper Paleolithic]] period ({{c.}} 38,000–12,000 BC). There are examples in [[Ukraine]], [[Italy]] and [[Great Britain]], but most of them are in [[France]] and [[Spain]]. Many theories have been suggested about the art's purpose, the most accepted being that it was part of religious rituals, possibly to evoke hunting success.
<gallery widths="150" heights="150">
File:Riesenhirsch Fussknochen Einhornhöhle Gravur.jpg|''[[Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle|Giant deer bone of Einhornhöhle]]'' {{c.}} 49,000 BC; Megaloceros bone; Einhornhöhle, Germany
File:Loewenmensch1.jpg|{{lang|de|[[Lion-man|Löwenmensch]]}}; {{c.}} 41,000–35,000 BC; [[Hohlenstein-Stadel]] caves [[Swabian Jura]], Germany
File:16 PanneauDesLions(CentreGauche)RhinocérosEnFuite.jpg|Painting of [[rhinoceros]]es; {{c.}} 32,000–14,000 BC; [[charcoal]] on rock; length: {{c.}} 2 m; [[Chauvet Cave]] ([[Ardèche]], France){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=2}}
File:Venus of Willendorf frontview retouched 2.jpg|[[Venus of Willendorf]]; {{c.}} 25,000 BC; [[limestone]] with [[ochre]] colouring; height: 11 cm; [[Natural History Museum, Vienna|Natural History Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=3}}
</gallery>
==Antiquity==
{{Main|Ancient art}}
===Ancient Near East===
{{Main|Mesopotamian art}}
Ancient [[Near East]] stretched from [[Turkey]] and the Mediterranean seaboard in the west to [[Iran]] and the [[Arabian peninsula]] in the east. Over time, multiple civilizations appeared, lived and disappeared here. One of the key regions was [[Mesopotamia]], which witnessed during the 4th millennium BC the emergence of the first cities and the earliest form of writing. Ancient Mesopotamia covers present-day Iraq, and parts of [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]. Its northern half forms part of the so-called [[Fertile Crescent]], where important [[Neolithic]] developments such as early farming and the establishment of permanent village settlements first appeared. Because the region is situated within the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system|Tigris–Euphrates river delta]], numerous civilizations lived here, notably [[Sumer]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]], [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]]. [[Architecture of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian architecture]] was characterized by the use of [[brick]]s, [[lintel (architecture)|lintels]], and [[Art of Uruk#Architecture|cone mosaic]]. Notable examples are the [[ziggurat]]s, large [[temple]]s in the form of [[step pyramid]]s.
The political, economic, artistic and architectural traditions of the Sumerians lead to the foundation of [[Western culture|Western civilization]]. Multiple things appeared for the first time in Sumer: the first [[city-state]] ([[Uruk]]), ruled by king [[Gilgamesh]]; the first organized religion, based on a hierarchical structure of gods, people and rituals; the first known writing, the [[cuneiform]]s; the first irrigation system and the first vehicles with wheels. [[Cylinder seal]]s appeared here as well, engraved with little inscriptions and illustrations. Another civilization that developed here was the [[Akkadian Empire]], the world's first great empire.
During the early 1st millennium BC, after the Akkadians, an empire called [[Assyria]] came to dominate the whole of Middle East, stretching from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Its cities were filled with impressive buildings and art. Assyrian art is best known for its detailed stone reliefs, depicting scenes of court life, religious practice, hunting and epic battles. These reliefs were initially painted in bright colours and placed in palaces. Besides their beauty, they also show us Assyrian life and views of the world, including Assyrian clothing and furniture.
Later, the [[Babylonia]]ns conquered the Assyrian Empire. During the 6th century BC, [[Babylon]] became the largest city in the world. Upon entering Babylon, visitors were greeted with the impressive [[Ishtar Gate]], with its walls covered in vivid blue glazed bricks and reliefs showing dragons, bulls and lions. This gate is named after [[Ishtar]], the goddess of war and love.
In the mid-6th century BC, after a series of military campaigns, the Babylonian Empire fell to the [[Achaemenid Empire]], ruled by King [[Cyrus II]], stretching across the Middle East and [[Central Asia]], from Egypt to the [[Indus Valley]]. Its art incorporates elements from across the empire, celebrating its wealth and power. [[Persepolis]] ([[Iran]]) was the capital of the empire, and it is full of impressive sculptures showing religious images and people of the empire. There are also the ruins of a palace here, with a big audience hall for receiving guests.
Besides Mesopotamia and Iran, there were Ancient civilizations who produced art and architecture in other regions as well. In [[Anatolia]] (present-day [[Turkey]]), the [[Hittite Empire]] appeared. During Antiquity, [[South Arabia]] was important in the production and trade of aromatics, bringing wealth to the kingdoms that were in this region. Before circa 4000 BC, the climate of Arabia was wetter than today. In south-west, several kingdoms appeared, like [[Sheba|Saba’]]. The south Arabian human figure is usually stylized, based on rectangular shapes, but with fine details.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gipson|first1=Ferren|title=The Ultimate Art Museum|date=2021|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-1-83866-2967|pages=20, 21|url=|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=20|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150" heights="150">
File:Denis Bourez - British Museum, London (8747049029) (2).jpg|[[Standard of Ur]] (Sumerian); {{circa}}2600-2400 BC; shell, red limestone and [[lapis lazuli]] on wood; length: 49.5 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4}}
File:Bronze head of an Akkadian ruler, discovered in Nineveh in 1931, presumably depicting either Sargon or Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin (Rijksmuseum van Oudheden).jpg|King of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]] ([[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]]); {{c.}} 2250 BC; copper alloy; height: 30 cm; Iraq Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=4}}
File:Vessel terminating in the forepart of a stag MET DT871.jpg|Stag [[rhyton]] ([[Hittite art|Hittite]]); {{circa}}1400-1200 BC; silver with gold inlay; height: 13 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=12}}
File:Incense burner MET DT893.jpg|Incense burner ([[Ancient South Arabian art|Pre-Islamic South Arabian]]); {{circa}} mid-1st millennium BC; bronze; height: 27.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=13}}
File:Assyrian monumental bas-relief -(30626865213).jpg|[[Lamassu|Winged bulls]] ([[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]]); {{circa}}710 BC; [[alabaster]]; height (max): 4.2 m; [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=66|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Persépolis, Irán, 2016-09-24, DD 50 (cropped section).jpg|Delegation bearing gifts ([[Persian art|Persian]] [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]]); {{circa}}490 BC; limestone; {{circa}}260 x 150 cm; in situ, [[Persepolis]] ([[Iran]])<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=82|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===Egypt===
{{Main|Ancient Egyptian art}}
One of the first great civilizations arose in [[Egypt]], which had elaborate and complex works of art produced by professional artists and craftspeople. Egypt's art was religious and symbolic. Given that the culture had a highly centralized power structure and hierarchy, a great deal of art was created to honour the [[pharaoh]], including great monuments. Egyptian art and culture emphasized the religious concept of immortality. Later Egyptian art includes [[Coptic art|Coptic]] and [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] art.
The [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|architecture]] is characterized by monumental structures, built with large stone blocks, lintels, and solid [[column]]s. Funerary monuments included [[mastaba]], tombs of rectangular form; [[pyramid]]s, which included step pyramids ([[Saqqarah]]) or smooth-sided pyramids ([[Giza pyramid complex|Giza]]); and the [[hypogeum]], underground tombs ([[Valley of the Kings]]). Other great buildings were the [[temple]], which tended to be monumental complexes preceded by an avenue of [[sphinx]]es and [[obelisk]]s. Temples used [[pylon (architecture)|pylons]] and [[trapezoid]] walls with [[hypaethros]] and [[hypostyle]] halls and [[shrine]]s. The temples of [[Karnak]], [[Luxor]], [[Philae]] and [[Edfu]] are good examples. Another type of temple is the [[rock temple]], in the form of a [[hypogeum]], found in [[Abu Simbel]] and [[Deir el-Bahari]].
Painting of the Egyptian era used a juxtaposition of overlapping planes. The images were represented hierarchically, i.e., the Pharaoh is larger than the common subjects or enemies depicted at his side. Egyptians painted the outline of the head and limbs in profile, while the torso, hands, and eyes were painted from the front. [[Applied arts]] were developed in Egypt, in particular [[Cabinet making|woodwork]] and [[Goldsmith|metalwork]]. There are superb examples such as [[cedrus|cedar]] furniture [[Inlay|inlaid]] with [[ebony]] and [[ivory]] which can be seen in the tombs at the [[Egyptian Museum]]. Other examples include the pieces found in [[Tutankhamun]]'s tomb, which are of great artistic value.{{sfn|Azcárate|1983|pp=29–34}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Tomb of Nebamun.jpg|[[Nebamun]] Hunting in the Marshes; {{c.}} 1380 BC; paint on [[plaster]]; 98 × 83 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=19}}
Relief depicting Akhenaton and Nefertiti with three of their daughters under the rays of Aton 01 (cropped).jpg|[[Akhenaten]] and [[Nefertiti]] with Daughters; {{circa}}1345 BC; painted [[limestone]]; 32.5 x 39 cm; [[Egyptian Museum of Berlin]] (Germany)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=48|url=|language=en}}</ref>
CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg|[[Mask of Tutankhamun]]; {{c.|1327 BC}}; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; [[Egyptian Museum]] ([[Cairo]])
Nofretete Neues Museum.jpg|[[Nefertiti Bust]]; 1352–1336 BC; painted [[limestone]]; height: 50 cm; [[Neues Museum]] ([[Berlin]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=16}}
Philae temple at night.jpg|Temple of [[Philae]] (Egypt), 380 BC-117 AD{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=30}}
</gallery>
===Indus Valley Civilization===
{{main|Indus Valley Civilisation#Arts_and_crafts}}
Discovered in 1922, long after the contemporary cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, aka the Harappan Civilization ({{c.}} 2400–1900 BC) is now recognized as extraordinarily advanced, comparable in some ways with those cultures. Its sites span an area stretching from today's northeast [[Afghanistan]], through much of [[Pakistan]], and into western and northwestern [[India]]. Major cities of the culture include [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], located respectively in [[Punjab]] and in [[Sindh]] province in northern Pakistan, and the port city [[Lothal]], in the state of [[Gujarat]] ([[India]]). The most numerous artefacts are square and rectangular [[stamp seal]]s and seal impressions, featuring animals, usually bulls, very short [[Harappan script|Harappan texts]]. Many stylized terracotta figurines have also been found in Harappan sites, and a few stone and bronze sculptures, more naturalistic than the ceramic ones.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
IndusValleySeals.JPG|Seals with [[Indus script]] and impressions; 2500-2000 BC; [[steatite]]; various sizes, mostly {{circa}}3 cm; [[British Museum]] (London)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=India - A History in Objects|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-48064-9|page=28|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg|''[[Dancing Girl (sculpture)|Dancing Girl]]''; {{c.}} 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; [[National Museum, New Delhi|National Museum]] ([[New Delhi]], India){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
Shiva Pashupati.jpg|[[Pashupati seal|Proto-Shiva Stamp Seal]]; {{c.}} 2400-1900 BC; steatite; height: 3.6 cm; National Museum (New Delhi){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|''[[Priest-King (sculpture)|Priest-King]]''; {{c.}} 2400–1900 BC; steatite; height: 17.5 cm; [[National Museum of Pakistan]] ([[Karachi]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=209}}
Clevelandart 1973.160.jpg|Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; {{c.}} 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 × 3.2 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)
</gallery>
===China===
{{main|Chinese art#Bronze casting|Chinese ritual bronzes|Sanxingdui}}
{{Further|Shang dynasty|Zhou dynasty}}
[[File:Terracotta Army (6143565126).jpg|thumb|Warriors of the [[Terracotta Army]]; {{c.|214 BC}}; terracotta; height (average soldier): {{c.|1.8 m}}; [[Lintong District]] ([[Xi'an]], [[Shaanxi]], [[China]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=74}}]]
The first metal objects produced in China were made almost 4000 years ago, during the [[Xia dynasty]] ({{circa}}2100–1700 BC). During the [[Chinese Bronze Age]] (the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] dynasties) court intercessions and communication with the spirit world were conducted by a shaman (possibly the king himself). In the [[Shang dynasty]] ({{circa}}1600–1050 BC), the supreme deity was [[Shangdi]], but aristocratic families preferred to contact the spirits of their ancestors. They prepared elaborate banquets of food and drink for them, heated and served in [[Chinese ritual bronzes|bronze ritual vessels]]. These bronze vessels had many shapes, depending on their purpose: for wine, water, cereals or meat, and some of them were marked with readable characters, which shows the development of writing. This kind of vessels, of a very high quality and complexity, were discovered on the Valley of the [[Yellow River]] in the [[Henan]] province, in sites like [[Erlitou]], [[Anyang]] or [[Zhengzhou]]. They were used in religious rituals to cement the Dhang authority, and when the Shang capital fell, around 1050 BC, its conquerors, the Zhou ({{circa}}1050–156 BC), continued to use these containers in religious rituals, but principally for food rather than drink. The Shang court had been accused of excessive drunkenness, and the Zhou, promoting the imperial [[Tian]] ("Heaven") as the prime spiritual force, rather than ancestors, limited wine in religious rites, in favour of food. The use of ritual bronzes continued into the early [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC–220 AD).
One of the most commonly used motifs was the ''[[taotie]]'', a stylized face divided centrally into two almost mirror-image halves, with nostrils, eyes, eyebrows, jaws, cheeks and horns, surrounded by incised patterns. Whether ''taotie'' represented real, mythological or wholly imaginary creatures cannot be determined.
The enigmatic bronzes of [[Sanxingdui]], near [[Guanghan]] (in [[Sichuan province]]), are evidence for a mysterious sacrificial religious system unlike anything elsewhere in [[ancient China]] and quite different from the art of the contemporaneous Shang at [[Anyang]]. Excavations at Sanxingdui since 1986 have revealed four pits containing artefacts of [[bronze]], [[jade]] and [[gold]]. There was found a great bronze statue of a human figure which stands on a plinth decorated with abstract elephant heads. Besides the standing figure, the first two pits contained over 50 bronze heads, some wearing headgear and three with a frontal covering of [[gold leaf]]. Tubular bronze fragments with little branches were discovered here as well, probably representing trees, and also bronze leaves, fruits and birds. Over 4000 objects were found at Sanxingdui in 1986.
Succeeding the Shang Dynasty [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] (1050–221 BC) ruled more than any other one from Chinese history. Its last centuries were characterized by violence, the era being known as the [[Warring States period]]. During this troubling time, some philosophical movements appeared: [[Confucianism]], [[Daoism]] and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]].
The Warring States period was ended by [[Qin Shi Huang|Qinshi Huangdi]], who united China in 221 BC. He ordered a huge tomb, guarded by the [[Terracotta Army]]. Another huge project was a predecessor of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]], erected for rejecting pillaging tribes from the north. After the death of the emperor, his dynasty, the [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] (221–206 BC), lasted only three years. Qinshi Huangdi was followed by the [[Han Dynasty]] (202 BC-220 AD), during which the [[Silk Road]] developed considerably, bringing new cultural influences in China.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=71}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=42, 43, 44|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Liu Ding.jpg|[[Ding (vessel)|Ding]]; {{c.|1384-1050 BC}}; bronze; height: 22.9 cm; [[Shanghai Museum]] ([[Shanghai]], [[China]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=71}}
Bronze Standing Figure.jpg|Lifesize figure; {{c.|1200–1000 BC}}; bronze; height: 2.62 m; [[Sanxingdui Museum]] ([[Guanghan]], [[Sichuan]], China){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=72}}
File:Middle Western Zhou Bronze "Yi" Fangyi.jpg|Fang Lei; {{c.|925–875 BC}}; bronze; height: 22.8 cm; [[National Museum of China]] ([[Beijing]], China){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=71}}
Mawangdui silk banner from tomb no1.jpg|Funerary banner; {{circa}}180 BC; silk; 205 x 92 cm (upper part); [[Hunan Museum]] ([[Changsha]], [[Hunan]], China)<ref name="Farthing44">{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=44|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Jade Monster Mask and Ring.jpg|Ornamental handle with a ''[[Bi (jade)|bi]]'' disc; {{circa}}100 BC; [[jade]]; 18 x 14 cm; [[Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King]] ([[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]], China)<ref name="Farthing44" />
</gallery>
===Greek===
{{main|Ancient Greek art}}
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| image1 = Agrigento Concordia Tempel mit Geruest.jpg
| image2 = Oxford. Ashmolean Museum. Gods in Colour. Kore as Artemis.jpg
| footer = Unlike how most of us see them today, all [[Ancient Egyptian art|Egyptian]], [[Ancient Greek art|Greek]] and [[Roman art|Roman]] sculptures and temples were initially painted in bright colours. They became white because of hundreds of years of neglect and vandalism provoked by Christians during the [[Early Middle Ages]], who saw them as 'pagan' and believed that they promoted idolatry.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Nixey|first1=Catherine|title=[[The Darkening Age|The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World]]|date=2017|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]]|isbn=978-0544800885|page=|url=|language=}}</ref> To us they look odd, although all of them were very colourful back in Ancient times
}}
Through harmonious proportion and a focus on aesthetics, ancient Greek and Roman art became the foundation and inspiration of all Western art, being the standard to which most European artists aspired, until the 19th century.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=13}} The Latin poet [[Horace]], writing in the age of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Augustus]] (1st century BC to 1st century AD), famously remarked that although conquered on the battlefield, "captive Greece overcame its savage conqueror and brought the arts to rustic Rome." The power of Greek art lies in its representation of the human figure and its focus on human beings and the anthropomorphic gods as chief subjects. The artworks of the Greeks were meant to decorate temples and public buildings, to celebrate battle victories and remarkable personalities, and to commemorate the dead. They were also given as offerings to the gods.
Although there was no definitive transition, the art is usually divided stylistically into the four periods of Geometric, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. During the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] (5th and 4th centuries BC), realism and idealism were delicately balanced. In comparison, the works of the earlier Geometric (9th to 8th centuries BC) and Archaic (7th to 6th centuries BC) ages can seem appear primitive, but these artists had different goals: naturalistic representation was not necessarily their aim. [[Greek art|Greek]] and artists built on the artistic foundations of Egypt, further developing the arts of sculpture, painting, architecture, and ceramics. Among the techniques they perfected include methods of carving and casting sculptures, fresco painting and building magnificent buildings.
[[Roman art]] lovers collected ancient Greek originals, Roman replicas of Greek art, or newly created paintings and sculptures fashioned in a variety of Greek styles, thus preserving for posterity works of art otherwise lost. Wall and panel paintings, sculptures and mosaics decorated public spaces and private homes. Greek imagery also appeared on Roman jewellery, vessels of gold, silver, bronze and terracotta, and even on weapons and commercial weights. Rediscovered during the early [[Renaissance]], the arts of ancient Greece, transmitted through the [[Roman Empire]], have served as the foundation of Western art until the 19th century.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=25}}
Since the advent of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical Age]] in [[Athens]], in the 5th century BC, the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and, indeed, of civilization itself.{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=6}} From circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD, [[ancient Greek culture]] flourished on the [[Greek mainland]], on the [[Peloponnese]], and on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] islands. Five of the [[Wonders of the World]] were Greek: the [[Temple of Artemis]] at [[Ephesus]], the [[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]], the [[Mausoleum at Halicarnassus]], the [[Colossus of Rhodes]], and the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]]. However, Ancient Greek architecture is best known for [[Ancient Greek temple|its temples]], many of which are found throughout the region, and the [[Parthenon]] is a prime example of this. Later, they will serve as inspiration for [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] architects during the late 18th and the 19th century. The most well-known temples are the [[Parthenon]] and the [[Erechtheion]], both on the [[Acropolis of Athens]]. Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.
Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and to make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture was [[polychrome]]d in much of the Ancient world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings, the [[Parthenon]] ({{c.}} 447–432 BC) in [[Athens]], had details painted with vibrant reds, blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never completely white. Most had colored highlights on [[capital (architecture)|capitals]] and [[column]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zukowsky|first1=John|title=A Chronology of Architecture|date=2019|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-34356-2|page=23|url=|language=en}}</ref> This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance. This is because [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and other Renaissance artists, including [[Michelangelo]], promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages, became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were during the Renaissance.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmanny|title=Gods in Color – polychromy in the ancient world|date=2017|publisher=Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Legion of Honor|isbn=978-3-7913-5707-2|page=13|url=|language=en}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Bronze horse MET DT11722.jpg|Horse figurine ([[Geometric art|Geometric]]); {{c.|800-700 BC}}; bronze; height: 17.6 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Terracotta krater MET DT258.jpg|Pedestalled krater (Geometric); {{c.|750 BC}}; terracotta; height: 108.3 cm, diameter: 72.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=30}}
Marble statue of a kouros (youth) MET DT263.jpg|[[New York Kouros]] ([[Archaic Greece#Art|Archaic]]); {{c.|600 BC}}; marble and pigment; height: 1.95 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=33}}
Terracotta Panathenaic prize amphora MET DT5492.jpg|[[Panathenaic amphora]] (Archaic); {{c.|530 BC}}; ceramic; height: 62.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David Michael|title=Pocket Museum - Ancient Greece|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51958-5|page=163|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Red-figure cup showing the death of Pentheus and a Maenad by Douris, Kimbell Art Museum (bottom).jpg|[[Red-figure pottery|Red-figure]] [[kylix]] ([[Classical Greece|Classical]]); {{c.|480 BC}}; ceramic; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 27.2 cm; [[Kimbell Art Museum]] ([[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], [[Texas]], US)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smith|first1=David Michael|title=Pocket Museum - Ancient Greece|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51958-5|page=178|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Bronze statue of Zeus or Poseidon from Artemision, Euboea. ca. 460 BC.jpg|[[Artemision Bronze|Zeus of Artemision]] (Classical); {{c.|460 BC}}; bronze; height: 209 cm; [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens|National Archaeological Museum]] ([[Athens]], Greece)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Susan Woodford|title=Greek and Roman Art|date=2020|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29525-0|page=29|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Segesta AncientGreekTemple 0932.jpg|Temple of [[Segesta]] ([[Calatafimi-Segesta]], present-day Italy), 5th century BC{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=32}}
File:Erechtheum Acropolis Athens.jpg|[[Erechtheion]] (Athens), with its [[Ionic order|Ionic]] columns and [[caryatid]] [[portico|porch]], 421-405 BC{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=32}}
Terracotta vase MET DT1069 (cropped).jpg|[[Centuripe ware|Centuripe vase]] ([[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]]); {{circa}}300-100 BC; ceramic; height: 9.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<ref>{{cite book|last1=Susan Woodford|title=Greek and Roman Art|date=2020|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29525-0|page=265|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===Rome===
{{main|Roman art}}
{{multiple image|total_width=230
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| image1 = Estátua de César Augusto.jpg
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| footer = [[Augustus of Prima Porta]] (left: a painted reconstruction; right: the original statue); {{c.|20 BC}}; [[marble]]; height: 2.06 m; [[Vatican Museums]] ([[Vatican City]]).{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=52}}
}}
No civilization has had an impact as enduring and powerful on Western art as the [[Roman Empire]]. The legacy of ancient Rome is evident through the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[Early Modern period|early modern periods]], and Roman art continue to be reused in the modern era in both traditionalist and [[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] artworks.{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=46}} Sometimes it is viewed as derived from Greek precedents, but also has its own distinguishing features, some of them inherited from [[Etruscan art]]. Roman sculpture is often less idealized than its Greek precedents, being very realistic. Roman architecture often used [[concrete]], and features such as the [[round arch]] and [[dome]] were invented. Luxury objects in [[metal-work]], [[engraved gem|gem engraving]], [[ivory carving]]s, and [[Roman glass|glass]] are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art,{{sfn|Toynbee|1971|pp=439–442}} although this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries. An innovation made possible by the Roman development of glass-blowing was [[Cameo (carving)|cameo glass]]. A white 'shell' was first created, into which coloured glass was then blown so as to produce an interior lining. The white shell was then cut down to create relief patterns of white against a darker background. They also made [[mosaic]]s, this way producing durable pictorial art with cut-stone cubes (''tesserae'') and/or chips of coloured terracotta and glass. Some villas of wealthy Romans had their walls covered with [[fresco]]s, aimed at dazziling and entertaining guests. Much of Roman wall painting that survives comes from sites around the Bay of [[Naples]], in particular [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]], thriving towns that were preserved under metres of volcanic debris when Mount [[Vesuvius]] erupted in 79 AD. As a result, Roman wall painting is often discussed in terms of four 'Pompeian styles'.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=57, 56, 55}}
The Romans were deeply influenced by all aspects of [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic culture]]. In architecture, just like in other [[List of art media|art media]], they essentially adopted the Classical language and adapted it to new situations and uses. The Romans also have their own innovations brought to Classical architecture. They used the [[Doric order|Doric]], [[Ionic order|Ionic]] and [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] [[Classical order|orders]] in a far freer manner than the Greeks had, creating their own version of the Doric and using the Corinthian far more frequently. They also added two new orders to the repertoire: the [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]], a simpler, more massive version of the Doric derived from [[Etruscan architecture]]; and the [[Composite order|Composite]], a combination of the scroll-like [[volute]]s of the Ionic with the Corinthian's [[acanthus (ornament)|acanthus]] leaves. Other important innovations include the [[arch]], and the [[dome]]. Using arches, they built [[Roman aqueduct|aqueducts]] and monumental [[triumphal arch]]es. Roman emperors were proud of their conquests, and commemorated them at home and in the conquered territories through triumphal arches, a good example of this being the [[Arch of Constantine]] in Rome. Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and civil and military engineer [[Marcus Vitruvius Pollio]] published a majore treatise, ''[[De Architectura]]'', which influenced architects around the world for centuries.{{sfnm|Hopkins|2014|1p=12|Hodge|2019|2p=16}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonathan|first1=Glancey|title=Architecture A Visual History|date=2006|publisher=DK, [[Penguin Random House]]|isbn=978-0-2412-8843-6|page=63|url=|language=}}</ref>
After the [[Middle Ages]], with the [[Renaissance]] that started in [[Florence]] ([[Italy]]), a growing interest for ancient Rome started. During it, for the first time since [[Classical Antiquity]], art became convincingly lifelike. The Renaissance also sparked interest for ancient Greek and Roman literature, not just for art and architecture.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|pp=16 & 18}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
File:Roman fresco Villa dei Misteri Pompeii 005.jpg|Mysteries Fresco; mid-1st century BC; [[fresco]]; height: 1.62 m; [[Villa of the Mysteries]] ([[Pompeii]], [[Italy]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=51}}
Portland Vase BM Gem4036 n5.jpg|[[Portland Vase]]; late 1st century BC; glass; height: 24 cm; [[British Museum]] ([[London]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=57}}
Maison Carree in Nimes (16).jpg|The [[Maison Carrée]] ([[Nîmes]], France), one of the best-preserved [[Roman temple]]s, {{c.|2nd century AD}}
Marine mosaic (central panel of three panels from a floor) - Google Art Project.jpg|Marine [[mosaic]] (central panel of three panels from a floor); 200–230; mosaic (stone and glass tesserae); 2,915 mm x 2,870 mm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US)
500px photo (217110515).jpeg|[[Arch of Constantine]] (Rome), that commemorates the triumph of [[Constantine the Great]] after his victory over [[Maxentius]] in the [[Battle of the Milvian Bridge]], 316{{sfn|Irving|2019|p=36}}
</gallery>
==Islamic==
{{main|Islamic art}}
Islamic art is well-known since the Middle Ages for the use of elaborate [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric patterns]], colourful tiles, stylized natural motifs and detailed calligraphy. Rarely has lettering had such a profound impact on applied arts and architecture. Islam appeared in western [[Arabia]] in the 7th century AD through revelations delivered to the prophet [[Muhammad]] in [[Mecca]]. Within a century of Muhammad's death the Islamic empires controlled the [[Middle East]], Spain and parts of Asia and Africa. Because of this, similarly with [[Roman art]], Islamic art and architecture had regional versions. As the Islamic world extended into centres of late antique culture, it was enriched by philosophical and intellectual movements. The translation of Greek works into Arabic and advances in mathematics and science were encouraged by early caliphates. This is in contrast with the modern perception that Islamic art is dogmatic and unchanging. Human and animal representation wasn't rare. Only certain periods restricted it (similar with the Byzantine [[Iconoclasm]]).{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=117}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Pyxis MET DT4840.jpg|Perfume box; 950–975; [[ivory]]; height: 11.7 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=119}}
Mezquita de Cordoba Mihrab.jpg|[[Mihrab]]; 961–976; [[stucco]] and glass mosaic; diameter (internal arch): {{c.|2.3 m}}; [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba]] ([[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Spain]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=119}}
Mosque Lamp for the Mausoleum of Amir Aydakin al-'Ala'i al-Bunduqdar MET 17.190.985.jpg|Mosque lamp; {{c.|1285}}; glass, enamels and gold; height: 26.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=125}}
Alhambra Löwenhof mit Löwenbrunnen 2014.jpg|[[Court of the Lions]] ([[Alhambra]], [[Granada]], [[Spain]]), 1362-1391{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=120}}
Ardabil Carpet.jpg|[[Ardabil Carpet]]; 1539–1540; wool pile on silk; length: 10.51 m; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] ([[London]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=128}}
</gallery>
==Americas==
{{main|Pre-Columbian art}}
===Mesoamerica===
{{main|Ancient Maya art|Aztecs#Art and cultural production}}
Some of the first great civilizations in the Americas developed in [[Mesoamerica]] (meaning 'middle Americas'), the most well known being the [[Maya civilization|Mayans]] and the [[Aztecs]].
The [[Olmecs]] ({{circa}}1400–400 BC) were the first major civilization in modern-day Mexico. Many elements of Mesoamerican civilizations, like the practice of building of pyramids, the complex calendar, the pantheon of gods and hieroglyphic writing have origins in Olmec culture. They produced jade and ceramic figurines, [[Olmec colossal heads|colossal heads]] and pyramids with temples at the top, all without the advantage of metal tools. For them, jadeite was a stone more precious than gold and symbolized divine powers and fertility. 17 [[Olmec colossal heads]] have been discovered, each weighing a few tons. Each head, with the flattened nose and thick lips, wears a helmet, similar with the ones worn during official ball games, possibly representing kings of officials.
The [[Maya civilization]] began around 1800 BC and grew until the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 1500s. They occupied southeast Mexico, [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], and parts of [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]]. The Mayans were trading with cities, like [[Teotihuacán]], but also with many Mesoamerican civilizations, like the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotecs]] or the other groups from central or coast areas of Mexico, and also with populations that did not inhabit Mesoamerican territories, like the [[Taíno]] from the [[Caribbean]]. They produced impressive king portraits, [[polychromy|polychrome]] ceramic vessels, earthenware figures, wooden sculptures, [[Stele|stelas]], and built complex cities with pyramids. Most of the well preserved polychrome ceramic vessels were discovered in the tombs of nobles.
Arising from humble beginnings as a nomadic group, the Aztecs created the largest empire in Mesoamerican history, lasting from 1427 to 1521. They did not call themselves 'Aztecs', but Mexica. The term Aztecs was assigned by historians. They transformed the capital of their empire, [[Tenochtitlan]], into a place where artists of Mesoamerica created impressive artworks for their new masters. The present-day [[Mexico City]] was built over the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gipson|first1=Ferren|title=The Ultimate Art Museum|date=2021|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-1-83866-2967|pages=92, 93, 94|url=|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=229, 232, 234}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=34, 35|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Cabeza Colosal 8.jpg|[[Olmec colossal heads|Colossal head]]; {{circa}}1050 BC; [[steatite]]; height: 2.2 m; [[Museo de Antropología de Xalapa]] ([[Xalapa]], [[Mexico]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=229}}
Seated ruler in ritual pose, Highland Olmec culture, San Martin Texmelucan, Puebla state, Middle Formative period, c. 900-500 BC, serpentine, cinnabar - Dallas Museum of Art - DSC04572.jpg|Seated shaman in ritual pose-shaped pendant ([[Olmecs|Olmec]]); 9th-5th century BC; [[Serpentine subgroup|serpentine]] and [[cinnabar]]; height: 18.5 cm; [[Dallas Museum of Art]] ([[Dallas]], [[Texas]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=229}}
Mascara Dios Murcielago.jpg|Bat effigy ([[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]]); {{circa}}50 BC; [[jadeite]] and shell; height: 28 cm; [[National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)|National Museum of Anthropology]] ([[Mexico City]])<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=129|url=|language=en}}</ref>
K'inich Janaab Pakal I v2.jpg|Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I ([[Ancient Maya art|Maya]]; 615–683; [[stucco]]; height 43 cm; National Museum of Anthropology{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=232}}
Vessel, Throne Scene MET DT4514.jpg|Vessel with a throne scene (Maya); late 7th–8th century; ceramic; 21.59 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Yaxchilan Lintel 24.jpg|[[Yaxchilan|Yaxchilán]] [[Lintel]] 24 (Maya); 702; limestone; 109 x 74 cm; [[British Museum]] (London)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=174|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Telamones Tula.jpg|Warrior columns ([[Toltec]]); {{circa}}1000; basalt; height: {{circa}}460 cm; [[Tula de Allende]] (Mexico)
Double headed turquoise serpentAztecbritish museum.jpg|[[Double-headed serpent]] ([[Aztecs#Art and cultural production|Aztec]]); {{circa}} 1450–1521; cedar, [[turquoise]], shell and traces of gilding; length: 43.3 cm; British Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=234}}
File:Mexico-3980 - Coyolxauhqui Stone (2508259597).jpg|[[Coyolxauhqui Stone]] (Aztec); {{circa}} 1469–1481; stone; diameter: 3 m; [[Templo Mayor]] Museum ([[Mexico City]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=234}}
Tlaloc Vasija.jpg|[[Tlāloc]] effigy vessel (Aztec); {{circa}} 1440–1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm; Templo Mayor Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=234}}
</gallery>
=== Colombia ===
{{further|Muisca art}}
Similarly with Mesoamerica, the present-day territory of [[Colombia]] is an area where multiple cultures developed before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. Here, gold body accessories were produced, many golden ones, but also many other ones made of [[tumbaga]], a non-specific [[alloy]] of [[gold]] and [[copper]] given by Spanish [[Conquistadors]] to metals composed of these elements found in widespread use in [[pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]] in North America and [[South America]].
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Calima Animal-Headed Figure Pendant MET DT11629 (cropped).jpg|Animal-headed figure pendant ([[Calima culture#Yotoco culture|Yotoco]]); 1st–7th century; gold; height: 6.35 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Lime Container (Poporo) MET DT1262.jpg|Lime container ([[Quimbaya civilization|Quimbaya]]); 5th–9th century; gold; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Male Figure (tunjo) MET DP215691.jpg|Male figure/''[[tunjo]]'' ([[Muisca art|Muisca]]); 10th–mid-16th century; gold; height: 14.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Figure Pendant MET DT4860.jpg|Pendant ([[Tairona]]); 10th–16th century; gold; height: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
</gallery>
=== Andean regions ===
{{Further|Chavín culture#Art|Paracas culture|Nazca culture|Moche culture#Material culture|Sican culture#Art and ideology|Tiwanaku#Structures|Inca empire#Arts and technology}}
[[File:Man's mantle - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Mantle ([[Paracas culture|Paracas]]); 50–100 AD; embroidered wool; height: 1.01 m; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=238}}]]
The ancient civilizations of [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] nurtured unique artistic traditions, including one of the world's most aesthetically impressive fibre art traditions. Two of the first important cultures from this land are the [[Chavín culture|Chavín]] and the [[Paracas culture]].
The Paracas culture of the south coast of Peru is best known for its complex patterned textiles, particularly mantels. The [[Moche culture|Moche]] controlled the river valleys of the north coast, while the [[Nazca culture|Nazca]] of southern [[Peru]] held sway along the coastal deserts and contiguous mountains. The Nazca are best known for the famous [[Nazca Lines]], a group of [[geoglyph]]s in a desert in southern Peru. They also produced polychrome ceramics and textiles influenced by the Paracas, and used a palette of at least 10 colours for their pottery. Both cultures flourished around 100–800 AD. Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. In the north, the [[Huari culture|Wari]] (or Huari) Empire are noted for their stone architecture and sculpture accomplishments.
The Chimú were preceded by a simple ceramic style known as [[Sican culture#Early Sican|Sicán]] (700–900 AD). The Chimú produced excellent portrait and decorative works in metal, notably gold but especially silver. Later, the [[Inca Empire]] (1100–1533) stretched across the [[Andes Mountains]]. They crafted precious metal figurines, and like other civilizations from the same area, complex textiles. Llamas were important animals, because of their wool and for carrying loads.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gipson|first1=Ferren|title=The Ultimate Art Museum|date=2021|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-1-83866-2967|page=95|url=|language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=238, 239, 240}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=19, 113|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Líneas de Nazca, Nazca, Perú, 2015-07-29, DD 52.JPG|The Hummingbird, one of the [[Nazca Lines]] ([[Nazca culture|Nazca]]); {{circa}}200 BC-600 AD; rocks, gravel and dirt; length: 50 m; [[Nasca Province|Nasca]] and [[Palpa Province|Palpa]] Provinces (Peru)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=18|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Portrait Head Bottle MET 82.1.28.jpeg|[[Moche portrait vessel|Portrait head bottle]] ([[Moche culture|Moche]]); 3rd–6th century; painted ceramic; overall: 26.35 x 16.21 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Peru Huari Standing Dignitary 1 Kimbell.jpg|Mosaic figurine of a noble man ([[Wari culture|Wari]]); 7th-9th century; wood, shell, stone and [[silver]]; height: 10.2 cm; [[Kimbell Art Museum]] ([[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], [[Texas]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=240}}
Ceremonial Knife (Tumi) MET DP215693.jpg|Ceremonial knife/''[[tumi]]'' ([[Sican culture|Sican]]); 10th–13th century; gold, turquoise, greenstone and shell; height: 33 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=238}}
Tupa-inca-tunic.png|Royal tunic ([[Inca Empire|Inca]]); 1476–1534; camelid fibre and cotton; height: 91 cm; [[Dumbarton Oaks]] ([[Washington, D.C.]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=241}}
</gallery>
==Asian==
{{main|History of Asian art}}
[[Eastern world|Eastern civilization]] broadly includes Asia, and it also includes a complex tradition of art making. One approach to Eastern art history divides the field by nation, with foci on [[Indian art]], [[Chinese art]], and [[Japanese art]]. Due to the size of the continent, the distinction between Eastern Asia and Southern Asia in the context of arts can be clearly seen. In most of Asia, pottery was a prevalent form of art. The pottery is often decorated with geometric patterns or abstract representations of animals, people or plants. Other very widespread forms of art were, and are, sculpture and painting.
===Central Asia===
{{main|Central Asian art}}
Central Asian art developed in [[Central Asia]], in areas corresponding to modern [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], and parts of modern Mongolia, China and Russia.<ref name= "1a">{{cite book|author=Tamara Talbot Rice|title=Visual Arts|date=July 2011 |publisher=Oxford}}</ref><ref name="1b">{{cite encyclopedia |first1=Fahir|last1= İz|title=Central Asian arts|encyclopedia = Britannica|first2 = Turrell V.|last2 = Wylie |first3 = Tamara Talbot|last3 = Rice|date = 7 December 2023|url = https://www.britannica.com/art/Central-Asian-arts}}</ref> The art of ancient and medieval Central Asia reflects the rich history of this vast area, home to a huge variety of peoples, religions and ways of life. The artistic remains of the region show a remarkable combinations of influences that exemplify the multicultural nature of Central Asian society. The [[Silk Road transmission of art]], [[Scythian art]], [[Greco-Buddhist art]], [[Serindian art]] and more recently [[Persianate]] culture, are all part of this complicated history. Central Asia has always been a crossroads of cultural exchange, the hub of the so-called [[Silk Road]] – that complex system of trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean. Already in the [[Bronze Age]] (3rd and 2nd millennium BC), growing settlements formed part of an extensive network of trade linking Central Asia to the [[Indus]] Valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=66}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Seated female MET DT867.jpg|Seated figurine ([[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactrian]]); 3rd-2nd millennia BC; [[chlorite]] and [[limestone]]; height: 9 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=66}}
Belt buckle with paired felines attacking ibexes MET DT5088.jpg|Belt buckle; 3rd-1st centuries BC; gold; height: 7.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=67}}
Bagram Guimet 12.JPG|Goblet showing The Rape of [[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]] and of [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], part of the [[Bagram]] Treasure; 1st century AD; painted glass; height: 16 cm, diameter: 10 cm; [[Guimet Museum]] (Paris)<ref>{{cite magazine| author = <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | title =Mussée National des Arts Asiatiques Guimet| url = | magazine =Conaissance des Arts| location = | publisher = | date =| access-date = | language = en}}</ref>
God and Female Musician, Kizil, Cave 171, 417-435 AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01720.JPG|Goddess and celestial musician ([[Buddhist art|Buddhist]]); 7th century; pigments on plaster; height: 2.03 m; [[Museum of Asian Art]] ([[Berlin]], Germany)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barkman|first1=Adam|title=Making sens of Islamic art & architecture|date=2015|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29171-9|page=68|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Samarcanda, Gur-e Amir 19.jpg|[[Gur-e-Amir|Gur-i Amir Mausoleum]] ([[Samarkand]], [[Uzbekistan]]), 15th century<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barkman|first1=Adam|title=Making sens of Islamic art & architecture|date=2015|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29171-9|page=40|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===Indian===
{{main|Indian art}}
Early [[Buddhists]] in India developed symbols related to [[Buddha]]. The major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the period after the [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryans]], within North India [[Kushan Empire|Kushan art]], the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]] and finally the "classic" period of [[Gupta art]]. Additionally, there was the Andhra school which appeared before the Gandhara school and which was based in South India.{{sfn|Keiko|2010|pp=57–63}} Good quantities of sculpture survives from some key sites such as [[Sanchi]], [[Bharhut]] and [[Amaravati Stupa|Amaravati]], some of which remain ''in situ'', with others in museums in India or around the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved [[torana]]s or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions. These are in stone, though clearly adopting forms developed in wood. They and the walls of the stupa itself can be heavily decorated with reliefs, mostly illustrating the lives of the Buddha. Gradually life-size figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief, but then free-standing.{{sfn|Harle|1994|pp=26–47, 105–117}} [[Mathura art]] was the most important centre in this development, which applied to Hindu and Jain art as well as Buddhist.{{sfn|Harle|1994|pp=59–70}} The facades and interiors of rock-cut ''[[chaitya]]'' prayer halls and monastic ''[[vihara]]s'' have survived better than similar free-standing structures elsewhere, which were for long mostly in wood. The caves at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], [[Karla Caves|Karle]], [[Bhaja Caves|Bhaja]] and elsewhere contain early sculpture, often outnumbered by later works such as iconic figures of the Buddha and [[bodhisattva]]s, which are not found before 100 AD at the least.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Sanchi1 N-MP-220.jpg|The Great [[Stupa]] of [[Sanchi]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]], India), 3rd century-{{circa}} 100 BC{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=15}}
Sarnath_capital.jpg|[[Lion Capital of Ashoka]]; {{circa}} 250 BC; polished [[sandstone]]; height: 2.2 m; [[Sarnath Museum]] (India){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=210}}
Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg|[[Buddha Preaching his First Sermon (Sarnath)|Seated Buddha]]; {{circa}} 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=213}}
022 Cave 1, Padmapani (33896247830).jpg|''Bodhisattva Padmapani''; {{circa}} 450–490; pigments on rock; height: {{circa}} 1.2 m; [[Ajanta Caves]] (India){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=213}}
Shiva Nataraja Musée Guimet 25971.jpg|[[Shiva]] as lord of the dance; {{circa}} 11th century; bronze; height: 96 cm; [[Musée Guimet]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=215}}
Beauty of khajuraho temple.jpg|[[Kandariya Mahadeva Temple]] ([[Khajuraho]], India), {{circa}}1030{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=114}}
MET DT238.jpg|[[Durga]] killing the buffalo demon; {{circa}}1150; [[argilite]]; height: 13.5 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)<ref>{{cite book|last1=|first1=|title=10,000 YEARS OF ART|date=2009|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0|page=228|url=|language=en}}</ref>
MET DP22193.jpg|[[Ganesha]]; {{circa}} 14th-15th century; [[ivory]]; height: 18.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=215}}
Basawan. Akbar Taming Mad Elephant Hawai. Composition by Basawan, coloring by Chitra. (left part) Akbarnama, ca. 1590, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.jpg|Basawan Akbarnama; {{circa}} 1590; watercolor on paper; 33 x 20 cm; [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=217}}
Taj Mahal, Agra, India.jpg|[[Taj Mahal]] ([[Agra]], India), an iconic example of [[Mughal architecture]], 1632-1648{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=99}}
</gallery>
===Chinese===
{{main|Chinese art}}
In Eastern Asia, painting was derived from the practice of calligraphy, and portraits and landscapes were painted on silk cloth. Most of the paintings represent landscapes or portraits. The most spectacular sculptures are the [[Chinese ritual bronzes|ritual bronzes]] and the bronze sculptures from [[Sanxingdui]]. A very well-known example of Chinese art is the ''[[Terracotta Army]]'', depicting the armies of [[Qin Shi Huang]], the first Emperor of China. It is a form of [[funerary art]] buried with the emperor in 210–209 BC whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.
Chinese art is one of the oldest continuous traditional arts in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since the [[Renaissance]] as the [[decorative arts]] are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in [[Chinese ceramics]]. The range and quality of goods that decorated Chinese palaces and households, and their inhabitants, is dazzling. Materials came from across China and far beyond: gold and silver, [[mother of pearl]], ivory and rhinoceros horn, wood and [[lacquer]], [[jade]] and [[soap stone]], silk and paper.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg|[[Pagoda of Fogong Temple|Buddha Pagoda]] (Fogong Monastery, [[Yingxian]], China), 1056{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=140}}
Guo Xi - Early Spring (large).jpg|Early Spring; by [[Guo Xi]]; 1072; hanging scroll, ink on silk; 1.58 x 1.08 m; [[National Palace Museum]] ([[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=82}}
Liao Dynasty Avalokitesvara Statue Clear.jpeg|Guanyin of the Southern Seas; 11th-12th century; painted and gilded wood; height: 2.41 m; [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] ([[Kansas City]], [[Missouri]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=75}}
Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk (捣练图) by Emperor Huizong (1082–1135).jpg|Ladies Preparing Silk; after Zhang Xuan; early 12th century; ink and colours on silk; 0.37 x 1.47 m; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=79}}
Chao Meng-fu Couleurs d'automne sur les monts Qiao et Hua.jpg|Autumn Colours on the Qiao and Hua Mountains; by [[Zhao Mengfu]]; 1296; handscroll (detail), ink and colours on paper; 28.4 x 93.2 cm; [[National Palace Museum]] ([[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=84}}
明初 剔紅庭園高士圖漆盤-Dish with garden scene MET DP256068.jpg|[[Lacquer]] dish with garden scene; late 14th century; carved red lacquer; diameter: 19.7 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
The David Vases.jpg|[[David Vases]]; 1351; glazed porcelain; height: 63.5 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=78}}
SFEC BritMus Asia 023.JPG|Assistant to a judge of hell; {{circa}} 1522–1620; [[stoneware]]; height: 137 cm; British Museum{{sfn|British Museum|2014|p=159}}
File:11 Temple of Heaven.jpg|Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, [[Temple of Heaven]] (Beijing), 1545, rebuilt in 1890{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=242}}
Chinese - Covered Box - Walters 44543.jpg|[[Cloisonné]] box; 18th century; cloisonné enamels on copper with gilt bronze; 20.5 × 19.8 cm; [[Walters Art Museum]] ([[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], US)
</gallery>
===Japanese===
{{main|Japanese art}}
Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including [[Jōmon pottery|ancient pottery]], [[Japanese sculpture|sculpture]], [[Ink wash painting|ink painting]] and [[Japanese calligraphy|calligraphy]] on silk and paper, ''[[ukiyo-e]]'' paintings and [[woodblock printing|woodblock prints]], ceramics, [[origami]], and more recently [[manga]]—modern Japanese [[cartoon]]ing and comics—along with a myriad of other types.
The first settlers of Japan, the [[Jōmon]] people ({{Circa|11,000}}–300 BC). They crafted [[Jomon pottery|lavishly decorated pottery storage vessels]], clay figurines called ''[[dogū]]''. Japan has been subject to sudden invasions of new ideas followed by long periods of minimal contact with the outside world. Over time the Japanese developed the ability to absorb, imitate, and finally assimilate those elements of foreign culture that complemented their aesthetic preferences. The earliest complex art in Japan was produced in the 7th and 8th centuries in connection with [[Buddhism]]. In the 9th century, as the Japanese began to turn away from China and develop indigenous forms of expression, the secular arts became increasingly important; until the late 15th century, both religious and secular arts flourished. After the [[Ōnin War]] (1467–1477), Japan entered a period of political, social, and economic disruption that lasted for over a century. In the state that emerged under the leadership of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]], organized religion played a much less important role in people's lives, and the arts that survived were primarily secular.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Kinkaku-ji the Golden Temple in Kyoto overlooking the lake - high rez.JPG|[[Kinkaku-ji|Temple of the Golden Pavilion]] ([[Kitayama]], [[Kyoto]]), a [[Zen]] [[Buddhist temples in Japan|Buddhist temple]] in [[Kyoto]], 1398{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=144}}
色絵婦人立像-Figure of a Standing Beauty MET DP220704.jpg|Female figure; {{circa}} 1670–1690; porcelain with overglaze polychrome enamels; height: 39.7 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
胴箔地南天冊子模様縫箔-Noh Costume (Nuihaku) with Books and Nandina Branches MET DT289471.jpg|Noh robe; 1750–1800; silk embroidery and [[gold leaf]] on silk satin; length: 1.66 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=105}}
Tsunami by hokusai 19th century.jpg|''[[The Great Wave off Kanagawa]]'', by [[Katsushika Hokusai]]; {{circa}} 1830–1832; full-colour [[Woodblock printing|woodblock print]]; 25.7 x 37.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=103}}
De pruimenboomgaard te Kameido-Rijksmuseum RP-P-1956-743.jpeg|''[[Plum Park in Kameido]]''; by [[Hiroshige]]; 1857; full-colour woodblock print; 36.4 x 24.4 cm; [[Rijksmuseum]] ([[Amsterdam]], the [[Netherlands]])
</gallery>
==Sub-Saharan Africa==
{{main|African art}}
{{Further|Igbo art|Yoruba art|Benin art|Kuba art|Luba art}}
Sub-Saharan African art includes both [[African sculpture|sculpture]], typified by the brass castings of the [[Benin art|Benin people]], [[Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo Ukwu]] and the Kingdom of [[Ifẹ]], and terracottas of [[Djenne-Jeno]], Ife, and the more ancient [[Nok culture]], as well as [[African folk art|folk art]]. Concurrent with the European Middle Ages, in the eleventh century AD a nation that made grand architecture, gold sculpture, and intricate jewelry was founded in [[Great Zimbabwe]]. Impressive sculpture was concurrently being cast from brass by the [[Yoruba art|Yoruba people]] of what is now Nigeria. In the [[Benin art|Benin Kingdom]], also of southern Nigeria, which began around the same time, elegant altar tusks, brass heads, plaques of brass, and palatial architecture were created. The Benin Kingdom was ended by the British in 1897, and little of the culture's art now remains in Nigeria. Today, the most significant arts venue in Africa is the [[Johannesburg Biennale]].
Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by a high density of cultures. Notable are the, [[Dogon people]] from [[Mali]]; [[Edo people|Edo]], [[yoruba people|Yoruba]], [[Igbo people|Igbo]] people and the [[Nok civilization]] from [[Nigeria]]; [[Kuba Kingdom|Kuba]] and [[Luba people]] from [[Central Africa]]; [[Ashanti people]] from [[Ghana]]; [[Zulu people]] from [[Southern Africa]]; and [[Fang people]] from [[Equatorial Guinea]] (85%), Cameroon and Gabon; the [[Sao civilization]] people from Chad; [[Kwele people]] from eastern Gabon, [[Republic of the Congo]] and Cameroon.
The myriad forms of African art are components of some of the most vibrant and responsive artistic traditions in the world and are integral to the lives of African people. Created for specific purposes, artworks can reveal their ongoing importance through physical transformations that enhance both their appearance and their potency. Many traditional African art forms are created as conduits to the spirit world and change appearance as materials are added to enhance their beauty and potency. The more a work is used and blessed, the more abstract it becomes with the accretion of sacrificial matter and the wearing down of original details.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Nok sculpture Louvre 70-1998-11-1.jpg|Seated figure; by artists of the [[Nok culture]]; 5th century BC-5th century AD; earthenware (central Nigeria); height: 38 cm; [[Musée du Quai Branly]], Paris{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=309}}
Bronze pot, 9th century, Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria.jpg|Pot; from [[Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu|Igbo-Ukwu]] ([[Nigeria]]); 9th century; bronze; unknown dimensions; [[Nigerian National Museum]], [[Lagos]]
Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 02.JPG|Head of a king or dignitary; by artists of the [[Yoruba people]]; 12th-15th century; terracotta; 19 cm; discovered at [[Ife]] (Nigeria); [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]], Germany
Seated Figure MET DT1213.jpg|Seated figure; by artists of the [[Djenné-Djenno#Terra-cotta figurines from the Inner Niger Delta region|Djenné-Djenno culture]] (Mali); 13th century; earthenware; width: 29.9 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=309}}
British Museum - Room 25 (18020107461).jpg|[[Benin ivory mask|Pendant mask]]; by artists of the [[Edo people]] (Nigeria); 16th century (?); [[ivory]] and iron; height: 24.5 cm; [[British Museum]], London{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=311}}
Brooklyn Museum 61.33 Ndop Portrait of King Mishe miShyaang maMbul (5).jpg|[[Ndop (Kuba)|N'dop]], king Mishe miShyaang maMbul; by artists of the [[Kuba Kingdom]] ([[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]); 18th century; wood; 49.5 cm; [[Brooklyn Museum]], New York City{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=314}}
Trône Bamum-Musée ethnologique de Berlin.jpg|''Mandu Yenu'' (throne of Nsangu); by artists of the [[Bamum people|Kingdom of Bamun]]; {{circa}}1870; wood, beads of glass, porcelain and shell; height: 1.75 m; Ethnological Museum of Berlin<ref>{{cite book|last1=Robertson|first1=Hutton|title=The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View|date=2022|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-02236-8|page=1040|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Helmet Mask MET DT1234.jpg|Royal mask; by artists of the [[Bamum people]] (Cameroon); before 1880; wood, copper, glass beads, raffia and shells; height: 66 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=314}}
Rep. dem. del congo, kuba, maschera ngaady-a-mwaash, xx secolo.jpg|Ngaad-A-Mwash mask; by artists of the Kuba people; late 19th-early 20th centuries; wood, shells, glass beads, raffia and pigment; height: 82 cm; [[Detroit Institute of Arts]], [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]], US{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=314}}
Appuie-tête Luba-RDC.jpg|Headrest; by artists of the [[Luba people]]; 19th century; wood; height: 18.5 cm; [[Musée du quai Branly]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=318}}
</gallery>
==Oceania==
{{main|Oceanian art}}
Oceanian art includes the geographic areas of [[Micronesia]], [[Polynesia]], Australia, New Zealand, and [[Melanesia]]. One approach treats the area thematically, with foci on [[ancestry]], warfare, the body, gender, trade, religion, and [[tourism]]. Unfortunately, little ancient art survives from Oceania. Scholars believe that this is likely because artists used perishable materials, such as wood and feathers, which did not survive in the tropical climate, and there are no historical records to refer to most of this material. The understanding of Oceania's artistic cultures thus begins with the documentation of it by Westerners, such as Captain [[James Cook]], in the 18th century. At the turn of the 20th century the French artist [[Paul Gauguin]] spent significant amounts of time in Tahiti, living with local people and making modern art — a fact that has become intertwined with Tahitian visual culture to the present day.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} The indigenous [[Australian art|art of Australia]] often looks like abstract modern art, but it has deep roots in local culture.
The art of [[Oceania]] is the last great tradition of art to be appreciated by the world at large. Despite being one of the longest continuous traditions of art in the world, dating back at least fifty millennia, it remained relatively unknown until the second half of the 20th century.
The often ephemeral materials of Aboriginal art of Australia makes it difficult to determine the antiquity of the majority of the forms of art practised today. The most durable forms are the multitudes of rock engravings and rock paintings which are found across the continent. In the Arnhem Land escarpment, evidence suggests that paintings were being made fifty thousand years ago, antedating the Palaeolithic rock paintings of [[Cave of Altamira|Altamira]] & [[Lascaux]] in Europe.
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
British Museum (6424973639).jpg|[[Hoa Hakananai'a]], an example of a [[moai]]; {{circa}} 1200 AD; flow lava; height: 242 cm; [[British Museum]] (London){{sfn|British Museum|2014|p=65}}
British Museum (2082156178).jpg|[[Statue of A'a from Rurutu]]; probably 18th century; wood; height: 117 cm; British Museum{{sfn|British Museum|2014|p=52}}
Nuova zelanda, isola del nord, maori, prua di piroga taurapa, 1800-20 ca.jpg|''Taurapa'' ([[māori people|māori]] canoe sternpost); late 18th-early 19th century; wood and sheel; height: 148 cm; [[Musée du Quai Branly]] (Paris){{sfn|Brunt|Thomas|Salmond|Kasarherou|2018|p=104}}
Australie Aborigene ancetre totemique kangourou.jpg|Australian painting of a kangaroo totemic ancestor; {{circa}} 1915; painting on bark; 92.5 × 35.5 cm; Musée du Quai Branly
</gallery>
==European==
{{main|Art of Europe}}
===Medieval===
{{main|Medieval art}}
With the decline of the [[Roman Empire]] from {{circa | 300 AD}}, a period subsequently defined as the [[Medieval art|Medieval era]] began. It lasted for about a millennium, until the beginning of the [[Renaissance art|Renaissance]] {{circa | 1400}}. [[Early Christian art]] typifies the early stages of this period, followed by [[Byzantine art]], [[Anglo-Saxon art]], [[Viking art]], [[Ottonian art]], [[Romanesque art]] and [[Gothic art]], with [[Islamic art]] dominating the eastern Mediterranean. Medieval art grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], mixed with the "barbarian" artistic culture of northern Europe.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=15}}
In Byzantine and [[Gothic art|Gothic]] art of the [[Middle Ages]], the dominance of the [[Christian Church|church]] resulted in a large amount of [[religious art]]. There was extensive use of gold in paintings, which presented figures in simplified forms.
====Byzantine====
{{main|Byzantine art}}
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| footer = The [[Hagia Sophia]] ([[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]), {{circa}} 532–537 BC, by [[Anthemius of Tralles]] and [[Isidore of Miletus]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=62}}
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Byzantine art consists of the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman]] (Byzantine) Empire,{{sfn|Cavarnos|Michelis|1956|p= 506}}{{sfn|Weitzmann|1981|p=?}} as well as of the nations and states that inherited culturally from that empire. Though the Byzantine empire itself emerged from Rome's decline and lasted until the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453,<ref>{{harvnb|Kitzinger|1977|pp=1‒3}}.</ref> the start-date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] states in Eastern and Central Europe, as well as to some degree the [[Muslim world|Muslim]] states of the eastern [[Mediterranean]], preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.
Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious, and - with exceptions at certain periods - is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church [[theology]] into artistic terms. Painting in [[fresco]], in [[illuminated manuscript]]s and on wood panels, and (especially in earlier periods) [[mosaic]] were the main media, and figurative [[sculpture]] occurred very rarely except for small [[ivory carving|carved ivories]]. [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|Manuscript painting]] preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rice|1968}}; {{Harvnb|Weitzmann|1982}}.</ref> Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on [[medieval art]] until near the end of the medieval period. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on [[Italian Renaissance]] art. But few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style. With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rice|1968|loc=Chapters 15–17}}; {{Harvnb|Weitzmann|1982|loc=Chapters 2–7}}; {{Harvnb|Evans|2004|pp=389–555}}.</ref> Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania.
Byzantine architecture is notorious for the use of [[domes]]. It also often featured marble columns, [[coffer]]ed ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of [[mosaic]]s with golden backgrounds. The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which the Ancient Greeks had appreciated so much. The Byzantines used mostly stone and brick, and also thin [[alabaster]] sheets for windows. Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where [[fresco]] wouldn't resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in [[Hagios Demetrios]] in [[Thessaloniki]] (Greece), the [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo]] and the [[Basilica of San Vitale]] (both in [[Ravenna]] in Italy), and in [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Istanbul]]. Greco-Roman temples and Byzantine churches differ substantially in terms of their exterior and interior aspect. In Antiquity, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, because in the interior, which contained the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built, only the priest had access. Temple ceremonies in Antiquity took place outside, and what the worshippers viewed was the facade of the temple, consisting of columns, with an [[entablature]] and two pediments. But Christian liturgies played out in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=George D. Hurmuziadis|title=Cultura Greciei|date=1979|publisher=Editura științifică și enciclopedică |page= 92 & 93|language=ro}}</ref>{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=17}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
"The good Shepherd" mosaic - Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.jpg|Christ as the [[Good Shepherd]]; {{circa}} 425–430; mosaic; width: {{circa}} 3 m; [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] ([[Ravenna]], Italy){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=108}}
KHM Wien Kaiserin Ariadne X 39.jpg|Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: 26.5 cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=114}}
Officina costantinopolitana, tesoro di asyut (egitto), V-VI sec ca. 01 collier.JPG|Collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, an [[emerald]], a [[sapphire]], [[amethyst]]s and [[pearl]]s; diameter: 23 cm; from a [[Constantinopol]]itan workshop; [[Antikensammlung Berlin]] ([[Berlin]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=115}}
Byzantium, Constantinople, 11th century - Gospel Book with Commentaries - 1942.152 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Page of the Gospel Book with Commentaries: Portrait of Mark; 1000–1100; ink, [[tempera]], gold, [[vellum]] and leather binding; sheet: 28 × 23 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)
The Ladder of Divine Ascent Monastery of St Catherine Sinai 12th century.jpg|''[[Ladder of Divine Ascent (icon)|Ladder of Divine Ascent]]''; late 12th century; tempera and [[gold leaf]] on panel; 41 x 29.5 cm; [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] ([[Sinai Peninsula]], [[Egypt]])<ref>{{cite book|last1= Farthing|first1= Stephen|title= ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date= 2020|publisher= rao|isbn= 978-606-006-392-6|page= 76 |url=|language=ro}}</ref>
</gallery>
====Ottonian====
{{main|Ottonian art}}
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| footer = The [[Essen cross with large enamels]] with gems and large ''[[senkschmelz]]'' enamels, {{circa | 1000}}. Otto II, by the [[Gregory Master]]. Apotheosis of Otto III, [[Liuthar Gospels]]. Henry II being crowned by Christ, from the [[Sacramentary of Henry II]].
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Ottonian art is a [[style (visual arts)|style]] in [[Pre-Romanesque art|pre-romanesque]] [[German art]], covering also some works from the [[Low Countries]], northern Italy and eastern France. It was named by the art historian [[Hubert Janitschek]] after the [[Ottonian dynasty]] which ruled Germany and northern Italy between 919 and 1024 under the kings [[Henry the Fowler|Henry I]], [[Otto I]], [[Otto II]], [[Otto III]] and [[Emperor Henry II|Henry II]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://arthistorians.info/janitschekh |title=Dictionary of Art Historians: Janitschek, Hubert |access-date= 2013-07-18}}</ref> With [[Ottonian architecture]], it is a key component of the [[Ottonian Renaissance]] (circa 951–1024). However, the style neither began nor ended to neatly coincide with the rule of the dynasty. It emerged some decades into their rule and persisted past the Ottonian emperors into the reigns of the early [[Salian dynasty]], which lacks an artistic "style label" of its own.<ref name="Suckale-Redlefsen, 524">Suckale-Redlefsen, 524</ref> In the traditional scheme of art history, Ottonian art follows [[Carolingian art]] and precedes [[Romanesque art]], though the transitions at both ends of the period are gradual rather than sudden. Like the former and unlike the latter, it was very largely a style restricted to a few of the small cities of the period, to important [[monastery|monasteries]], as well as to the court circles of the emperor and his leading [[vassal]]s.
After the decline of the 9th-century [[Carolingian Empire]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]] was re-established under the [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxon]] Ottonian dynasty. From this emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire and a reformed Church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervour. In this atmosphere masterpieces were created that fused the traditions from which Ottonian artists derived their inspiration: models of Late Antique, Carolingian, and Byzantine origin. Surviving Ottonian art is very largely religious, in the form of [[illuminated manuscript]]s and metalwork, and was produced in a small number of centres for a narrow range of patrons in the circle of the Imperial court, as well as for important figures in the church. However much of it was designed for display to a wider public, especially to pilgrims.<ref>Beckwith, 81–86; Lasko, 82; Dodwell, 123–126</ref>
The style is generally grand and heavy, sometimes to excess, and initially less sophisticated than the Carolingian equivalents, with less direct influence from [[Byzantine art]] and less understanding of its classical models, but around 1000 a striking intensity and expressiveness emerge in many works, as "a solemn monumentality is combined with a vibrant inwardness, an unworldly, visionary quality with sharp attention to actuality, surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright colours with passionate emotionalism".<ref name="Honour and Fleming, 277">Honour and Fleming, 277</ref>
====Romanesque====
{{main|Romanesque art}}
The Romanesque, the first pan-European style to emerge after the [[Roman Empire]], spanned the mid-tenth century to the thirteenth. The period saw a resurgence of monumental stone structures with complex structural programmes.
[[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] churches are characterized by rigid articulation and geometric clarity, incorporated into a unified volumetric whole. The architecture is austere but enlivened by decorative sculpting of capitals and portals, as well as frescoed interiors. Geometric and foliate patterning gives way to increasingly three-dimensional figurative sculpture.
[[St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim]], Germany, 1001–1030, is seen by some as a Proto-Romanesque church.<ref name=HG>{{cite book |last1=Gardner |first1=Helen |author-link=Helen Gardner (art historian) |first2=Fred S. |last2=Kleiner |title=Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global History |edition=13th |location=Australia |publisher=[[Thomson/Wadsworth]] |year=2009}}
</ref>{{request quotation|date=December 2023}}
From the mid-eleventh to the early thirteenth centuries, Romanesque paintings were two-dimensional, defined by bold, linear outlines and geometry, particularly in the handling of drapery; painters emphasised symmetry and frontality. Virtually all Western churches were painted, but probably only a few wall-painters were monks; instead, itinerant artists carried out most of this work. Basic blocking-out was done on wet [[plaster]] with earth colours. A limited palette, dominated by white, red, yellow ochres and azure, was employed for maximum visual effect, with dense colouring forming a backdrop of bands, a practice that originated in late Classical art as an attempt to distinguish earth and sky.
During the later eleventh and twelfth centuries, the great age of Western monasticism, Europe experienced unprecedented economic, social and political change, leading to burgeoning wealth among landowners, including monasteries. There was increasing demand for books, and economic wealth encouraged the production of richly [[illuminated manuscript]]s.
One of the outstanding artefacts of the age is the 70 m long [[Bayeux Tapestry]].{{sfn|Caviness|2001|p=106}}{{sfn|Koslin|1990|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|Musset|Bertrand|1966|p=23}} It depicts the events leading up to the [[Norman conquest of England]] with protagonists [[William the Conqueror|William, Duke of Normandy]], and [[Harold Godwinson|Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England]], and culminating in the [[Battle of Hastings]] of 1066. It is thought to date from the 11th century. It tells the story from the point of view of the conquering Normans, but is now agreed to have been made in England - most likely by women, although the designer is unknown. It is housed in [[France]].
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Arte carolingia, volto santo di sansepolcro, VIII-IX secolo circa con policromia del XII secolo.JPG|'Holy Face'; 904–1018; wood with polychromy; height: 2.9 m; [[Sansepolcro Cathedral]] ([[Sansepolcro]], Italy){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=146}}
Aerial image of the Speyer Cathedral (view from the southwest).jpg|[[Speyer cathedral]] ([[Speyer]], Germany), 1030-1106<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.dom-speyer.de/daten/domspeyer/seiten/bauwerk.html |title= Der Kaiserdom zu Speyer - Bauwerk |access-date=2009-03-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083038/http://www.dom-speyer.de/daten/domspeyer/seiten/bauwerk.html |archive-date=2016-01-02 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
File:Glees Germany Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg|[[Maria Laach Abbey]] ([[Rhineland-Palatinate]], Germany), 1093-1230{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=24}}
Pope Alexander head reliquary, from Abbey Saint-Remacle de Stavelot, Mosan workshop, c. 1145 AD, silver partially gilt, brass, enamel, precious stones - Cinquantenaire Museum - Brussels, Belgium - DSC08823.jpg|Head of pope Alexander; 1145; wood, silver, gilt bronze, gems, pearls and champlevé enamel; height: {{circa}} 45 cm; [[Art & History Museum]] ([[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=147}}
Klosterkirche Müstair Freske Steinigung Stephanus.jpg|The stoning of Saint Stephen; 1160s; fresco; height: 1.3 m; [[Saint John Abbey, Müstair|Saint John Abbey]] ([[Val Müstair]], [[Canton of Grisons]], [[Switzerland]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=144}}
</gallery>
===Gothic===
{{main|Gothic art}}
Gothic art developed in Northern France out of Romanesque in the 12th century AD, and led by the concurrent development of [[Gothic architecture]]. It spread to all of [[Western Europe]], and much of [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Central Europe]], never quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of [[International Gothic]] developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century.
[[Brick Gothic]] was a specific style of Gothic architecture common in [[Baltic region|Northeast]] and [[Central Europe]] especially in the regions in and around the [[Baltic Sea]], which do not have resources of standing rock. The buildings are essentially built using [[brick]]s.
The imposing Gothic cathedrals, with their sculptural programmes and stained glass windows, epitomize the Gothic style.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=149}} It differs from Romanesque through its rib-shaped [[Vault (architecture)|vaults]], and the use of [[ogive]]s. Instead of the thick Romanesque walls, Gothic buildings are thin and tall. Spiral stairs in towers are specific to Gothic architecture.{{sfn|Graur|1970|pp=52–53}}
Gothic painting, much of it executed in [[tempera]] and, later, oils on panel, as well as fresco, and with an increasingly broad palette of secondary colours, is generally seen as more 'naturalistic' than Romanesque. The humanity of religious narrative was highlighted, and the emotional state of the characters individualized.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=151}} The increased urbanity of the medieval economy and the rise of the clerical and lay patron saw a change in the nature of the [[art market]], which can be seen in developments in Gothic [[Illuminated manuscript|manuscript illumination]]. Workshops employed specialists for different elements of the page, such as figures or marginal vine motifs.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=152}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Chartres RosetteNord 121 DSC08241.jpg|North transept windows; {{circa}} 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; [[Chartres Cathedral]] ([[Chartres]], France){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=153}}
Sainte Chapelle Interior Stained Glass.jpg|The [[Sainte-Chapelle]] (Paris), 1243–1248, by [[Pierre de Montreuil]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Melvin|first1=Jeremy|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale|date=2006|publisher=Enciclopedia RAO|isbn=973-717-075-X|page=39|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Naumburg Dom Stifterfiguren Uta und Ekkehard 2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg|Ekkehard and Uta; attributed to the Master of Namburg; 1245–1260; limestone and [[polychrome|polychromy]]; height: {{circa}} 1.9 m; [[Naumburg Cathedral]] ([[Naumburg]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=150}}
4 Jean Pucelle. Hours of Jeanne d'Evreux. 1325-28, Metropolitan Museum, New-York.jpg|Arrest of Christ and Annunciation of the Virgin; by [[Jean Pucelle]]; 1324–1328; [[grisaille]] and temprea on vellum; 8.9 x 12.4 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=152}}
Anonimo inglese o francese, dittico wilton, 1395-99 ca. 01.jpg|The ''[[Wilton Diptych]]''; {{circa}} 1395–1459; tempera and gold on panel; 53 × 37 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=151}}
Marienkirche am Abend.jpg|[[St. Mary's Church, Lübeck|St. Mary's Church]], 1265-1352, in [[Lübeck]], [[Germany]]
Stralsunder Rathaus mit Schaufassade, dahinter die Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg|Town Hall and [[St. Nicholas' Church, Stralsund|St. Nicholas' church]] in [[Stralsund]], from around 1250 to 1400, [[Germany]]
00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg|Brick Gothic with some decoration of stone, [[Old St. John's Hospital]], 13th to 15th century, in [[Bruges]], [[Belgium]]
</gallery>
===Renaissance===
{{Main|Renaissance art}}
Encompassing Early, Northern and High Renaissance, the term Renaissance describes the 'rebirth' in Europe of a new interest for [[Classical antiquity]]. For the first time since antiquity, art became convincingly lifelike. Besides the ancient past, Renaissance artists also studied nature, understanding the human body, animals, plants, space, perspective and the qualities of light. The most common theme were religious subjects, but depictions of mythological stories were produced as well. Also, there was no uniform Renaissance style. Each artist developed their own distinct visual language, influenced by their predecessors and contemporaries.
The Early Renaissance was a period of great creative and intellectual activity when artists broke away completely from the parameters of [[Byzantine art]]. It is generally accepted that it started in [[Florence]] in present-day [[Italy]] in the early 15th century. It is characterized by a surge of interest in [[classical literature]], philosophy and art, the growth of commerce, the discovery of new continents, and new inventions. There was a revival of interest in the art and literature of [[ancient Rome]], and the study of [[Ancient Greek literature|ancient Greek]] and [[Latin literature|Latin texts]] instigated concepts of individualism and reason, which became known as [[humanism]]. Humanists considered life in the present and emphasized the importance of individual thought, which affected artists' approaches.
Despite being highly associated with Italy, particularly with Florence, Rome, and Venice, the rest of Western Europe participated to the Renaissance as well.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Little|first1=Stephen|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Arta|date=2005|publisher=Enciclopedia RAO|isbn=973-717-041-5|page=12|url=|language=ro}}</ref> The Northern Renaissance occurred in Europe north of the [[Alps]] from the early 15th century, following a period of artistic cross-fertilization between north and south known as 'International Gothic'. There was a big difference between the Northern and Italian Renaissance. The North artists did not seek to revive the values of ancient Greece and Rome like the Italians, while in the south Italian artists and patrons were amazed by the empirical study of nature and the human society, and by the deep colors that northern artists could achieve in the newly developed medium of [[oil paint]]. The [[Protestant Reformation]] increased the northern interest in secular painting, like portraits or landscapes. Two key northern artists are [[Hieronymus Bosch]], known for his surreal paintings filled with hybrid creatures like ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'', and [[Albrecht Dürer]], who brought the new art of printmaking to a new level.
The High Renaissance took place in the late 15th-early 16th centuries and was influenced by the fact that as papal power stabilized in Rome, several popes commissioned art and architecture, determined to recreate the city's former glory. [[Raphael]] and [[Michelangelo]] produced vast and grandiose projects for the popes. The most famous artwork of this part of the Renaissance is probably the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling|Sistine Chapel]].
[[Mannerism]] broke away from High Renaissance ideals of harmony and a rational approach to art, to embrace exaggerated forms, elongated proportions, and more vibrant colors. It developed in Italy between 1510 and 1520, among artists who prized originality above all. The name of this movement comes from the Italian ''maniera'', meaning 'style or 'manner'. The word was meant to describe the standard of excellence achieved during the High Renaissance, to which all art should now adhere, but in practice it led to stylization and art 'to show art', sometimes with great success, an example being [[Raphael]]'s pupil [[Giulio Romano]]. Mannerism has also been used more generally to describe a period following the Renaissance and preceding the Baroque.{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1pp=16, 17, 18, 19, 21|Fortenberry|2017|2p=156, 182, 188|Hodge|2019|3p=26}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Florence Duomo (167859687).jpeg|The [[Florence Cathedral]] ([[Florence]], [[Italy]]), 1294–1436, by [[Arnolfo di Cambio]], [[Filippo Brunelleschi]] and [[Emilio De Fabris]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=82}}
File:Giotto. the-crucifix-1290-1300 Florence, Santa Maria Novella.jpg|Crucifix; by [[Giotto]]; {{circa}} 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; [[Santa Maria Novella]] ([[Florence]], Italy){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=157}}
Van Eyck - Arnolfini Portrait.jpg|''[[Arnolfini Portrait]]''; by [[Jan van Eyck]]; 1434; oil on panel; 82.2 x 60 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=191}}
File:Florence - David by Donatello.jpg|''[[David (Donatello)|David]]''; by [[Donatello]]; {{circa}} 1460s; bronze; height: 1.6 m; [[Bargello]] (Florence){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=165}}
Paolo Uccello 047b.jpg|''[[Saint George and the Dragon (Uccello)|Saint George and the Dragon]]''; by [[Paolo Uccello]]; {{circa}} 1470; oil on canvas; 55.6 x 74.2 cm; [[National Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=168}}
Botticelli-primavera.jpg|''[[Primavera (Botticelli)|Primavera]]''; by [[Sandro Botticelli]]; {{circa}} 1478; tempera on panel; 2 x 3.1 m; [[Uffizi|Uffizi Gallery]] (Florence){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=170}}
Tempietto di San Pietro in Montorio.jpg|[[San Pietro in Montorio#The Tempietto|The Tempietto]] ([[San Pietro in Montorio]], Rome), 1502, by [[Donato Bramante]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=26}}
Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|''[[Mona Lisa]]''; by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]; {{circa}}1503-1519; [[Oil painting|oil]] on [[Populus|poplar]] panel; 77 × 53 cm; [[Louvre]]{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=68}}
The Garden of earthly delights.jpg|''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]''; by [[Hieronymus Bosch]]; {{circa}} 1504; oil on panel; 2.2 x 1.95 m; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], [[Spain]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=194}}
File:Sistine ceiling.jpg|[[Sistine Chapel ceiling]]; by [[Michelangelo]]; 1508–1512; [[fresco]]; 13.7 x 39 m; [[Sistine Chapel]] ([[Vatican City]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=177}}
"The School of Athens" by Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino.jpg|''[[The School of Athens]]''; by [[Raphael]]; 1509–1510; fresco; 5.8 x 8.2 m; [[Apostolic Palace]] (Vatican City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=175}}
The Rhinoceros (NGA 1964.8.697) enhanced.png|''[[Dürer's Rhinoceros|The Rhinoceros]]''; by [[Albrecht Dürer]]; 1515; [[woodcut]]; 23.5 × 29.8 cm; [[National Gallery of Art]] ([[Washington, D.C.]], US)
Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg|[[Château d'Azay-le-Rideau]] ([[Loire]], France), 1518-1527{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=47}}
Pieter Bruegel the Elder - The Tower of Babel (Vienna) - Google Art Project - edited.jpg|''[[The Tower of Babel (Bruegel)|The Tower of Babel]]''; by [[Pieter Bruegel the Elder]]; 1563; oil on panel; 1.14 x 1.55 m; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], [[Austria]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=201}}
Armoire Louvre OA 6968.jpg|Cupboard; {{circa}} 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m; Louvre<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jacquemart|first1=Albert|title=Decorative Art|date=2012|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-84484-899-7|page=67|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Rathaus Augsburg perspective.jpg|The [[Augsburg Town Hall]] ([[Augsburg]], [[Germany]]), 1615–1624, by [[Elias Holl]]
</gallery>
===Baroque===
{{main|Baroque}}
{{see also|Louis XIV style}}
{{multiple image
| perrow = 1/2/2
| total_width = 350
| align =
| header = The [[Palace of Versailles]] ([[Versailles]], France), one of the most iconic Baroque buildings, {{c.|1660}} – 1715, by [[Louis Le Vau]] and [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]]
| image1 = Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg
| caption1 = The Marble Court
| image3 = Panorama of the ceiling of Le salon d'Hercule (24275994646).jpg
| caption3 = The [[Salon d'Hercule]]
| image4 = Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg
| caption4 = The Royal Chapel
| image5 = Chateau Versailles Galerie des Glaces.jpg
| caption5 = The [[Hall of Mirrors]]
| image6 = Vue aérienne du domaine de Versailles le 20 août 2014 par ToucanWings - Creative Commons By Sa 3.0 - 22.jpg
| caption6 = [[Gardens of Versailles|The gardens]]
}}
The 17th century was a period of volatile change, both in science, through inventions and developments, such as the [[telescope]] or the [[microscope]], and in religion, as the Catholic Counter-Reformation contested the growing popularity of Protestant faith. After the [[Protestant Reformation]] the [[Catholic Church]] reacted with the [[Counter-Reformation]], decreeing that art should inspire viewers with passionate religious themes.
Succeeding [[Mannerism]], and developing as a result of religious tensions across Europe, Baroque art emerged in the late 16th century. The name may derive from 'barocco', the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word for misshaped pearl, and it describes art that combined emotion, dynamism and drama with powerful color, realism and strong tonal contrasts. Between 1545 and 1563 at the [[Council of Trent]], it was decided that religious art must encourage piety, realism and accuracy, and, by attracting viewers' attention and empathy, glorify the Catholic Church and strengthen the image of Catholicism. In the next century the radical new styles of Baroque art both embraced and developed High Renaissance models, and broke new ground both in religious art and in new varieties of secular art – above all landscape. The Baroque and its late variant the [[Rococo]] were the first truly global styles in the arts, dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1750. Born in the painting studios of [[Bologna]] and [[Rome]] in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout [[Italian Baroque architecture|Italy]], [[Spanish Baroque architecture|Spain]] and [[Baroque architecture in Portugal|Portugal]], Flanders, [[French Baroque architecture|France]], the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from [[Munich]] (Germany) to [[Vilnius]] ([[Lithuania]]). The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] and [[French colonial empire|French]] empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as [[Lima]], [[Mozambique]], [[Goa]] and the [[Philippines]].
Just like paintings and sculptures, Baroque cathedrals and palaces are characterised by the use of illusion and drama as well. They also frequently use dramatic effects of light and shade, and have sumptuous, highly decorated interiors that blurred the boundaries between architecture, painting and sculpture. Another important characteristic of Baroque architecture was the presence of dynamism, done through curves, [[Solomonic column]]s and ovals. In France, Baroque is synonymous with the reign of [[Louis XIV]] between 1643 and 1715, since multiple monumental buildings were built in Paris, Versailles and other parts of France during his rule, such as the [[Palace of Versailles]], the [[Château de Maisons]], the [[Vaux-le-Vicomte|Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte]], the [[Louvre Colonnade]] or The Dôme [[Les Invalides|des Invalides]]. Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed has a role too. Baroque buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the [[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]] in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the [[Santiago de Compostela Cathedral]], designed to tower over the city. Applied arts prospered during this period as well. Baroque furniture could be as bombastic as the rooms they were meant to adorn, and their motifs and techniques were carefully calibrated to coordinate with the architect's overall decorative programme. One of the most prestigious furniture makers was [[André Charles Boulle]], known for his [[marquetry]] technique, made by gluing sheets of tortoiseshell and [[brass]] together and cut to form the design. His works were also adorned with gilded bronze mounts. Complex [[Gobelins Manufactory|Gobelins]] tapestries featured scenes inspired by [[classical antiquity]], and the [[Savonnerie manufactory]] produced big highly detailed carpets for the Louvre. These carpets with black or yellow backgrounds had a central motif or a [[Medallion (architecture)|medallion]]. [[Chinese porcelain]], [[Delftware]] and mirrors fabricated at [[Saint-Gobain#1665-1789: Manufacture royale|Saint-Gobain]] (France) spread rapidly in all princely palaces and aristocratic residences in France. During the reign of Louis XIV, big mirrors are put above [[fireplace mantel]]s, and this trend will last long after the Baroque period.{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=23|Fortenberry|2017|2p=243|Hopkins|2014|3pp=70, 73, 84|Bailey|2012|4pp=4, 205, 286|Graur|1970|5pp=175, 176}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Peter Paul Rubens - The Four Continents.jpg|''[[The Four Continents]]''; by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]; {{circa}}1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] ([[Vienna]], Austria)
Château de Maisons-Laffitte 001.jpg|[[Château de Maisons]] (France), by [[François Mansart]], 1630-1651{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=85}}
Nicolas Poussin - L'Enlèvement des Sabines (1634-5).jpg|''[[The Rape of the Sabine Women]]''; by [[Nicolas Poussin]]; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=243}}
La ronda de noche, por Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg|''[[The Night Watch]]''; by [[Rembrandt]]; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; [[Rijksmuseum]] ([[Amsterdam]], the [[Netherlands]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=256}}
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa September 2015-2a.jpg|''[[Ecstasy of Saint Teresa]]''; by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; [[Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome|Santa Maria della Vittoria]] (Rome){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=252}}
Las Meninas, by Diego Velázquez, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''[[Las Meninas]]''; by [[Diego Velázquez]]; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], Spain){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=262}}
Maria van Oosterwijck, Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Gemäldegalerie - Vanitas-Stilleben - GG 5714.jpg|''Vanitas Still Life''; by [[Maria van Oosterwijck]]; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=304|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Carpet with Fame and Fortitude MET DP212204.jpg|Carpet with fame and fortitude; by the [[Savonnerie manufactory]]; 1668–1685; knotted and cut wool pile, woven with about 90 knots per square inch; 909.3 x 459.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides, 140309 2.jpg|Dôme [[Les Invalides|des Invalides]] (Paris), 1677–1706, by [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]]{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=238}}
Commode MET DP108742.jpg|Commode; by [[André Charles Boulle]]; {{circa}} 1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and [[marquetry]] of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=287}}
Beaker MET DP223288 (cropped).jpg|Part of a [[Meissen porcelain]] tea and chocolate service, c. 1725, given to [[Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia|Vittorio Amadeo II, King of Sardinia]] (1666–1732) by [[Augustus the Strong]], owner of the Meissen factory
100130 150006 Dresden Frauenkirche winter blue sky-2.jpg|[[Frauenkirche, Dresden|Frauenkirche]] in [[Dresden]], 1726-1743, by [[George Bähr]]
</gallery>
===Rococo===
{{main|Rococo}}
{{see also|Style Louis XV}}
[[File:Coiffure à l’indépendance ou Le triomphe de la liberté 14524 podl.jpg|thumb|Coiffure à l’Indépendance ou Le Triomphe de la Liberté, 1778, depicting a fashionable aristocratic woman is applying the finishing touches to her toilette<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marnie|first1=Fogg|title=Fashion: The Whole Story|date=2013|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=9780500291108|page=111 & 112|url=|language=ro}}</ref>]]
Originating in {{circa}}1720 Paris, Rococo is characterized by natural motifs, soft colours, curving lines, asymmetry and themes including love, nature and light-hearted entertainment. Its ideals were delicacy, gaiety, youthfulness and sensuality.
Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of [[Louis XIV]]'s court at the [[Palace of Versailles]], the rococo movement became associated particularly with the powerful [[Madame de Pompadour]] (1721–1764), the mistress of the new king [[Louis XV]] (1710–1774). Because of this, the style was also known as 'Pompadour'. The name of the movement derives from the French 'rocaille', or pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design. It began as a design and [[decorative arts]] style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes. Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture. The French painter with whom the term Rococo is most often associated is [[Jean-Antoine Watteau]], whose pastoral scenes, or ''fêtes galantes'', dominate the early part of the 18th century.
Although there are some important Bavarian churches in this style, such as the [[Pilgrimage Church of Wies|Wieskirche]], Rococo is most often associated with secular buildings, principally great palaces and salons where educated elites would meet to discuss literary and philosophical ideas. In Paris, its popularity coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in the Rococo style. Among the most characteristically elegant and refined examples is the Salon Oval de la Princesse of the [[Hôtel de Soubise]], one of the most beautiful 18th century [[hôtel particulier|mansions]] in Paris. The Rococo introduced dramatic changes to elite furniture, as it favoured smaller pieces with narrow, sinewy frames and more delicate, often asymmetrical decoration, often including elements of [[chinoiserie]]. The taste for [[Far East]]ern objects (mainly Chinese) lead to the use of Chinese painted and lacquered panels for furniture.
The movement spread quickly throughout Europe and as far as [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]] and China thanks to ornament books featuring [[cartouche (design)|cartouches]], [[arabesque]]s and shell work, as well as designs for wall panels and fireplaces. The most popular were made by [[Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier]] (1695–1750), [[Jacques-François Blondel]] (1705–1774), [[Pierre-Edmé Babel]] (1720–1775) and [[François de Cuvilliés]] (1695–1768).{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=24|Fortenberry|2017|2p=256|Hopkins|2014|3pp=92, 95|Bailey|2012|4pp=272, 288|Graur|1970|5pp=194, 195}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
L'Embarquement pour Cythere, by Antoine Watteau, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|''[[The Embarkation for Cythera]]''; by [[Jean-Antoine Watteau]]; 1718; oil on canvas; 1.29 x 1.94 m; Schloss Charlottenburg{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=265}}
Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg|[[Zwinger (Dresden)|Zwinger]], [[Dresden]], Germany, by [[Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann]], 1719<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=185|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Salon ovale de la princesse in the Hôtel de Soubise (11).jpg|The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the [[Hôtel de Soubise]] (Paris), 1737–1739, by [[Germain Boffrand]], [[Charles-Joseph Natoire]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=267}}
Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain - Candelabrum - 1946.81 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Candelabrum; by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain; {{circa}}1750; gilt bronze; overall: 72.4 x 49.3 x 39.7 cm; [[Cleveland Museum of Art]] ([[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]], US)
Fire MET DP104979.jpg|''Fire''; by [[Jean-Pierre Defrance]]; {{circa}}1750-1760; limestone; height: 223 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Wieskirche, Gemeinde Steingaden Ortsteil Wies.JPG|[[Wieskirche|Pilgrimage Church of Wies]], [[Steingaden]], Germany, by [[Dominikus Zimmermann|Dominikus]] and [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]], 1754{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=238}}
Side table (commode en console) MET DP105703.jpg|Side table (commode en console); by [[Bernard II van Risamburgh]]; {{circa}}1755-1760; Japanese lacquer, gilt-bronze mounts and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Madame de Pompadour.jpg|''[[Madame de Pompadour]]''; by [[François Boucher]]; 1756; oil on canvas; 2.01 x 1.57 m; [[Alte Pinakothek]] ([[Munich]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=267}}
Coffeepot MET DP103144 (cropped),.jpg|Coffeepot; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory - Covered Tureen (Terrine du roi) - 1949.15 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Covered tureen (terrine du roi); by the [[Manufacture nationale de Sèvres]] 1756; soft-paste porcelain with enamel and gilt decoration; overall: 24.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art
Fragonard - swing.jpg|''[[The Swing (Fragonard)|The Swing]]''; by [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]]; 1767; oil on canvas; 81 x 64 cm; [[Wallace Collection]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=267}}
Louise Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun - Marie-Antoinette dit « à la Rose » - Google Art Project.jpg|''Marie-Antoinette with the Rose''; by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]]; 1783; oil on canvas; 130 x 87 cm; [[Palace of Versailles]] ([[Versailles]], France)
</gallery>
===Neoclassicism===
{{main|Neoclassicism}}
[[File:Jacques-Louis David, Le Serment des Horaces.jpg|thumb|''[[Oath of the Horatii]]'', by [[Jacques-Louis David]], 1784, oil on canvas, [[Louvre]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=276}}]]
Inspired by the excavations of the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] from 1748, a renewed interest in the arts of antiquity occurred. Neoclassicism dominates Western art from the mid to late 18th century until the 1830s. Embracing order and restraint, it developed in reaction to the perceived frivolity, [[hedonism]] and decadence of Rococo and exemplifying the rational thinking of the '[[Age of Enlightenment]]' (aka the 'Age of Reason'). Initially, the movement was developed not by artists, but by Enlightenment philosophers. They requested replacing Rococo with a style of rational art, moral and dedicated to the soul.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=260|url=|language=ro}}</ref> This fitted well with a perception of Classical art as the embodiment of realism, restraint and order. Inspired by [[Ancient Greek art|ancient Greek]] and [[Roman art]], the classical history paintings of the French artist [[Nicolas Poussin]] (1594–1665) and the ideas of the German writer [[Anton Raphael Mengs]] (1728–1779) and the German archaeologist and art historian [[Johann Joachim Winckelmann]] (1717–1768), Neoclassicism began in Rome, but soon spread throughout Europe. Rome had become the main focus of the [[Grand Tour]] by the mid-18th century, and aristocratic travellers went there in search of Classical visions to recreate on their country estates, thus spreading the style across Europe, particularly in England and France. The tour was also an opportunity for collecting Classical antiquities. Neoclassical paintings tended to be populated with figures posed like Classical statues or reliefs, set in a locations filled with archaeological details. The style favoured Greek art over Roman, considering it purer and more authentically classical in its aesthetic goal.
In 1789, France was on the brink of [[French Revolution|its first revolution]] and Neoclassicism sought to express their patriotic feelings. Politics and art were closely entwined during this period. They believed that art should be serious, and valued drawings above painting; smooth contours and paint with no discernible brushstrokes were the ultimate aim. Both painting and sculpture exerted calmness and restraint and focused on heroic themes, expressing such noble notions as self-sacrifice and nationalism.
This movement paved the way for [[Romanticism]], that appeared when the idealism of the revolution faded away and after the Napoleonic period came to an end in the early 19th century. Neoclassicism should not be seen as the opposite of Romanticism, however, but in some ways an early manifestation of it.{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=25|Fortenberry|2017|2p=273}}{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=407}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Giovanni Paolo Panini - Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome - 61.62 - Museum of Fine Arts.jpg|''Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome'', by [[Giovanni Paolo Panini]], 1737, oil on canvas, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Houston|Museum of Fine Arts]], [[Houston]], US
The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . . (Campidoglio antico a cui si ascendeva per circa cento gradini . . .) MET DP827987.jpg|''The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . .'', by [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]], {{circa}}1750, etching, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York City
L'Hôtel de la Marine (Paris) (51346237676).jpg|[[Hôtel de la Marine]], Paris, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]], 1761–1770<ref>{{cite book|last1=de Martin|first1=Henry|title=Le Style Louis XV|date=1925|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=|page=13|url=|language=fr}}</ref>
West facade of Petit Trianon 002.JPG|[[Petit Trianon]], [[Versailles]], France, by [[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]], 1764{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=272}}
Wright of Derby, The Orrery.jpg|''[[A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery]]'', by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], {{circa}}1766, oil on canvas, [[Derby Museum and Art Gallery]], [[Derby]], [[England]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=275}}
Osterley House, entrance hall.jpg|The Hall, [[Osterley Park]], London, by [[Robert Adam]], 1767{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=274}}
Self-portrait with Her Daughter by Elisabeth-Louise Vigée Le Brun.jpg|''The Artist and her Daughter'', by [[Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun]], {{circa}}1785, oil on canvas, [[Louvre]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Honour|first1=Hugh|last2=Fleming|first2=John|title=A World History of Art - Revised Seventh Edition|date=2009|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-85669-584-8|page=616|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Washstand (athénienne or lavabo) MET DP106594.jpg|Washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Villers Young Woman Drawing.jpg|''[[Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes (Marie-Denise Villers)|Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes]]'', by [[Marie-Denise Villers]], 1801, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art<ref>{{cite book|last1=Morrill|first1=Rebecca|title=Great Women Artists|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5|page=419|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Canova - The Three Graces, between 1813 and 1816, Н.ск-506.jpg|''[[The Three Graces (Canova)|The Three Graces]]'', by [[Antonio Canova]], 1813–1816, marble, [[Hermitage Museum]], [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=278}}
</gallery>
== Western art after 1770 ==
[[File:William Blake 002.jpg|thumb|''[[The Ghost of a Flea]]''; by [[William Blake]]; 1819; tempera with gold on panel (21.4 × 16.2 cm); Tate Britain, London ]]
Many art historians place the origins of modern art in the late 18th century, others in the mid 19th century. Art historian [[H. Harvard Arnason]] stated "a gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=740}} Events such as the [[Age of Enlightenment]], revolutions and democracies in [[American Revolution|America]] and [[French Revolution|France]], and the [[Industrial Revolution]] had far reaching affects in western culture. People, commodities, ideas, and information could travel between countries and continents with unprecedented speed and these changes were reflected in the arts. The invention of photography in the 1830s further altered certain aspects of art, particularly painting. By the dawn of the 19th century, a long and gradual paradigm shift was complete, from the Gothic when artists were viewed as craftsmen in the service of the church and monarchies, to the idea of art for art's sake, where the ideas and visions of the individual artist were held in the high regard, with patronage from an increasingly literate, affluent, and urban middle and upper class population that had been emerging for 200 years (particularly in Paris and London). A dichotomy began in the late 18th century between neoclassicism and romanticism that subdivided and continued to run through virtually every new movement in modern art: "Spreading like waves, these "isms" defy national, ethnic, and chronological boundaries; never dominant anywhere for long, they compete or merge with each other in endlessly shifting patterns."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=767}}
Modern art has consistently moved toward international influences and exchanges, from the exotic curiosity of [[Orientalism]], the deeper influence of [[Japonisme]], to the arts of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas. Conversely modern art has increasingly extended beyond western Europe. In Russia and the US the arts were developing to a degree that rivaled the leading European countries by the end of the 19th century. Many of the major movements appeared in Latin America, Australia, and Asia too and geography and nationality became increasingly insignificant with each passing decade. By the 20th century important and influential artists were emerging around the world: e.g. [[Foujita]] (Japan), [[Arshile Gorky]] (Armenia), [[Diego Rivera]] and [[Frida Kahlo]] (Mexico), [[Wifredo Lam]] (Cuba), [[Edvard Munch]] (Norwegian), [[Roberto Matta]] (Chilean), [[Mark Rothko]] (Lithuanian-American), [[Fernando Botero Angulo]] (Colombia), [[Constantin Brâncuși]] and [[Victor Brauner]] (Romania).{{sfn|Starobinski|1964}}{{sfn|Keyser|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=221}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Étienne-Louis Boullée Memorial Newton Night.jpg|''Newton's Cenotaph, exterior by night''; by [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]]; 1784; ink and wash, 40.2 × 63.3 cm.; [[Bibliothèque Nationale]]
Goya Dog.jpg|''[[The Dog (Goya)|The Dog]]''; [[Francisco de Goya]]; ca. 1819–1823; mural transferred to canvas, 131.5 × 79.3 cm.; [[Museo del Prado]]
Joseph Mallord William Turner - Death on a pale horse - Google Art Project.jpg|''Death on a Pale Horse''; [[J. M. W. Turner]]; c. 1830; oil on canvas, 60 × 76 cm.; [[Tate Britain]]
Honoré daumier, le celebrità dell'Aurea mediocritas, terracotta, 1832-35, charles philipon.JPG|''Toothless Man Laughing, Charles Philipon form Célébrités du Juste milieu''; [[Honoré Daumier]]; 1832–33; painted clay, 6.12 high; [[Musée d'Orsay]]
Daguerre kynzvart.jpg|''[[Kynžvart Daguerreotype|Still life with statue of Jupiter Tonans]]''; by [[Louis Jacques Daguerre]]; c. 1839; daguerreotype
</gallery>
===19th century===
====Romanticism (c. 1790–1880)====
{{main|Romanticism#Visual arts}}
[[File:English landscape garden at Stourhead, England (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1|English landscape garden at [[Stourhead]] (the UK), the 1740s, by [[Henry Hoare]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Weston|first1=Richard|title=100 Ideas That Changed Architecture|date=2011|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-78627-567-7|page=84|url=|language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Caspar David Friedrich Wanderer above the Sea of Fog.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|[[Wanderer above the Sea of Fog]] by [[Caspar David Friedrich]]]]
[[Romanticism]] emerged in the late 18th century out of the German ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' movement and flourished in the first half of the 19th century with significant and international manifestations in music, literature, and architecture, as well as the visual arts. It grew from a disillusionment with the rationalism of 18th century Enlightenment. Despite being often viewed as the opposite of Neoclassicism, there were some stylistic overlapping with both movements, and many Romantic artists were excited by classicism. The movement focused on intense emotions, imagination, and on the impressive power of nature, a bigger and more powerful force than the one of men, with its potential for disaster. "Neoclassicism is a new revival of classical antiquity... while Romanticism refers not to a specific style but to an attitude of mind that may reveal itself in any number of ways."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}}
One of the earliest expressions of romanticism was in the [[English landscape garden]], carefully designed to appear natural and standing in dramatic contrast to the formal gardens of the time. The concept of the "natural" English garden was adopted throughout Europe and America in the following decades. In architecture, the romantics frequently turned to alternative sources other than the Greek and Roman examples admired by the neo-classicist. Romantic architecture often revived [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] forms and other styles such as exotic eastern models. The [[Palace of Westminster]] (Houses of Parliament), London is an example of romantic architecture that is also referred to as [[Gothic Revival]].{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} In painting romanticism is exemplified by the paintings of [[Francisco Goya]] in Spain, [[Eugène Delacroix]] and [[Théodore Géricault]] in France, [[William Blake]], [[Henry Fuseli]], [[Samuel Palmer]], and [[J. M. W. Turner|William Turner]] in England, [[Caspar David Friedrich]] and [[Philipp Otto Runge]] in Germany, [[Francesco Hayez]] in Italy, [[Johan Christian Claussen Dahl]] in Norway, and [[Thomas Cole]] in America. Examples of sculptors of the romantic period include [[Antoine-Louis Barye]], [[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]], [[Auguste Préault]], and [[François Rude]]. As romanticism ran its course, some aspects of the movement evolved into symbolism.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=26}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=267|url=|language=ro}}</ref>{{sfn|Toman|2000|p=?}}{{sfn|Bris|1981|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1981|p=?}}
<gallery>
William Blake 008.jpg|''Elohim Creating Adam''; by [[William Blake]]; 1795; color print finished in ink and watercolour on paper; 43.1 × 53.6 cm; [[Tate Britain]] (London){{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=286}}
El Tres de Mayo, by Francisco de Goya, from Prado in Google Earth.jpg|''[[The Third of May 1808]]''; by [[Francisco Goya]]; 1814; oil on canvas; 2.68 × 3.47 m; [[Museo del Prado]] ([[Madrid]], Spain){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=286}}
JEAN LOUIS THÉODORE GÉRICAULT - La Balsa de la Medusa (Museo del Louvre, 1818-19).jpg|''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]''; by [[Théodore Géricault]]; 1819; oil on canvas; 4.91 × 7.16 m; [[Louvre]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=280}}
Delacroix - La Mort de Sardanapale (1827).jpg|''[[The Death of Sardanapalus]]''; by [[Eugène Delacroix]]; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.92 × 4.96 m; Louvre{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=281}}
Parliament at Sunset.JPG|[[Palace of Westminster]] (London), 1840–1870, by [[Sir Charles Barry]] and [[Pugin|A. Welby Pugin]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=114}}
</gallery>
====Academism====
{{main|Academic art}}
Academism is the codification of art into rules that can be learned in art academies. It promotes the Classical ideals of beauty and artistic perfection. There was also a very strict hierarchy of subjects. At the top, there were paintings that depicted historic events, including the biblical and [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] ones, followed by the [[portrait]] and by the [[landscape]]. At the bottom of the hierarchy were [[still life]] and [[genre painting]]. [[Nicolas Poussin]] was the artist whose works and theories played the most significant role in the development of academism. The vales of academism were situated in the centre of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] project of discovering the basic principles and ideals of art.
During the 18th century, across all Europe, many academies were founded, that will later dominate the art of the 19th century. In order to study at an art academy, young artists had to take an admission exam, and after being admitted, they would study there for multiple years. Most of the 19th century French [[art movement]]s were exterior or even opposing the values of academism.
Some of the most important artists of the French academy were [[William Bouguereau]] (1825–1905), [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1824–1904), [[Alexandre Cabanel]] (1823–1889) and [[Thomas Couture]] (1815–1879). Academic art is closely related to [[Beaux-Arts architecture]], which developed in the same place and holds to a similar classicizing ideal. The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|pages=276, 277|url=|language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Little|first1=Stephen|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Arta|date=2005|publisher=Rao|isbn=973-717-041-5|page=64|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
<gallery>
Paris Palais Garnier 2010-04-06 16.55.07.jpg|[[Palais Garnier]] (Paris), 1860–1875, by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]]{{sfn|Rogers|Gumuchdjian|Jones|2014|p=296}}
Jean-Leon Gerome Pollice Verso.jpg|''Pollice Verso'' (Thumbs Down); by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]]; 1872; oil on canvas; height: 96.5 cm; [[Phoenix Art Museum]] ([[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizona]], US)
The Birth of Venus by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1879).jpg|''[[The Birth of Venus (Bouguereau)|The Birth of Venus]]''; by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]]; 1879; oil on canvas; 300 x 215 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=278|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Alexandre Cabanel Phèdre.jpg|''Phaedra''; by [[Alexandre Cabanel]]; 1880; oil on canvas; 194 x 286 cm; [[Musée Fabre]] ([[Montpellier]], France)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=277|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
The Roses of Heliogabalus.jpg|''[[The Roses of Heliogabalus]]''; by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]; 1888; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 2.1 m; private collection of [[Juan Antonio Pérez Simón]]<ref>{{cite book|editor=Victoria Clarke |title=FLOWER: Exploring the World in Bloom|date=2020|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=|page=28|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
===== Revivalism and Eclecticism =====
When it comes to architecture and applied arts, the 19th century is best known as the century of [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivals]]. One of the most well-known revivalist styles is the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] or Neo-Gothic, which first appeared in the mid-18th century in a few houses in [[England]], like the [[Strawberry Hill House]] in London. However, these houses were isolated cases, since the beginning of the 19th century was dominated by [[Neoclassicism]]. Later, between 1830 and 1840, a taste and nostalgia for the rediscovery of past styles, ranging from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, developed under the influence of romanticism. Approximatively until World War I, rehashes of the past dominated the world of architecture and applied arts. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian]] for prisons, [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] for churches, or [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the [[pharaoh]]s with [[death]] and [[eternity]], the [[Middle Ages]] with [[Christianity]], or the [[House of Medici|Medici family]] with the rise of banking and modern commerce. Sometimes, these styles were also seen in a nationalistic way, on the idea that architecture might represent the glory of a nation. Some of them were seen as 'national styles', like the Gothic Revival in the UK and the German states or the [[Romanian Revival architecture|Romanian Revival]] in Romania. [[Augustus Pugin]] called the Gothic style the 'absolute duty'<ref>{{cite book|last1=Luckhurst|first1=Roger|title=GOTHIC – An Illustrated History|date=2021|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-25251-2|page=19|url=|language=en}}</ref> of the English architect, despite the fact that the style is of French origin. This way, architecture and the applied arts were used to grant the aura of a highly idealized glorious past. Some architects and designers associated historic styles, especially the medieval ones, with an idealized fantasy organic life, which they put in comparison with the reality of their time.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=139, 141, 142}}
Despite revivalism being so prevalent, this doesn't mean that there was no originality in these works. Architects, [[ébéniste]]s and other craftsmen, especially during the second half of the 19th century, created mixes of styles, by extracting and interpreting elements specific to certain eras and areas. This practice is known as ''[[eclecticism]]''. This stylistic development occurred during a period when the competition of World's Fairs motivated many countries to invent new industrial methods of creation.
<gallery>
File:Coin cabinet MET DP103176.jpg|[[Egyptian revival decorative arts|Egyptian Revival]] - Coin cabinet; 1809–1819; [[mahogany]] (probably [[Swietenia mahagoni]]), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
File:Vase (vase gothique Fragonard) (one of a pair) MET DP169251.jpg|[[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] - Pair of vases; manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844; hard-paste porcelain; 36.4 x 32.7 x 20 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
Saint Augustin Church Paris.jpg|[[Eclecticism in architecture|Eclectic]] - [[Saint-Augustin, Paris|Église Saint-Augustin de Paris]], 1860–1868, by [[Victor Baltard]]
Musée des arts décoratifs Gründerzeit-Büffet (1).jpg|[[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] - Buffet; by [[Henri-Auguste Fourdinois]], Nivillier, Party, Hugues Protat, Primo and Maigret; 1867; walnut, [[jasper]] and [[lapis lazuli]] marquetry, and ivory and silver-inlayed interior; unknown dimensions; [[Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris|Musée des Arts Décoratifs]] (Paris)
Immeuble rue La Boétie, rue de Miromesnil, Paris 8e.jpg|[[Rococo Revival]] - Apartment building no. 8 on [[Rue de Miromesnil]] (Paris), 1900, by P. Lobrot
</gallery>
==== Realism (c. 1830–1890) ====
{{main|Realism (art movement)}}
Realism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, c. 1840, and had counterparts in sculpture, literature, and drama, often referred to as [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] in literature. In nineteenth-century painting, the term Realism refers more to the subject matter depicted than to the style or technique. Realist paintings typically represent ordinary places and people engaged in everyday activities, as opposed to grand, idealized landscapes, mythological gods, biblical subjects, and historical figures and events that had often dominated painting in western culture. Courbet said "I cannot paint an angel because I have never seen one".{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}}
Realism was also in part a reaction to the often dramatic, exotic, and emotionally charged work of romanticism. The term realism is applied relative to the idealized imagery of neo-classicism and the romanticized imagery of romanticism. Artists such as [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot]] and [[Honoré Daumier]] had loose associations with realism, as did members of the [[Barbizon School]], particularly [[Jean-François Millet]], but it was perhaps [[Gustave Courbet]] who was the central figure in the movement, self identifying as a realist, advocating realism, and influencing younger artists such as [[Édouard Manet]]. One significant aspect of realism was the practice of painting landscapes [[en plein air]] and its subsequent influence on [[impressionism]].
Beyond France, realism is exemplified by artists such as [[Wilhelm Leibl]] in Germany, [[Ford Madox Brown]] in England, and [[Winslow Homer]] in the United States. Art historian [[H. Harvard Arnason|H. H. Arnason]] wrote, "The chronological sequence of neo-classicism, romanticism, and realism is, of course, only a convenient stratification of movements or tendencies so inextricably bound up with one another and with the preceding movements that it is impossible to tell where one ended and another began",{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}} and this becomes even more pertinent and complex as one follows all of the movements and "isms" into the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{sfn|Leymarie|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1973|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1973|p=?}}{{sfn|Faunce|1993|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Courbet LAtelier du peintre.jpg|''[[The Painter's Studio]]''; by [[Gustave Courbet]]; 1854–1855; oil on canvas; 3.59 x 5.98 m; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=289}}
Jean-François Millet - Gleaners - Google Art Project 2.jpg|''[[The Gleaners]]''; by [[Jean-François Millet]]; 1857; oil on canvas; 0.84 x 1.12 m; Musée d'Orsay{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=289}}
Honoré Daumier, The Third-Class Carriage - The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|''[[The Third-Class Carriage]]''; by [[Honoré Daumier]]; {{circa}}1862–1864; oil on canvas; 65.4 x 90.2 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
Adolph Menzel - Eisenwalzwerk - Google Art Project.jpg|''The Iron Rolling Mill''; by [[Adolph von Menzel]]; 1875; oil on canvas; 153 x 253 cm; [[Alte Nationalgalerie]] ([[Berlin]], [[Germany]])<ref name="Farthing302">{{cite book|last1=Farthing|first1=Stephen|title=ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană|date=2020|publisher=rao|isbn=978-606-006-392-6|page=302|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
Сбор угля бедными на выработанной шахте.jpg|''The Poor, Picking up Pieces of Coal''; by [[Nikolay Kasatkin]]; 1894; oil on canvas; 80 x 107 cm; [[Russian Museum]] ([[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]])<ref name="Farthing302" />
</gallery>
==== Impressionism (c. 1865–1885) ====
{{main|Impressionism}}
[[File:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg|thumb|''[[Impression, Sunrise]]''; by [[Claude Monet]]; 1872; oil on canvas; 48.1 x 62.8 cm; [[Musée Marmottan Monet]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}]]
Impressionism emerged in France, under the influences of [[Realism (art movement)|Realism]], the [[Barbizon School]], and [[en plein air]] painters like [[Eugène Boudin]], [[Camille Corot]], [[Charles-François Daubigny|Charles- Francois Daubigny]], and [[Johan Barthold Jongkind]]. Starting in the late 1850s, several of the impressionists had made acquaintances and friendships as students in Paris, notably at the free [[Académie Suisse]] and [[Charles Gleyre]]'s studio. Their progressive work was frequently rejected by the conservative juries of the prestigious [[Académie des Beaux-Arts|Académie des Beaux Arts]] salons, a forum where many artist turned to establish their reputations, and many of the young artist were included in a highly publicized, but much ridiculed [[Salon des Refusés]] in 1863. In 1874 they formed the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, independent of the academy, and mounted the first of several impressionist exhibitions in Paris, through to 1886 when their eighth and final exhibition was held. Important figures in the movement included [[Frédéric Bazille]], [[Gustave Caillebotte]], [[Mary Cassatt]], [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Edgar Degas]], [[Armand Guillaumin]], [[Édouard Manet]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Berthe Morisot]], [[Camille Pissarro]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], and [[Alfred Sisley]]. Although impressionism was primarily a movement of painters, Degas and Renoir also produced sculptures and others like [[Auguste Rodin]] and [[Medardo Rosso]] are sometimes linked to impressionism. By 1885 impressionism had achieved some prominence, and yet a younger generation were already pushing the limits beyond impressionism. Artist from [[Museum of Russian impressionism|Russia]], [[Heidelberg School|Australia]], [[American Impressionism|America]] and Latin America soon adopted impressionist styles. A few of the original impressionist continued producing significant work into the 1910s and 1920s.{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Courthion|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Leymarie|1955|p=?}}
Although not unprecedented, many of the techniques used were in contrast to traditional methods. Paintings were often completed in hours or days with wet paint applied to wet paint (opposed to wet on dry paint, completed in weeks and months). Rather than applying glazes and mixed colors, pure colors were often applied side by side, in thick, opaque, [[impasto]] strokes; blending in the eye of the viewer when observed from a distance. Black was used very sparingly, or not at all, and defining lines replaced with nuanced strokes of color forming the subjects, contours, and shapes. Art historian H. W. Janson said "instead of adding to the illusion of real space, it strengthens the unity of the actual painted surface."{{sfn|Janson|1977|p=?}} Impressionist paintings typically depict landscapes, portraits, still lifes, domestic scenes, daily leisure and nightlife, all treated in a realist manner. Compositions were often based on unusual perspectives, appearing spontaneous and candid. The paintings were usually void of didactic, symbolic, or metaphoric meanings, and rarely addressed the biblical, mythological, and historical subjects that were so highly regarded by the academies or the darker and psychological interest explored by the symbolist. The nuances of light, shadow, atmosphere, and reflections of colors from surfaces were examined, sometimes emphasizing changes of these elements in time. The painting itself was the subject of the painting. It was [[art for art's sake]], an idea that had been floating around for a few of decades but it perhaps reached a new high and consistency in impressionism.{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Blunden|1976|p=?}}{{sfn|Courthion|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Leymarie|1955|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Edgar Degas - At the Races in the Countryside - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[At the Races in the Countryside]]''; by [[Edgar Degas]]; 1869; oil on canvas; 36.5 x 56 cm; [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Boston]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Claude Monet, 1873-74, Boulevard des Capucines, oil on canvas, 80.3 x 60.3 cm, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City.jpg|''[[Boulevard des Capucines (Monet)|Boulevard des Capucines]]''; by [[Claude Monet]]; 1873; oil on canvas; 80.5 x 60.2 cm; [[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]] ([[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]], [[Missouri]], US){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Camille Pissarro - Gelée blanche, ancienne route d´Ennery, Pontoise - 1873.jpg|''Hoarfrost: Old Road to Ennery, Pontoise''; by [[Camille Pissarro]]; 1873; oil on canvas; 64.7 x 92.6 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Alfred Sisley, L'automne - Bords de la Seine pres Bougival (Autumn - Banks of the Seine near Bougival), 1873.jpg|''Banks of the Seine near Bougival''; by [[Alfred Sisley]]; 1873; oil on canvas; 46.2 x 62.1 cm; [[Montreal Museum of Fine Arts]] ([[Montreal]], [[Canada]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Pierre-Auguste Renoir 023.jpg|''[[La Loge]]''; [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]; 1874; oil on canvas; 80 x 63.4 cm; [[Courtauld Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=291}}
Gustave Caillebotte - The Floor Planers - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Les raboteurs de parquet|The Floor Scrapers]]''; by [[Gustave Caillebotte]]; 1875; oil on canvas; 1 x 1.54 m; Musée d'Orsay{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=293}}
Gustave Caillebotte - Paris Street; Rainy Day - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[Paris Street; Rainy Day]]''; by [[Gustave Caillebotte]]; 1877; oil on canvas; 2.12 x 2.76 cm; [[Art Institute of Chicago]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=293}}
Berthe Morisot - Sommertag - 1879.jpeg|''[[Summer's Day]]''; by [[Berthe Morisot]]; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 cm × 75.2 cm; [[National Portrait Gallery, London|National Portrait Gallery]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=293}}
Edouard Manet, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère.jpg|''[[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]]''; by [[Édouard Manet]]; 1881–1882; oil on canvas; 0.96 × 1.30 cm.; [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] (London){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=294}}
Nicolae Grigorescu - Car cu boi (8).jpg|''Ox-Drawn Cart''; by [[Nicolae Grigorescu]]; 1899; oil on canvas; 66 x 81 cm; [[National Museum of Art of Romania]] ([[Bucharest]], [[Romania]])
</gallery>
==== Symbolism (c. 1860–1915) ====
{{main|Symbolism (art)}}
Symbolism emerged in France and Belgium in the 3rd quarter of the nineteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the 1870s, and later to America to a lesser extent. It evolved from romanticism without a clear or defining demarcation point, although poetry, literature, and specifically the publication of [[Charles Baudelaire]]'s ''[[Les Fleurs du mal]]'' (''The Flowers of Evil'') in 1857 were significant in the development of symbolism. It had international expression in poetry, literature, drama, and music. In architecture, the applied arts, and decorative arts symbolism closely paralleled and overlapped into [[Art Nouveau]]. Symbolism is often inextricably linked to other contemporary art movements, surfacing and finding expression within other styles like [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Les Nabis]], the [[Decadent Movement]], the [[Fin de siècle|Fin-de Siecle]], [[Art Nouveau]], The [[Munich Secession]], The [[Vienna Secession]], [[Expressionism]], and even the [[Pre-Raphaelites]], which had formed before and influenced symbolism as well. Artist as diverse as [[James McNeill Whistler]], [[Eugène Carrière]], [[Ferdinand Hodler]], [[Fernand Khnopff]], [[Giovanni Segantini]], [[Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer]], [[Jean Delville]], and [[James Ensor]] all had varying degrees of association with symbolism. Art historian Robert L. Delevoy wrote "Symbolism was less a school than the atmosphere of a period."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}} It quickly began to fade with the onset of [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Futurism]] and had largely dissipated by the outbreak of the First World War, however it did find some sustained development and relevance in the [[Metaphysical art|metaphysical school]], which in turn had a profound influence on surrealism.{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}}
The subjects, themes, and meanings of symbolist art are frequently veiled and obscure, but at its best still manage to resonate deeply on psychological or emotional levels. The subjects are often presented as [[metaphors]] or [[allegories]], aiming to evoke highly subjective, personal, introspective emotions and ideas in the viewer, without clearly defining or addressing the subject directly. The poet [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] wrote "depict not the thing but the effect it produces"<ref name="nyt-morris-2007">{{cite web |last=Morris |first=Roderick Conway |date=2007-03-16 |title=The elusive Symbolist movement |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html |access-date=2021-04-30 |website=The New York Times |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and "To name an object is to suppress three quarters of the pleasure of the poem which is made to be understood little by little".{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}} The English painter [[George Frederic Watts]] stated "I paint ideas, not things."{{sfn|Delevoy|1978|p=?}}{{sfn|Ponente|1965|p=?}}{{sfn|Cassou|1979|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Head of Orpheus.jpg|''Thracian Girl with Head of Orpheus on his Lyre''; by [[Gustave Moreau]]; 1865; oil; 154 × 99.5 cm; [[Musée d'Orsay]] (Paris)
La vision après le sermon (Paul Gauguin).jpg|''[[Vision After the Sermon]]'' (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel); 1888; oil on canvas; 73 x 92 cm; [[Scottish National Gallery]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=307}}
Edvard Munch, 1893, The Scream, oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard, 91 x 73 cm, National Gallery of Norway.jpg|''[[The Scream]]''; by [[Edvard Munch]]; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; [[National Gallery (Norway)|National Gallery]] ([[Oslo]], [[Norway]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=307}}
Redon - Green Death c. 1905.jpg|''Green Death''; by [[Odilon Redon]]; {{circa}}1905; oil on canvas; 54.9 x 46.3 cm; Museum of Modern Art<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.moma.org/collection/works/80362|title=Odilon Redon. Green Death. c. 1905|website=moma.org|access-date=28 April 2022}}</ref>
Odilon Redon - The Cyclops, c. 1914.jpg|''[[The Cyclops (Redon)|The Cyclops]]''; by [[Odilon Redon]]; {{circa}}1914; oil on cardboard on panel; 64 x 51 cm; [[Kröller-Müller Museum]] ([[Otterlo]], the [[Netherlands]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=307}}
</gallery>
==== Post-Impressionism (c. 1885–1910) ====
{{main|Post-Impressionism}}
[[File:A Sunday on La Grande Jatte, Georges Seurat, 1884.jpg|thumb|''[[A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte]]''; by [[Georges Seurat]]; 1884–1886; oil on canvas; 2.08 x 3.08 m; [[Art Institute of Chicago]] {{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}]]
Post-Impressionism is a rather imprecise term applied to a diverse generation of artists. In its strictest sense, it pertains to four highly influential artists: [[Paul Cézanne]],{{sfn|Raynal|1954|p=?}}{{sfn|Schapiro|1962|p=?}} [[Paul Gauguin]],{{sfn|Estienne|1953a|p=?}}{{sfn|Goldwater|1972|p=?}} [[Georges Seurat]],{{sfn|Courthion|1988|p=?}}{{sfn|Alexandrian|1980|p=?}} and [[Vincent van Gogh]].{{sfn|Estienne|1953b|p=?}}{{sfn|Schapiro|1950|p=?}} Each passed through an impressionist phase, but ultimately emerged with four very original but different styles. Collectively, their work anticipated, and often directly influenced, much of the [[avant-garde]] art that appeared before the First World War including fauvism, cubism, expressionism, and early abstraction. Cézanne (particularly influential on cubism) and Van Gogh worked in relative isolation, away from Paris, at critical points in their careers, while Seurat and Gauguin worked in groups, more collaboratively, at key points in their development. Another important artist of the period is [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec|Toulouse-Lautrec]], an influential painter as well as graphic artist.{{sfn|Lassaigne|1950|p=?}}{{sfn|Cooper|1966|p=?}} In a broader sense, post-impressionism includes a generation of predominantly French and Belgian artist who worked in a range of styles and groups. Most had come under the sway of impressionism at some point, but pushed their work beyond it into a number of factions as early as the mid-1880s, sometimes as a logical development of impressionism, other times as a reaction against it. Post-Impressionists typically depicted impressionist subjects, but the work, particularly synthetism, often contained symbolism, spiritualism, and moody atmospheres that rarely appeared in impressionism. Unnatural colors, patterns, flat plains, odd perspectives and viewpoints pushed to extremes, all moved the center of modernism a step closer to abstraction with a standard for experimentation.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Raynal|1953|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}
'''[[Neo-Impressionism]]''' ([[Divisionism]] or [[Pointillism]], c. 1884–1894) explored light and color based on scientific color theories, creating mosaics of brush strokes in pure colors, sometimes laid out in rhythmic patterns with lines influenced by [[Art Nouveau]]. The leading artists were [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Signac]], others include [[Henri-Edmond Cross]], [[Maximilien Luce]], [[Albert Dubois-Pillet]], and for a period [[Pissarro]] and [[Van Gogh]]. It was influential on fauvism, and elements of the style appeared in expressionism, cubism, and early abstraction. '''[[Synthetism]]''' ([[Cloisonnism]] c. 1888–1903) Cloisonnism was conceived by [[Émile Bernard]] and immediately taken up and developed by [[Paul Gauguin]] and others while at an artists' colony in Pont-Aven (Brittany, France). The style resembled [[cloisonné enamel]] or [[stained glass]], with flat, bold colors outlined in black or dark colors. Synthetism, exemplified in the work of Gauguin and [[Paul Sérusier]], is slightly a broader term with less emphasis on dark outlines and cloisonné qualities. Other artist include [[Cuno Amiet]], [[Louis Anquetin]], [[Charles Filiger]], [[Meyer de Haan|Jacob Meyer de Haan]], [[Charles Laval]], and [[Armand Séguin (painter)|Armand Seguin]]. Their work greatly influenced fauvism and expressionism. '''[[Les Nabis]]''' (c. 1890–1905: Hebrew for prophets or illuminati) was a larger movement in France and Belgium that eclectically drew on progressive elements in synthetism, neo-impressionism, symbolism, and Art Nouveau. Perhaps more influential than the art, were the numerous theories, manifestoes, and infectious enthusiasm for the avant-garde, setting the tone for the proliferation of movements and "isms" in the first quarter of the 20th century. [[La Revue Blanche]] often published Les Nabis and symbolist content. The work of [[Édouard Vuillard]],{{sfn|Preston|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Warnod|1989|p=?}} and [[Pierre Bonnard]],{{sfn|Terrasse|1964|p=?}}{{sfn|Fermigier|1969|p=?}} ca. 1890–1910 is exemplary of Les Nabis, though both evolved in their styles and produced significant work into the 1940s. Other artist include [[Maurice Denis]], [[Maxime Dethomas]], [[Meyer de Haan]], [[Henri-Gabriel Ibels]], [[Georges Lacombe (painter)|Georges Lacombe]], [[Aristide Maillol]], [[Paul Ranson]], [[Ker-Xavier Roussel]], [[Armand Séguin]], [[Paul Sérusier]], [[Félix Vallotton]], [[Jan Verkade]], and others.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Raynal|1953|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Van Gogh - Starry Night - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Starry Night]]''; by [[Vincent van Gogh]]; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City)
Signac - Portrait de Félix Fénéon.jpg|''[[Opus 217. Against the Enamel of a Background Rhythmic with Beats and Angles, Tones, and Tints, Portrait of M. Félix Fénéon in 1890|Félix Fénéon]]''; by [[Paul Signac]]; 1890; oil on canvas; 73.5 x 92.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}
Eh quoi! Tu es jaloux? by Paul Gauguin.jpg|''[[Aha Oe Feii?]]'' (Are You Jealous?); by [[Paul Gauguin]]; 1892; oil on canvas; 68 x 92 cm; [[Pushkin Museum]] ([[Moscow]], [[Russia]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, At the Moulin Rouge.jpg|''[[At the Moulin Rouge]]''; by [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]; 1892/1895; oil on canvas, 1.23 × 1.41 m; [[Art Institute of Chicago]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=305}}
Paul Cézanne, French - The Large Bathers - Google Art Project.jpg|''[[The Bathers (Cézanne)|The Bathers]]''; by [[Paul Cézanne]]; 1898–1905; oil on canvas; 210.5 cm × 250.8 cm; [[Philadelphia Museum of Art]] ([[Philadelphia]], US)
</gallery>
===Early 20th century===
{{See also|20th-century Western painting}}
The history of [[20th-century art]] is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. The art movements of [[Fauvism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Cubism]], [[abstract art]], [[Dada]]ism and [[Surrealism]] led to further explorations of new creative styles and manners of expression. Increasing [[globalization|global]] interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as [[Pablo Picasso]] being influenced by [[Iberian sculpture]], [[African art|African sculpture]] and [[Primitivism]]. [[Japonism]], and Japanese [[woodcut]]s (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent artistic developments. The influential example set by [[Paul Gauguin]]'s interest in [[Oceanic art]] and the sudden popularity among the [[Connoisseur|cognoscenti]] in early 20th century Paris of newly discovered African fetish sculptures and other works from non-European cultures were taken up by Picasso, [[Henri Matisse]], and many of their colleagues. Later in the 20th century, [[Pop Art]] and [[Abstract Expressionism]] came to prominence.
==== Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1914) ====
{{main|Art Nouveau}}
[[File:Paris Metro 2 Porte Dauphine Libellule.JPG|thumb|[[Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro)|Porte Dauphine Métro Station]] (Paris), by [[Hector Guimard]], 1900{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=141}}]]
Art Nouveau ({{lang-fr|new art}}) was an international and widespread art and design movement that emerged in the final decades of the 19th century until the First World War in 1914. It was catapulted into international prominence with the [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris]]. Developing almost simultaneously in parts of Europe and the US, it was an attempt to create a unique and modern form of expression that evoked the spirit of the new century. It manifested in painting, illustration, sculpture, jewellery, metalwork, glass, ceramics, textiles, graphic design, furniture, architecture, costume design and fashion. Art Nouveau artists aimed to raise the status of craft and design to the level of [[fine art]].
The movement is highly associated with sinuous organic forms, such as flowers, vines and leaves, but also insects and animals, through the works of artists like [[Alphonse Mucha]], [[Victor Horta]], [[Hector Guimard]], [[Antoni Gaudí]], [[René Lalique]] or [[Émile Gallé]]. Art Nouveau designs and buildings can often be asymmetrical. Although there are identifying characteristics, the style also displayed many regional and national interpretations.
Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the [[modern architecture]] and design of the 20th century. It was the first architectural style without historic precedent, the 19th century being notorious for a practice known as [[Historicism (art)|Historicism]], which is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous artistic era. Between {{c.}}1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression. Despite this, Art Nouveau was also heavily influenced by styles from the past such as [[Celtic art|Celtic]], [[Gothic art|Gothic]] and [[Rococo]] art, and also by the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], [[Aestheticism]], [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and especially by [[Japanese art]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bergdoll|first1=Barry|title=European Architecture 1750–1890|date=2000|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-284222-0|pages=269, 279|url=|language=en}}</ref>{{sfnm|Hodge|2017|1p=31|Hopkins|2014|2pp=140, 141|Hodge|2019|3p=36}}
==== Fauvism (c. 1898–1909) ====
{{main|Fauvism}}
Fauvism emerged from post-impressionism, gradually developing into the first major movement of the 20th century. Its genesis was in 1895 when [[Henri Matisse]], the oldest and central figure, entered the studio of [[Gustave Moreau]] at the [[Ecole des Beaux Arts (Paris)|Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]. There he met [[Georges Rouault]], [[Charles Camoin]], [[Henri Manguin]], and [[Albert Marquet]]. Marquet said "As early as 1898 Matisse and I were working in what was later to be called the Fauve manner. The first exhibitions at the Indepéndants in which we were, I believe, the only ones to paint in pure tones, go back to 1901."{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} By 1902–03 the circle of like-minded artist had grown to include [[Georges Braque]], [[André Derain]], [[Raoul Dufy]], [[Othon Friesz]], [[Jean Metzinger]], [[Jean Puy]], [[Louis Valtat]], [[Kees van Dongen]], and [[Maurice de Vlaminck]]. During this period a number of influential retrospective exhibitions were held in Paris: Seurat (1900, 1905), Van Gogh (1901, 1905), Toulouse-Lautrec (1902), Gauguin (1906), Cézanne (1907), all relatively unknown to the public at that time. Matisse and Derain collected African carvings, a novel but growing curiosity of the time. Matisse spent the summer of 1904 in [[Saint-Tropez]] painting with the neo-impressionist [[Paul Signac]] and [[Henri-Edmond Cross]], followed in 1905 by Camoin, Manguin, and Marquet. The artist exhibited regularity at the [[Salon Des Independants|Salon des Indepéndants]] and the [[Salon d'Automne]] 1903–1908 and in 1905 their work created a sensation and a scandal. Matisse stated "We were exhibiting at the Salon d'Automne, Derain, Manguin, Marquet, Puy, and a few others were hung together in one of the larger galleries. In the center of this room the sculptor [[Albert Marque|Marque]] exhibited a bust of a child very much in the Italian style. [[Louis Vauxcelles|Vauxcelles]] [art critic for [[Gil Blas (periodical)|Gil Blas]]] entered the room and said, Well! well! [[Donatello]] in the mist of wild beasts! [Donatello chez les fauves]."{{sfn|Clay|1978}} The movement had not been perceived as an entity by the public, but once published the name stuck. Unlike the impressionist and their long struggle for acceptance, the avant-garde had an eager audience by 1906–1907 and the fauvist were attracting collectors from America to Russia. However fauvism largely dissolved in 1908, as cubism appeared, most of the artist began exploring other styles and moving in different directions. Only Matisse and Dufy continued to explore fauvism into the 1950s.{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1978|p=?}}<ref name="Diehl (1972)">Diehl, Gaston (1972) The Fauves: Library of Great Art Movements. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York. 168 pp. {{ISBN|0-8109-0114-5}}</ref>{{sfn|Lassaigne|1959|p=?}}<ref name="Jacobus (1973)">Jacobus, J. (1973) Matisse: Library of Great Painters. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York, 184 pp.</ref>
The fauvist painted landscapes [[en plein air]], interiors, figures, and still lifes, following examples of realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. They applied paint with loose brushstrokes, in thick, unnatural, often contrasting, vibrant colors, at times straight from the tube. Gauguin's influence, with his exploration of the expressive values and spatial aspects of patterning with flat, pure colors, as well as his interest in [[primitivism]] were significant, as was neo-impressionism. Matisse explained – for a long time color served as a complement of design, the painters of the Renaissance constructed the picture by line, adding local color afterwards – writing: "From [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]] to Van Gogh and chiefly to Gauguin, by way of the Impressionist, who cleared the ground, and Cézanne, who gave the final impulse and introduced colored volumes, we can follow this rehabilitation of color's function, this restoration of its emotive power"{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}} Fauvism was the culmination in a shift, from drawing and line as the fundamental foundations of design in painting to color, and they depicted their subjects on the verge of abstraction.{{sfn|Leymarie|1959|p=?}}{{sfn|Clay|1978|p=?}}<ref name="Diehl (1972)" />{{sfn|Lassaigne|1959|p=?}}<ref name="Jacobus (1973)" />
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg|''[[Woman with a Hat]]''; by [[Henri Matisse]]; 1905; oil on canvas; 80.7 x 59.7 cm; [[San Francisco Museum of Modern Art]] ([[San Francisco]], US){{sfn|Dempsey|2018|page=31}}
Fauvism Landscape; by Louis Valtat; oil on canvas, Speed Art Museum, Louisville, Kentucky II.jpg|''Fauve Landscape''; by [[Louis Valtat]]; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; [[Speed Art Museum]] ([[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]], [[Kentucky]], US)
Derain CharingCrossBridge.png|''Charing Cross Bridge, London''; by [[André Derain]]; 1906; oil on canvas, 80.3 × 100.3 cm.; [[National Gallery of Art]] ([[Washington, D.C.]], US)
LA CIOTAT.PNG|''La Ciotat''; by [[Othon Friesz]]; 1907; oil on canvas, 65.7 by 81 cm.; unknown collection
</gallery>
==== Expressionism (c. 1905–1930) ====
{{main|Expressionism}}
[[File:Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, 1913, Street, Berlin, oil on canvas, 120.6 x 91.1 cm, MoMA.jpg|thumb|''Street, Berlin''; by [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]]; 1913; oil on canvas; 1.21 x 0.91 m; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=335}}]] Expressionism was an international movement in painting, sculpture, the graphic arts, poetry, literature, theater, film, and architecture. Some associate the [[Second Viennese School]] and other music of the period with the movement. Most historians place the beginning of expressionism in 1905 with the founding of the [[Die Brücke]]. However, several artist were producing influential work that was in the spirit of expressionism c. 1885–1905 including [[Lovis Corinth]], [[James Ensor]], [[Käthe Kollwitz]], [[Paula Modersohn-Becker]], [[Edvard Munch]], [[Emil Nolde]], and [[Christian Rohlfs]] among others. Many of these artist later exhibited and associated with various expressionist groups. Expressionist painting is characterized by loose, spontaneous, frequently thick, [[impasto]] brushwork. It often conveyed how the artist felt about their subject, opposed to what it looked like, putting intuition and gut feelings over realistic representations or art theories. Expressionism was frequently infused with an angst or joy, and an overall engagement with contemporary life and social issues that was often absent from fauvism's focus on design and color applied to neutral subjects. [[Woodcut print]]s are particularly noteworthy in expressionism. Expressionism can sometimes overlap and integrate with other styles and movements, such as [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolism]], [[fauvism]], [[cubism]], [[futurism]], abstraction, and [[dada]]. Several groups and factions of expressionist appeared at various times and places.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
[[Die Brücke]] (The Bridge: 1905 -1913) aspired to connect "all revolutionary and surging elements."{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}} It was founded by four architectural students [[Ernst Ludwig Kirchner]], [[Erich Heckel]], [[Karl Schmidt-Rottluff]], and [[Fritz Bleyl]]. Sharing a studio in Dresden they produced paintings, carvings, prints, and organized exhibitions, separating in the summer to work independently. Their first exhibit was in 1905, later joined by [[Emil Nolde]] and [[Max Pechstein]] in 1906, and [[Otto Mueller]] in 1910 among others. Influences included [[Gothic art]], [[primitivism]], [[Art Nouveau]], and developments in Paris, particularly [[Van Gogh]] and [[fauvism]]. The group shifted to Berlin in 1911 and later dissolved in 1913. [[Der Blaue Reiter]] (The Blue Rider: 1911–1914), founded by [[Wassily Kandinsky]] and [[Franz Marc]], was a relatively informal group that organized exhibitions of art from Paris and Europe, as well their own. It was one in a series of increasingly progressive groups splitting from the Art Academy in Munich including The Munich Secession in 1892 (realist and impressionist), Phalanx in 1901 (postimpressionist), [[Neue Künstlervereinigung München|Neue Kunstler Vereiningung]] in 1909, and The Blue Rider in 1911. Artist associated with the latter two groups included the [[David Burliuk|Burliuk]] brothers, [[Heinrich Campendonk]], [[Alexej von Jawlensky]], [[Paul Klee]], [[August Macke]], [[Gabriele Münter]], and [[Marianne von Werefkin]]. The euphonious almanac ''Der Blaue Reiter'', a collection of influential essays, and Kandinsky's ''[[Concerning the Spiritual in Art]]'' with his ideas on non-objective art were both published in 1912. The Blue Rider ended with the outbreak of World War I in which Macke and Marc both died.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
Other artists such as [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]], and [[Richard Gerstl]] emerged in Austria. French artist [[Georges Rouault]] and [[Chaïm Soutine]] had affinities with the movement. Sculptors include [[Ernst Barlach]], [[Wilhelm Lehmbruck]], [[Gerhard Marcks]], and [[William Wauer]]. Architects associated with expressionism include [[Max Berg]], [[Hermann Finsterlin]], [[Johann Friedrich Höger]], [[Michel de Klerk]], [[Erich Mendelsohn]], [[Hans Poelzig]], [[Hans Scharoun]], [[Rudolf Steiner]], and [[Bruno Taut]]. [[Der Sturm]] (The Storm 1910–1932) was a magazine with much expressionist content founded by [[Herwarth Walden]], with an associated gallery in Berlin opened in 1912 and a theater company and school in opened 1918. Films regarded as expressionistic, some considered as classics, include ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' ([[Robert Wiene]], 1920), ''[[Nosferatu]]'' ([[F. W. Murnau]],1922), and ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' ([[Fritz Lang]], 1927).{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
After World War I a tendency to withdraw from the avant-garde by many artist occurred, seen in the work of the original fauvists during the 1920s, [[Picasso]] and [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky's]] neoclassical periods, and [[Giorgio de Chirico|De Chirico's]] late work. This tendency was called '''[[New Objectivity]] (ca. 1919–1933)''' in Germany, and in contrast to the nostalgic nature of this work elsewhere, it was characterized by disillusionment and ruthless social criticisms. New objectivity artists mostly emerged from expressionist and [[dada]] milieus including [[Otto Dix]], [[Christian Schad]], [[Rudolf Schlichter]], [[Georg Scholz]], and [[Jeanne Mammen]]. [[Max Beckmann]] and [[George Grosz]] also had some association with new objectivity for a period. Although not intrinsically expressionistic, the '''[[Staatliches Bauhaus]] (School of Building: 1919–1933)''' was an influential German school merging crafts, decorative, and fine arts. Moving from Weimar, to Dessau, to Berlin, it changed and evolved in focus with time. Directors included architects [[Walter Gropius]] (1919–1928), [[Hannes Meyer]] (1928–1930), and [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] (1930–1933). At various points the faculty included [[Josef Albers]], [[Theo van Doesburg]], [[Lyonel Feininger]], [[Johannes Itten]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[El Lissitzky]], [[Gerhard Marcks]], [[László Moholy-Nagy]], [[Oskar Schlemmer]]. Bauhaus architects greatly influenced the [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]], which was characterized by simplified forms, a lack of ornamentation, a union of design and function, and the idea that mass production could be compatible with personal artistic vision. As the [[Nazi Party]] rose to power, modern art was dubbed "[[degenerate art]]" and the Bauhaus was closed in 1933, subduing modernism in Germany for several years.{{sfn|Arnason|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1979|p=?}}{{sfn|Daval|1980|p=?}}{{sfn|Dube|1983|p=?}}{{sfn|Richard|1978|p=?}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Edvard Munch, 1893, The Scream, oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard, 91 x 73 cm, National Gallery of Norway.jpg|''[[The Scream]]''; by [[Edvard Munch]]; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; [[National Gallery of Norway]] ([[Oslo]]){{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=118}}
Franz Marc 028.jpg|''Tower of Blue Horses''; by [[Franz Marc]]; 1912; ink and [[guache]] on card; 14.3 x 9.4 cm; [[Bavarian State Painting Collections]] ([[Munich]], Germany){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=335}}
Wassily Kandinsky Composition VII.jpg|''[[Composition VII]]''; by [[Wassily Kandinsky]]; 1913; oil on canvas; 2 x 3 m; [[Tretyakov Gallery]] ([[Moscow]], Russia){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=336}}
Einsteinturm 7443a.jpg|The [[Einstein Tower]] ([[Potsdam]], near [[Berlin]], Germany), 1920–1924, by [[Erich Mendelsohn]]{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=156}}
Paul klee actors mask 1924.jpg|''Actor's Mask''; by [[Paul Klee]]; 1924; oil on canvas mounted on board; 36.7 x 33.8 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Hodge|2017|p=32}}
</gallery>
====Cubism (c. 1907–1914)====
{{main|Cubism}}
[[Cubism]] consisted in the rejection of perspective, which leads to a new organisation of space where viewpoints multiply producing a fragmentation of the object that renders the predilection for form over the content of the representation obvious. [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Georges Braque]] and other Cubist artists, were inspired by the sculptures of [[Iberian sculpture|Iberia]], [[African art|Africa]] and [[Oceanic art|Oceania]] exhibited in the [[Louvre]] and the ethnographic museum in the [[Trocadéro]], and which were being offered at flee markets and in sale rooms.
'A Picasso studies an object the way a surgeon dissects a corpse,' wrote the critic and poet [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] in 1913. Five years earlier, [[Pablo Picasso]] and [[Georges Braque]] – friends, colleagues and rivals – had begun to reject perspectival [[Realism (arts)|realism]] for a form of artistic autopsy: an utterly revolutionary painting style that looked inside and around objects, presenting them analytically, objectively and completely impersonally.{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}}
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg|''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]''; by [[Pablo Picasso]]; 1907; oil on canvas; 2.43 × 2.3 m; [[Museum of Modern Art]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}}
Georges Braque, 1909-10, Pitcher and Violin, oil on canvas, 116.8 x 73.2 cm, Kunstmuseum Basel.jpg|''Violin and Pitcher''; by [[Georges Braque]]; 1909–1910; oil on canvas; 1.17 x 0.73 cm; [[Kunstmuseum Basel]] ([[Basel]], [[Switzerland]]){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=330}}
Robert Delaunay - Eiffel Tower - 1911 - Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum.jpg|''[[Eiffel Tower (Delaunay series)|The Eiffel Tower]]''; by [[Robert Delaunay]]; 1911; oil on canvas; 2.02 x 1.38 m; [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=332}}
1914 Gris Le Petit Déjeuner.jpg|''Breakfast''; by [[Juan Gris]]; 1914; gouache, oil and crayon on cut-and-pasted printed paper on canvas; 80.9 x 59.7 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=332}}
</gallery>
====Art Deco (c. 1920–1940)====
{{main|Art Deco}}
Art Deco appeared in France as a style of luxury and modernity. Soon, it spread quickly throughout the world, most dramatically in America, becoming more [[Streamline Moderne|streamlined]] though the 1930s. The style was named after the [[International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts]] held in Paris in 1925. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s. It had [[ancient Greek art|ancient Greek]], [[Roman art|Roman]], [[African art|African]], Aztec and [[Japanese art|Japanese]] influences, but also [[Futurism|Futurist]], [[Cubism|Cubist]] and [[Bauhaus]] ones. It sometimes blended with the [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian Revival]] style, due to the discovery in 1922 of the [[Tomb of Tutankhamun]] and the [[Egyptomania]] that it caused. Two examples of this are [[Le Louxor]] Cinema in Paris, 1919–1921, by [[Henri Zipcy]], and the [[Egyptian Theatre (DeKalb, Illinois)|Egyptian Theatre]] in [[DeKalb, Illinois|DeKalb]] ([[Illinois]], US), 1929–1930, by [[Elmer F. Behrns]]. In [[decorative arts]], including architecture, low-relief designs, and angular patterns and shapes were used. Predominant materials include [[chrome plating|chrome]], [[brass]], polished steel and [[aluminum]], inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.
Some of the most important Art Deco artists are the Paris-based Polish painter [[Tamara de Lempicka]], the Ukrainian-born French poster artist Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron, known as [[Cassandre]], and the French furniture designer and interior decorator [[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]].{{sfn|Dempsey|2018|page=70}}{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=44}}
==== Surrealism (c. 1924–1966) ====
[[Surrealism]] emerged as a faction of [[Dada]], formally announcing its inception in 1924 with [[André Breton]]'s ''Manifesto of Surrealism''.{{sfn|Breton|1924|p=?}} Originally a literary group of poets and writers in Paris, it soon developed into an international movement that included painters, sculptors, photographers, and filmmakers. A ''Second Manifeste du Surréalisme'' was published in 1929.{{sfn|Breton|1929|p=?}} Surrealism did not have significant expression in applied or decorative arts, architecture, or music, although a few isolated examples could be identified (e.g. chess sets, furniture, and [[Las Pozas]]). The small and short lived [[Metaphysical art|Metaphysical School]] (c. 1910–1921), with [[Giorgio de Chirico]] as its principal figure, was highly influential on surrealism. The surrealist explored a myriad of innovative techniques, some had recently been developed in Cubism and Dada, others were new, including [[collage]], found objects, assemblage, random chance, rayographs (photograms), painting on sand, dripping and flinging paint, [[decalcomania]], [[Frottage (art)|frottage]], [[fumage]], and raclage. Two fundamental approaches predominate surrealist art. [[Surrealist automatism|Automatism]] dominated in the early years which can be seen in the work of artist like [[André Masson]] and [[Joan Miró]]. Other artist, swayed by work of Giorgio de Chirico, used more traditional methods and mediums to illustrate unfiltered thoughts and incongruous juxtapositions, including [[Salvador Dalí]] and [[René Magritte]]. Significant artist include [[Jean Arp]], [[Hans Bellmer]], [[Victor Brauner]], [[Luis Buñuel]], [[Joseph Cornell]], [[Óscar Domínguez]], [[Max Ernst]], [[Wifredo Lam]], [[Yves Tanguy]], [[Man Ray]], [[Alberto Giacometti]], [[Méret Oppenheim]], and [[Roberto Matta]]. Other important artist informally accosted with surrealism include [[Marcel Duchamp]], [[Pablo Picasso]], and [[Frida Kahlo]]. Surrealist ideas and theories were discussed in a successive series of journals, ''[[La Révolution Surréaliste]]'' (1924–1929), ''[[Le Surrealisme au service de la revolution]]'' (1930–1933), ''[[Minotaure]]'' (1933–1939), ''[[VVV (magazine)|VVV]]'' (1942–1944). The automatic paintings produced by André Masson and Joan Miró, as well as latecomers to surrealism like Roberto Matta and [[Arshile Gorky]] had a considerable influenced on the [[abstract expressionist]] in the late 1940s.{{sfn|Waldberg|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Rubin|1968|p=?}}{{sfn|Schneede|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Passeron|1975|p=?}}{{sfn|Picon|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Jean|1980|p=?}}
With a measure of Dada's irreverence and contempt for the traditional political, religious, and bourgeois values of western culture that they believed had led the world into the First World War (Breton and other founding members were veterans); the surrealist explored the possibilities that had been opened up by [[Sigmund Freud]] regarding the subconscious mind: "Pure psychic automatism, by which one intends to express verbally, in writing or by any other method, the real functioning of the mind. Dictation by thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation."{{sfn|Breton|1924|p=?}} Surrealism sought to express pure thought, unfiltered and uncensored by political, religious, moral, or rational principles.{{sfn|Waldberg|1962|p=?}}{{sfn|Rubin|1968|p=?}}{{sfn|Schneede|1974|p=?}}{{sfn|Passeron|1975|p=?}}{{sfn|Picon|1977|p=?}}{{sfn|Jean|1980|p=?}}
<gallery>
File:De Chirico's Love Song.jpg|''[[The Song of Love]]''; by [[Giorgio de Chirico]]; 1914; oil on canvas; 73 x 59.1 cm; [[Museum of Modern Art]] (New York City){{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=351}}
The Elephant Celebes.jpg|''[[The Elephant Celebes]]''; by [[Max Ernst]]; 1921; oil on canvas; 125.4 × 107.9 cm; [[Tate Modern]] (London)
</gallery>
===Mid and late 20th century===
{{Main|Abstract Expressionism|Pop art|Minimalism (visual arts)|Conceptual art}}
As Europe struggled to recover from World War II, America moved into a position of political, economic and cultural strength. During the 1940s and 1950s, [[Abstract Expressionism]] emerged as the first specifically American art movement to have an international impact. In consequence, the art world's focus shifted from Europe to New York. Abstract Expressionists were a small group of loosely associated artists who had similar outlooks but different approaches. They were influenced by Surrealism, and believed in spontaneity, freedom of expression and abandonment of the themes of American life that had characterized national art of recent decades. One of the most famous representative of this movement was [[Jackson Pollock]], known for his painting made by pouring, flicking and dripping paint on to huge canvases on the ground. Other artists include [[Willem de Kooning]], [[Franz Kline]], [[Robert Motherwell]], [[Barnett Newman]], [[Mark Rothko]] and [[Clyfford Still]].
After World War II, consumerism and the mass media surged, and as a result, [[Pop art]] developed in both London and New York. In a London exhibition in 1956, the word 'Pop' was used in a collage created by [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]] (1922–2011) made of American magazines. Pop art was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, and interpreted ideas of pop culture. In celebrating and commenting on consumerism, pop artists, as they became known, produced colorful images based on advertising, the media and shopping, featuring film stars, comic strips, flags, packaging and food – things that everyone, rather than just a highbrow few, could relate to.
The term [[Minimalism (visual arts)|Minimalism]] was not new, but it gained momentum in the 1960s, specifically describing a style of art characterized by detached restraint. Originating in New York, it was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, but it also embraced [[Constructivism (art)|Constructivist]] ideas that art should be made of modern materials. Thus, Minimalist artists, primarily sculptors, often used non-traditional materials and production methods, often employing industrial or specialist fabricators to produce works to their specifications. The term was chiefly used to describe a group of American sculptors who re-evaluated the space around them, aiming to challenge assumptions and present familiar objects in new ways. Their artworks don't have any symbolism or hidden meaning, as they try to enable viewers to re-evaluate art and space around forms. Unlike a figural sculpture on which the viewer focuses to the exclusion of the room in which it stands, Minimalist art becomes one with its space. By focusing on the effects of context and the theatricality of the viewing experience, Minimalism exerted an indirect but powerful influence on later developments in [[Conceptual art|Conceptual]] and [[Performance art]], as well as providing a foil for the rise of [[Postmodernism]].
Despite developing almost 50 years after [[Marcel Duchamp]]'s ideas, [[Conceptual art]] showed that art does not always have to be judged aesthetically. It was never a single, cohesive movement, but an umbrella term that now covers several types of art and emerged more or less concurrently in America and Europe, first defined in New York. Conceptual artists promote the art of ideas, or concepts, suggesting that they can be more valid in the modern world than technical skill or aesthetics. No matter the art media of an artwork, it is considered as no more than a vehicle for presenting the concept. At its most extreme, Conceptual art foregoes the physical object completely, using verbal or written message to convey the idea.{{sfn|Hodge|2017|pp=42, 44, 46, 47}}{{sfn|Dempsey|2018|pages=104, 136}}{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=387}}
Traditionally, many creative acts such as [[sewing]], [[weaving]], and [[quilting]] have been considered as [[women's work]], described as [[craft]]s, and denied the cachet and public recognition of so-called [[Fine art|high or fine arts]] such as [[sculpture]] and [[painting]]. Many artists have now challenged this hierarchy by either expanding the scope of a fine art such as sculpture, by creating [[soft sculpture]]s using unconventional materials and practices, or by reclaiming and redefining the materials and methods of so-called craftwork, publicly exhibiting their work in museums and galleries and thus elevating the status of the decorative and applied arts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gipson |first=Ferren |title=Women's work: from feminine arts to feminist art |date=2022 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |isbn=978-0-7112-6465-6 |location=London}}</ref> Artists of the twentieth and twenty first centuries effecting this radical change include [[Maria Martinez]], [[Anni Albers]], [[Lucie Rie]], [[Lenore Tawney]], [[Louise Bourgeois]], [[Miriam Schapiro]], [[Faith Ringgold]], [[Magdalena Abakanowicz]], [[Sheila Hicks]], [[Marva Lee Pitchford-Jolly]], [[Judy Chicago]], and [[Dindga McCannon]].
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
IKB 191.jpg|''IKB 191''; by [[Yves Klein]]; 1962
Keith Haring Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg|''[[The Boxers (sculpture)|The Boxers]]''; by [[Keith Haring]]; 1987
Barcelona (3392396182).jpg|''[[El Cap de Barcelona]]''; by [[Roy Lichtenstein]]; 1991–1992
</gallery>
==See also==
{{Portal|History|The arts}}
{{Div col}}
* [[History of animation]]
* [[History of Asian art]]
* [[History of film]]
* [[History of literature]]
* [[History of music]]
* [[History of nude art]]
* [[History of painting]]
* [[History of photography]]
* [[History of poetry]]
* [[History of theatre]]
* [[History of video games]]
* [[List of art movements]]
* [[List of French artistic movements]]
* [[Periods in Western art history]]
* [[Timeline for invention in the arts]]
* [[Timeline of art]]
* [[Women artists]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{Reflist|22em}}
==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{cite book |last=Cooper |first=Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ |title=Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec |date=1966 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0512-4 |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Courthion |first=Pierre |title=Impressionism |date=1979 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0202-8 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Courthion |first=Pierre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ |title=Georges Seurat |date=1988 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-1519-7 |location=New York |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224307/https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- D -->
* {{cite book |last=Daval |first=Jean Luc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ |title=Modern art: The decisive years 1884–1914 |date=1979 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0212-4 |location=Geneva |language=fr |translator-last=Harrison |translator-first=Helga |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224305/https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Daval |first=Jean-Luc |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ |title=Avant-garde art, 1914–1939 |date=1980 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0334-1 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Delevoy |first=Robert L. |title=Symbolists and Symbolism |date=1978 |publisher=Skira |isbn=0-8478-0141-1 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=Amy|title=Modern Art|date=2018|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29322-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Dube |first=Wolf Dieter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ |title=Expressionists and expressionism |date=1983 |publisher=Skira |isbn=978-0-8478-0494-8 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- E -->
* {{cite book |last=Estienne |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ |title=Gauguin: Biographical and Critical Studies: The Taste of Our Time |date=1953a |volume=1 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Estienne |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ |title=Van Gogh: Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time |date=1953b |publisher=Skira |volume=2 |location=Geneva |language=fr |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Evans |first=Helen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/byzantiumfaithpo0000unse |title=Byzantium, Faith and Power (1261–1557) |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press |date=2004 |isbn=978-1-58839-114-8 |location=New York, NY |url-access=registration}}
<!-- F -->
* {{cite book |last=Faunce |first=Sarah |title=Gustave Courbet |date=1993 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-3182-6 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Fermigier |first=André |title=Pierre Bonnard: The Library of Great Painters |date=1969 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0041-6 |edition=1st |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Fortenberry |first=Diane |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |title=The Art Museum |date=2017 |publisher=Phaidon Press |isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6 |edition=Revised |location=London |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220204/https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- G -->
* {{cite book |last=Goldwater |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YfA1yQEACAAJ |title=Paul Gauguin: The Library of Great Painters |date=1972 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224306/https://books.google.com/books?id=YfA1yQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Graur|first1=Neaga|title=Stiluri în arta decorativă|date=1970|publisher=Cerces|language=ro}}
<!-- H -->
* {{cite book |last=Harle |first=J. C. |title=The art and architecture of the Indian subcontinent |date=1994 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-06217-6 |edition=2nd |location=New Haven}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hodge|first1=Susie|title=The Short Story of Art|date=2017|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=978-1-78067-968-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Hodge|first1=Susie|title=The Short Story of Architecture|date=2019|publisher=Laurence King Publishing|isbn=978-1-7862-7370-3|language=en}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide|date=2014|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-178067-163-5 |language=en}}
<!-- I -->
* {{cite book |last1=Irving |first1=Mark |title=1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die |date=2019 |publisher=Cassell Illustrated |isbn=978-1-78840-176-0 |language=en}}
<!-- J -->
* {{cite book |last=Janson |first=Anthony F. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17656707 |title=History of art, second edition, H.W. Janson. Instructor's manual |date=1977 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=0-13-389304-9 |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |oclc=17656707 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030500/https://www.worldcat.org/title/history-of-art-second-edition-hw-janson-instructors-manual/oclc/17656707 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Jean |first=Marcel |title=The Autobiography of Surrealism |date=1980 |publisher=Viking Press |isbn=0-670-14235-2 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last = Keiko |first = Yamada |title = Origin and Historical Evolution of the Identity of Modern Telugus | year = 2010 |publisher = Economic and Political Weekly}}
* {{cite book |last=Keyser |first=Eugénie de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ucHpAAAAMAAJ |title=The Romantic West, 1789–1850 |date=1965 |publisher=World Publishing Company, Cleveland |isbn=978-0-320-06349-7 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ucHpAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book|last=Kitzinger|first=Ernst|year=1977|title=Byzantine Art in the Making: Main Lines of Stylistic Development in Mediterranean Art, 3rd‒7th Century|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0571111541}}
* {{cite journal|last=Koslin|first=Desirée|year=1990|title=Turning Time in the Bayeux Embroidery|journal=Textile & Text|volume=13}}
<!-- L -->
* {{cite book |last=Lassaigne |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2oTgzAEACAAJ |title=Lautrec: Biographical and Critical Studies, The Taste of Our Time |date=1950 |publisher=Skira |volume=3 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224302/https://books.google.com/books?id=2oTgzAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Lassaigne |first=Jacques |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ |title=Matisse: Biographical and Critical Study |date=1959 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |title=Impressionism, Vols. 11 & 12: The Taste of Our Time |date=1955 |publisher=Skira |volume=11–12 |location=Geneva}}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ |title=Fauvism: Biographical and Critical Study. Translated by James Emmons |date=1959 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva |volume=28 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ |title=French Painting: The Nineteenth Century |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224252/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Musset |first1=Lucien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ |title=La tapisserie de Bayeux: œuvre d'art et document historique |last2=Bertrand |first2=Simone |date=1966 |publisher=Zodiaque |isbn=978-2-7369-0170-7 |location=La Pierre-qui-Vire |language=fr |trans-title=The Bayeux tapestry: work of art and historical document |quote=et combien pauvre alors ce nom de broderie nous apparaît-il! |trans-quote=and how poor then this name of embroidery appears to us! |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- P -->
* {{cite book |last=Passeron |first=René |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Surrealism |date=1975 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-664-3 |location=Secaucus, N.J.}}
* {{cite book |last=Picon |first=Gaëtan |title=Surrealists and Surrealism, 1919-1939 |date=1977 |publisher=Rizzoli International |isbn=0-8478-0041-5 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Ponente |first=Nello |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ |title=The Structures of the Modern World, 1850-1900 |date=1965 |publisher=Skira |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224302/https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Preston |first=Stuart |title=Édouard Vuillard |date=1974 |publisher=Harry N. Abrams, Inc.}}
<!-- Q -->
<!-- R -->
* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ |title=Modern Painting: Painting, Color, History |date=1953 |publisher=Skira |language=fr |translator-last=Gilbert |translator-first=Stuart |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Raynal |first=Maurice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ |title=Cézanne: Biographical and Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time |date=1954 |publisher=Skira |volume=8 |location=Geneva |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Rice |first=David Talbot |title=Byzantine Art |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |date=1968 |edition=3rd |location=Harmondsworth |author-link=David Talbot Rice}}
* {{cite book |last=Richard |first=Lionel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ |title=The Concise Encyclopedia of Expressionism |date=1978 |publisher=Chartwell |isbn=0-89009-665-1 |location=Secaucus, N.J. |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last1=Rogers |first1=Richard |last2=Gumuchdjian |first2=Philip |last3=Jones |first3=Denna |title=Architecture The Whole Story |date=2014 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-29148-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Rubin |first=William |title=Dada and surrealist art |date=1968 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0060-2 |location=New York}}
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* {{cite book |last=Schneede |first=Uwe M. |title=Surrealism |date=1974 |publisher=H.N. Abrams |isbn=0-8109-0499-3 |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ |title=Vincent van Gogh: The Library of Great Painters |date=1950 |publisher=Abrams |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Schapiro |first=Meyer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ |title=Paul Cézanne |date=1962 |publisher=Abrams |isbn=978-0-8109-0052-3 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Starobinski |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ |title=The invention of liberty: 1700–1789 |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |language=es |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224251/https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
<!-- T -->
* {{cite book |last=Terrasse |first=Antoine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ |title=Bonnard: Biographical and Critical Study, The Taste of Our Time |date=1964 |publisher=Skira |volume=42 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224256/https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Toman |first=Rolf |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45588077 |title=Neoclassicism and Romanticism: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Drawings, 1750–1848 |date=2000 |publisher=Könemann |isbn=3-8290-1575-5 |location=Cologne |oclc=45588077 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030501/https://www.worldcat.org/title/neoclassicism-and-romanticism-architecture-sculpture-painting-drawings-1750-1848/oclc/45588077 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Toynbee |first=J. M. C. |date=December 1971 |title=Roman Art |journal=The Classical Review |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=439–442 |doi= 10.1017/S0009840X00221331 |jstor=708631|s2cid=163488573 }}
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<!-- W -->
* {{cite book |last=Waldberg |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ |title=Surrealismus |date=1962 |publisher=Skira |volume=37 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Warnod |first=Jeanine |title=E. Vuillard |date=1989 |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn=0-517-57277-X |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |title=Classical heritage in Byzantine and Near Eastern art |date=1981 |publisher=Variorum Reprints |isbn=0-86078-087-2 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Kurt |title=The Icon |publisher=Evans Brothers |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-237-45645-0 |location=London |author-link=Kurt Weitzmann}}
<!-- X -->
<!-- Y -->
<!-- Z -->
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|title=30,000 Years of Art: The Story of Human Creativity Across Time & Space|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=[[Phaidon Press]]|date=2015}}
* {{cite book|last=Adams|first=Laurie|title=Art across Time|edition=3rd|location=Boston|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=2007}}
* {{cite book |last=Andrew |first=Graham-Dixon |title=Art : the definitive visual guide |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-241-25710-4}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Bar-Yosef|first1=Ofer|title=The Archaeological Framework of the Upper Paleolithic Revolution |journal=Diogenes |volume=54 |issue=2 |year=2016 |pages=3–18|issn=0392-1921|doi=10.1177/0392192107076869|s2cid=145584993}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Belfer-Cohen |first1=Anna |last2=Bar-Yosef |first2=Ofer |date=1981 |title=The Aurignacian at Hayonim Cave |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1981_num_7_2_4296 |journal=Paléorient |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=19–42 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1981.4296 |access-date=2019-05-05 |archive-date=2019-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505194342/https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1981_num_7_2_4296 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last=Bell|first=Julian|title=Mirror of the World: A New History of Art|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Thames & Hudson|date=2010|isbn=978-0-500-28754-5}}
* {{cite book |last1=Benson |first1=Elizabeth P. |author-link=Elizabeth P. Benson|year=1996 |chapter=110. Votive Axe |title=Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico |editor1=Elizabeth P. Benson |editor2=Beatriz de la Fuente |edition=To accompany an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 30 June to 20 October 1996 |publisher=[[National Gallery of Art]] |location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0-89468-250-4}}
* {{cite book |last1=Blundell |first1=Geoffrey |title=Origins: The Story of the Emergence of Humans and Humanity in Africa |date=2006 |publisher=Juta and Company Ltd |isbn=9781770130401 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63 |access-date=2019-05-11 |archive-date=2020-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124231600/https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Boardman |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pcDpAAAAMAAJ |author-link=John Boardman (art historian) |title=The Oxford History of Classical Art |location=Oxford |last2=Johnston |first2=Alan |last3=Smith |first3=R. R. R. |last4=Pollitt |first4=Jerome Jordan |last5=Huskinson |first5=Janet |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-814386-9 |access-date=2019-08-20 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030458/https://books.google.com/books?id=pcDpAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Bouillon |first=Jean-Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lcNyQgAACAAJ |title=Journal de l'art nouveau : 1870–1914 |date=1985 |publisher=Skira |isbn=2-605-00069-9 |location=Genèva |trans-title=Journal of Art Nouveau: 1870-1914 |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224303/https://books.google.com/books?id=lcNyQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Branan |first=Nicole |date=2010 |title=Neandertal Symbolism: Evidence Suggests a Biological Basis for Symbolic Thought |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/neandertal-symbolism |journal=Scientific American Mind |volume=21 |issue=2 |doi=10.1038/scientificamericanmind0510-7c |issn=1555-2284 |access-date=2019-05-13 |archive-date=2018-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614194930/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/neandertal-symbolism/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dissanayake|first1=Ellen|title=A Hypothesis of the Evolution of Art from Play|journal=Leonardo|volume=7|issue=3|year=1974|pages=211–217|issn=0024-094X|doi=10.2307/1572893|jstor=1572893|s2cid=49569697}}
* {{cite book |last=Drimba |first=Ovidiu |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20934624 |title=Istoria Culturii și Civilizației |date=1985 |isbn=973-44-0118-1 |oclc=20934624 |trans-title=History of Culture and Civilization |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-09-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030459/https://www.worldcat.org/title/istoria-culturii-si-civilizatiei-histoire-de-la-culture-et-de-la-civilisation/oclc/20934624 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book|last=Gombrich|first=E.H.|title=The Story of Art|edition=15th|location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ|publisher=Prentice-Hall|date=1990}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Grau|editor-first=Oliver|editor-link=Oliver Grau|title=MediaArtHistories|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=MIT-Press|date=2007}}
* {{cite book|last=Haidle|first=M.N.|date=2014|chapter=Examining the evolution of artistic capacities: searching for mushrooms?|editor-last1=Sütterlin|editor-first1=Christa|editor-last2=Schiefenhövel|editor-first2=Wulf|editor-last3=Lehmann|editor-first3=Christian|editor-last4=Forster|editor-first4=Johanna|editor-last5=Apfelauer|editor-first5=Gerhard|title=Art as behaviour. An ethological approach to visual and verbal art, music and architecture|publisher=Bis-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg|location=Oldenburg|pages=237–251|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279253079|access-date=2021-02-22|archive-date=2021-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030500/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279253079_Examining_the_evolution_of_artistic_capacities_searching_for_mushrooms|url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQbcCwAAQBAJ |title=History of The Arabs |date=2002 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-03982-8 |edition=10th |location=Basingstoke |access-date=2021-04-30 |archive-date=2021-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://books.google.com/books?id=lQbcCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Honour |first1=Hugh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JHVOAAAAYAAJ |title=A World History of Art |last2=Fleming |first2=John |date=2002 |publisher=Laurence King |isbn=978-1-85669-314-1 |edition=Fifth |location=London |access-date=2021-04-23 |archive-date=2021-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220207/https://books.google.com/books?id=JHVOAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}
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{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Art history}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikibooks|Art History}}
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html "Art: The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism"] – ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306190600/http://witcombe.sbc.edu/arthlinks.html Art History resources]
* [http://www.arssummum.es/ Ars Summum Project]
===Timelines===
* [http://metmuseum.org/toah/ ''Timeline of Art History''] from [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
{{Westernart}}
{{Navboxes
|title= History of art by continent
|list=
{{Africa in topic|Art of}}
{{Asia in topic|Art of}}
{{Art of Europe}}
{{Oceania topic|Art of}}
{{North America topic|Art of}}
{{South America topic|Art of}}
}}
{{Art world}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Art}}
[[Category:Art history| ]]
[[Category:Art historians| ]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -656,4 +656,6 @@
<gallery widths="150px" heights="150px">
L'Embarquement pour Cythere, by Antoine Watteau, from C2RMF retouched.jpg|''[[The Embarkation for Cythera]]''; by [[Jean-Antoine Watteau]]; 1718; oil on canvas; 1.29 x 1.94 m; Schloss Charlottenburg{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=265}}
+
+Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg|[[Zwinger (Dresden)|Zwinger]], [[Dresden]], Germany, by [[Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann]], 1719<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=185|url=|language=en}}</ref>
Salon ovale de la princesse in the Hôtel de Soubise (11).jpg|The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the [[Hôtel de Soubise]] (Paris), 1737–1739, by [[Germain Boffrand]], [[Charles-Joseph Natoire]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne]]{{sfn|Fortenberry|2017|p=267}}
@@ -662,4 +664,6 @@
Fire MET DP104979.jpg|''Fire''; by [[Jean-Pierre Defrance]]; {{circa}}1750-1760; limestone; height: 223 cm; [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] (New York City)
+
+Wieskirche, Gemeinde Steingaden Ortsteil Wies.JPG|[[Wieskirche|Pilgrimage Church of Wies]], [[Steingaden]], Germany, by [[Dominikus Zimmermann|Dominikus]] and [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]], 1754{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=238}}
Side table (commode en console) MET DP105703.jpg|Side table (commode en console); by [[Bernard II van Risamburgh]]; {{circa}}1755-1760; Japanese lacquer, gilt-bronze mounts and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art
' |
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0 => '',
1 => 'Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg|[[Zwinger (Dresden)|Zwinger]], [[Dresden]], Germany, by [[Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann]], 1719<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=185|url=|language=en}}</ref>',
2 => '',
3 => 'Wieskirche, Gemeinde Steingaden Ortsteil Wies.JPG|[[Wieskirche|Pilgrimage Church of Wies]], [[Steingaden]], Germany, by [[Dominikus Zimmermann|Dominikus]] and [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]], 1754{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=238}}'
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Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt">
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the academic discipline, see <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art history</a>.</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:93px;max-width:93px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:VenusHohlefels2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/VenusHohlefels2.jpg/91px-VenusHohlefels2.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/VenusHohlefels2.jpg/137px-VenusHohlefels2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/VenusHohlefels2.jpg/182px-VenusHohlefels2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1824" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-left"><a href="/wiki/Venus_of_Hohle_Fels" title="Venus of Hohle Fels">Venus of Hohle Fels</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lascaux2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Lascaux2.jpg/180px-Lascaux2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Lascaux2.jpg/270px-Lascaux2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Lascaux2.jpg/360px-Lascaux2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-left">Horse painting from <a href="/wiki/Lascaux" title="Lascaux">Lascaux</a> cave system</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:111px;max-width:111px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:135px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/109px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/164px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/218px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-left"><a href="/wiki/Mask_of_Tutankhamun" title="Mask of Tutankhamun">Mask of Tutankhamun</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:95px;max-width:95px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:175px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg/93px-Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg/140px-Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg/186px-Front_views_of_the_Venus_de_Milo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3088" data-file-height="5808" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-left"><i><a href="/wiki/Venus_de_Milo" title="Venus de Milo">Venus de Milo</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Alexandros_of_Antioch" title="Alexandros of Antioch">Alexandros of Antioch</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:120px;max-width:120px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:175px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/118px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/177px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/236px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7479" data-file-height="11146" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-left"><i><a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:171px;max-width:171px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:175px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/169px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/254px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/338px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="4661" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-left"><i><a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a></div></div></div></div></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045330069">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;">Periods and movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_art" title="Ancient art">Ancient</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Romanesque art">Pre-Romanesque</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelites" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Raphaelites">Pre-Raphaelites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (art)">Symbolism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Decorative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Postmodern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(visual_arts)" title="Minimalism (visual arts)">Minimalism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;">Regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><b>Art of the Middle East</b><br />
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mesopotamia" title="Art of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_art" title="Hittite art">Hittite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Persian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia#Art" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_art" title="Ancient South Arabian art">South Arabian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia#Art" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_art" title="Turkish art">Ottoman</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Art of Central Asia</a></b><br />
</p><p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">Art of East Asia</a></b><br />
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_Hong_Kong" title="Visual art of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_art" title="Taiwanese art">Taiwan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_art" title="Korean art">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_art" title="Tibetan art">Tibetan</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">Art of South Asia</a></b><br />
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Indian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bhutanese_art" title="Bhutanese art">Bhutanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Newar_art" title="Newar art">Newar</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_arts" title="Southeast Asian arts">Art of Southeast Asia</a></b><br />
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_art" title="Indonesian art">Indonesian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_the_Philippines" title="Arts in the Philippines">Filipino</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_art" title="Vietnamese art">Vietnamese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thai_art" title="Thai art">Thai</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Myanmar" title="Art of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_art" title="Malaysian art">Malaysian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_art" title="Cambodian art">Cambodian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_sculpture" title="Khmer sculpture">Khmer</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lao_art" title="Lao art">Lao</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_Singapore" title="Visual art of Singapore">Singaporean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_art" title="Bruneian art">Bruneian</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></b><br />
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_art" title="Minoan art">Minoan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_art" title="Cycladic art">Cycladic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_art" title="Dacian art">Dacian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Celtic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian art">Scythian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_sculpture" title="Iberian sculpture">Iberian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of ancient Rus">Rus</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">Art of Africa</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_art" title="Igbo art">Igbo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_art" title="Yoruba art">Yoruba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Benin_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin art">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kuba_art" title="Kuba art">Kuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Luba_art" title="Luba art">Luba</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Art of the Americas</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Pre-Columbian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Maya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Muisca</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_art" title="Inuit art">Inuit</a></li></ul>
<p><b><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Oceania">Art of Oceania</a></b>
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Indigenous Australian art">Australian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_art" title="Cook Islands art">Cook Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_art" title="Hawaiian art">Hawaiian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinean_art" title="Papua New Guinean art">Papuan</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Religious_art" title="Religious art">Religions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Buddhist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Catholic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Protestant</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_art" title="Hindu art">Hindu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jain_art" title="Jain art">Jain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_art" title="Manichaean art">Manichaean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_art_and_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh art and culture">Sikh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_art" title="Taoist art">Taoist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou_art" title="Haitian Vodou art">Vodou</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vodun_art" title="Vodun art">Vodun</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;">Techniques</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting" title="History of painting">Painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_architecture" title="History of architecture">Architecture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Graphic_arts" title="Graphic arts">Graphic arts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa; text-align:center;">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">Abstract</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_movement" title="Art movement">Art movement</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Figurative_art" title="Figurative art">Figurative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Funerary_art" title="Funerary art">Funerary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art" title="Naïve art">Naïve</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_art" title="Narrative art">Narrative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Naturalist</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_art_sidebar" title="Template:History of art sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_art_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of art sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_art_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of art sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>history of art</b> focuses on objects made by humans for any number of spiritual, narrative, philosophical, symbolic, conceptual, documentary, decorative, and even functional and other purposes, but with a primary emphasis on its <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetic</a> visual form. <a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual art</a> can be classified in <a href="/wiki/Art#Forms,_genres,_media,_and_styles" title="Art">diverse ways</a>, such as separating <a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">fine arts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Applied_arts" title="Applied arts">applied arts</a>; inclusively focusing on human creativity; or focusing on different media such as <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">film</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Graphic_arts" title="Graphic arts">graphic arts</a>. In recent years, technological advances have led to <a href="/wiki/Video_art" title="Video art">video art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">computer art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">performance art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animation" title="Animation">animation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">videogames</a>.
</p><p>The history of art is often told as a chronology of <a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">masterpieces</a> created during each <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>. It can thus be framed as a story of <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a>, epitomized by the <a href="/wiki/Wonders_of_the_World" title="Wonders of the World">Wonders of the World</a>. On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> art expressions can also be integrated into art historical narratives, referred to as <a href="/wiki/Folk_arts" title="Folk arts">folk arts</a> or <a href="/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">craft</a>. The more closely that an art historian engages with these latter forms of <a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">low culture</a>, the more likely it is that they will identify their work as examining <a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">visual culture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>, or as contributing to fields related to art history, such as <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>. In the latter cases, art objects may be referred to as <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">archeological artifacts</a>.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Prehistory"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Prehistory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Antiquity"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Antiquity</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Ancient_Near_East"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Ancient Near East</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Egypt"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Egypt</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Indus_Valley_Civilization"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Indus Valley Civilization</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#China"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">China</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Greek"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Greek</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Rome"><span class="tocnumber">2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Rome</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Islamic"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Islamic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Americas"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Americas</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Mesoamerica"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Mesoamerica</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Colombia"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Colombia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Andean_regions"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Andean regions</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Asian"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Asian</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Central_Asia"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Central Asia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Indian"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Indian</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Chinese"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Chinese</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Japanese"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Japanese</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Sub-Saharan Africa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Oceania"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Oceania</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#European"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">European</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Medieval"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Medieval</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Byzantine"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Byzantine</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Ottonian"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ottonian</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Romanesque"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Romanesque</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Gothic"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Gothic</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Renaissance"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Renaissance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Baroque"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Baroque</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-29"><a href="#Rococo"><span class="tocnumber">8.5</span> <span class="toctext">Rococo</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Neoclassicism"><span class="tocnumber">8.6</span> <span class="toctext">Neoclassicism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#Western_art_after_1770"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Western art after 1770</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32"><a href="#19th_century"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">19th century</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-33"><a href="#Romanticism_(c._1790–1880)"><span class="tocnumber">9.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Romanticism (c. 1790–1880)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-34"><a href="#Academism"><span class="tocnumber">9.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Academism</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-35"><a href="#Revivalism_and_Eclecticism"><span class="tocnumber">9.1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Revivalism and Eclecticism</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-36"><a href="#Realism_(c._1830–1890)"><span class="tocnumber">9.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Realism (c. 1830–1890)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-37"><a href="#Impressionism_(c._1865–1885)"><span class="tocnumber">9.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Impressionism (c. 1865–1885)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-38"><a href="#Symbolism_(c._1860–1915)"><span class="tocnumber">9.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Symbolism (c. 1860–1915)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-39"><a href="#Post-Impressionism_(c._1885–1910)"><span class="tocnumber">9.1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Post-Impressionism (c. 1885–1910)</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Early_20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Early 20th century</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-41"><a href="#Art_Nouveau_(c._1890–1914)"><span class="tocnumber">9.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1914)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-42"><a href="#Fauvism_(c._1898–1909)"><span class="tocnumber">9.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fauvism (c. 1898–1909)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-43"><a href="#Expressionism_(c._1905–1930)"><span class="tocnumber">9.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Expressionism (c. 1905–1930)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-44"><a href="#Cubism_(c._1907–1914)"><span class="tocnumber">9.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Cubism (c. 1907–1914)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-45"><a href="#Art_Deco_(c._1920–1940)"><span class="tocnumber">9.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Art Deco (c. 1920–1940)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-46"><a href="#Surrealism_(c._1924–1966)"><span class="tocnumber">9.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Surrealism (c. 1924–1966)</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-47"><a href="#Mid_and_late_20th_century"><span class="tocnumber">9.3</span> <span class="toctext">Mid and late 20th century</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-48"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-49"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-50"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-51"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-52"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-53"><a href="#Timelines"><span class="tocnumber">14.1</span> <span class="toctext">Timelines</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Prehistory">Prehistory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section's source code: Prehistory"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric art</a></div>
<p>Prehistoric art includes a broad range of art made by painters and sculptors from illiterate cultures, including some of the earliest human artifacts. Among the first art objects are decorative artifacts from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Stone_Age" title="Middle Stone Age">Middle Stone Age</a> Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_2002-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al._2009_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al._2009-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Texier_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Texier-3">[3]</a></sup> Containers from that period have also been discovered in South Africa that may have been used to hold paints dating as far back as 100,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>A form of prehistoric art found all over the world, especially in Europe, small prehistoric statuettes known as <a href="/wiki/Venus_figurine" title="Venus figurine">Venus figurines</a> with exaggerated breasts and bellies were made, the most famous ones being the <a href="/wiki/Venus_of_Hohle_Fels" title="Venus of Hohle Fels">Venus of Hohle Fels</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Venus_of_Willendorf" title="Venus of Willendorf">Venus of Willendorf</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>. Most have small heads, wide hips, and legs that taper to a point. Arms and feet are often absent, and the head is usually small and faceless.
</p><p>The Venus of Hohle Fels is one of the numerous objects found at the <a href="/wiki/Caves_and_Ice_Age_Art_in_the_Swabian_Jura" title="Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura">Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura</a> <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>, where the oldest non-stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-unesco_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unesco-5">[5]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201712Fortenberry20171_&_2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201712Fortenberry20171_&_2-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p><p>The best-known prehistoric artworks are the large <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave paintings</a> that depict animals in continental Europe, particularly the ones at <a href="/wiki/Lascaux" title="Lascaux">Lascaux</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Dordogne" title="Dordogne">Dordogne</a> region of France. Several hundred decorated caves are known, spanning the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 38,000–12,000 BC). There are examples in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, but most of them are in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>. Many theories have been suggested about the art's purpose, the most accepted being that it was part of religious rituals, possibly to evoke hunting success.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Riesenhirsch_Fussknochen_Einhornh%C3%B6hle_Gravur.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Giant deer bone of Einhornhöhle c. 49,000 BC; Megaloceros bone; Einhornhöhle, Germany"><img alt="Giant deer bone of Einhornhöhle c. 49,000 BC; Megaloceros bone; Einhornhöhle, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Riesenhirsch_Fussknochen_Einhornh%C3%B6hle_Gravur.jpg/117px-Riesenhirsch_Fussknochen_Einhornh%C3%B6hle_Gravur.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Riesenhirsch_Fussknochen_Einhornh%C3%B6hle_Gravur.jpg/175px-Riesenhirsch_Fussknochen_Einhornh%C3%B6hle_Gravur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Riesenhirsch_Fussknochen_Einhornh%C3%B6hle_Gravur.jpg/234px-Riesenhirsch_Fussknochen_Einhornh%C3%B6hle_Gravur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="1308" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Riesenhirschknochen_der_Einhornh%C3%B6hle" class="mw-redirect" title="Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle">Giant deer bone of Einhornhöhle</a></i> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 49,000 BC; Megaloceros bone; Einhornhöhle, Germany</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Loewenmensch1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Löwenmensch; c. 41,000–35,000 BC; Hohlenstein-Stadel caves Swabian Jura, Germany"><img alt="Löwenmensch; c. 41,000–35,000 BC; Hohlenstein-Stadel caves Swabian Jura, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Loewenmensch1.jpg/72px-Loewenmensch1.jpg" decoding="async" width="72" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Loewenmensch1.jpg/108px-Loewenmensch1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Loewenmensch1.jpg/144px-Loewenmensch1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1434" data-file-height="2988" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Lion-man" title="Lion-man">Löwenmensch</a></i></span>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 41,000–35,000 BC; <a href="/wiki/Hohlenstein-Stadel" title="Hohlenstein-Stadel">Hohlenstein-Stadel</a> caves <a href="/wiki/Swabian_Jura" title="Swabian Jura">Swabian Jura</a>, Germany</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:16_PanneauDesLions(CentreGauche)Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Painting of rhinoceroses; c. 32,000–14,000 BC; charcoal on rock; length: c. 2 m; Chauvet Cave (Ardèche, France)[9]"><img alt="Painting of rhinoceroses; c. 32,000–14,000 BC; charcoal on rock; length: c. 2 m; Chauvet Cave (Ardèche, France)[9]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg/150px-16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg/225px-16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg/300px-16_PanneauDesLions%28CentreGauche%29Rhinoc%C3%A9rosEnFuite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="1440" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Painting of <a href="/wiki/Rhinoceros" title="Rhinoceros">rhinoceroses</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 32,000–14,000 BC; <a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a> on rock; length: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2 m; <a href="/wiki/Chauvet_Cave" title="Chauvet Cave">Chauvet Cave</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ard%C3%A8che" title="Ardèche">Ardèche</a>, France)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20172_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20172-9">[9]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Venus of Willendorf; c. 25,000 BC; limestone with ochre colouring; height: 11 cm; Natural History Museum (Vienna, Austria)[10]"><img alt="Venus of Willendorf; c. 25,000 BC; limestone with ochre colouring; height: 11 cm; Natural History Museum (Vienna, Austria)[10]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg/91px-Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg/137px-Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg/182px-Venus_of_Willendorf_frontview_retouched_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="2220" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Venus_of_Willendorf" title="Venus of Willendorf">Venus of Willendorf</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 25,000 BC; <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ochre" title="Ochre">ochre</a> colouring; height: 11 cm; <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Vienna" title="Natural History Museum, Vienna">Natural History Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20173_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20173-10">[10]</a></sup></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Antiquity">Antiquity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section's source code: Antiquity"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_art" title="Ancient art">Ancient art</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ancient_Near_East">Ancient Near East</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section's source code: Ancient Near East"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian art">Mesopotamian art</a></div>
<p>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> stretched from <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> and the Mediterranean seaboard in the west to <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a> in the east. Over time, multiple civilizations appeared, lived and disappeared here. One of the key regions was <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, which witnessed during the 4th millennium BC the emergence of the first cities and the earliest form of writing. Ancient Mesopotamia covers present-day Iraq, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. Its northern half forms part of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>, where important <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> developments such as early farming and the establishment of permanent village settlements first appeared. Because the region is situated within the <a href="/wiki/Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river delta</a>, numerous civilizations lived here, notably <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian architecture</a> was characterized by the use of <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">bricks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lintel_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lintel (architecture)">lintels</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Uruk#Architecture" title="Art of Uruk">cone mosaic</a>. Notable examples are the <a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">ziggurats</a>, large <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temples</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Step_pyramid" title="Step pyramid">step pyramids</a>.
</p><p>The political, economic, artistic and architectural traditions of the Sumerians lead to the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a>. Multiple things appeared for the first time in Sumer: the first <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> (<a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a>), ruled by king <a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a>; the first organized religion, based on a hierarchical structure of gods, people and rituals; the first known writing, the <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiforms</a>; the first irrigation system and the first vehicles with wheels. <a href="/wiki/Cylinder_seal" title="Cylinder seal">Cylinder seals</a> appeared here as well, engraved with little inscriptions and illustrations. Another civilization that developed here was the <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a>, the world's first great empire.
</p><p>During the early 1st millennium BC, after the Akkadians, an empire called <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> came to dominate the whole of Middle East, stretching from the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Its cities were filled with impressive buildings and art. Assyrian art is best known for its detailed stone reliefs, depicting scenes of court life, religious practice, hunting and epic battles. These reliefs were initially painted in bright colours and placed in palaces. Besides their beauty, they also show us Assyrian life and views of the world, including Assyrian clothing and furniture.
</p><p>Later, the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a> conquered the Assyrian Empire. During the 6th century BC, <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylon</a> became the largest city in the world. Upon entering Babylon, visitors were greeted with the impressive <a href="/wiki/Ishtar_Gate" title="Ishtar Gate">Ishtar Gate</a>, with its walls covered in vivid blue glazed bricks and reliefs showing dragons, bulls and lions. This gate is named after <a href="/wiki/Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishtar">Ishtar</a>, the goddess of war and love.
</p><p>In the mid-6th century BC, after a series of military campaigns, the Babylonian Empire fell to the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, ruled by King <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus II">Cyrus II</a>, stretching across the Middle East and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, from Egypt to the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley">Indus Valley</a>. Its art incorporates elements from across the empire, celebrating its wealth and power. <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>) was the capital of the empire, and it is full of impressive sculptures showing religious images and people of the empire. There are also the ruins of a palace here, with a big audience hall for receiving guests.
</p><p>Besides Mesopotamia and Iran, there were Ancient civilizations who produced art and architecture in other regions as well. In <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a> appeared. During Antiquity, <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a> was important in the production and trade of aromatics, bringing wealth to the kingdoms that were in this region. Before circa 4000 BC, the climate of Arabia was wetter than today. In south-west, several kingdoms appeared, like <a href="/wiki/Sheba" title="Sheba">Saba’</a>. The south Arabian human figure is usually stylized, based on rectangular shapes, but with fine details.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174,_5,_6,_9,_12,_13_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174,_5,_6,_9,_12,_13-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum,_London_(8747049029)_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Standard of Ur (Sumerian); c.2600-2400 BC; shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; length: 49.5 cm; British Museum (London)[14]"><img alt="Standard of Ur (Sumerian); c.2600-2400 BC; shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli on wood; length: 49.5 cm; British Museum (London)[14]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/150px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/225px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg/300px-Denis_Bourez_-_British_Museum%2C_London_%288747049029%29_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_Ur" title="Standard of Ur">Standard of Ur</a> (Sumerian); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>2600-2400 BC; shell, red limestone and <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> on wood; length: 49.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174-14">[14]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_head_of_an_Akkadian_ruler,_discovered_in_Nineveh_in_1931,_presumably_depicting_either_Sargon_or_Sargon%27s_grandson_Naram-Sin_(Rijksmuseum_van_Oudheden).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="King of Akkad (Akkadian); c. 2250 BC; copper alloy; height: 30 cm; Iraq Museum[14]"><img alt="King of Akkad (Akkadian); c. 2250 BC; copper alloy; height: 30 cm; Iraq Museum[14]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Bronze_head_of_an_Akkadian_ruler%2C_discovered_in_Nineveh_in_1931%2C_presumably_depicting_either_Sargon_or_Sargon%27s_grandson_Naram-Sin_%28Rijksmuseum_van_Oudheden%29.jpg/104px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Bronze_head_of_an_Akkadian_ruler%2C_discovered_in_Nineveh_in_1931%2C_presumably_depicting_either_Sargon_or_Sargon%27s_grandson_Naram-Sin_%28Rijksmuseum_van_Oudheden%29.jpg/156px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Bronze_head_of_an_Akkadian_ruler%2C_discovered_in_Nineveh_in_1931%2C_presumably_depicting_either_Sargon_or_Sargon%27s_grandson_Naram-Sin_%28Rijksmuseum_van_Oudheden%29.jpg/208px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2607" data-file-height="3761" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">King of <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2250 BC; copper alloy; height: 30 cm; Iraq Museum<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174-14">[14]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vessel_terminating_in_the_forepart_of_a_stag_MET_DT871.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stag rhyton (Hittite); c.1400-1200 BC; silver with gold inlay; height: 13 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[15]"><img alt="Stag rhyton (Hittite); c.1400-1200 BC; silver with gold inlay; height: 13 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[15]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Vessel_terminating_in_the_forepart_of_a_stag_MET_DT871.jpg/139px-Vessel_terminating_in_the_forepart_of_a_stag_MET_DT871.jpg" decoding="async" width="139" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Vessel_terminating_in_the_forepart_of_a_stag_MET_DT871.jpg/209px-Vessel_terminating_in_the_forepart_of_a_stag_MET_DT871.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Vessel_terminating_in_the_forepart_of_a_stag_MET_DT871.jpg/278px-Vessel_terminating_in_the_forepart_of_a_stag_MET_DT871.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3414" data-file-height="3681" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Stag <a href="/wiki/Rhyton" title="Rhyton">rhyton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hittite_art" title="Hittite art">Hittite</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1400-1200 BC; silver with gold inlay; height: 13 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201712_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201712-15">[15]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Incense_burner_MET_DT893.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Incense burner (Pre-Islamic South Arabian); c. mid-1st millennium BC; bronze; height: 27.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[16]"><img alt="Incense burner (Pre-Islamic South Arabian); c. mid-1st millennium BC; bronze; height: 27.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[16]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Incense_burner_MET_DT893.jpg/131px-Incense_burner_MET_DT893.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Incense_burner_MET_DT893.jpg/197px-Incense_burner_MET_DT893.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Incense_burner_MET_DT893.jpg/263px-Incense_burner_MET_DT893.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3242" data-file-height="3697" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Incense burner (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_art" title="Ancient South Arabian art">Pre-Islamic South Arabian</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> mid-1st millennium BC; bronze; height: 27.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201713_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201713-16">[16]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_monumental_bas-relief_-(30626865213).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Winged bulls (Neo-Assyrian); c.710 BC; alabaster; height (max): 4.2 m; Louvre[17]"><img alt="Winged bulls (Neo-Assyrian); c.710 BC; alabaster; height (max): 4.2 m; Louvre[17]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Assyrian_monumental_bas-relief_-%2830626865213%29.jpg/150px-Assyrian_monumental_bas-relief_-%2830626865213%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Assyrian_monumental_bas-relief_-%2830626865213%29.jpg/225px-Assyrian_monumental_bas-relief_-%2830626865213%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Assyrian_monumental_bas-relief_-%2830626865213%29.jpg/300px-Assyrian_monumental_bas-relief_-%2830626865213%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lamassu" title="Lamassu">Winged bulls</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>710 BC; <a href="/wiki/Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a>; height (max): 4.2 m; <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pers%C3%A9polis,_Ir%C3%A1n,_2016-09-24,_DD_50_(cropped_section).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Delegation bearing gifts (Persian Achaemenid); c.490 BC; limestone; c.260 x 150 cm; in situ, Persepolis (Iran)[18]"><img alt="Delegation bearing gifts (Persian Achaemenid); c.490 BC; limestone; c.260 x 150 cm; in situ, Persepolis (Iran)[18]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_50_%28cropped_section%29.jpg/103px-Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_50_%28cropped_section%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_50_%28cropped_section%29.jpg/155px-Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_50_%28cropped_section%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_50_%28cropped_section%29.jpg/207px-Pers%C3%A9polis%2C_Ir%C3%A1n%2C_2016-09-24%2C_DD_50_%28cropped_section%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2116" data-file-height="3069" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Delegation bearing gifts (<a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>490 BC; limestone; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>260 x 150 cm; in situ, <a href="/wiki/Persepolis" title="Persepolis">Persepolis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup></div>
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Egypt">Egypt</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section's source code: Egypt"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian art">Ancient Egyptian art</a></div>
<p>One of the first great civilizations arose in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, which had elaborate and complex works of art produced by professional artists and craftspeople. Egypt's art was religious and symbolic. Given that the culture had a highly centralized power structure and hierarchy, a great deal of art was created to honour the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a>, including great monuments. Egyptian art and culture emphasized the religious concept of immortality. Later Egyptian art includes <a href="/wiki/Coptic_art" title="Coptic art">Coptic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine</a> art.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">architecture</a> is characterized by monumental structures, built with large stone blocks, lintels, and solid <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">columns</a>. Funerary monuments included <a href="/wiki/Mastaba" title="Mastaba">mastaba</a>, tombs of rectangular form; <a href="/wiki/Pyramid" title="Pyramid">pyramids</a>, which included step pyramids (<a href="/wiki/Saqqarah" class="mw-redirect" title="Saqqarah">Saqqarah</a>) or smooth-sided pyramids (<a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Giza</a>); and the <a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">hypogeum</a>, underground tombs (<a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Kings" title="Valley of the Kings">Valley of the Kings</a>). Other great buildings were the <a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">temple</a>, which tended to be monumental complexes preceded by an avenue of <a href="/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">sphinxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obelisk" title="Obelisk">obelisks</a>. Temples used <a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">pylons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trapezoid" title="Trapezoid">trapezoid</a> walls with <a href="/wiki/Hypaethros" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypaethros">hypaethros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypostyle" title="Hypostyle">hypostyle</a> halls and <a href="/wiki/Shrine" title="Shrine">shrines</a>. The temples of <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxor" title="Luxor">Luxor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edfu" title="Edfu">Edfu</a> are good examples. Another type of temple is the <a href="/wiki/Rock_temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock temple">rock temple</a>, in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">hypogeum</a>, found in <a href="/wiki/Abu_Simbel" title="Abu Simbel">Abu Simbel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Bahari" title="Deir el-Bahari">Deir el-Bahari</a>.
</p><p>Painting of the Egyptian era used a juxtaposition of overlapping planes. The images were represented hierarchically, i.e., the Pharaoh is larger than the common subjects or enemies depicted at his side. Egyptians painted the outline of the head and limbs in profile, while the torso, hands, and eyes were painted from the front. <a href="/wiki/Applied_arts" title="Applied arts">Applied arts</a> were developed in Egypt, in particular <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet making">woodwork</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goldsmith" title="Goldsmith">metalwork</a>. There are superb examples such as <a href="/wiki/Cedrus" title="Cedrus">cedar</a> furniture <a href="/wiki/Inlay" title="Inlay">inlaid</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ebony" title="Ebony">ebony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> which can be seen in the tombs at the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum" title="Egyptian Museum">Egyptian Museum</a>. Other examples include the pieces found in <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a>'s tomb, which are of great artistic value.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzcárate198329–34_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzcárate198329–34-19">[19]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nebamun Hunting in the Marshes; c. 1380 BC; paint on plaster; 98 × 83 cm; British Museum (London)[20]"><img alt="Nebamun Hunting in the Marshes; c. 1380 BC; paint on plaster; 98 × 83 cm; British Museum (London)[20]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/150px-Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/225px-Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg/300px-Tomb_of_Nebamun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1874" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Nebamun" title="Nebamun">Nebamun</a> Hunting in the Marshes; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1380 BC; paint on <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a>; 98 × 83 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201719_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201719-20">[20]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_depicting_Akhenaton_and_Nefertiti_with_three_of_their_daughters_under_the_rays_of_Aton_01_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Akhenaten and Nefertiti with Daughters; c.1345 BC; painted limestone; 32.5 x 39 cm; Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Germany)[21]"><img alt="Akhenaten and Nefertiti with Daughters; c.1345 BC; painted limestone; 32.5 x 39 cm; Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Germany)[21]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Relief_depicting_Akhenaton_and_Nefertiti_with_three_of_their_daughters_under_the_rays_of_Aton_01_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Relief_depicting_Akhenaton_and_Nefertiti_with_three_of_their_daughters_under_the_rays_of_Aton_01_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Relief_depicting_Akhenaton_and_Nefertiti_with_three_of_their_daughters_under_the_rays_of_Aton_01_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Relief_depicting_Akhenaton_and_Nefertiti_with_three_of_their_daughters_under_the_rays_of_Aton_01_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Relief_depicting_Akhenaton_and_Nefertiti_with_three_of_their_daughters_under_the_rays_of_Aton_01_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Relief_depicting_Akhenaton_and_Nefertiti_with_three_of_their_daughters_under_the_rays_of_Aton_01_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3270" data-file-height="2759" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nefertiti" title="Nefertiti">Nefertiti</a> with Daughters; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1345 BC; painted <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>; 32.5 x 39 cm; <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum_of_Berlin" title="Egyptian Museum of Berlin">Egyptian Museum of Berlin</a> (Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mask of Tutankhamun; c. 1327 BC; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; Egyptian Museum (Cairo)"><img alt="Mask of Tutankhamun; c. 1327 BC; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; Egyptian Museum (Cairo)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/120px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/180px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/240px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mask_of_Tutankhamun" title="Mask of Tutankhamun">Mask of Tutankhamun</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1327 BC</span>; gold, glass and semi-precious stones; height: 54 cm; <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum" title="Egyptian Museum">Egyptian Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nefertiti Bust; 1352–1336 BC; painted limestone; height: 50 cm; Neues Museum (Berlin, Germany)[22]"><img alt="Nefertiti Bust; 1352–1336 BC; painted limestone; height: 50 cm; Neues Museum (Berlin, Germany)[22]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg/102px-Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg/154px-Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg/205px-Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1282" data-file-height="1877" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Nefertiti_Bust" title="Nefertiti Bust">Nefertiti Bust</a>; 1352–1336 BC; painted <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>; height: 50 cm; <a href="/wiki/Neues_Museum" title="Neues Museum">Neues Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201716_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201716-22">[22]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Philae_temple_at_night.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Temple of Philae (Egypt), 380 BC-117 AD[23]"><img alt="Temple of Philae (Egypt), 380 BC-117 AD[23]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Philae_temple_at_night.jpg/150px-Philae_temple_at_night.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Philae_temple_at_night.jpg/225px-Philae_temple_at_night.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Philae_temple_at_night.jpg/300px-Philae_temple_at_night.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2458" data-file-height="1517" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Temple of <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a> (Egypt), 380 BC-117 AD<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201430_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201430-23">[23]</a></sup></div>
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Indus_Valley_Civilization">Indus Valley Civilization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section's source code: Indus Valley Civilization"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Arts_and_crafts" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation § Arts_and_crafts</a></div>
<p>Discovered in 1922, long after the contemporary cultures of Mesopotamia and Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, aka the Harappan Civilization (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1900 BC) is now recognized as extraordinarily advanced, comparable in some ways with those cultures. Its sites span an area stretching from today's northeast <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, through much of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, and into western and northwestern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Major cities of the culture include <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a>, located respectively in <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a> and in <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> province in northern Pakistan, and the port city <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a>, in the state of <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> (<a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>). The most numerous artefacts are square and rectangular <a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal" title="Stamp seal">stamp seals</a> and seal impressions, featuring animals, usually bulls, very short <a href="/wiki/Harappan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Harappan script">Harappan texts</a>. Many stylized terracotta figurines have also been found in Harappan sites, and a few stone and bronze sculptures, more naturalistic than the ceramic ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209-24">[24]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IndusValleySeals.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Seals with Indus script and impressions; 2500-2000 BC; steatite; various sizes, mostly c.3 cm; British Museum (London)[25]"><img alt="Seals with Indus script and impressions; 2500-2000 BC; steatite; various sizes, mostly c.3 cm; British Museum (London)[25]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/IndusValleySeals.JPG/150px-IndusValleySeals.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/IndusValleySeals.JPG/225px-IndusValleySeals.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/IndusValleySeals.JPG/300px-IndusValleySeals.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1483" data-file-height="1029" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Seals with <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> and impressions; 2500-2000 BC; <a href="/wiki/Steatite" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatite">steatite</a>; various sizes, mostly <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>3 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dancing Girl; c. 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi, India)[24]"><img alt="Dancing Girl; c. 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi, India)[24]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/96px-Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/144px-Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/192px-Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2257" data-file-height="3518" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Dancing_Girl_(sculpture)" title="Dancing Girl (sculpture)">Dancing Girl</a></i>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_New_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, New Delhi">National Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>, India)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209-24">[24]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Proto-Shiva Stamp Seal; c. 2400-1900 BC; steatite; height: 3.6 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)[24]"><img alt="Proto-Shiva Stamp Seal; c. 2400-1900 BC; steatite; height: 3.6 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)[24]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg/149px-Shiva_Pashupati.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg/224px-Shiva_Pashupati.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg/298px-Shiva_Pashupati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="926" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pashupati_seal" title="Pashupati seal">Proto-Shiva Stamp Seal</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400-1900 BC; steatite; height: 3.6 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209-24">[24]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Priest-King; c. 2400–1900 BC; steatite; height: 17.5 cm; National Museum of Pakistan (Karachi)[24]"><img alt="Priest-King; c. 2400–1900 BC; steatite; height: 17.5 cm; National Museum of Pakistan (Karachi)[24]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/116px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg" decoding="async" width="116" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/174px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/232px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="754" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Priest-King_(sculpture)" title="Priest-King (sculpture)">Priest-King</a></i>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1900 BC; steatite; height: 17.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Pakistan" title="National Museum of Pakistan">National Museum of Pakistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209-24">[24]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; c. 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 × 3.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)"><img alt="Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; c. 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 × 3.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg/150px-Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg/225px-Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg/300px-Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="3134" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 × 3.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, US)</div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="China">China</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section's source code: China"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art#Bronze_casting" title="Chinese art">Chinese art § Bronze casting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">Chinese ritual bronzes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sanxingdui" title="Sanxingdui">Sanxingdui</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Terracotta_Army_(6143565126).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Terracotta_Army_%286143565126%29.jpg/220px-Terracotta_Army_%286143565126%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Terracotta_Army_%286143565126%29.jpg/330px-Terracotta_Army_%286143565126%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Terracotta_Army_%286143565126%29.jpg/440px-Terracotta_Army_%286143565126%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="1416" /></a><figcaption>Warriors of the <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 214 BC</span>; terracotta; height (average soldier): <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1.8 m</span>; <a href="/wiki/Lintong_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Lintong District">Lintong District</a> (<a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201774_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201774-26">[26]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>The first metal objects produced in China were made almost 4000 years ago, during the <a href="/wiki/Xia_dynasty" title="Xia dynasty">Xia dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>2100–1700 BC). During the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Bronze Age">Chinese Bronze Age</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> dynasties) court intercessions and communication with the spirit world were conducted by a shaman (possibly the king himself). In the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1600–1050 BC), the supreme deity was <a href="/wiki/Shangdi" title="Shangdi">Shangdi</a>, but aristocratic families preferred to contact the spirits of their ancestors. They prepared elaborate banquets of food and drink for them, heated and served in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">bronze ritual vessels</a>. These bronze vessels had many shapes, depending on their purpose: for wine, water, cereals or meat, and some of them were marked with readable characters, which shows the development of writing. This kind of vessels, of a very high quality and complexity, were discovered on the Valley of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Henan" title="Henan">Henan</a> province, in sites like <a href="/wiki/Erlitou" class="mw-redirect" title="Erlitou">Erlitou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zhengzhou" title="Zhengzhou">Zhengzhou</a>. They were used in religious rituals to cement the Dhang authority, and when the Shang capital fell, around 1050 BC, its conquerors, the Zhou (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1050–156 BC), continued to use these containers in religious rituals, but principally for food rather than drink. The Shang court had been accused of excessive drunkenness, and the Zhou, promoting the imperial <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a> ("Heaven") as the prime spiritual force, rather than ancestors, limited wine in religious rites, in favour of food. The use of ritual bronzes continued into the early <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BC–220 AD).
</p><p>One of the most commonly used motifs was the <i><a href="/wiki/Taotie" title="Taotie">taotie</a></i>, a stylized face divided centrally into two almost mirror-image halves, with nostrils, eyes, eyebrows, jaws, cheeks and horns, surrounded by incised patterns. Whether <i>taotie</i> represented real, mythological or wholly imaginary creatures cannot be determined.
</p><p>The enigmatic bronzes of <a href="/wiki/Sanxingdui" title="Sanxingdui">Sanxingdui</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Guanghan" title="Guanghan">Guanghan</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Sichuan_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Sichuan province">Sichuan province</a>), are evidence for a mysterious sacrificial religious system unlike anything elsewhere in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a> and quite different from the art of the contemporaneous Shang at <a href="/wiki/Anyang" title="Anyang">Anyang</a>. Excavations at Sanxingdui since 1986 have revealed four pits containing artefacts of <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>. There was found a great bronze statue of a human figure which stands on a plinth decorated with abstract elephant heads. Besides the standing figure, the first two pits contained over 50 bronze heads, some wearing headgear and three with a frontal covering of <a href="/wiki/Gold_leaf" title="Gold leaf">gold leaf</a>. Tubular bronze fragments with little branches were discovered here as well, probably representing trees, and also bronze leaves, fruits and birds. Over 4000 objects were found at Sanxingdui in 1986.
</p><p>Succeeding the Shang Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhou Dynasty">Zhou</a> (1050–221 BC) ruled more than any other one from Chinese history. Its last centuries were characterized by violence, the era being known as the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. During this troubling time, some philosophical movements appeared: <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>.
</p><p>The Warring States period was ended by <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qinshi Huangdi</a>, who united China in 221 BC. He ordered a huge tomb, guarded by the <a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a>. Another huge project was a predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall</a>, erected for rejecting pillaging tribes from the north. After the death of the emperor, his dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> (221–206 BC), lasted only three years. Qinshi Huangdi was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Han_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Han Dynasty">Han Dynasty</a> (202 BC-220 AD), during which the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> developed considerably, bringing new cultural influences in China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Liu_Ding.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ding; c. 1384-1050 BC; bronze; height: 22.9 cm; Shanghai Museum (Shanghai, China)[27]"><img alt="Ding; c. 1384-1050 BC; bronze; height: 22.9 cm; Shanghai Museum (Shanghai, China)[27]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Liu_Ding.jpg/148px-Liu_Ding.jpg" decoding="async" width="148" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Liu_Ding.jpg/223px-Liu_Ding.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Liu_Ding.jpg/297px-Liu_Ding.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1881" data-file-height="1901" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ding_(vessel)" title="Ding (vessel)">Ding</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1384-1050 BC</span>; bronze; height: 22.9 cm; <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Museum" title="Shanghai Museum">Shanghai Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771-27">[27]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_Standing_Figure.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lifesize figure; c. 1200–1000 BC; bronze; height: 2.62 m; Sanxingdui Museum (Guanghan, Sichuan, China)[29]"><img alt="Lifesize figure; c. 1200–1000 BC; bronze; height: 2.62 m; Sanxingdui Museum (Guanghan, Sichuan, China)[29]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bronze_Standing_Figure.jpg/49px-Bronze_Standing_Figure.jpg" decoding="async" width="49" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bronze_Standing_Figure.jpg/73px-Bronze_Standing_Figure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bronze_Standing_Figure.jpg/98px-Bronze_Standing_Figure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="1545" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Lifesize figure; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200–1000 BC</span>; bronze; height: 2.62 m; <a href="/wiki/Sanxingdui_Museum" title="Sanxingdui Museum">Sanxingdui Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guanghan" title="Guanghan">Guanghan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>, China)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201772_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201772-29">[29]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Middle_Western_Zhou_Bronze_%22Yi%22_Fangyi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fang Lei; c. 925–875 BC; bronze; height: 22.8 cm; National Museum of China (Beijing, China)[27]"><img alt="Fang Lei; c. 925–875 BC; bronze; height: 22.8 cm; National Museum of China (Beijing, China)[27]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Middle_Western_Zhou_Bronze_%22Yi%22_Fangyi.jpg/150px-Middle_Western_Zhou_Bronze_%22Yi%22_Fangyi.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Middle_Western_Zhou_Bronze_%22Yi%22_Fangyi.jpg/225px-Middle_Western_Zhou_Bronze_%22Yi%22_Fangyi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Middle_Western_Zhou_Bronze_%22Yi%22_Fangyi.jpg/300px-Middle_Western_Zhou_Bronze_%22Yi%22_Fangyi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Fang Lei; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 925–875 BC</span>; bronze; height: 22.8 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_China" title="National Museum of China">National Museum of China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, China)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771-27">[27]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mawangdui_silk_banner_from_tomb_no1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Funerary banner; c.180 BC; silk; 205 x 92 cm (upper part); Hunan Museum (Changsha, Hunan, China)[30]"><img alt="Funerary banner; c.180 BC; silk; 205 x 92 cm (upper part); Hunan Museum (Changsha, Hunan, China)[30]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mawangdui_silk_banner_from_tomb_no1.jpg/60px-Mawangdui_silk_banner_from_tomb_no1.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mawangdui_silk_banner_from_tomb_no1.jpg/90px-Mawangdui_silk_banner_from_tomb_no1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mawangdui_silk_banner_from_tomb_no1.jpg/120px-Mawangdui_silk_banner_from_tomb_no1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="903" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Funerary banner; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>180 BC; silk; 205 x 92 cm (upper part); <a href="/wiki/Hunan_Museum" title="Hunan Museum">Hunan Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Changsha" title="Changsha">Changsha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>, China)<sup id="cite_ref-Farthing44_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farthing44-30">[30]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jade_Monster_Mask_and_Ring.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ornamental handle with a bi disc; c.100 BC; jade; 18 x 14 cm; Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King (Guangzhou, Guangdong, China)[30]"><img alt="Ornamental handle with a bi disc; c.100 BC; jade; 18 x 14 cm; Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King (Guangzhou, Guangdong, China)[30]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jade_Monster_Mask_and_Ring.jpg/150px-Jade_Monster_Mask_and_Ring.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jade_Monster_Mask_and_Ring.jpg/225px-Jade_Monster_Mask_and_Ring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Jade_Monster_Mask_and_Ring.jpg/300px-Jade_Monster_Mask_and_Ring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Ornamental handle with a <i><a href="/wiki/Bi_(jade)" title="Bi (jade)">bi</a></i> disc; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>100 BC; <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a>; 18 x 14 cm; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_the_Mausoleum_of_the_Nanyue_King" title="Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King">Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King</a> (<a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>, China)<sup id="cite_ref-Farthing44_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farthing44-30">[30]</a></sup></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Greek">Greek</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section's source code: Greek"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Ancient Greek art</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:216px;max-width:216px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:160px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Agrigento_Concordia_Tempel_mit_Geruest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Agrigento_Concordia_Tempel_mit_Geruest.jpg/214px-Agrigento_Concordia_Tempel_mit_Geruest.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Agrigento_Concordia_Tempel_mit_Geruest.jpg/321px-Agrigento_Concordia_Tempel_mit_Geruest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Agrigento_Concordia_Tempel_mit_Geruest.jpg/428px-Agrigento_Concordia_Tempel_mit_Geruest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="3040" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:160px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxford._Ashmolean_Museum._Gods_in_Colour._Kore_as_Artemis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Oxford._Ashmolean_Museum._Gods_in_Colour._Kore_as_Artemis.jpg/120px-Oxford._Ashmolean_Museum._Gods_in_Colour._Kore_as_Artemis.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Oxford._Ashmolean_Museum._Gods_in_Colour._Kore_as_Artemis.jpg/180px-Oxford._Ashmolean_Museum._Gods_in_Colour._Kore_as_Artemis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Oxford._Ashmolean_Museum._Gods_in_Colour._Kore_as_Artemis.jpg/240px-Oxford._Ashmolean_Museum._Gods_in_Colour._Kore_as_Artemis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="5152" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Unlike how most of us see them today, all <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian art">Egyptian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a> sculptures and temples were initially painted in bright colours. They became white because of hundreds of years of neglect and vandalism provoked by Christians during the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, who saw them as 'pagan' and believed that they promoted idolatry.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> To us they look odd, although all of them were very colourful back in Ancient times</div></div></div></div>
<p>Through harmonious proportion and a focus on aesthetics, ancient Greek and Roman art became the foundation and inspiration of all Western art, being the standard to which most European artists aspired, until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201713_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201713-32">[32]</a></sup> The Latin poet <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, writing in the age of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (1st century BC to 1st century AD), famously remarked that although conquered on the battlefield, "captive Greece overcame its savage conqueror and brought the arts to rustic Rome." The power of Greek art lies in its representation of the human figure and its focus on human beings and the anthropomorphic gods as chief subjects. The artworks of the Greeks were meant to decorate temples and public buildings, to celebrate battle victories and remarkable personalities, and to commemorate the dead. They were also given as offerings to the gods.
</p><p>Although there was no definitive transition, the art is usually divided stylistically into the four periods of Geometric, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. During the <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical period</a> (5th and 4th centuries BC), realism and idealism were delicately balanced. In comparison, the works of the earlier Geometric (9th to 8th centuries BC) and Archaic (7th to 6th centuries BC) ages can seem appear primitive, but these artists had different goals: naturalistic representation was not necessarily their aim. <a href="/wiki/Greek_art" title="Greek art">Greek</a> and artists built on the artistic foundations of Egypt, further developing the arts of sculpture, painting, architecture, and ceramics. Among the techniques they perfected include methods of carving and casting sculptures, fresco painting and building magnificent buildings.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a> lovers collected ancient Greek originals, Roman replicas of Greek art, or newly created paintings and sculptures fashioned in a variety of Greek styles, thus preserving for posterity works of art otherwise lost. Wall and panel paintings, sculptures and mosaics decorated public spaces and private homes. Greek imagery also appeared on Roman jewellery, vessels of gold, silver, bronze and terracotta, and even on weapons and commercial weights. Rediscovered during the early <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, the arts of ancient Greece, transmitted through the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, have served as the foundation of Western art until the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201725_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201725-33">[33]</a></sup>
</p><p>Since the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Age</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, in the 5th century BC, the Classical way of building has been deeply woven into Western understanding of architecture and, indeed, of civilization itself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins20146_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins20146-34">[34]</a></sup> From circa 850 BC to circa 300 AD, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek culture">ancient Greek culture</a> flourished on the <a href="/wiki/Greek_mainland" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek mainland">Greek mainland</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Peloponnese" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a>, and on the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> islands. Five of the <a href="/wiki/Wonders_of_the_World" title="Wonders of the World">Wonders of the World</a> were Greek: the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Artemis" title="Temple of Artemis">Temple of Artemis</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia" title="Statue of Zeus at Olympia">Statue of Zeus at Olympia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_at_Halicarnassus" title="Mausoleum at Halicarnassus">Mausoleum at Halicarnassus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Rhodes" title="Colossus of Rhodes">Colossus of Rhodes</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Lighthouse of Alexandria</a>. However, Ancient Greek architecture is best known for <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_temple" title="Ancient Greek temple">its temples</a>, many of which are found throughout the region, and the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> is a prime example of this. Later, they will serve as inspiration for <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture" title="Neoclassical architecture">Neoclassical</a> architects during the late 18th and the 19th century. The most well-known temples are the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a>, both on the <a href="/wiki/Acropolis_of_Athens" title="Acropolis of Athens">Acropolis of Athens</a>. Another type of important Ancient Greek buildings were the theatres. Both temples and theatres used a complex mix of optical illusions and balanced ratios.
</p><p>Looking at the archaeological remains of ancient buildings it is easy to perceive them as limestone and concrete in a grey taupe tone and to make the assumption that ancient buildings were monochromatic. However, architecture was <a href="/wiki/Polychrome" title="Polychrome">polychromed</a> in much of the Ancient world. One of the most iconic Ancient buildings, the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 447–432 BC) in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, had details painted with vibrant reds, blues and greens. Besides ancient temples, Medieval cathedrals were never completely white. Most had colored highlights on <a href="/wiki/Capital_(architecture)" title="Capital (architecture)">capitals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Column" title="Column">columns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></sup> This practice of coloring buildings and artworks was abandoned during the early Renaissance. This is because <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> and other Renaissance artists, including <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, promoted a color palette inspired by the ancient Greco-Roman ruins, which because of neglect and constant decay during the Middle Ages, became white despite being initially colorful. The pigments used in the ancient world were delicate and especially susceptible to weathering. Without necessary care, the colors exposed to rain, snow, dirt, and other factors, vanished over time, and this way Ancient buildings and artworks became white, like they are today and were during the Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_horse_MET_DT11722.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Horse figurine (Geometric); c. 800-700 BC; bronze; height: 17.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Horse figurine (Geometric); c. 800-700 BC; bronze; height: 17.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bronze_horse_MET_DT11722.jpg/120px-Bronze_horse_MET_DT11722.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bronze_horse_MET_DT11722.jpg/180px-Bronze_horse_MET_DT11722.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Bronze_horse_MET_DT11722.jpg/240px-Bronze_horse_MET_DT11722.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2978" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Horse figurine (<a href="/wiki/Geometric_art" title="Geometric art">Geometric</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800-700 BC</span>; bronze; height: 17.6 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Terracotta_krater_MET_DT258.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pedestalled krater (Geometric); c. 750 BC; terracotta; height: 108.3 cm, diameter: 72.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[37]"><img alt="Pedestalled krater (Geometric); c. 750 BC; terracotta; height: 108.3 cm, diameter: 72.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[37]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Terracotta_krater_MET_DT258.jpg/120px-Terracotta_krater_MET_DT258.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Terracotta_krater_MET_DT258.jpg/180px-Terracotta_krater_MET_DT258.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Terracotta_krater_MET_DT258.jpg/240px-Terracotta_krater_MET_DT258.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2978" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Pedestalled krater (Geometric); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 750 BC</span>; terracotta; height: 108.3 cm, diameter: 72.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201730_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201730-37">[37]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marble_statue_of_a_kouros_(youth)_MET_DT263.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="New York Kouros (Archaic); c. 600 BC; marble and pigment; height: 1.95 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art[38]"><img alt="New York Kouros (Archaic); c. 600 BC; marble and pigment; height: 1.95 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art[38]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Marble_statue_of_a_kouros_%28youth%29_MET_DT263.jpg/95px-Marble_statue_of_a_kouros_%28youth%29_MET_DT263.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Marble_statue_of_a_kouros_%28youth%29_MET_DT263.jpg/143px-Marble_statue_of_a_kouros_%28youth%29_MET_DT263.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Marble_statue_of_a_kouros_%28youth%29_MET_DT263.jpg/190px-Marble_statue_of_a_kouros_%28youth%29_MET_DT263.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2363" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Kouros" title="New York Kouros">New York Kouros</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece#Art" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BC</span>; marble and pigment; height: 1.95 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201733_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201733-38">[38]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Terracotta_Panathenaic_prize_amphora_MET_DT5492.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Panathenaic amphora (Archaic); c. 530 BC; ceramic; height: 62.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[39]"><img alt="Panathenaic amphora (Archaic); c. 530 BC; ceramic; height: 62.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[39]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Terracotta_Panathenaic_prize_amphora_MET_DT5492.jpg/120px-Terracotta_Panathenaic_prize_amphora_MET_DT5492.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Terracotta_Panathenaic_prize_amphora_MET_DT5492.jpg/180px-Terracotta_Panathenaic_prize_amphora_MET_DT5492.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Terracotta_Panathenaic_prize_amphora_MET_DT5492.jpg/240px-Terracotta_Panathenaic_prize_amphora_MET_DT5492.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2978" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Panathenaic_amphora" title="Panathenaic amphora">Panathenaic amphora</a> (Archaic); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 530 BC</span>; ceramic; height: 62.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red-figure_cup_showing_the_death_of_Pentheus_and_a_Maenad_by_Douris,_Kimbell_Art_Museum_(bottom).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red-figure kylix (Classical); c. 480 BC; ceramic; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 27.2 cm; Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, US)[40]"><img alt="Red-figure kylix (Classical); c. 480 BC; ceramic; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 27.2 cm; Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, US)[40]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Red-figure_cup_showing_the_death_of_Pentheus_and_a_Maenad_by_Douris%2C_Kimbell_Art_Museum_%28bottom%29.jpg/150px-Red-figure_cup_showing_the_death_of_Pentheus_and_a_Maenad_by_Douris%2C_Kimbell_Art_Museum_%28bottom%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Red-figure_cup_showing_the_death_of_Pentheus_and_a_Maenad_by_Douris%2C_Kimbell_Art_Museum_%28bottom%29.jpg/225px-Red-figure_cup_showing_the_death_of_Pentheus_and_a_Maenad_by_Douris%2C_Kimbell_Art_Museum_%28bottom%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Red-figure_cup_showing_the_death_of_Pentheus_and_a_Maenad_by_Douris%2C_Kimbell_Art_Museum_%28bottom%29.jpg/300px-Red-figure_cup_showing_the_death_of_Pentheus_and_a_Maenad_by_Douris%2C_Kimbell_Art_Museum_%28bottom%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3688" data-file-height="2969" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Red-figure_pottery" title="Red-figure pottery">Red-figure</a> <a href="/wiki/Kylix" title="Kylix">kylix</a> (<a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 480 BC</span>; ceramic; height: 12.7 cm, diameter: 27.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Kimbell_Art_Museum" title="Kimbell Art Museum">Kimbell Art Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fort_Worth,_Texas" title="Fort Worth, Texas">Fort Worth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_statue_of_Zeus_or_Poseidon_from_Artemision,_Euboea._ca._460_BC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zeus of Artemision (Classical); c. 460 BC; bronze; height: 209 cm; National Archaeological Museum (Athens, Greece)[41]"><img alt="Zeus of Artemision (Classical); c. 460 BC; bronze; height: 209 cm; National Archaeological Museum (Athens, Greece)[41]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bronze_statue_of_Zeus_or_Poseidon_from_Artemision%2C_Euboea._ca._460_BC.jpg/150px-Bronze_statue_of_Zeus_or_Poseidon_from_Artemision%2C_Euboea._ca._460_BC.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bronze_statue_of_Zeus_or_Poseidon_from_Artemision%2C_Euboea._ca._460_BC.jpg/225px-Bronze_statue_of_Zeus_or_Poseidon_from_Artemision%2C_Euboea._ca._460_BC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Bronze_statue_of_Zeus_or_Poseidon_from_Artemision%2C_Euboea._ca._460_BC.jpg/300px-Bronze_statue_of_Zeus_or_Poseidon_from_Artemision%2C_Euboea._ca._460_BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Artemision_Bronze" title="Artemision Bronze">Zeus of Artemision</a> (Classical); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 460 BC</span>; bronze; height: 209 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Athens" title="National Archaeological Museum, Athens">National Archaeological Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, Greece)<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Segesta_AncientGreekTemple_0932.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Temple of Segesta (Calatafimi-Segesta, present-day Italy), 5th century BC[42]"><img alt="Temple of Segesta (Calatafimi-Segesta, present-day Italy), 5th century BC[42]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Segesta_AncientGreekTemple_0932.jpg/150px-Segesta_AncientGreekTemple_0932.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Segesta_AncientGreekTemple_0932.jpg/225px-Segesta_AncientGreekTemple_0932.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Segesta_AncientGreekTemple_0932.jpg/300px-Segesta_AncientGreekTemple_0932.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5173" data-file-height="3281" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Temple of <a href="/wiki/Segesta" title="Segesta">Segesta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Calatafimi-Segesta" title="Calatafimi-Segesta">Calatafimi-Segesta</a>, present-day Italy), 5th century BC<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201432_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201432-42">[42]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Erechtheum_Acropolis_Athens.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Erechtheion (Athens), with its Ionic columns and caryatid porch, 421-405 BC[42]"><img alt="Erechtheion (Athens), with its Ionic columns and caryatid porch, 421-405 BC[42]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Erechtheum_Acropolis_Athens.jpg/150px-Erechtheum_Acropolis_Athens.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Erechtheum_Acropolis_Athens.jpg/225px-Erechtheum_Acropolis_Athens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Erechtheum_Acropolis_Athens.jpg/300px-Erechtheum_Acropolis_Athens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4592" data-file-height="3056" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Erechtheion" title="Erechtheion">Erechtheion</a> (Athens), with its <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic</a> columns and <a href="/wiki/Caryatid" title="Caryatid">caryatid</a> <a href="/wiki/Portico" title="Portico">porch</a>, 421-405 BC<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201432_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201432-42">[42]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Terracotta_vase_MET_DT1069_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Centuripe vase (Hellenistic); c.300-100 BC; ceramic; height: 9.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[43]"><img alt="Centuripe vase (Hellenistic); c.300-100 BC; ceramic; height: 9.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[43]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Terracotta_vase_MET_DT1069_%28cropped%29.jpg/110px-Terracotta_vase_MET_DT1069_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Terracotta_vase_MET_DT1069_%28cropped%29.jpg/165px-Terracotta_vase_MET_DT1069_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Terracotta_vase_MET_DT1069_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Terracotta_vase_MET_DT1069_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2482" data-file-height="3387" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Centuripe_ware" title="Centuripe ware">Centuripe vase</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>300-100 BC; ceramic; height: 9.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup></div>
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rome">Rome</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section's source code: Rome"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Est%C3%A1tua_de_C%C3%A9sar_Augusto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Est%C3%A1tua_de_C%C3%A9sar_Augusto.jpg/113px-Est%C3%A1tua_de_C%C3%A9sar_Augusto.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Est%C3%A1tua_de_C%C3%A9sar_Augusto.jpg/170px-Est%C3%A1tua_de_C%C3%A9sar_Augusto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Est%C3%A1tua_de_C%C3%A9sar_Augusto.jpg/226px-Est%C3%A1tua_de_C%C3%A9sar_Augusto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="4160" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:103px;max-width:103px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue-Augustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg/101px-Statue-Augustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg/152px-Statue-Augustus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Statue-Augustus.jpg/202px-Statue-Augustus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Augustus_of_Prima_Porta" title="Augustus of Prima Porta">Augustus of Prima Porta</a> (left: a painted reconstruction; right: the original statue); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 20 BC</span>; <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a>; height: 2.06 m; <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Museums" title="Vatican Museums">Vatican Museums</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201752_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201752-44">[44]</a></sup></div></div></div></div>
<p>No civilization has had an impact as enduring and powerful on Western art as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. The legacy of ancient Rome is evident through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern period">early modern periods</a>, and Roman art continue to be reused in the modern era in both traditionalist and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodern</a> artworks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201446_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201446-45">[45]</a></sup> Sometimes it is viewed as derived from Greek precedents, but also has its own distinguishing features, some of them inherited from <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan art</a>. Roman sculpture is often less idealized than its Greek precedents, being very realistic. Roman architecture often used <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, and features such as the <a href="/wiki/Round_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Round arch">round arch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> were invented. Luxury objects in <a href="/wiki/Metal-work" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-work">metal-work</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engraved_gem" title="Engraved gem">gem engraving</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving" title="Ivory carving">ivory carvings</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_glass" title="Roman glass">glass</a> are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToynbee1971439–442_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee1971439–442-46">[46]</a></sup> although this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries. An innovation made possible by the Roman development of glass-blowing was <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameo glass</a>. A white 'shell' was first created, into which coloured glass was then blown so as to produce an interior lining. The white shell was then cut down to create relief patterns of white against a darker background. They also made <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaics</a>, this way producing durable pictorial art with cut-stone cubes (<i>tesserae</i>) and/or chips of coloured terracotta and glass. Some villas of wealthy Romans had their walls covered with <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">frescos</a>, aimed at dazziling and entertaining guests. Much of Roman wall painting that survives comes from sites around the Bay of <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, in particular <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a>, thriving towns that were preserved under metres of volcanic debris when Mount <a href="/wiki/Vesuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesuvius">Vesuvius</a> erupted in 79 AD. As a result, Roman wall painting is often discussed in terms of four 'Pompeian styles'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757,_56,_55_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757,_56,_55-47">[47]</a></sup>
</p><p>The Romans were deeply influenced by all aspects of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Greece" title="Hellenistic Greece">Hellenistic culture</a>. In architecture, just like in other <a href="/wiki/List_of_art_media" title="List of art media">art media</a>, they essentially adopted the Classical language and adapted it to new situations and uses. The Romans also have their own innovations brought to Classical architecture. They used the <a href="/wiki/Doric_order" title="Doric order">Doric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_order" title="Classical order">orders</a> in a far freer manner than the Greeks had, creating their own version of the Doric and using the Corinthian far more frequently. They also added two new orders to the repertoire: the <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_order" title="Tuscan order">Tuscan</a>, a simpler, more massive version of the Doric derived from <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Etruscan architecture</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Composite_order" title="Composite order">Composite</a>, a combination of the scroll-like <a href="/wiki/Volute" title="Volute">volutes</a> of the Ionic with the Corinthian's <a href="/wiki/Acanthus_(ornament)" title="Acanthus (ornament)">acanthus</a> leaves. Other important innovations include the <a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">arch</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a>. Using arches, they built <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a> and monumental <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_arch" title="Triumphal arch">triumphal arches</a>. Roman emperors were proud of their conquests, and commemorated them at home and in the conquered territories through triumphal arches, a good example of this being the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine" title="Arch of Constantine">Arch of Constantine</a> in Rome. Between 30 and 15 BC, the architect and civil and military engineer <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vitruvius_Pollio" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Vitruvius Pollio">Marcus Vitruvius Pollio</a> published a majore treatise, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Architectura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Architectura">De Architectura</a></i>, which influenced architects around the world for centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201412Hodge201916_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201412Hodge201916-48">[48]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a></sup>
</p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> that started in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>), a growing interest for ancient Rome started. During it, for the first time since <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a>, art became convincingly lifelike. The Renaissance also sparked interest for ancient Greek and Roman literature, not just for art and architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201716_&_18_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201716_&_18-50">[50]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_fresco_Villa_dei_Misteri_Pompeii_005.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mysteries Fresco; mid-1st century BC; fresco; height: 1.62 m; Villa of the Mysteries (Pompeii, Italy)[51]"><img alt="Mysteries Fresco; mid-1st century BC; fresco; height: 1.62 m; Villa of the Mysteries (Pompeii, Italy)[51]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Roman_fresco_Villa_dei_Misteri_Pompeii_005.jpg/150px-Roman_fresco_Villa_dei_Misteri_Pompeii_005.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Roman_fresco_Villa_dei_Misteri_Pompeii_005.jpg/225px-Roman_fresco_Villa_dei_Misteri_Pompeii_005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Roman_fresco_Villa_dei_Misteri_Pompeii_005.jpg/300px-Roman_fresco_Villa_dei_Misteri_Pompeii_005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2926" data-file-height="965" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Mysteries Fresco; mid-1st century BC; <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a>; height: 1.62 m; <a href="/wiki/Villa_of_the_Mysteries" title="Villa of the Mysteries">Villa of the Mysteries</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201751_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201751-51">[51]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portland Vase; late 1st century BC; glass; height: 24 cm; British Museum (London)[52]"><img alt="Portland Vase; late 1st century BC; glass; height: 24 cm; British Museum (London)[52]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg/99px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg/148px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg/198px-Portland_Vase_BM_Gem4036_n5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="3333" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Portland_Vase" title="Portland Vase">Portland Vase</a>; late 1st century BC; glass; height: 24 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757-52">[52]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_(16).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Maison Carrée (Nîmes, France), one of the best-preserved Roman temples, c. 2nd century AD"><img alt="The Maison Carrée (Nîmes, France), one of the best-preserved Roman temples, c. 2nd century AD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg/150px-Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg/225px-Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg/300px-Maison_Carree_in_Nimes_%2816%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4626" data-file-height="3248" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Maison_Carr%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Maison Carrée">Maison Carrée</a> (<a href="/wiki/N%C3%AEmes" title="Nîmes">Nîmes</a>, France), one of the best-preserved <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temples</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2nd century AD</span></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marine_mosaic_(central_panel_of_three_panels_from_a_floor)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marine mosaic (central panel of three panels from a floor); 200–230; mosaic (stone and glass tesserae); 2,915 mm x 2,870 mm; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)"><img alt="Marine mosaic (central panel of three panels from a floor); 200–230; mosaic (stone and glass tesserae); 2,915 mm x 2,870 mm; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Marine_mosaic_%28central_panel_of_three_panels_from_a_floor%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Marine_mosaic_%28central_panel_of_three_panels_from_a_floor%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Marine_mosaic_%28central_panel_of_three_panels_from_a_floor%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Marine_mosaic_%28central_panel_of_three_panels_from_a_floor%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Marine_mosaic_%28central_panel_of_three_panels_from_a_floor%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Marine_mosaic_%28central_panel_of_three_panels_from_a_floor%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3249" data-file-height="3244" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Marine <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> (central panel of three panels from a floor); 200–230; mosaic (stone and glass tesserae); 2,915 mm x 2,870 mm; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, US)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:500px_photo_(217110515).jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arch of Constantine (Rome), that commemorates the triumph of Constantine the Great after his victory over Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, 316[53]"><img alt="Arch of Constantine (Rome), that commemorates the triumph of Constantine the Great after his victory over Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, 316[53]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/500px_photo_%28217110515%29.jpeg/150px-500px_photo_%28217110515%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/500px_photo_%28217110515%29.jpeg/225px-500px_photo_%28217110515%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/500px_photo_%28217110515%29.jpeg/300px-500px_photo_%28217110515%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Constantine" title="Arch of Constantine">Arch of Constantine</a> (Rome), that commemorates the triumph of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> after his victory over <a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Milvian_Bridge" title="Battle of the Milvian Bridge">Battle of the Milvian Bridge</a>, 316<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrving201936_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrving201936-53">[53]</a></sup></div>
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</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Islamic">Islamic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section's source code: Islamic"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a></div>
<p>Islamic art is well-known since the Middle Ages for the use of elaborate <a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">geometric patterns</a>, colourful tiles, stylized natural motifs and detailed calligraphy. Rarely has lettering had such a profound impact on applied arts and architecture. Islam appeared in western <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a> in the 7th century AD through revelations delivered to the prophet <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. Within a century of Muhammad's death the Islamic empires controlled the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, Spain and parts of Asia and Africa. Because of this, similarly with <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a>, Islamic art and architecture had regional versions. As the Islamic world extended into centres of late antique culture, it was enriched by philosophical and intellectual movements. The translation of Greek works into Arabic and advances in mathematics and science were encouraged by early caliphates. This is in contrast with the modern perception that Islamic art is dogmatic and unchanging. Human and animal representation wasn't rare. Only certain periods restricted it (similar with the Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017117_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017117-54">[54]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pyxis_MET_DT4840.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Perfume box; 950–975; ivory; height: 11.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[55]"><img alt="Perfume box; 950–975; ivory; height: 11.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[55]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Pyxis_MET_DT4840.jpg/120px-Pyxis_MET_DT4840.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Pyxis_MET_DT4840.jpg/180px-Pyxis_MET_DT4840.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Pyxis_MET_DT4840.jpg/240px-Pyxis_MET_DT4840.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1861" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Perfume box; 950–975; <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>; height: 11.7 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017119_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017119-55">[55]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mezquita_de_Cordoba_Mihrab.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mihrab; 961–976; stucco and glass mosaic; diameter (internal arch): c. 2.3 m; Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba (Córdoba, Spain)[55]"><img alt="Mihrab; 961–976; stucco and glass mosaic; diameter (internal arch): c. 2.3 m; Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba (Córdoba, Spain)[55]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Mezquita_de_Cordoba_Mihrab.jpg/150px-Mezquita_de_Cordoba_Mihrab.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Mezquita_de_Cordoba_Mihrab.jpg/225px-Mezquita_de_Cordoba_Mihrab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Mezquita_de_Cordoba_Mihrab.jpg/300px-Mezquita_de_Cordoba_Mihrab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3113" data-file-height="3099" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mihrab" title="Mihrab">Mihrab</a>; 961–976; <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a> and glass mosaic; diameter (internal arch): <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2.3 m</span>; <a href="/wiki/Mosque%E2%80%93Cathedral_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" title="Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba">Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba</a> (<a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017119_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017119-55">[55]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosque_Lamp_for_the_Mausoleum_of_Amir_Aydakin_al-%27Ala%27i_al-Bunduqdar_MET_17.190.985.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mosque lamp; c. 1285; glass, enamels and gold; height: 26.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[56]"><img alt="Mosque lamp; c. 1285; glass, enamels and gold; height: 26.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[56]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Mosque_Lamp_for_the_Mausoleum_of_Amir_Aydakin_al-%27Ala%27i_al-Bunduqdar_MET_17.190.985.jpg/119px-Mosque_Lamp_for_the_Mausoleum_of_Amir_Aydakin_al-%27Ala%27i_al-Bunduqdar_MET_17.190.985.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Mosque_Lamp_for_the_Mausoleum_of_Amir_Aydakin_al-%27Ala%27i_al-Bunduqdar_MET_17.190.985.jpg/178px-Mosque_Lamp_for_the_Mausoleum_of_Amir_Aydakin_al-%27Ala%27i_al-Bunduqdar_MET_17.190.985.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Mosque_Lamp_for_the_Mausoleum_of_Amir_Aydakin_al-%27Ala%27i_al-Bunduqdar_MET_17.190.985.jpg/238px-Mosque_Lamp_for_the_Mausoleum_of_Amir_Aydakin_al-%27Ala%27i_al-Bunduqdar_MET_17.190.985.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1312" data-file-height="1656" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Mosque lamp; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1285</span>; glass, enamels and gold; height: 26.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017125_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017125-56">[56]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Court of the Lions (Alhambra, Granada, Spain), 1362-1391[57]"><img alt="Court of the Lions (Alhambra, Granada, Spain), 1362-1391[57]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg/150px-Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg/225px-Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg/300px-Alhambra_L%C3%B6wenhof_mit_L%C3%B6wenbrunnen_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3931" data-file-height="2595" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Court_of_the_Lions" title="Court of the Lions">Court of the Lions</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>), 1362-1391<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014120_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014120-57">[57]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ardabil_Carpet.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ardabil Carpet; 1539–1540; wool pile on silk; length: 10.51 m; Victoria and Albert Museum (London)[58]"><img alt="Ardabil Carpet; 1539–1540; wool pile on silk; length: 10.51 m; Victoria and Albert Museum (London)[58]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ardabil_Carpet.jpg/77px-Ardabil_Carpet.jpg" decoding="async" width="77" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ardabil_Carpet.jpg/116px-Ardabil_Carpet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Ardabil_Carpet.jpg/155px-Ardabil_Carpet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="2411" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ardabil_Carpet" title="Ardabil Carpet">Ardabil Carpet</a>; 1539–1540; wool pile on silk; length: 10.51 m; <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017128_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017128-58">[58]</a></sup></div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Americas">Americas</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section's source code: Americas"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Pre-Columbian art</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section's source code: Mesoamerica"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Ancient Maya art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Art_and_cultural_production" title="Aztecs">Aztecs § Art and cultural production</a></div>
<p>Some of the first great civilizations in the Americas developed in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> (meaning 'middle Americas'), the most well known being the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a>.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1400–400 BC) were the first major civilization in modern-day Mexico. Many elements of Mesoamerican civilizations, like the practice of building of pyramids, the complex calendar, the pantheon of gods and hieroglyphic writing have origins in Olmec culture. They produced jade and ceramic figurines, <a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">colossal heads</a> and pyramids with temples at the top, all without the advantage of metal tools. For them, jadeite was a stone more precious than gold and symbolized divine powers and fertility. 17 <a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">Olmec colossal heads</a> have been discovered, each weighing a few tons. Each head, with the flattened nose and thick lips, wears a helmet, similar with the ones worn during official ball games, possibly representing kings of officials.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> began around 1800 BC and grew until the arrival of Spanish colonizers in the 1500s. They occupied southeast Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a> and <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>. The Mayans were trading with cities, like <a href="/wiki/Teotihuac%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Teotihuacán">Teotihuacán</a>, but also with many Mesoamerican civilizations, like the <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotecs</a> or the other groups from central or coast areas of Mexico, and also with populations that did not inhabit Mesoamerican territories, like the <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno" title="Taíno">Taíno</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. They produced impressive king portraits, <a href="/wiki/Polychromy" class="mw-redirect" title="Polychromy">polychrome</a> ceramic vessels, earthenware figures, wooden sculptures, <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stelas</a>, and built complex cities with pyramids. Most of the well preserved polychrome ceramic vessels were discovered in the tombs of nobles.
</p><p>Arising from humble beginnings as a nomadic group, the Aztecs created the largest empire in Mesoamerican history, lasting from 1427 to 1521. They did not call themselves 'Aztecs', but Mexica. The term Aztecs was assigned by historians. They transformed the capital of their empire, <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>, into a place where artists of Mesoamerica created impressive artworks for their new masters. The present-day <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> was built over the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229,_232,_234_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229,_232,_234-60">[60]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cabeza_Colosal_8.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Colossal head; c.1050 BC; steatite; height: 2.2 m; Museo de Antropología de Xalapa (Xalapa, Mexico)[62]"><img alt="Colossal head; c.1050 BC; steatite; height: 2.2 m; Museo de Antropología de Xalapa (Xalapa, Mexico)[62]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cabeza_Colosal_8.jpg/150px-Cabeza_Colosal_8.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cabeza_Colosal_8.jpg/225px-Cabeza_Colosal_8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Cabeza_Colosal_8.jpg/300px-Cabeza_Colosal_8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Olmec_colossal_heads" title="Olmec colossal heads">Colossal head</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1050 BC; <a href="/wiki/Steatite" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatite">steatite</a>; height: 2.2 m; <a href="/wiki/Museo_de_Antropolog%C3%ADa_de_Xalapa" title="Museo de Antropología de Xalapa">Museo de Antropología de Xalapa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Xalapa" title="Xalapa">Xalapa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229-62">[62]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seated_ruler_in_ritual_pose,_Highland_Olmec_culture,_San_Martin_Texmelucan,_Puebla_state,_Middle_Formative_period,_c._900-500_BC,_serpentine,_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04572.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seated shaman in ritual pose-shaped pendant (Olmec); 9th-5th century BC; serpentine and cinnabar; height: 18.5 cm; Dallas Museum of Art (Dallas, Texas, US)[62]"><img alt="Seated shaman in ritual pose-shaped pendant (Olmec); 9th-5th century BC; serpentine and cinnabar; height: 18.5 cm; Dallas Museum of Art (Dallas, Texas, US)[62]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Seated_ruler_in_ritual_pose%2C_Highland_Olmec_culture%2C_San_Martin_Texmelucan%2C_Puebla_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_serpentine%2C_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04572.jpg/111px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Seated_ruler_in_ritual_pose%2C_Highland_Olmec_culture%2C_San_Martin_Texmelucan%2C_Puebla_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_serpentine%2C_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04572.jpg/167px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Seated_ruler_in_ritual_pose%2C_Highland_Olmec_culture%2C_San_Martin_Texmelucan%2C_Puebla_state%2C_Middle_Formative_period%2C_c._900-500_BC%2C_serpentine%2C_cinnabar_-_Dallas_Museum_of_Art_-_DSC04572.jpg/223px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3628" data-file-height="4878" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Seated shaman in ritual pose-shaped pendant (<a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmec</a>); 9th-5th century BC; <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_subgroup" title="Serpentine subgroup">serpentine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a>; height: 18.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Dallas_Museum_of_Art" title="Dallas Museum of Art">Dallas Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dallas" title="Dallas">Dallas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229-62">[62]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mascara_Dios_Murcielago.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bat effigy (Zapotec); c.50 BC; jadeite and shell; height: 28 cm; National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico City)[63]"><img alt="Bat effigy (Zapotec); c.50 BC; jadeite and shell; height: 28 cm; National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico City)[63]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mascara_Dios_Murcielago.jpg/100px-Mascara_Dios_Murcielago.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mascara_Dios_Murcielago.jpg/150px-Mascara_Dios_Murcielago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mascara_Dios_Murcielago.jpg/200px-Mascara_Dios_Murcielago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Bat effigy (<a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>50 BC; <a href="/wiki/Jadeite" title="Jadeite">jadeite</a> and shell; height: 28 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Anthropology_(Mexico)" title="National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico)">National Museum of Anthropology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:K%27inich_Janaab_Pakal_I_v2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I (Maya; 615–683; stucco; height 43 cm; National Museum of Anthropology[64]"><img alt="Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I (Maya; 615–683; stucco; height 43 cm; National Museum of Anthropology[64]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/K%27inich_Janaab_Pakal_I_v2.jpg/88px-K%27inich_Janaab_Pakal_I_v2.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/K%27inich_Janaab_Pakal_I_v2.jpg/133px-K%27inich_Janaab_Pakal_I_v2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/K%27inich_Janaab_Pakal_I_v2.jpg/177px-K%27inich_Janaab_Pakal_I_v2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="2273" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Portrait of K'inich Janaab Pakal I (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Maya</a>; 615–683; <a href="/wiki/Stucco" title="Stucco">stucco</a>; height 43 cm; National Museum of Anthropology<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017232_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017232-64">[64]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vessel,_Throne_Scene_MET_DT4514.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vessel with a throne scene (Maya); late 7th–8th century; ceramic; 21.59 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Vessel with a throne scene (Maya); late 7th–8th century; ceramic; 21.59 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Vessel%2C_Throne_Scene_MET_DT4514.jpg/120px-Vessel%2C_Throne_Scene_MET_DT4514.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Vessel%2C_Throne_Scene_MET_DT4514.jpg/180px-Vessel%2C_Throne_Scene_MET_DT4514.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Vessel%2C_Throne_Scene_MET_DT4514.jpg/240px-Vessel%2C_Throne_Scene_MET_DT4514.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1861" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Vessel with a throne scene (Maya); late 7th–8th century; ceramic; 21.59 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Yaxchilán Lintel 24 (Maya); 702; limestone; 109 x 74 cm; British Museum (London)[65]"><img alt="Yaxchilán Lintel 24 (Maya); 702; limestone; 109 x 74 cm; British Museum (London)[65]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg/110px-Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg/166px-Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg/221px-Yaxchilan_Lintel_24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2313" data-file-height="3141" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Yaxchilan" title="Yaxchilan">Yaxchilán</a> <a href="/wiki/Lintel" title="Lintel">Lintel</a> 24 (Maya); 702; limestone; 109 x 74 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Telamones_Tula.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warrior columns (Toltec); c.1000; basalt; height: c.460 cm; Tula de Allende (Mexico)"><img alt="Warrior columns (Toltec); c.1000; basalt; height: c.460 cm; Tula de Allende (Mexico)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Telamones_Tula.jpg/150px-Telamones_Tula.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Telamones_Tula.jpg/225px-Telamones_Tula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Telamones_Tula.jpg/300px-Telamones_Tula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Warrior columns (<a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1000; basalt; height: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>460 cm; <a href="/wiki/Tula_de_Allende" title="Tula de Allende">Tula de Allende</a> (Mexico)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Double_headed_turquoise_serpentAztecbritish_museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Double-headed serpent (Aztec); c. 1450–1521; cedar, turquoise, shell and traces of gilding; length: 43.3 cm; British Museum[66]"><img alt="Double-headed serpent (Aztec); c. 1450–1521; cedar, turquoise, shell and traces of gilding; length: 43.3 cm; British Museum[66]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Double_headed_turquoise_serpentAztecbritish_museum.jpg/150px-Double_headed_turquoise_serpentAztecbritish_museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Double_headed_turquoise_serpentAztecbritish_museum.jpg/225px-Double_headed_turquoise_serpentAztecbritish_museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Double_headed_turquoise_serpentAztecbritish_museum.jpg/300px-Double_headed_turquoise_serpentAztecbritish_museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3295" data-file-height="1639" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Double-headed_serpent" title="Double-headed serpent">Double-headed serpent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aztecs#Art_and_cultural_production" title="Aztecs">Aztec</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1450–1521; cedar, <a href="/wiki/Turquoise" title="Turquoise">turquoise</a>, shell and traces of gilding; length: 43.3 cm; British Museum<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234-66">[66]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mexico-3980_-_Coyolxauhqui_Stone_(2508259597).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coyolxauhqui Stone (Aztec); c. 1469–1481; stone; diameter: 3 m; Templo Mayor Museum (Mexico City)[66]"><img alt="Coyolxauhqui Stone (Aztec); c. 1469–1481; stone; diameter: 3 m; Templo Mayor Museum (Mexico City)[66]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mexico-3980_-_Coyolxauhqui_Stone_%282508259597%29.jpg/150px-Mexico-3980_-_Coyolxauhqui_Stone_%282508259597%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mexico-3980_-_Coyolxauhqui_Stone_%282508259597%29.jpg/225px-Mexico-3980_-_Coyolxauhqui_Stone_%282508259597%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mexico-3980_-_Coyolxauhqui_Stone_%282508259597%29.jpg/300px-Mexico-3980_-_Coyolxauhqui_Stone_%282508259597%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2383" data-file-height="2269" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Coyolxauhqui_Stone" title="Coyolxauhqui Stone">Coyolxauhqui Stone</a> (Aztec); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1469–1481; stone; diameter: 3 m; <a href="/wiki/Templo_Mayor" title="Templo Mayor">Templo Mayor</a> Museum (<a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234-66">[66]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tlaloc_Vasija.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tlāloc effigy vessel (Aztec); c. 1440–1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm; Templo Mayor Museum[66]"><img alt="Tlāloc effigy vessel (Aztec); c. 1440–1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm; Templo Mayor Museum[66]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tlaloc_Vasija.jpg/150px-Tlaloc_Vasija.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tlaloc_Vasija.jpg/225px-Tlaloc_Vasija.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Tlaloc_Vasija.jpg/300px-Tlaloc_Vasija.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Tl%C4%81loc" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlāloc">Tlāloc</a> effigy vessel (Aztec); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1440–1469; painted earthenware; height: 35 cm; Templo Mayor Museum<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234-66">[66]</a></sup></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Colombia">Colombia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section's source code: Colombia"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Muisca art</a></div>
<p>Similarly with Mesoamerica, the present-day territory of <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> is an area where multiple cultures developed before the arrival of Spanish colonizers. Here, gold body accessories were produced, many golden ones, but also many other ones made of <a href="/wiki/Tumbaga" title="Tumbaga">tumbaga</a>, a non-specific <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> given by Spanish <a href="/wiki/Conquistadors" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquistadors">Conquistadors</a> to metals composed of these elements found in widespread use in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> in North America and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Calima_Animal-Headed_Figure_Pendant_MET_DT11629_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Animal-headed figure pendant (Yotoco); 1st–7th century; gold; height: 6.35 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Animal-headed figure pendant (Yotoco); 1st–7th century; gold; height: 6.35 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Calima_Animal-Headed_Figure_Pendant_MET_DT11629_%28cropped%29.jpg/120px-Calima_Animal-Headed_Figure_Pendant_MET_DT11629_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Calima_Animal-Headed_Figure_Pendant_MET_DT11629_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Calima_Animal-Headed_Figure_Pendant_MET_DT11629_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Calima_Animal-Headed_Figure_Pendant_MET_DT11629_%28cropped%29.jpg/240px-Calima_Animal-Headed_Figure_Pendant_MET_DT11629_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2382" data-file-height="2978" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Animal-headed figure pendant (<a href="/wiki/Calima_culture#Yotoco_culture" title="Calima culture">Yotoco</a>); 1st–7th century; gold; height: 6.35 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lime_Container_(Poporo)_MET_DT1262.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lime container (Quimbaya); 5th–9th century; gold; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Lime container (Quimbaya); 5th–9th century; gold; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Lime_Container_%28Poporo%29_MET_DT1262.jpg/120px-Lime_Container_%28Poporo%29_MET_DT1262.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Lime_Container_%28Poporo%29_MET_DT1262.jpg/180px-Lime_Container_%28Poporo%29_MET_DT1262.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Lime_Container_%28Poporo%29_MET_DT1262.jpg/240px-Lime_Container_%28Poporo%29_MET_DT1262.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2978" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Lime container (<a href="/wiki/Quimbaya_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Quimbaya civilization">Quimbaya</a>); 5th–9th century; gold; height: 23 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Male_Figure_(tunjo)_MET_DP215691.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Male figure/tunjo (Muisca); 10th–mid-16th century; gold; height: 14.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Male figure/tunjo (Muisca); 10th–mid-16th century; gold; height: 14.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Male_Figure_%28tunjo%29_MET_DP215691.jpg/112px-Male_Figure_%28tunjo%29_MET_DP215691.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Male_Figure_%28tunjo%29_MET_DP215691.jpg/169px-Male_Figure_%28tunjo%29_MET_DP215691.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Male_Figure_%28tunjo%29_MET_DP215691.jpg/225px-Male_Figure_%28tunjo%29_MET_DP215691.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2882" data-file-height="3842" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Male figure/<i><a href="/wiki/Tunjo" title="Tunjo">tunjo</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Muisca_art" title="Muisca art">Muisca</a>); 10th–mid-16th century; gold; height: 14.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure_Pendant_MET_DT4860.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pendant (Tairona); 10th–16th century; gold; height: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Pendant (Tairona); 10th–16th century; gold; height: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Figure_Pendant_MET_DT4860.jpg/143px-Figure_Pendant_MET_DT4860.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Figure_Pendant_MET_DT4860.jpg/214px-Figure_Pendant_MET_DT4860.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Figure_Pendant_MET_DT4860.jpg/286px-Figure_Pendant_MET_DT4860.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1749" data-file-height="1837" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Pendant (<a href="/wiki/Tairona" title="Tairona">Tairona</a>); 10th–16th century; gold; height: 14 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Andean_regions">Andean regions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section's source code: Andean regions"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture#Art" title="Chavín culture">Chavín culture § Art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Paracas culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moche_culture#Material_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche culture § Material culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sican_culture#Art_and_ideology" title="Sican culture">Sican culture § Art and ideology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku#Structures" title="Tiwanaku">Tiwanaku § Structures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inca_empire#Arts_and_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Inca empire">Inca empire § Arts and technology</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Man%27s_mantle_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Man%27s_mantle_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Man%27s_mantle_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Man%27s_mantle_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-Man%27s_mantle_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Man%27s_mantle_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-Man%27s_mantle_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5003" data-file-height="2697" /></a><figcaption>Mantle (<a href="/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Paracas</a>); 50–100 AD; embroidered wool; height: 1.01 m; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238-67">[67]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>The ancient civilizations of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> nurtured unique artistic traditions, including one of the world's most aesthetically impressive fibre art traditions. Two of the first important cultures from this land are the <a href="/wiki/Chav%C3%ADn_culture" title="Chavín culture">Chavín</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Paracas culture</a>.
</p><p>The Paracas culture of the south coast of Peru is best known for its complex patterned textiles, particularly mantels. The <a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a> controlled the river valleys of the north coast, while the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a> of southern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> held sway along the coastal deserts and contiguous mountains. The Nazca are best known for the famous <a href="/wiki/Nazca_Lines" title="Nazca Lines">Nazca Lines</a>, a group of <a href="/wiki/Geoglyph" title="Geoglyph">geoglyphs</a> in a desert in southern Peru. They also produced polychrome ceramics and textiles influenced by the Paracas, and used a palette of at least 10 colours for their pottery. Both cultures flourished around 100–800 AD. Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. In the north, the <a href="/wiki/Huari_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Huari culture">Wari</a> (or Huari) Empire are noted for their stone architecture and sculpture accomplishments.
</p><p>The Chimú were preceded by a simple ceramic style known as <a href="/wiki/Sican_culture#Early_Sican" title="Sican culture">Sicán</a> (700–900 AD). The Chimú produced excellent portrait and decorative works in metal, notably gold but especially silver. Later, the <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> (1100–1533) stretched across the <a href="/wiki/Andes_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Andes Mountains">Andes Mountains</a>. They crafted precious metal figurines, and like other civilizations from the same area, complex textiles. Llamas were important animals, because of their wool and for carrying loads.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238,_239,_240_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238,_239,_240-69">[69]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca,_Nazca,_Per%C3%BA,_2015-07-29,_DD_52.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="The Hummingbird, one of the Nazca Lines (Nazca); c.200 BC-600 AD; rocks, gravel and dirt; length: 50 m; Nasca and Palpa Provinces (Peru)[71]"><img alt="The Hummingbird, one of the Nazca Lines (Nazca); c.200 BC-600 AD; rocks, gravel and dirt; length: 50 m; Nasca and Palpa Provinces (Peru)[71]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_52.JPG/150px-L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_52.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_52.JPG/225px-L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_52.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_52.JPG/300px-L%C3%ADneas_de_Nazca%2C_Nazca%2C_Per%C3%BA%2C_2015-07-29%2C_DD_52.JPG 2x" data-file-width="7836" data-file-height="4755" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Hummingbird, one of the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_Lines" title="Nazca Lines">Nazca Lines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca</a>); <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>200 BC-600 AD; rocks, gravel and dirt; length: 50 m; <a href="/wiki/Nasca_Province" title="Nasca Province">Nasca</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palpa_Province" title="Palpa Province">Palpa</a> Provinces (Peru)<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_Head_Bottle_MET_82.1.28.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait head bottle (Moche); 3rd–6th century; painted ceramic; overall: 26.35 x 16.21 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Portrait head bottle (Moche); 3rd–6th century; painted ceramic; overall: 26.35 x 16.21 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Portrait_Head_Bottle_MET_82.1.28.jpeg/100px-Portrait_Head_Bottle_MET_82.1.28.jpeg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Portrait_Head_Bottle_MET_82.1.28.jpeg/150px-Portrait_Head_Bottle_MET_82.1.28.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Portrait_Head_Bottle_MET_82.1.28.jpeg/200px-Portrait_Head_Bottle_MET_82.1.28.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Moche_portrait_vessel" title="Moche portrait vessel">Portrait head bottle</a> (<a href="/wiki/Moche_culture" title="Moche culture">Moche</a>); 3rd–6th century; painted ceramic; overall: 26.35 x 16.21 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Peru_Huari_Standing_Dignitary_1_Kimbell.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mosaic figurine of a noble man (Wari); 7th-9th century; wood, shell, stone and silver; height: 10.2 cm; Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, US)[72]"><img alt="Mosaic figurine of a noble man (Wari); 7th-9th century; wood, shell, stone and silver; height: 10.2 cm; Kimbell Art Museum (Fort Worth, Texas, US)[72]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Peru_Huari_Standing_Dignitary_1_Kimbell.jpg/122px-Peru_Huari_Standing_Dignitary_1_Kimbell.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Peru_Huari_Standing_Dignitary_1_Kimbell.jpg/182px-Peru_Huari_Standing_Dignitary_1_Kimbell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Peru_Huari_Standing_Dignitary_1_Kimbell.jpg/243px-Peru_Huari_Standing_Dignitary_1_Kimbell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1688" data-file-height="2082" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Mosaic figurine of a noble man (<a href="/wiki/Wari_culture" title="Wari culture">Wari</a>); 7th-9th century; wood, shell, stone and <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>; height: 10.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Kimbell_Art_Museum" title="Kimbell Art Museum">Kimbell Art Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fort_Worth,_Texas" title="Fort Worth, Texas">Fort Worth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017240_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017240-72">[72]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceremonial_Knife_(Tumi)_MET_DP215693.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ceremonial knife/tumi (Sican); 10th–13th century; gold, turquoise, greenstone and shell; height: 33 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[67]"><img alt="Ceremonial knife/tumi (Sican); 10th–13th century; gold, turquoise, greenstone and shell; height: 33 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[67]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ceremonial_Knife_%28Tumi%29_MET_DP215693.jpg/124px-Ceremonial_Knife_%28Tumi%29_MET_DP215693.jpg" decoding="async" width="124" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ceremonial_Knife_%28Tumi%29_MET_DP215693.jpg/187px-Ceremonial_Knife_%28Tumi%29_MET_DP215693.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ceremonial_Knife_%28Tumi%29_MET_DP215693.jpg/249px-Ceremonial_Knife_%28Tumi%29_MET_DP215693.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3177" data-file-height="3826" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Ceremonial knife/<i><a href="/wiki/Tumi" title="Tumi">tumi</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Sican_culture" title="Sican culture">Sican</a>); 10th–13th century; gold, turquoise, greenstone and shell; height: 33 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238-67">[67]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tupa-inca-tunic.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal tunic (Inca); 1476–1534; camelid fibre and cotton; height: 91 cm; Dumbarton Oaks (Washington, D.C., US)[73]"><img alt="Royal tunic (Inca); 1476–1534; camelid fibre and cotton; height: 91 cm; Dumbarton Oaks (Washington, D.C., US)[73]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Tupa-inca-tunic.png/127px-Tupa-inca-tunic.png" decoding="async" width="127" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Tupa-inca-tunic.png/191px-Tupa-inca-tunic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Tupa-inca-tunic.png/254px-Tupa-inca-tunic.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="944" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Royal tunic (<a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a>); 1476–1534; camelid fibre and cotton; height: 91 cm; <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks" title="Dumbarton Oaks">Dumbarton Oaks</a> (<a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017241_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017241-73">[73]</a></sup></div>
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</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Asian">Asian</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section's source code: Asian"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">History of Asian art</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">Eastern civilization</a> broadly includes Asia, and it also includes a complex tradition of art making. One approach to Eastern art history divides the field by nation, with foci on <a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Indian art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japanese art</a>. Due to the size of the continent, the distinction between Eastern Asia and Southern Asia in the context of arts can be clearly seen. In most of Asia, pottery was a prevalent form of art. The pottery is often decorated with geometric patterns or abstract representations of animals, people or plants. Other very widespread forms of art were, and are, sculpture and painting.
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Central_Asia">Central Asia</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section's source code: Central Asia"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Central Asian art</a></div>
<p>Central Asian art developed in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, in areas corresponding to modern <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, and parts of modern Mongolia, China and Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-1a_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1a-74">[74]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-1b_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1b-75">[75]</a></sup> The art of ancient and medieval Central Asia reflects the rich history of this vast area, home to a huge variety of peoples, religions and ways of life. The artistic remains of the region show a remarkable combinations of influences that exemplify the multicultural nature of Central Asian society. The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_art" title="Silk Road transmission of art">Silk Road transmission of art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scythian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian art">Scythian art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serindian_art" title="Serindian art">Serindian art</a> and more recently <a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate</a> culture, are all part of this complicated history. Central Asia has always been a crossroads of cultural exchange, the hub of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> – that complex system of trade routes stretching from China to the Mediterranean. Already in the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> (3rd and 2nd millennium BC), growing settlements formed part of an extensive network of trade linking Central Asia to the <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a> Valley, Mesopotamia and Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201766_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201766-76">[76]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seated_female_MET_DT867.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seated figurine (Bactrian); 3rd-2nd millennia BC; chlorite and limestone; height: 9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[76]"><img alt="Seated figurine (Bactrian); 3rd-2nd millennia BC; chlorite and limestone; height: 9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[76]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seated_female_MET_DT867.jpg/146px-Seated_female_MET_DT867.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seated_female_MET_DT867.jpg/219px-Seated_female_MET_DT867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seated_female_MET_DT867.jpg/291px-Seated_female_MET_DT867.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3549" data-file-height="3653" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Seated figurine (<a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactrian</a>); 3rd-2nd millennia BC; <a href="/wiki/Chlorite" title="Chlorite">chlorite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>; height: 9 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201766_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201766-76">[76]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Belt_buckle_with_paired_felines_attacking_ibexes_MET_DT5088.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Belt buckle; 3rd-1st centuries BC; gold; height: 7.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[77]"><img alt="Belt buckle; 3rd-1st centuries BC; gold; height: 7.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[77]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Belt_buckle_with_paired_felines_attacking_ibexes_MET_DT5088.jpg/125px-Belt_buckle_with_paired_felines_attacking_ibexes_MET_DT5088.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Belt_buckle_with_paired_felines_attacking_ibexes_MET_DT5088.jpg/187px-Belt_buckle_with_paired_felines_attacking_ibexes_MET_DT5088.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Belt_buckle_with_paired_felines_attacking_ibexes_MET_DT5088.jpg/249px-Belt_buckle_with_paired_felines_attacking_ibexes_MET_DT5088.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2281" data-file-height="2745" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Belt buckle; 3rd-1st centuries BC; gold; height: 7.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201767_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201767-77">[77]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bagram_Guimet_12.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Goblet showing The Rape of Europa and of Ganymede, part of the Bagram Treasure; 1st century AD; painted glass; height: 16 cm, diameter: 10 cm; Guimet Museum (Paris)[78]"><img alt="Goblet showing The Rape of Europa and of Ganymede, part of the Bagram Treasure; 1st century AD; painted glass; height: 16 cm, diameter: 10 cm; Guimet Museum (Paris)[78]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bagram_Guimet_12.JPG/88px-Bagram_Guimet_12.JPG" decoding="async" width="88" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bagram_Guimet_12.JPG/132px-Bagram_Guimet_12.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Bagram_Guimet_12.JPG/177px-Bagram_Guimet_12.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3014" data-file-height="5114" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Goblet showing The Rape of <a href="/wiki/Europa_(consort_of_Zeus)" title="Europa (consort of Zeus)">Europa</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(mythology)" title="Ganymede (mythology)">Ganymede</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Bagram" title="Bagram">Bagram</a> Treasure; 1st century AD; painted glass; height: 16 cm, diameter: 10 cm; <a href="/wiki/Guimet_Museum" title="Guimet Museum">Guimet Museum</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:God_and_Female_Musician,_Kizil,_Cave_171,_417-435_AD,_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_DSC01720.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Goddess and celestial musician (Buddhist); 7th century; pigments on plaster; height: 2.03 m; Museum of Asian Art (Berlin, Germany)[79]"><img alt="Goddess and celestial musician (Buddhist); 7th century; pigments on plaster; height: 2.03 m; Museum of Asian Art (Berlin, Germany)[79]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/God_and_Female_Musician%2C_Kizil%2C_Cave_171%2C_417-435_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01720.JPG/99px-God_and_Female_Musician%2C_Kizil%2C_Cave_171%2C_417-435_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01720.JPG" decoding="async" width="99" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/God_and_Female_Musician%2C_Kizil%2C_Cave_171%2C_417-435_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01720.JPG/149px-God_and_Female_Musician%2C_Kizil%2C_Cave_171%2C_417-435_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01720.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/God_and_Female_Musician%2C_Kizil%2C_Cave_171%2C_417-435_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01720.JPG/199px-God_and_Female_Musician%2C_Kizil%2C_Cave_171%2C_417-435_AD%2C_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01720.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3541" data-file-height="5343" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Goddess and celestial musician (<a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Buddhist</a>); 7th century; pigments on plaster; height: 2.03 m; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Asian_Art" title="Museum of Asian Art">Museum of Asian Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Samarcanda,_Gur-e_Amir_19.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gur-i Amir Mausoleum (Samarkand, Uzbekistan), 15th century[80]"><img alt="Gur-i Amir Mausoleum (Samarkand, Uzbekistan), 15th century[80]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Samarcanda%2C_Gur-e_Amir_19.jpg/150px-Samarcanda%2C_Gur-e_Amir_19.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Samarcanda%2C_Gur-e_Amir_19.jpg/225px-Samarcanda%2C_Gur-e_Amir_19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Samarcanda%2C_Gur-e_Amir_19.jpg/300px-Samarcanda%2C_Gur-e_Amir_19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gur-e-Amir" title="Gur-e-Amir">Gur-i Amir Mausoleum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Samarkand" title="Samarkand">Samarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>), 15th century<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a></sup></div>
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Indian">Indian</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section's source code: Indian"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_art" title="Indian art">Indian art</a></div>
<p>Early <a href="/wiki/Buddhists" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhists">Buddhists</a> in India developed symbols related to <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>. The major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the period after the <a href="/wiki/Mauryan_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauryan Empire">Mauryans</a>, within North India <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan art</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist art</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a> and finally the "classic" period of <a href="/wiki/Gupta_art" title="Gupta art">Gupta art</a>. Additionally, there was the Andhra school which appeared before the Gandhara school and which was based in South India.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeiko201057–63_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeiko201057–63-81">[81]</a></sup> Good quantities of sculpture survives from some key sites such as <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amaravati_Stupa" title="Amaravati Stupa">Amaravati</a>, some of which remain <i>in situ</i>, with others in museums in India or around the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved <a href="/wiki/Torana" title="Torana">toranas</a> or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions. These are in stone, though clearly adopting forms developed in wood. They and the walls of the stupa itself can be heavily decorated with reliefs, mostly illustrating the lives of the Buddha. Gradually life-size figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief, but then free-standing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199426–47,_105–117_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199426–47,_105–117-82">[82]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mathura_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura art">Mathura art</a> was the most important centre in this development, which applied to Hindu and Jain art as well as Buddhist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199459–70_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199459–70-83">[83]</a></sup> The facades and interiors of rock-cut <i><a href="/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya">chaitya</a></i> prayer halls and monastic <i><a href="/wiki/Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vihara">viharas</a></i> have survived better than similar free-standing structures elsewhere, which were for long mostly in wood. The caves at <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bhaja_Caves" title="Bhaja Caves">Bhaja</a> and elsewhere contain early sculpture, often outnumbered by later works such as iconic figures of the Buddha and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a>, which are not found before 100 AD at the least.
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<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanchi1_N-MP-220.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Great Stupa of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh, India), 3rd century-c. 100 BC[84]"><img alt="The Great Stupa of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh, India), 3rd century-c. 100 BC[84]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Sanchi1_N-MP-220.jpg/150px-Sanchi1_N-MP-220.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Sanchi1_N-MP-220.jpg/225px-Sanchi1_N-MP-220.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Sanchi1_N-MP-220.jpg/300px-Sanchi1_N-MP-220.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Great <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Madhya_Pradesh" title="Madhya Pradesh">Madhya Pradesh</a>, India), 3rd century-<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 BC<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201915_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201915-84">[84]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarnath_capital.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lion Capital of Ashoka; c. 250 BC; polished sandstone; height: 2.2 m; Sarnath Museum (India)[85]"><img alt="Lion Capital of Ashoka; c. 250 BC; polished sandstone; height: 2.2 m; Sarnath Museum (India)[85]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Sarnath_capital.jpg/84px-Sarnath_capital.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Sarnath_capital.jpg/126px-Sarnath_capital.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Sarnath_capital.jpg/168px-Sarnath_capital.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2667" data-file-height="4760" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lion_Capital_of_Ashoka" title="Lion Capital of Ashoka">Lion Capital of Ashoka</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 BC; polished <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a>; height: 2.2 m; <a href="/wiki/Sarnath_Museum" title="Sarnath Museum">Sarnath Museum</a> (India)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017210_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017210-85">[85]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_(Dhammajak_Mutra).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seated Buddha; c. 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum[86]"><img alt="Seated Buddha; c. 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum[86]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg/117px-Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg/176px-Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg/234px-Buddha_in_Sarnath_Museum_%28Dhammajak_Mutra%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1188" data-file-height="1521" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Buddha_Preaching_his_First_Sermon_(Sarnath)" title="Buddha Preaching his First Sermon (Sarnath)">Seated Buddha</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 475; sandstone; height: 1.6 m; Sarnath Museum<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017213_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017213-86">[86]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:022_Cave_1,_Padmapani_(33896247830).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Bodhisattva Padmapani; c. 450–490; pigments on rock; height: c. 1.2 m; Ajanta Caves (India)[86]"><img alt="Bodhisattva Padmapani; c. 450–490; pigments on rock; height: c. 1.2 m; Ajanta Caves (India)[86]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/022_Cave_1%2C_Padmapani_%2833896247830%29.jpg/100px-022_Cave_1%2C_Padmapani_%2833896247830%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/022_Cave_1%2C_Padmapani_%2833896247830%29.jpg/150px-022_Cave_1%2C_Padmapani_%2833896247830%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/022_Cave_1%2C_Padmapani_%2833896247830%29.jpg/200px-022_Cave_1%2C_Padmapani_%2833896247830%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Bodhisattva Padmapani</i>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 450–490; pigments on rock; height: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1.2 m; <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a> (India)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017213_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017213-86">[86]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiva_Nataraja_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_25971.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Shiva as lord of the dance; c. 11th century; bronze; height: 96 cm; Musée Guimet (Paris)[87]"><img alt="Shiva as lord of the dance; c. 11th century; bronze; height: 96 cm; Musée Guimet (Paris)[87]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Shiva_Nataraja_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_25971.jpg/134px-Shiva_Nataraja_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_25971.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Shiva_Nataraja_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_25971.jpg/201px-Shiva_Nataraja_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_25971.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Shiva_Nataraja_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_25971.jpg/268px-Shiva_Nataraja_Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_25971.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1701" data-file-height="1906" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> as lord of the dance; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 11th century; bronze; height: 96 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée Guimet">Musée Guimet</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017215_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017215-87">[87]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beauty_of_khajuraho_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Khajuraho, India), c.1030[88]"><img alt="Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Khajuraho, India), c.1030[88]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Beauty_of_khajuraho_temple.jpg/150px-Beauty_of_khajuraho_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Beauty_of_khajuraho_temple.jpg/225px-Beauty_of_khajuraho_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Beauty_of_khajuraho_temple.jpg/300px-Beauty_of_khajuraho_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3601" data-file-height="2730" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kandariya_Mahadeva_Temple" title="Kandariya Mahadeva Temple">Kandariya Mahadeva Temple</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khajuraho" title="Khajuraho">Khajuraho</a>, India), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1030<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014114_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014114-88">[88]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MET_DT238.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Durga killing the buffalo demon; c.1150; argilite; height: 13.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[89]"><img alt="Durga killing the buffalo demon; c.1150; argilite; height: 13.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[89]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/MET_DT238.jpg/120px-MET_DT238.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/MET_DT238.jpg/180px-MET_DT238.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/MET_DT238.jpg/240px-MET_DT238.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Durga" title="Durga">Durga</a> killing the buffalo demon; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1150; <a href="/wiki/Argilite" class="mw-redirect" title="Argilite">argilite</a>; height: 13.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MET_DP22193.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ganesha; c. 14th-15th century; ivory; height: 18.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[87]"><img alt="Ganesha; c. 14th-15th century; ivory; height: 18.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[87]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/MET_DP22193.jpg/122px-MET_DP22193.jpg" decoding="async" width="122" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/MET_DP22193.jpg/182px-MET_DP22193.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/MET_DP22193.jpg/243px-MET_DP22193.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="700" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ganesha" title="Ganesha">Ganesha</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 14th-15th century; <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>; height: 18.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017215_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017215-87">[87]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Basawan._Akbar_Taming_Mad_Elephant_Hawai._Composition_by_Basawan,_coloring_by_Chitra._(left_part)_Akbarnama,_ca._1590,_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum,_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Basawan Akbarnama; c. 1590; watercolor on paper; 33 x 20 cm; Victoria and Albert Museum (London)[90]"><img alt="Basawan Akbarnama; c. 1590; watercolor on paper; 33 x 20 cm; Victoria and Albert Museum (London)[90]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Basawan._Akbar_Taming_Mad_Elephant_Hawai._Composition_by_Basawan%2C_coloring_by_Chitra._%28left_part%29_Akbarnama%2C_ca._1590%2C_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum%2C_London.jpg/96px-Basawan._Akbar_Taming_Mad_Elephant_Hawai._Composition_by_Basawan%2C_coloring_by_Chitra._%28left_part%29_Akbarnama%2C_ca._1590%2C_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum%2C_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Basawan._Akbar_Taming_Mad_Elephant_Hawai._Composition_by_Basawan%2C_coloring_by_Chitra._%28left_part%29_Akbarnama%2C_ca._1590%2C_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum%2C_London.jpg/144px-Basawan._Akbar_Taming_Mad_Elephant_Hawai._Composition_by_Basawan%2C_coloring_by_Chitra._%28left_part%29_Akbarnama%2C_ca._1590%2C_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum%2C_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Basawan._Akbar_Taming_Mad_Elephant_Hawai._Composition_by_Basawan%2C_coloring_by_Chitra._%28left_part%29_Akbarnama%2C_ca._1590%2C_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum%2C_London.jpg/192px-Basawan._Akbar_Taming_Mad_Elephant_Hawai._Composition_by_Basawan%2C_coloring_by_Chitra._%28left_part%29_Akbarnama%2C_ca._1590%2C_Victoria_and_Albert_Museum%2C_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="2440" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Basawan Akbarnama; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1590; watercolor on paper; 33 x 20 cm; <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017217_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017217-90">[90]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal,_Agra,_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taj Mahal (Agra, India), an iconic example of Mughal architecture, 1632-1648[91]"><img alt="Taj Mahal (Agra, India), an iconic example of Mughal architecture, 1632-1648[91]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Taj_Mahal%2C_Agra%2C_India.jpg/150px-Taj_Mahal%2C_Agra%2C_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Taj_Mahal%2C_Agra%2C_India.jpg/225px-Taj_Mahal%2C_Agra%2C_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Taj_Mahal%2C_Agra%2C_India.jpg/300px-Taj_Mahal%2C_Agra%2C_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2525" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Taj_Mahal" title="Taj Mahal">Taj Mahal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agra" title="Agra">Agra</a>, India), an iconic example of <a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a>, 1632-1648<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201999_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201999-91">[91]</a></sup></div>
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Chinese">Chinese</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section's source code: Chinese"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_art" title="Chinese art">Chinese art</a></div>
<p>In Eastern Asia, painting was derived from the practice of calligraphy, and portraits and landscapes were painted on silk cloth. Most of the paintings represent landscapes or portraits. The most spectacular sculptures are the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_bronzes" title="Chinese ritual bronzes">ritual bronzes</a> and the bronze sculptures from <a href="/wiki/Sanxingdui" title="Sanxingdui">Sanxingdui</a>. A very well-known example of Chinese art is the <i><a href="/wiki/Terracotta_Army" title="Terracotta Army">Terracotta Army</a></i>, depicting the armies of <a href="/wiki/Qin_Shi_Huang" title="Qin Shi Huang">Qin Shi Huang</a>, the first Emperor of China. It is a form of <a href="/wiki/Funerary_art" title="Funerary art">funerary art</a> buried with the emperor in 210–209 BC whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.
</p><p>Chinese art is one of the oldest continuous traditional arts in the world, and is marked by an unusual degree of continuity within, and consciousness of, that tradition, lacking an equivalent to the Western collapse and gradual recovery of classical styles. The media that have usually been classified in the West since the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a> are extremely important in Chinese art, and much of the finest work was produced in large workshops or factories by essentially unknown artists, especially in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ceramics" title="Chinese ceramics">Chinese ceramics</a>. The range and quality of goods that decorated Chinese palaces and households, and their inhabitants, is dazzling. Materials came from across China and far beyond: gold and silver, <a href="/wiki/Mother_of_pearl" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother of pearl">mother of pearl</a>, ivory and rhinoceros horn, wood and <a href="/wiki/Lacquer" title="Lacquer">lacquer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soap_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Soap stone">soap stone</a>, silk and paper.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Buddha Pagoda (Fogong Monastery, Yingxian, China), 1056[92]"><img alt="Buddha Pagoda (Fogong Monastery, Yingxian, China), 1056[92]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg/150px-Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg/225px-Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg/300px-Pagodaoffogongtemple2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3302" data-file-height="1858" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pagoda_of_Fogong_Temple" title="Pagoda of Fogong Temple">Buddha Pagoda</a> (Fogong Monastery, <a href="/wiki/Yingxian" class="mw-redirect" title="Yingxian">Yingxian</a>, China), 1056<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014140_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014140-92">[92]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_(large).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Early Spring; by Guo Xi; 1072; hanging scroll, ink on silk; 1.58 x 1.08 m; National Palace Museum (Taipei, Taiwan)[93]"><img alt="Early Spring; by Guo Xi; 1072; hanging scroll, ink on silk; 1.58 x 1.08 m; National Palace Museum (Taipei, Taiwan)[93]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_%28large%29.jpg/103px-Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_%28large%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_%28large%29.jpg/155px-Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_%28large%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_%28large%29.jpg/206px-Guo_Xi_-_Early_Spring_%28large%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="2839" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Early Spring; by <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xi" title="Guo Xi">Guo Xi</a>; 1072; hanging scroll, ink on silk; 1.58 x 1.08 m; <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201782_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201782-93">[93]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Guanyin of the Southern Seas; 11th-12th century; painted and gilded wood; height: 2.41 m; Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art (Kansas City, Missouri, US)[94]"><img alt="Guanyin of the Southern Seas; 11th-12th century; painted and gilded wood; height: 2.41 m; Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art (Kansas City, Missouri, US)[94]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg/112px-Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg/169px-Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg/225px-Liao_Dynasty_Avalokitesvara_Statue_Clear.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Guanyin of the Southern Seas; 11th-12th century; painted and gilded wood; height: 2.41 m; <a href="/wiki/Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art" title="Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art">Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kansas_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Kansas City">Kansas City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201775_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201775-94">[94]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Court_Ladies_Preparing_Newly_Woven_Silk_(%E6%8D%A3%E7%BB%83%E5%9B%BE)_by_Emperor_Huizong_(1082%E2%80%931135).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ladies Preparing Silk; after Zhang Xuan; early 12th century; ink and colours on silk; 0.37 x 1.47 m; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)[95]"><img alt="Ladies Preparing Silk; after Zhang Xuan; early 12th century; ink and colours on silk; 0.37 x 1.47 m; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)[95]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Court_Ladies_Preparing_Newly_Woven_Silk_%28%E6%8D%A3%E7%BB%83%E5%9B%BE%29_by_Emperor_Huizong_%281082%E2%80%931135%29.jpg/150px-Court_Ladies_Preparing_Newly_Woven_Silk_%28%E6%8D%A3%E7%BB%83%E5%9B%BE%29_by_Emperor_Huizong_%281082%E2%80%931135%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Court_Ladies_Preparing_Newly_Woven_Silk_%28%E6%8D%A3%E7%BB%83%E5%9B%BE%29_by_Emperor_Huizong_%281082%E2%80%931135%29.jpg/225px-Court_Ladies_Preparing_Newly_Woven_Silk_%28%E6%8D%A3%E7%BB%83%E5%9B%BE%29_by_Emperor_Huizong_%281082%E2%80%931135%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Court_Ladies_Preparing_Newly_Woven_Silk_%28%E6%8D%A3%E7%BB%83%E5%9B%BE%29_by_Emperor_Huizong_%281082%E2%80%931135%29.jpg/300px-Court_Ladies_Preparing_Newly_Woven_Silk_%28%E6%8D%A3%E7%BB%83%E5%9B%BE%29_by_Emperor_Huizong_%281082%E2%80%931135%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1873" data-file-height="420" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Ladies Preparing Silk; after Zhang Xuan; early 12th century; ink and colours on silk; 0.37 x 1.47 m; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201779_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201779-95">[95]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chao_Meng-fu_Couleurs_d%27automne_sur_les_monts_Qiao_et_Hua.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Autumn Colours on the Qiao and Hua Mountains; by Zhao Mengfu; 1296; handscroll (detail), ink and colours on paper; 28.4 x 93.2 cm; National Palace Museum (Taipei, Taiwan)[96]"><img alt="Autumn Colours on the Qiao and Hua Mountains; by Zhao Mengfu; 1296; handscroll (detail), ink and colours on paper; 28.4 x 93.2 cm; National Palace Museum (Taipei, Taiwan)[96]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Chao_Meng-fu_Couleurs_d%27automne_sur_les_monts_Qiao_et_Hua.jpg/150px-Chao_Meng-fu_Couleurs_d%27automne_sur_les_monts_Qiao_et_Hua.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Chao_Meng-fu_Couleurs_d%27automne_sur_les_monts_Qiao_et_Hua.jpg/225px-Chao_Meng-fu_Couleurs_d%27automne_sur_les_monts_Qiao_et_Hua.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Chao_Meng-fu_Couleurs_d%27automne_sur_les_monts_Qiao_et_Hua.jpg/300px-Chao_Meng-fu_Couleurs_d%27automne_sur_les_monts_Qiao_et_Hua.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1573" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Autumn Colours on the Qiao and Hua Mountains; by <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Mengfu" title="Zhao Mengfu">Zhao Mengfu</a>; 1296; handscroll (detail), ink and colours on paper; 28.4 x 93.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201784_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201784-96">[96]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%98%8E%E5%88%9D_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%E9%AB%98%E5%A3%AB%E5%9C%96%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_garden_scene_MET_DP256068.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lacquer dish with garden scene; late 14th century; carved red lacquer; diameter: 19.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Lacquer dish with garden scene; late 14th century; carved red lacquer; diameter: 19.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%E6%98%8E%E5%88%9D_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%E9%AB%98%E5%A3%AB%E5%9C%96%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_garden_scene_MET_DP256068.jpg/150px-%E6%98%8E%E5%88%9D_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%E9%AB%98%E5%A3%AB%E5%9C%96%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_garden_scene_MET_DP256068.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%E6%98%8E%E5%88%9D_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%E9%AB%98%E5%A3%AB%E5%9C%96%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_garden_scene_MET_DP256068.jpg/225px-%E6%98%8E%E5%88%9D_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%E9%AB%98%E5%A3%AB%E5%9C%96%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_garden_scene_MET_DP256068.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/%E6%98%8E%E5%88%9D_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%E9%AB%98%E5%A3%AB%E5%9C%96%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_garden_scene_MET_DP256068.jpg/300px-%E6%98%8E%E5%88%9D_%E5%89%94%E7%B4%85%E5%BA%AD%E5%9C%92%E9%AB%98%E5%A3%AB%E5%9C%96%E6%BC%86%E7%9B%A4-Dish_with_garden_scene_MET_DP256068.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lacquer" title="Lacquer">Lacquer</a> dish with garden scene; late 14th century; carved red lacquer; diameter: 19.7 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_David_Vases.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="David Vases; 1351; glazed porcelain; height: 63.5 cm; British Museum (London)[97]"><img alt="David Vases; 1351; glazed porcelain; height: 63.5 cm; British Museum (London)[97]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_David_Vases.jpg/133px-The_David_Vases.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_David_Vases.jpg/200px-The_David_Vases.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/The_David_Vases.jpg/266px-The_David_Vases.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="2342" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/David_Vases" title="David Vases">David Vases</a>; 1351; glazed porcelain; height: 63.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201778_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201778-97">[97]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SFEC_BritMus_Asia_023.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Assistant to a judge of hell; c. 1522–1620; stoneware; height: 137 cm; British Museum[98]"><img alt="Assistant to a judge of hell; c. 1522–1620; stoneware; height: 137 cm; British Museum[98]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_023.JPG/100px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_023.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_023.JPG/150px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_023.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SFEC_BritMus_Asia_023.JPG/200px-SFEC_BritMus_Asia_023.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1728" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Assistant to a judge of hell; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1522–1620; <a href="/wiki/Stoneware" title="Stoneware">stoneware</a>; height: 137 cm; British Museum<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum2014159_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum2014159-98">[98]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:11_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, Temple of Heaven (Beijing), 1545, rebuilt in 1890[99]"><img alt="Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, Temple of Heaven (Beijing), 1545, rebuilt in 1890[99]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/11_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg/150px-11_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/11_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg/225px-11_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/11_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg/300px-11_Temple_of_Heaven.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Hall of Prayer for Good Harvests, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Heaven" title="Temple of Heaven">Temple of Heaven</a> (Beijing), 1545, rebuilt in 1890<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014242_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014242-99">[99]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_-_Covered_Box_-_Walters_44543.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cloisonné box; 18th century; cloisonné enamels on copper with gilt bronze; 20.5 × 19.8 cm; Walters Art Museum (Baltimore, Maryland, US)"><img alt="Cloisonné box; 18th century; cloisonné enamels on copper with gilt bronze; 20.5 × 19.8 cm; Walters Art Museum (Baltimore, Maryland, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Chinese_-_Covered_Box_-_Walters_44543.jpg/144px-Chinese_-_Covered_Box_-_Walters_44543.jpg" decoding="async" width="144" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Chinese_-_Covered_Box_-_Walters_44543.jpg/217px-Chinese_-_Covered_Box_-_Walters_44543.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Chinese_-_Covered_Box_-_Walters_44543.jpg/289px-Chinese_-_Covered_Box_-_Walters_44543.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1732" data-file-height="1799" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9" title="Cloisonné">Cloisonné</a> box; 18th century; cloisonné enamels on copper with gilt bronze; 20.5 × 19.8 cm; <a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, US)</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Japanese">Japanese</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section's source code: Japanese"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japanese art</a></div>
<p>Japanese art covers a wide range of art styles and media, including <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_pottery" title="Jōmon pottery">ancient pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_sculpture" title="Japanese sculpture">sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ink_wash_painting" title="Ink wash painting">ink painting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_calligraphy" title="Japanese calligraphy">calligraphy</a> on silk and paper, <i><a href="/wiki/Ukiyo-e" title="Ukiyo-e">ukiyo-e</a></i> paintings and <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock prints</a>, ceramics, <a href="/wiki/Origami" title="Origami">origami</a>, and more recently <a href="/wiki/Manga" title="Manga">manga</a>—modern Japanese <a href="/wiki/Cartoon" title="Cartoon">cartooning</a> and comics—along with a myriad of other types.
</p><p>The first settlers of Japan, the <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon" class="mw-redirect" title="Jōmon">Jōmon</a> people (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 11,000</span>–300 BC). They crafted <a href="/wiki/Jomon_pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="Jomon pottery">lavishly decorated pottery storage vessels</a>, clay figurines called <i><a href="/wiki/Dog%C5%AB" title="Dogū">dogū</a></i>. Japan has been subject to sudden invasions of new ideas followed by long periods of minimal contact with the outside world. Over time the Japanese developed the ability to absorb, imitate, and finally assimilate those elements of foreign culture that complemented their aesthetic preferences. The earliest complex art in Japan was produced in the 7th and 8th centuries in connection with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>. In the 9th century, as the Japanese began to turn away from China and develop indigenous forms of expression, the secular arts became increasingly important; until the late 15th century, both religious and secular arts flourished. After the <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cnin_War" title="Ōnin War">Ōnin War</a> (1467–1477), Japan entered a period of political, social, and economic disruption that lasted for over a century. In the state that emerged under the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a>, organized religion played a much less important role in people's lives, and the arts that survived were primarily secular.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kitayama, Kyoto), a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, 1398[100]"><img alt="Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kitayama, Kyoto), a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, 1398[100]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG/150px-Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG/225px-Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG/300px-Kinkaku-ji_the_Golden_Temple_in_Kyoto_overlooking_the_lake_-_high_rez.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kinkaku-ji" title="Kinkaku-ji">Temple of the Golden Pavilion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kitayama" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitayama">Kitayama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>), a <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Japan" title="Buddhist temples in Japan">Buddhist temple</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>, 1398<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014144_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014144-100">[100]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%89%B2%E7%B5%B5%E5%A9%A6%E4%BA%BA%E7%AB%8B%E5%83%8F-Figure_of_a_Standing_Beauty_MET_DP220704.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Female figure; c. 1670–1690; porcelain with overglaze polychrome enamels; height: 39.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Female figure; c. 1670–1690; porcelain with overglaze polychrome enamels; height: 39.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E8%89%B2%E7%B5%B5%E5%A9%A6%E4%BA%BA%E7%AB%8B%E5%83%8F-Figure_of_a_Standing_Beauty_MET_DP220704.jpg/112px-%E8%89%B2%E7%B5%B5%E5%A9%A6%E4%BA%BA%E7%AB%8B%E5%83%8F-Figure_of_a_Standing_Beauty_MET_DP220704.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E8%89%B2%E7%B5%B5%E5%A9%A6%E4%BA%BA%E7%AB%8B%E5%83%8F-Figure_of_a_Standing_Beauty_MET_DP220704.jpg/169px-%E8%89%B2%E7%B5%B5%E5%A9%A6%E4%BA%BA%E7%AB%8B%E5%83%8F-Figure_of_a_Standing_Beauty_MET_DP220704.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/%E8%89%B2%E7%B5%B5%E5%A9%A6%E4%BA%BA%E7%AB%8B%E5%83%8F-Figure_of_a_Standing_Beauty_MET_DP220704.jpg/225px-%E8%89%B2%E7%B5%B5%E5%A9%A6%E4%BA%BA%E7%AB%8B%E5%83%8F-Figure_of_a_Standing_Beauty_MET_DP220704.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3001" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Female figure; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1670–1690; porcelain with overglaze polychrome enamels; height: 39.7 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%83%B4%E7%AE%94%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A9%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E6%A7%98%E7%B8%AB%E7%AE%94-Noh_Costume_(Nuihaku)_with_Books_and_Nandina_Branches_MET_DT289471.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Noh robe; 1750–1800; silk embroidery and gold leaf on silk satin; length: 1.66 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art[101]"><img alt="Noh robe; 1750–1800; silk embroidery and gold leaf on silk satin; length: 1.66 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art[101]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%E8%83%B4%E7%AE%94%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A9%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E6%A7%98%E7%B8%AB%E7%AE%94-Noh_Costume_%28Nuihaku%29_with_Books_and_Nandina_Branches_MET_DT289471.jpg/120px-%E8%83%B4%E7%AE%94%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A9%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E6%A7%98%E7%B8%AB%E7%AE%94-Noh_Costume_%28Nuihaku%29_with_Books_and_Nandina_Branches_MET_DT289471.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%E8%83%B4%E7%AE%94%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A9%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E6%A7%98%E7%B8%AB%E7%AE%94-Noh_Costume_%28Nuihaku%29_with_Books_and_Nandina_Branches_MET_DT289471.jpg/180px-%E8%83%B4%E7%AE%94%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A9%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E6%A7%98%E7%B8%AB%E7%AE%94-Noh_Costume_%28Nuihaku%29_with_Books_and_Nandina_Branches_MET_DT289471.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%E8%83%B4%E7%AE%94%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A9%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E6%A7%98%E7%B8%AB%E7%AE%94-Noh_Costume_%28Nuihaku%29_with_Books_and_Nandina_Branches_MET_DT289471.jpg/240px-%E8%83%B4%E7%AE%94%E5%9C%B0%E5%8D%97%E5%A4%A9%E5%86%8A%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E6%A7%98%E7%B8%AB%E7%AE%94-Noh_Costume_%28Nuihaku%29_with_Books_and_Nandina_Branches_MET_DT289471.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2979" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Noh robe; 1750–1800; silk embroidery and <a href="/wiki/Gold_leaf" title="Gold leaf">gold leaf</a> on silk satin; length: 1.66 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017105_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017105-101">[101]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tsunami_by_hokusai_19th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Great Wave off Kanagawa, by Katsushika Hokusai; c. 1830–1832; full-colour woodblock print; 25.7 x 37.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[102]"><img alt="The Great Wave off Kanagawa, by Katsushika Hokusai; c. 1830–1832; full-colour woodblock print; 25.7 x 37.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[102]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Tsunami_by_hokusai_19th_century.jpg/150px-Tsunami_by_hokusai_19th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Tsunami_by_hokusai_19th_century.jpg/225px-Tsunami_by_hokusai_19th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Tsunami_by_hokusai_19th_century.jpg/300px-Tsunami_by_hokusai_19th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3859" data-file-height="2594" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa" title="The Great Wave off Kanagawa">The Great Wave off Kanagawa</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Katsushika_Hokusai" class="mw-redirect" title="Katsushika Hokusai">Katsushika Hokusai</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1830–1832; full-colour <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock print</a>; 25.7 x 37.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017103_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017103-102">[102]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:De_pruimenboomgaard_te_Kameido-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1956-743.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Plum Park in Kameido; by Hiroshige; 1857; full-colour woodblock print; 36.4 x 24.4 cm; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, the Netherlands)"><img alt="Plum Park in Kameido; by Hiroshige; 1857; full-colour woodblock print; 36.4 x 24.4 cm; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, the Netherlands)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/De_pruimenboomgaard_te_Kameido-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1956-743.jpeg/102px-De_pruimenboomgaard_te_Kameido-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1956-743.jpeg" decoding="async" width="102" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/De_pruimenboomgaard_te_Kameido-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1956-743.jpeg/153px-De_pruimenboomgaard_te_Kameido-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1956-743.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/De_pruimenboomgaard_te_Kameido-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1956-743.jpeg/204px-De_pruimenboomgaard_te_Kameido-Rijksmuseum_RP-P-1956-743.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2041" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Plum_Park_in_Kameido" title="Plum Park in Kameido">Plum Park in Kameido</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Hiroshige" title="Hiroshige">Hiroshige</a>; 1857; full-colour woodblock print; 36.4 x 24.4 cm; <a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum" title="Rijksmuseum">Rijksmuseum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>)</div>
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</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section's source code: Sub-Saharan Africa"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">African art</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Igbo_art" title="Igbo art">Igbo art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_art" title="Yoruba art">Yoruba art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benin_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin art">Benin art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuba_art" title="Kuba art">Kuba art</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Luba_art" title="Luba art">Luba art</a></div>
<p>Sub-Saharan African art includes both <a href="/wiki/African_sculpture" title="African sculpture">sculpture</a>, typified by the brass castings of the <a href="/wiki/Benin_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin art">Benin people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Igbo-Ukwu" title="Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu">Igbo Ukwu</a> and the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/If%E1%BA%B9" title="Ifẹ">Ifẹ</a>, and terracottas of <a href="/wiki/Djenne-Jeno" class="mw-redirect" title="Djenne-Jeno">Djenne-Jeno</a>, Ife, and the more ancient <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/African_folk_art" title="African folk art">folk art</a>. Concurrent with the European Middle Ages, in the eleventh century AD a nation that made grand architecture, gold sculpture, and intricate jewelry was founded in <a href="/wiki/Great_Zimbabwe" title="Great Zimbabwe">Great Zimbabwe</a>. Impressive sculpture was concurrently being cast from brass by the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_art" title="Yoruba art">Yoruba people</a> of what is now Nigeria. In the <a href="/wiki/Benin_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin art">Benin Kingdom</a>, also of southern Nigeria, which began around the same time, elegant altar tusks, brass heads, plaques of brass, and palatial architecture were created. The Benin Kingdom was ended by the British in 1897, and little of the culture's art now remains in Nigeria. Today, the most significant arts venue in Africa is the <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg_Biennale" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannesburg Biennale">Johannesburg Biennale</a>.
</p><p>Sub-Saharan Africa is characterized by a high density of cultures. Notable are the, <a href="/wiki/Dogon_people" title="Dogon people">Dogon people</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edo_people" title="Edo people">Edo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a> people and the <a href="/wiki/Nok_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Nok civilization">Nok civilization</a> from <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kuba_Kingdom" title="Kuba Kingdom">Kuba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luba_people" title="Luba people">Luba people</a> from <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ashanti_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti people">Ashanti people</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>; <a href="/wiki/Zulu_people" title="Zulu people">Zulu people</a> from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Fang_people" title="Fang people">Fang people</a> from <a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea" title="Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a> (85%), Cameroon and Gabon; the <a href="/wiki/Sao_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Sao civilization">Sao civilization</a> people from Chad; <a href="/wiki/Kwele_people" title="Kwele people">Kwele people</a> from eastern Gabon, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a> and Cameroon.
</p><p>The myriad forms of African art are components of some of the most vibrant and responsive artistic traditions in the world and are integral to the lives of African people. Created for specific purposes, artworks can reveal their ongoing importance through physical transformations that enhance both their appearance and their potency. Many traditional African art forms are created as conduits to the spirit world and change appearance as materials are added to enhance their beauty and potency. The more a work is used and blessed, the more abstract it becomes with the accretion of sacrificial matter and the wearing down of original details.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seated figure; by artists of the Nok culture; 5th century BC-5th century AD; earthenware (central Nigeria); height: 38 cm; Musée du Quai Branly, Paris[103]"><img alt="Seated figure; by artists of the Nok culture; 5th century BC-5th century AD; earthenware (central Nigeria); height: 38 cm; Musée du Quai Branly, Paris[103]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg/99px-Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg/149px-Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg/199px-Nok_sculpture_Louvre_70-1998-11-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1660" data-file-height="2500" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Seated figure; by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a>; 5th century BC-5th century AD; earthenware (central Nigeria); height: 38 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Quai_Branly" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée du Quai Branly">Musée du Quai Branly</a>, Paris<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017309_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017309-103">[103]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_pot,_9th_century,_Igbo-Ukwu,_Nigeria.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pot; from Igbo-Ukwu (Nigeria); 9th century; bronze; unknown dimensions; Nigerian National Museum, Lagos"><img alt="Pot; from Igbo-Ukwu (Nigeria); 9th century; bronze; unknown dimensions; Nigerian National Museum, Lagos" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bronze_pot%2C_9th_century%2C_Igbo-Ukwu%2C_Nigeria.jpg/150px-Bronze_pot%2C_9th_century%2C_Igbo-Ukwu%2C_Nigeria.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bronze_pot%2C_9th_century%2C_Igbo-Ukwu%2C_Nigeria.jpg/225px-Bronze_pot%2C_9th_century%2C_Igbo-Ukwu%2C_Nigeria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Bronze_pot%2C_9th_century%2C_Igbo-Ukwu%2C_Nigeria.jpg/300px-Bronze_pot%2C_9th_century%2C_Igbo-Ukwu%2C_Nigeria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2915" data-file-height="2302" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Pot; from <a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Igbo-Ukwu" title="Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu">Igbo-Ukwu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>); 9th century; bronze; unknown dimensions; <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_National_Museum" title="Nigerian National Museum">Nigerian National Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagos" title="Lagos">Lagos</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Afrikaabteilung_in_Ethnological_Museum_Berlin_02.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Head of a king or dignitary; by artists of the Yoruba people; 12th-15th century; terracotta; 19 cm; discovered at Ife (Nigeria); Ethnological Museum of Berlin, Germany"><img alt="Head of a king or dignitary; by artists of the Yoruba people; 12th-15th century; terracotta; 19 cm; discovered at Ife (Nigeria); Ethnological Museum of Berlin, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Afrikaabteilung_in_Ethnological_Museum_Berlin_02.JPG/100px-Afrikaabteilung_in_Ethnological_Museum_Berlin_02.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Afrikaabteilung_in_Ethnological_Museum_Berlin_02.JPG/150px-Afrikaabteilung_in_Ethnological_Museum_Berlin_02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Afrikaabteilung_in_Ethnological_Museum_Berlin_02.JPG/200px-Afrikaabteilung_in_Ethnological_Museum_Berlin_02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3168" data-file-height="4752" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Head of a king or dignitary; by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba people</a>; 12th-15th century; terracotta; 19 cm; discovered at <a href="/wiki/Ife" class="mw-redirect" title="Ife">Ife</a> (Nigeria); <a href="/wiki/Ethnological_Museum_of_Berlin" title="Ethnological Museum of Berlin">Ethnological Museum of Berlin</a>, Germany</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seated_Figure_MET_DT1213.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seated figure; by artists of the Djenné-Djenno culture (Mali); 13th century; earthenware; width: 29.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City[103]"><img alt="Seated figure; by artists of the Djenné-Djenno culture (Mali); 13th century; earthenware; width: 29.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City[103]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Seated_Figure_MET_DT1213.jpg/150px-Seated_Figure_MET_DT1213.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Seated_Figure_MET_DT1213.jpg/225px-Seated_Figure_MET_DT1213.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Seated_Figure_MET_DT1213.jpg/300px-Seated_Figure_MET_DT1213.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3811" data-file-height="3049" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Seated figure; by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9-Djenno#Terra-cotta_figurines_from_the_Inner_Niger_Delta_region" title="Djenné-Djenno">Djenné-Djenno culture</a> (Mali); 13th century; earthenware; width: 29.9 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017309_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017309-103">[103]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_-_Room_25_(18020107461).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pendant mask; by artists of the Edo people (Nigeria); 16th century (?); ivory and iron; height: 24.5 cm; British Museum, London[104]"><img alt="Pendant mask; by artists of the Edo people (Nigeria); 16th century (?); ivory and iron; height: 24.5 cm; British Museum, London[104]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/British_Museum_-_Room_25_%2818020107461%29.jpg/100px-British_Museum_-_Room_25_%2818020107461%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/British_Museum_-_Room_25_%2818020107461%29.jpg/150px-British_Museum_-_Room_25_%2818020107461%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/British_Museum_-_Room_25_%2818020107461%29.jpg/200px-British_Museum_-_Room_25_%2818020107461%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Benin_ivory_mask" title="Benin ivory mask">Pendant mask</a>; by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Edo_people" title="Edo people">Edo people</a> (Nigeria); 16th century (?); <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> and iron; height: 24.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, London<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017311_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017311-104">[104]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="N'dop, king Mishe miShyaang maMbul; by artists of the Kuba Kingdom (Democratic Republic of the Congo); 18th century; wood; 49.5 cm; Brooklyn Museum, New York City[105]"><img alt="N'dop, king Mishe miShyaang maMbul; by artists of the Kuba Kingdom (Democratic Republic of the Congo); 18th century; wood; 49.5 cm; Brooklyn Museum, New York City[105]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_%285%29.jpg/117px-Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_%285%29.jpg/176px-Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_%285%29.jpg/235px-Brooklyn_Museum_61.33_Ndop_Portrait_of_King_Mishe_miShyaang_maMbul_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ndop_(Kuba)" title="Ndop (Kuba)">N'dop</a>, king Mishe miShyaang maMbul; by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Kuba_Kingdom" title="Kuba Kingdom">Kuba Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>); 18th century; wood; 49.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a>, New York City<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314-105">[105]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tr%C3%B4ne_Bamum-Mus%C3%A9e_ethnologique_de_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mandu Yenu (throne of Nsangu); by artists of the Kingdom of Bamun; c.1870; wood, beads of glass, porcelain and shell; height: 1.75 m; Ethnological Museum of Berlin[106]"><img alt="Mandu Yenu (throne of Nsangu); by artists of the Kingdom of Bamun; c.1870; wood, beads of glass, porcelain and shell; height: 1.75 m; Ethnological Museum of Berlin[106]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Tr%C3%B4ne_Bamum-Mus%C3%A9e_ethnologique_de_Berlin.jpg/116px-Tr%C3%B4ne_Bamum-Mus%C3%A9e_ethnologique_de_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Tr%C3%B4ne_Bamum-Mus%C3%A9e_ethnologique_de_Berlin.jpg/175px-Tr%C3%B4ne_Bamum-Mus%C3%A9e_ethnologique_de_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Tr%C3%B4ne_Bamum-Mus%C3%A9e_ethnologique_de_Berlin.jpg/233px-Tr%C3%B4ne_Bamum-Mus%C3%A9e_ethnologique_de_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2504" data-file-height="3224" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Mandu Yenu</i> (throne of Nsangu); by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Bamum_people" title="Bamum people">Kingdom of Bamun</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1870; wood, beads of glass, porcelain and shell; height: 1.75 m; Ethnological Museum of Berlin<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Helmet_Mask_MET_DT1234.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal mask; by artists of the Bamum people (Cameroon); before 1880; wood, copper, glass beads, raffia and shells; height: 66 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[105]"><img alt="Royal mask; by artists of the Bamum people (Cameroon); before 1880; wood, copper, glass beads, raffia and shells; height: 66 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[105]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Helmet_Mask_MET_DT1234.jpg/120px-Helmet_Mask_MET_DT1234.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Helmet_Mask_MET_DT1234.jpg/180px-Helmet_Mask_MET_DT1234.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Helmet_Mask_MET_DT1234.jpg/240px-Helmet_Mask_MET_DT1234.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2978" data-file-height="3722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Royal mask; by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Bamum_people" title="Bamum people">Bamum people</a> (Cameroon); before 1880; wood, copper, glass beads, raffia and shells; height: 66 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314-105">[105]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rep._dem._del_congo,_kuba,_maschera_ngaady-a-mwaash,_xx_secolo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ngaad-A-Mwash mask; by artists of the Kuba people; late 19th-early 20th centuries; wood, shells, glass beads, raffia and pigment; height: 82 cm; Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan, US[105]"><img alt="Ngaad-A-Mwash mask; by artists of the Kuba people; late 19th-early 20th centuries; wood, shells, glass beads, raffia and pigment; height: 82 cm; Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Michigan, US[105]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rep._dem._del_congo%2C_kuba%2C_maschera_ngaady-a-mwaash%2C_xx_secolo.jpg/90px-Rep._dem._del_congo%2C_kuba%2C_maschera_ngaady-a-mwaash%2C_xx_secolo.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rep._dem._del_congo%2C_kuba%2C_maschera_ngaady-a-mwaash%2C_xx_secolo.jpg/135px-Rep._dem._del_congo%2C_kuba%2C_maschera_ngaady-a-mwaash%2C_xx_secolo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rep._dem._del_congo%2C_kuba%2C_maschera_ngaady-a-mwaash%2C_xx_secolo.jpg/180px-Rep._dem._del_congo%2C_kuba%2C_maschera_ngaady-a-mwaash%2C_xx_secolo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1494" data-file-height="2484" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Ngaad-A-Mwash mask; by artists of the Kuba people; late 19th-early 20th centuries; wood, shells, glass beads, raffia and pigment; height: 82 cm; <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Institute_of_Arts" title="Detroit Institute of Arts">Detroit Institute of Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>, US<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314_105-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314-105">[105]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Appuie-t%C3%AAte_Luba-RDC.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Headrest; by artists of the Luba people; 19th century; wood; height: 18.5 cm; Musée du quai Branly (Paris)[107]"><img alt="Headrest; by artists of the Luba people; 19th century; wood; height: 18.5 cm; Musée du quai Branly (Paris)[107]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Appuie-t%C3%AAte_Luba-RDC.jpg/112px-Appuie-t%C3%AAte_Luba-RDC.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Appuie-t%C3%AAte_Luba-RDC.jpg/169px-Appuie-t%C3%AAte_Luba-RDC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Appuie-t%C3%AAte_Luba-RDC.jpg/225px-Appuie-t%C3%AAte_Luba-RDC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Headrest; by artists of the <a href="/wiki/Luba_people" title="Luba people">Luba people</a>; 19th century; wood; height: 18.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_quai_Branly" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée du quai Branly">Musée du quai Branly</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017318_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017318-107">[107]</a></sup></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Oceania">Oceania</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section's source code: Oceania"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oceanian_art" title="Oceanian art">Oceanian art</a></div>
<p>Oceanian art includes the geographic areas of <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesia</a>, Australia, New Zealand, and <a href="/wiki/Melanesia" title="Melanesia">Melanesia</a>. One approach treats the area thematically, with foci on <a href="/wiki/Ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestry">ancestry</a>, warfare, the body, gender, trade, religion, and <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>. Unfortunately, little ancient art survives from Oceania. Scholars believe that this is likely because artists used perishable materials, such as wood and feathers, which did not survive in the tropical climate, and there are no historical records to refer to most of this material. The understanding of Oceania's artistic cultures thus begins with the documentation of it by Westerners, such as Captain <a href="/wiki/James_Cook" title="James Cook">James Cook</a>, in the 18th century. At the turn of the 20th century the French artist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gauguin" title="Paul Gauguin">Paul Gauguin</a> spent significant amounts of time in Tahiti, living with local people and making modern art — a fact that has become intertwined with Tahitian visual culture to the present day.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The indigenous <a href="/wiki/Australian_art" title="Australian art">art of Australia</a> often looks like abstract modern art, but it has deep roots in local culture.
</p><p>The art of <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> is the last great tradition of art to be appreciated by the world at large. Despite being one of the longest continuous traditions of art in the world, dating back at least fifty millennia, it remained relatively unknown until the second half of the 20th century.
</p><p>The often ephemeral materials of Aboriginal art of Australia makes it difficult to determine the antiquity of the majority of the forms of art practised today. The most durable forms are the multitudes of rock engravings and rock paintings which are found across the continent. In the Arnhem Land escarpment, evidence suggests that paintings were being made fifty thousand years ago, antedating the Palaeolithic rock paintings of <a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Altamira" title="Cave of Altamira">Altamira</a> & <a href="/wiki/Lascaux" title="Lascaux">Lascaux</a> in Europe.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_(6424973639).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hoa Hakananai'a, an example of a moai; c. 1200 AD; flow lava; height: 242 cm; British Museum (London)[108]"><img alt="Hoa Hakananai'a, an example of a moai; c. 1200 AD; flow lava; height: 242 cm; British Museum (London)[108]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/British_Museum_%286424973639%29.jpg/100px-British_Museum_%286424973639%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/British_Museum_%286424973639%29.jpg/150px-British_Museum_%286424973639%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/British_Museum_%286424973639%29.jpg/200px-British_Museum_%286424973639%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4272" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hoa_Hakananai%27a" title="Hoa Hakananai'a">Hoa Hakananai'a</a>, an example of a <a href="/wiki/Moai" title="Moai">moai</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 AD; flow lava; height: 242 cm; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201465_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201465-108">[108]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wooden_figure_of_A%27a_British_Museum_(2082156178).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Statue of A'a from Rurutu; probably 18th century; wood; height: 117 cm; British Museum[109]"><img alt="Statue of A'a from Rurutu; probably 18th century; wood; height: 117 cm; British Museum[109]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Wooden_figure_of_A%27a_British_Museum_%282082156178%29.jpg/100px-Wooden_figure_of_A%27a_British_Museum_%282082156178%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Wooden_figure_of_A%27a_British_Museum_%282082156178%29.jpg/150px-Wooden_figure_of_A%27a_British_Museum_%282082156178%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Wooden_figure_of_A%27a_British_Museum_%282082156178%29.jpg/201px-Wooden_figure_of_A%27a_British_Museum_%282082156178%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1071" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_A%27a_from_Rurutu" title="Statue of A'a from Rurutu">Statue of A'a from Rurutu</a>; probably 18th century; wood; height: 117 cm; British Museum<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201452_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201452-109">[109]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuova_zelanda,_isola_del_nord,_maori,_prua_di_piroga_taurapa,_1800-20_ca.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taurapa (māori canoe sternpost); late 18th-early 19th century; wood and sheel; height: 148 cm; Musée du Quai Branly (Paris)[110]"><img alt="Taurapa (māori canoe sternpost); late 18th-early 19th century; wood and sheel; height: 148 cm; Musée du Quai Branly (Paris)[110]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Nuova_zelanda%2C_isola_del_nord%2C_maori%2C_prua_di_piroga_taurapa%2C_1800-20_ca.jpg/54px-Nuova_zelanda%2C_isola_del_nord%2C_maori%2C_prua_di_piroga_taurapa%2C_1800-20_ca.jpg" decoding="async" width="54" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Nuova_zelanda%2C_isola_del_nord%2C_maori%2C_prua_di_piroga_taurapa%2C_1800-20_ca.jpg/81px-Nuova_zelanda%2C_isola_del_nord%2C_maori%2C_prua_di_piroga_taurapa%2C_1800-20_ca.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Nuova_zelanda%2C_isola_del_nord%2C_maori%2C_prua_di_piroga_taurapa%2C_1800-20_ca.jpg/109px-Nuova_zelanda%2C_isola_del_nord%2C_maori%2C_prua_di_piroga_taurapa%2C_1800-20_ca.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="2732" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Taurapa</i> (<a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">māori</a> canoe sternpost); late 18th-early 19th century; wood and sheel; height: 148 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Quai_Branly" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée du Quai Branly">Musée du Quai Branly</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruntThomasSalmondKasarherou2018104_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruntThomasSalmondKasarherou2018104-110">[110]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Australie_Aborigene_ancetre_totemique_kangourou.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Australian painting of a kangaroo totemic ancestor; c. 1915; painting on bark; 92.5 × 35.5 cm; Musée du Quai Branly"><img alt="Australian painting of a kangaroo totemic ancestor; c. 1915; painting on bark; 92.5 × 35.5 cm; Musée du Quai Branly" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Australie_Aborigene_ancetre_totemique_kangourou.jpg/68px-Australie_Aborigene_ancetre_totemique_kangourou.jpg" decoding="async" width="68" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Australie_Aborigene_ancetre_totemique_kangourou.jpg/102px-Australie_Aborigene_ancetre_totemique_kangourou.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Australie_Aborigene_ancetre_totemique_kangourou.jpg/136px-Australie_Aborigene_ancetre_totemique_kangourou.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1836" data-file-height="4055" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Australian painting of a kangaroo totemic ancestor; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1915; painting on bark; 92.5 × 35.5 cm; Musée du Quai Branly</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="European">European</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section's source code: European"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Medieval">Medieval</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section's source code: Medieval"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval art</a></div>
<p>With the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 AD</span>, a period subsequently defined as the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval era</a> began. It lasted for about a millennium, until the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1400</span>. <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">Early Christian art</a> typifies the early stages of this period, followed by <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic art</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic art</a> dominating the eastern Mediterranean. Medieval art grew out of the artistic heritage of the Roman Empire and of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantium</a>, mixed with the "barbarian" artistic culture of northern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201715_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201715-111">[111]</a></sup>
</p><p>In Byzantine and <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a> art of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, the dominance of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">church</a> resulted in a large amount of <a href="/wiki/Religious_art" title="Religious art">religious art</a>. There was extensive use of gold in paintings, which presented figures in simplified forms.
</p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Byzantine">Byzantine</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section's source code: Byzantine"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_(focused_on_the_original_Roman_building).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/188px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/282px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/376px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1323" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:98px;max-width:98px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Istanbul_Oct_2019_12_20_46_794000.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Istanbul_Oct_2019_12_20_46_794000.jpeg/96px-Istanbul_Oct_2019_12_20_46_794000.jpeg" decoding="async" width="96" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Istanbul_Oct_2019_12_20_46_794000.jpeg/144px-Istanbul_Oct_2019_12_20_46_794000.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Istanbul_Oct_2019_12_20_46_794000.jpeg/192px-Istanbul_Oct_2019_12_20_46_794000.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:151px;max-width:151px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:86px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/149px-Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/224px-Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg/298px-Deesis_mosaic_Hagia_Sophia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4176" data-file-height="2429" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:137px;max-width:137px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:86px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/135px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/203px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg/270px-Hagia_Sophia_Southwestern_entrance_mosaics_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3132" data-file-height="2007" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 532–537 BC, by <a href="/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles" title="Anthemius of Tralles">Anthemius of Tralles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201962_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201962-112">[112]</a></sup></div></div></div></div>
<p>Byzantine art consists of the body of Christian Greek artistic products of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman</a> (Byzantine) Empire,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECavarnosMichelis1956506_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavarnosMichelis1956506-113">[113]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann1981?_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann1981?-114">[114]</a></sup> as well as of the nations and states that inherited culturally from that empire. Though the Byzantine empire itself emerged from Rome's decline and lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup> the start-date of the Byzantine period is rather clearer in art history than in political history, if still imprecise. Many <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> states in Eastern and Central Europe, as well as to some degree the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim</a> states of the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a>, preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward.
</p><p>Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious, and - with exceptions at certain periods - is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> into artistic terms. Painting in <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a> and on wood panels, and (especially in earlier periods) <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> were the main media, and figurative <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> occurred very rarely except for small <a href="/wiki/Ivory_carving" title="Ivory carving">carved ivories</a>. <a href="/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)" title="Miniature (illuminated manuscript)">Manuscript painting</a> preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></sup> Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought-after in Western Europe, where it maintained a continuous influence on <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">medieval art</a> until near the end of the medieval period. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> art. But few incoming influences affected the Byzantine style. With the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread throughout the Orthodox world and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup> Influences from Byzantine architecture, particularly in religious buildings, can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania.
</p><p>Byzantine architecture is notorious for the use of <a href="/wiki/Domes" class="mw-redirect" title="Domes">domes</a>. It also often featured marble columns, <a href="/wiki/Coffer" title="Coffer">coffered</a> ceilings and sumptuous decoration, including the extensive use of <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaics</a> with golden backgrounds. The building material used by Byzantine architects was no longer marble, which the Ancient Greeks had appreciated so much. The Byzantines used mostly stone and brick, and also thin <a href="/wiki/Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a> sheets for windows. Mosaics were used to cover brick walls, and any other surface where <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> wouldn't resist. Good examples of mosaics from the proto-Byzantine era are in <a href="/wiki/Hagios_Demetrios" title="Hagios Demetrios">Hagios Demetrios</a> in <a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a> (Greece), the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_Sant%27Apollinare_Nuovo" title="Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo">Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Vitale" title="Basilica of San Vitale">Basilica of San Vitale</a> (both in <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> in Italy), and in <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>. Greco-Roman temples and Byzantine churches differ substantially in terms of their exterior and interior aspect. In Antiquity, the exterior was the most important part of the temple, because in the interior, which contained the cult statue of the deity to whom the temple was built, only the priest had access. Temple ceremonies in Antiquity took place outside, and what the worshippers viewed was the facade of the temple, consisting of columns, with an <a href="/wiki/Entablature" title="Entablature">entablature</a> and two pediments. But Christian liturgies played out in the interior of the churches, the exterior usually having little to no ornamentation.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201417_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201417-119">[119]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%22The_good_Shepherd%22_mosaic_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christ as the Good Shepherd; c. 425–430; mosaic; width: c. 3 m; Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (Ravenna, Italy)[120]"><img alt="Christ as the Good Shepherd; c. 425–430; mosaic; width: c. 3 m; Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (Ravenna, Italy)[120]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%22The_good_Shepherd%22_mosaic_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia.jpg/150px-%22The_good_Shepherd%22_mosaic_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%22The_good_Shepherd%22_mosaic_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia.jpg/225px-%22The_good_Shepherd%22_mosaic_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/%22The_good_Shepherd%22_mosaic_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia.jpg/300px-%22The_good_Shepherd%22_mosaic_-_Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4179" data-file-height="2645" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Christ as the <a href="/wiki/Good_Shepherd" title="Good Shepherd">Good Shepherd</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 425–430; mosaic; width: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3 m; <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Galla_Placidia" title="Mausoleum of Galla Placidia">Mausoleum of Galla Placidia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>, Italy)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017108_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017108-120">[120]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:KHM_Wien_Kaiserin_Ariadne_X_39.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: 26.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)[121]"><img alt="Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: 26.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)[121]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/KHM_Wien_Kaiserin_Ariadne_X_39.jpg/78px-KHM_Wien_Kaiserin_Ariadne_X_39.jpg" decoding="async" width="78" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/KHM_Wien_Kaiserin_Ariadne_X_39.jpg/117px-KHM_Wien_Kaiserin_Ariadne_X_39.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/KHM_Wien_Kaiserin_Ariadne_X_39.jpg/156px-KHM_Wien_Kaiserin_Ariadne_X_39.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1566" data-file-height="3012" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Diptych Leaf with a Byzantine Empress; 6th century; ivory with traces of gilding and leaf; height: 26.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum" title="Kunsthistorisches Museum">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017114_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017114-121">[121]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Officina_costantinopolitana,_tesoro_di_asyut_(egitto),_V-VI_sec_ca._01_collier.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, an emerald, a sapphire, amethysts and pearls; diameter: 23 cm; from a Constantinopolitan workshop; Antikensammlung Berlin (Berlin, Germany)[122]"><img alt="Collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, an emerald, a sapphire, amethysts and pearls; diameter: 23 cm; from a Constantinopolitan workshop; Antikensammlung Berlin (Berlin, Germany)[122]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Officina_costantinopolitana%2C_tesoro_di_asyut_%28egitto%29%2C_V-VI_sec_ca._01_collier.JPG/150px-Officina_costantinopolitana%2C_tesoro_di_asyut_%28egitto%29%2C_V-VI_sec_ca._01_collier.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Officina_costantinopolitana%2C_tesoro_di_asyut_%28egitto%29%2C_V-VI_sec_ca._01_collier.JPG/225px-Officina_costantinopolitana%2C_tesoro_di_asyut_%28egitto%29%2C_V-VI_sec_ca._01_collier.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Officina_costantinopolitana%2C_tesoro_di_asyut_%28egitto%29%2C_V-VI_sec_ca._01_collier.JPG/300px-Officina_costantinopolitana%2C_tesoro_di_asyut_%28egitto%29%2C_V-VI_sec_ca._01_collier.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2340" data-file-height="1700" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Collier; late 6th–7th century; gold, an <a href="/wiki/Emerald" title="Emerald">emerald</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sapphire" title="Sapphire">sapphire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amethyst" title="Amethyst">amethysts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pearl" title="Pearl">pearls</a>; diameter: 23 cm; from a <a href="/wiki/Constantinopol" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantinopol">Constantinopolitan</a> workshop; <a href="/wiki/Antikensammlung_Berlin" title="Antikensammlung Berlin">Antikensammlung Berlin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017115_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017115-122">[122]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantium,_Constantinople,_11th_century_-_Gospel_Book_with_Commentaries_-_1942.152_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Page of the Gospel Book with Commentaries: Portrait of Mark; 1000–1100; ink, tempera, gold, vellum and leather binding; sheet: 28 × 23 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)"><img alt="Page of the Gospel Book with Commentaries: Portrait of Mark; 1000–1100; ink, tempera, gold, vellum and leather binding; sheet: 28 × 23 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Byzantium%2C_Constantinople%2C_11th_century_-_Gospel_Book_with_Commentaries_-_1942.152_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-118px-Byzantium%2C_Constantinople%2C_11th_century_-_Gospel_Book_with_Commentaries_-_1942.152_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Byzantium%2C_Constantinople%2C_11th_century_-_Gospel_Book_with_Commentaries_-_1942.152_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-177px-Byzantium%2C_Constantinople%2C_11th_century_-_Gospel_Book_with_Commentaries_-_1942.152_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Byzantium%2C_Constantinople%2C_11th_century_-_Gospel_Book_with_Commentaries_-_1942.152_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-236px-Byzantium%2C_Constantinople%2C_11th_century_-_Gospel_Book_with_Commentaries_-_1942.152_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4410" data-file-height="5612" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Page of the Gospel Book with Commentaries: Portrait of Mark; 1000–1100; ink, <a href="/wiki/Tempera" title="Tempera">tempera</a>, gold, <a href="/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a> and leather binding; sheet: 28 × 23 cm; <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, US)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ladder of Divine Ascent; late 12th century; tempera and gold leaf on panel; 41 x 29.5 cm; Saint Catherine's Monastery (Sinai Peninsula, Egypt)[123]"><img alt="Ladder of Divine Ascent; late 12th century; tempera and gold leaf on panel; 41 x 29.5 cm; Saint Catherine's Monastery (Sinai Peninsula, Egypt)[123]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg/105px-The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg/157px-The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg/209px-The_Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_Monastery_of_St_Catherine_Sinai_12th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1480" data-file-height="2119" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Ladder_of_Divine_Ascent_(icon)" title="Ladder of Divine Ascent (icon)">Ladder of Divine Ascent</a></i>; late 12th century; tempera and <a href="/wiki/Gold_leaf" title="Gold leaf">gold leaf</a> on panel; 41 x 29.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery" title="Saint Catherine's Monastery">Saint Catherine's Monastery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></sup></div>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Ottonian">Ottonian</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section's source code: Ottonian"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian art</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:134px;max-width:134px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:207px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kreuzmitdengro%C3%9Fen_Senkschmelzen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Kreuzmitdengro%C3%9Fen_Senkschmelzen.jpg/132px-Kreuzmitdengro%C3%9Fen_Senkschmelzen.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Kreuzmitdengro%C3%9Fen_Senkschmelzen.jpg/198px-Kreuzmitdengro%C3%9Fen_Senkschmelzen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Kreuzmitdengro%C3%9Fen_Senkschmelzen.jpg/264px-Kreuzmitdengro%C3%9Fen_Senkschmelzen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1016" data-file-height="1601" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:207px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg/152px-Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg/228px-Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg/304px-Meister_des_Registrum_Gregorii_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2146" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:141px;max-width:141px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:185px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Liuthar-Evangeliar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Liuthar-Evangeliar.jpg/139px-Liuthar-Evangeliar.jpg" decoding="async" width="139" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Liuthar-Evangeliar.jpg/209px-Liuthar-Evangeliar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Liuthar-Evangeliar.jpg/278px-Liuthar-Evangeliar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2874" data-file-height="3822" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:147px;max-width:147px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:185px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kronung_Heinrich_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Kronung_Heinrich_II.jpg/145px-Kronung_Heinrich_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="145" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Kronung_Heinrich_II.jpg/218px-Kronung_Heinrich_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Kronung_Heinrich_II.jpg/290px-Kronung_Heinrich_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="826" data-file-height="1056" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Essen_cross_with_large_enamels" title="Essen cross with large enamels">Essen cross with large enamels</a> with gems and large <i><a href="/wiki/Senkschmelz" class="mw-redirect" title="Senkschmelz">senkschmelz</a></i> enamels, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000</span>. Otto II, by the <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Master" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory Master">Gregory Master</a>. Apotheosis of Otto III, <a href="/wiki/Liuthar_Gospels" title="Liuthar Gospels">Liuthar Gospels</a>. Henry II being crowned by Christ, from the <a href="/wiki/Sacramentary_of_Henry_II" title="Sacramentary of Henry II">Sacramentary of Henry II</a>.</div></div></div></div>
<p>Ottonian art is a <a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">style</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Romanesque art">pre-romanesque</a> <a href="/wiki/German_art" title="German art">German art</a>, covering also some works from the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, northern Italy and eastern France. It was named by the art historian <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Janitschek" title="Hubert Janitschek">Hubert Janitschek</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_dynasty" title="Ottonian dynasty">Ottonian dynasty</a> which ruled Germany and northern Italy between 919 and 1024 under the kings <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Fowler" title="Henry the Fowler">Henry I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto I">Otto I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto II">Otto II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto III">Otto III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Henry_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Henry II">Henry II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></sup> With <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_architecture" title="Ottonian architecture">Ottonian architecture</a>, it is a key component of the <a href="/wiki/Ottonian_Renaissance" title="Ottonian Renaissance">Ottonian Renaissance</a> (circa 951–1024). However, the style neither began nor ended to neatly coincide with the rule of the dynasty. It emerged some decades into their rule and persisted past the Ottonian emperors into the reigns of the early <a href="/wiki/Salian_dynasty" title="Salian dynasty">Salian dynasty</a>, which lacks an artistic "style label" of its own.<sup id="cite_ref-Suckale-Redlefsen,_524_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suckale-Redlefsen,_524-125">[125]</a></sup> In the traditional scheme of art history, Ottonian art follows <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian art</a> and precedes <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque art</a>, though the transitions at both ends of the period are gradual rather than sudden. Like the former and unlike the latter, it was very largely a style restricted to a few of the small cities of the period, to important <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a>, as well as to the court circles of the emperor and his leading <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassals</a>.
</p><p>After the decline of the 9th-century <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> was re-established under the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxony" title="Duchy of Saxony">Saxon</a> Ottonian dynasty. From this emerged a renewed faith in the idea of Empire and a reformed Church, creating a period of heightened cultural and artistic fervour. In this atmosphere masterpieces were created that fused the traditions from which Ottonian artists derived their inspiration: models of Late Antique, Carolingian, and Byzantine origin. Surviving Ottonian art is very largely religious, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a> and metalwork, and was produced in a small number of centres for a narrow range of patrons in the circle of the Imperial court, as well as for important figures in the church. However much of it was designed for display to a wider public, especially to pilgrims.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup>
</p><p>The style is generally grand and heavy, sometimes to excess, and initially less sophisticated than the Carolingian equivalents, with less direct influence from <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a> and less understanding of its classical models, but around 1000 a striking intensity and expressiveness emerge in many works, as "a solemn monumentality is combined with a vibrant inwardness, an unworldly, visionary quality with sharp attention to actuality, surface patterns of flowing lines and rich bright colours with passionate emotionalism".<sup id="cite_ref-Honour_and_Fleming,_277_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honour_and_Fleming,_277-127">[127]</a></sup>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Romanesque">Romanesque</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section's source code: Romanesque"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque art</a></div>
<p>The Romanesque, the first pan-European style to emerge after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, spanned the mid-tenth century to the thirteenth. The period saw a resurgence of monumental stone structures with complex structural programmes.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque</a> churches are characterized by rigid articulation and geometric clarity, incorporated into a unified volumetric whole. The architecture is austere but enlivened by decorative sculpting of capitals and portals, as well as frescoed interiors. Geometric and foliate patterning gives way to increasingly three-dimensional figurative sculpture.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Church,_Hildesheim" title="St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim">St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim</a>, Germany, 1001–1030, is seen by some as a Proto-Romanesque church.<sup id="cite_ref-HG_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HG-128">[128]</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (December 2023)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>From the mid-eleventh to the early thirteenth centuries, Romanesque paintings were two-dimensional, defined by bold, linear outlines and geometry, particularly in the handling of drapery; painters emphasised symmetry and frontality. Virtually all Western churches were painted, but probably only a few wall-painters were monks; instead, itinerant artists carried out most of this work. Basic blocking-out was done on wet <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a> with earth colours. A limited palette, dominated by white, red, yellow ochres and azure, was employed for maximum visual effect, with dense colouring forming a backdrop of bands, a practice that originated in late Classical art as an attempt to distinguish earth and sky.
</p><p>During the later eleventh and twelfth centuries, the great age of Western monasticism, Europe experienced unprecedented economic, social and political change, leading to burgeoning wealth among landowners, including monasteries. There was increasing demand for books, and economic wealth encouraged the production of richly <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscripts</a>.
</p><p>One of the outstanding artefacts of the age is the 70 m long <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaviness2001106_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaviness2001106-129">[129]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoslin199028–29_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoslin199028–29-130">[130]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMussetBertrand196623_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMussetBertrand196623-131">[131]</a></sup> It depicts the events leading up to the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a> with protagonists <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William, Duke of Normandy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold, Earl of Wessex, later King of England</a>, and culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> of 1066. It is thought to date from the 11th century. It tells the story from the point of view of the conquering Normans, but is now agreed to have been made in England - most likely by women, although the designer is unknown. It is housed in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Arte_carolingia,_volto_santo_di_sansepolcro,_VIII-IX_secolo_circa_con_policromia_del_XII_secolo.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="'Holy Face'; 904–1018; wood with polychromy; height: 2.9 m; Sansepolcro Cathedral (Sansepolcro, Italy)[132]"><img alt="'Holy Face'; 904–1018; wood with polychromy; height: 2.9 m; Sansepolcro Cathedral (Sansepolcro, Italy)[132]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Arte_carolingia%2C_volto_santo_di_sansepolcro%2C_VIII-IX_secolo_circa_con_policromia_del_XII_secolo.JPG/122px-Arte_carolingia%2C_volto_santo_di_sansepolcro%2C_VIII-IX_secolo_circa_con_policromia_del_XII_secolo.JPG" decoding="async" width="122" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Arte_carolingia%2C_volto_santo_di_sansepolcro%2C_VIII-IX_secolo_circa_con_policromia_del_XII_secolo.JPG/183px-Arte_carolingia%2C_volto_santo_di_sansepolcro%2C_VIII-IX_secolo_circa_con_policromia_del_XII_secolo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Arte_carolingia%2C_volto_santo_di_sansepolcro%2C_VIII-IX_secolo_circa_con_policromia_del_XII_secolo.JPG/244px-Arte_carolingia%2C_volto_santo_di_sansepolcro%2C_VIII-IX_secolo_circa_con_policromia_del_XII_secolo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1856" data-file-height="2280" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">'Holy Face'; 904–1018; wood with polychromy; height: 2.9 m; <a href="/wiki/Sansepolcro_Cathedral" title="Sansepolcro Cathedral">Sansepolcro Cathedral</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sansepolcro" title="Sansepolcro">Sansepolcro</a>, Italy)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017146_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017146-132">[132]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_image_of_the_Speyer_Cathedral_(view_from_the_southwest).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Speyer cathedral (Speyer, Germany), 1030-1106[133]"><img alt="Speyer cathedral (Speyer, Germany), 1030-1106[133]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Aerial_image_of_the_Speyer_Cathedral_%28view_from_the_southwest%29.jpg/150px-Aerial_image_of_the_Speyer_Cathedral_%28view_from_the_southwest%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Aerial_image_of_the_Speyer_Cathedral_%28view_from_the_southwest%29.jpg/225px-Aerial_image_of_the_Speyer_Cathedral_%28view_from_the_southwest%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Aerial_image_of_the_Speyer_Cathedral_%28view_from_the_southwest%29.jpg/300px-Aerial_image_of_the_Speyer_Cathedral_%28view_from_the_southwest%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4200" data-file-height="3100" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Speyer_cathedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Speyer cathedral">Speyer cathedral</a> (<a href="/wiki/Speyer" title="Speyer">Speyer</a>, Germany), 1030-1106<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glees_Germany_Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Maria Laach Abbey (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany), 1093-1230[134]"><img alt="Maria Laach Abbey (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany), 1093-1230[134]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Glees_Germany_Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg/150px-Glees_Germany_Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Glees_Germany_Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg/225px-Glees_Germany_Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Glees_Germany_Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg/300px-Glees_Germany_Maria-Laach-Abbey-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3590" data-file-height="2774" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Laach_Abbey" title="Maria Laach Abbey">Maria Laach Abbey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rhineland-Palatinate" title="Rhineland-Palatinate">Rhineland-Palatinate</a>, Germany), 1093-1230<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201924_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201924-134">[134]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pope_Alexander_head_reliquary,_from_Abbey_Saint-Remacle_de_Stavelot,_Mosan_workshop,_c._1145_AD,_silver_partially_gilt,_brass,_enamel,_precious_stones_-_Cinquantenaire_Museum_-_Brussels,_Belgium_-_DSC08823.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Head of pope Alexander; 1145; wood, silver, gilt bronze, gems, pearls and champlevé enamel; height: c. 45 cm; Art & History Museum (Brussels, Belgium)[135]"><img alt="Head of pope Alexander; 1145; wood, silver, gilt bronze, gems, pearls and champlevé enamel; height: c. 45 cm; Art & History Museum (Brussels, Belgium)[135]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Pope_Alexander_head_reliquary%2C_from_Abbey_Saint-Remacle_de_Stavelot%2C_Mosan_workshop%2C_c._1145_AD%2C_silver_partially_gilt%2C_brass%2C_enamel%2C_precious_stones_-_Cinquantenaire_Museum_-_Brussels%2C_Belgium_-_DSC08823.jpg/103px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Pope_Alexander_head_reliquary%2C_from_Abbey_Saint-Remacle_de_Stavelot%2C_Mosan_workshop%2C_c._1145_AD%2C_silver_partially_gilt%2C_brass%2C_enamel%2C_precious_stones_-_Cinquantenaire_Museum_-_Brussels%2C_Belgium_-_DSC08823.jpg/154px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Pope_Alexander_head_reliquary%2C_from_Abbey_Saint-Remacle_de_Stavelot%2C_Mosan_workshop%2C_c._1145_AD%2C_silver_partially_gilt%2C_brass%2C_enamel%2C_precious_stones_-_Cinquantenaire_Museum_-_Brussels%2C_Belgium_-_DSC08823.jpg/205px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3615" data-file-height="5279" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Head of pope Alexander; 1145; wood, silver, gilt bronze, gems, pearls and champlevé enamel; height: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 45 cm; <a href="/wiki/Art_%26_History_Museum" title="Art & History Museum">Art & History Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017147_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017147-135">[135]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Klosterkirche_M%C3%BCstair_Freske_Steinigung_Stephanus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The stoning of Saint Stephen; 1160s; fresco; height: 1.3 m; Saint John Abbey (Val Müstair, Canton of Grisons, Switzerland)[136]"><img alt="The stoning of Saint Stephen; 1160s; fresco; height: 1.3 m; Saint John Abbey (Val Müstair, Canton of Grisons, Switzerland)[136]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Klosterkirche_M%C3%BCstair_Freske_Steinigung_Stephanus.jpg/150px-Klosterkirche_M%C3%BCstair_Freske_Steinigung_Stephanus.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Klosterkirche_M%C3%BCstair_Freske_Steinigung_Stephanus.jpg/225px-Klosterkirche_M%C3%BCstair_Freske_Steinigung_Stephanus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Klosterkirche_M%C3%BCstair_Freske_Steinigung_Stephanus.jpg/300px-Klosterkirche_M%C3%BCstair_Freske_Steinigung_Stephanus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The stoning of Saint Stephen; 1160s; fresco; height: 1.3 m; <a href="/wiki/Saint_John_Abbey,_M%C3%BCstair" title="Saint John Abbey, Müstair">Saint John Abbey</a> (<a href="/wiki/Val_M%C3%BCstair" title="Val Müstair">Val Müstair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canton_of_Grisons" class="mw-redirect" title="Canton of Grisons">Canton of Grisons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017144_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017144-136">[136]</a></sup></div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Gothic">Gothic</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section's source code: Gothic"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic art</a></div>
<p>Gothic art developed in Northern France out of Romanesque in the 12th century AD, and led by the concurrent development of <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>. It spread to all of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, and much of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a>, never quite effacing more classical styles in Italy. In the late 14th century, the sophisticated court style of <a href="/wiki/International_Gothic" title="International Gothic">International Gothic</a> developed, which continued to evolve until the late 15th century.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Brick_Gothic" title="Brick Gothic">Brick Gothic</a> was a specific style of Gothic architecture common in <a href="/wiki/Baltic_region" title="Baltic region">Northeast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> especially in the regions in and around the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, which do not have resources of standing rock. The buildings are essentially built using <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">bricks</a>.
</p><p>The imposing Gothic cathedrals, with their sculptural programmes and stained glass windows, epitomize the Gothic style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017149_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017149-137">[137]</a></sup> It differs from Romanesque through its rib-shaped <a href="/wiki/Vault_(architecture)" title="Vault (architecture)">vaults</a>, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Ogive" title="Ogive">ogives</a>. Instead of the thick Romanesque walls, Gothic buildings are thin and tall. Spiral stairs in towers are specific to Gothic architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraur197052–53_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraur197052–53-138">[138]</a></sup>
</p><p>Gothic painting, much of it executed in <a href="/wiki/Tempera" title="Tempera">tempera</a> and, later, oils on panel, as well as fresco, and with an increasingly broad palette of secondary colours, is generally seen as more 'naturalistic' than Romanesque. The humanity of religious narrative was highlighted, and the emotional state of the characters individualized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017151_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017151-139">[139]</a></sup> The increased urbanity of the medieval economy and the rise of the clerical and lay patron saw a change in the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Art_market" title="Art market">art market</a>, which can be seen in developments in Gothic <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">manuscript illumination</a>. Workshops employed specialists for different elements of the page, such as figures or marginal vine motifs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017152_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017152-140">[140]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chartres_RosetteNord_121_DSC08241.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="North transept windows; c. 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; Chartres Cathedral (Chartres, France)[141]"><img alt="North transept windows; c. 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; Chartres Cathedral (Chartres, France)[141]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Chartres_RosetteNord_121_DSC08241.jpg/89px-Chartres_RosetteNord_121_DSC08241.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Chartres_RosetteNord_121_DSC08241.jpg/134px-Chartres_RosetteNord_121_DSC08241.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Chartres_RosetteNord_121_DSC08241.jpg/179px-Chartres_RosetteNord_121_DSC08241.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2665" data-file-height="4466" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">North transept windows; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1230–1235; stained glass; diameter (rose window): 10.2 m; <a href="/wiki/Chartres_Cathedral" title="Chartres Cathedral">Chartres Cathedral</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chartres" title="Chartres">Chartres</a>, France)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017153_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017153-141">[141]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Sainte-Chapelle (Paris), 1243–1248, by Pierre de Montreuil[142]"><img alt="The Sainte-Chapelle (Paris), 1243–1248, by Pierre de Montreuil[142]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg/150px-Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg/225px-Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg/300px-Sainte_Chapelle_Interior_Stained_Glass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5904" data-file-height="3936" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Sainte-Chapelle" title="Sainte-Chapelle">Sainte-Chapelle</a> (Paris), 1243–1248, by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Montreuil" title="Pierre de Montreuil">Pierre de Montreuil</a><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Naumburg_Dom_Stifterfiguren_Uta_und_Ekkehard_2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ekkehard and Uta; attributed to the Master of Namburg; 1245–1260; limestone and polychromy; height: c. 1.9 m; Naumburg Cathedral (Naumburg, Germany)[143]"><img alt="Ekkehard and Uta; attributed to the Master of Namburg; 1245–1260; limestone and polychromy; height: c. 1.9 m; Naumburg Cathedral (Naumburg, Germany)[143]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Naumburg_Dom_Stifterfiguren_Uta_und_Ekkehard_2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg/97px-Naumburg_Dom_Stifterfiguren_Uta_und_Ekkehard_2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Naumburg_Dom_Stifterfiguren_Uta_und_Ekkehard_2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg/146px-Naumburg_Dom_Stifterfiguren_Uta_und_Ekkehard_2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Naumburg_Dom_Stifterfiguren_Uta_und_Ekkehard_2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg/194px-Naumburg_Dom_Stifterfiguren_Uta_und_Ekkehard_2012-04-29-17-31-47.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2587" data-file-height="3991" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Ekkehard and Uta; attributed to the Master of Namburg; 1245–1260; limestone and <a href="/wiki/Polychrome" title="Polychrome">polychromy</a>; height: <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1.9 m; <a href="/wiki/Naumburg_Cathedral" title="Naumburg Cathedral">Naumburg Cathedral</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naumburg" title="Naumburg">Naumburg</a>, Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017150_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017150-143">[143]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:4_Jean_Pucelle._Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux._1325-28,_Metropolitan_Museum,_New-York.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arrest of Christ and Annunciation of the Virgin; by Jean Pucelle; 1324–1328; grisaille and temprea on vellum; 8.9 x 12.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[140]"><img alt="Arrest of Christ and Annunciation of the Virgin; by Jean Pucelle; 1324–1328; grisaille and temprea on vellum; 8.9 x 12.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[140]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/4_Jean_Pucelle._Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux._1325-28%2C_Metropolitan_Museum%2C_New-York.jpg/150px-4_Jean_Pucelle._Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux._1325-28%2C_Metropolitan_Museum%2C_New-York.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/4_Jean_Pucelle._Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux._1325-28%2C_Metropolitan_Museum%2C_New-York.jpg/225px-4_Jean_Pucelle._Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux._1325-28%2C_Metropolitan_Museum%2C_New-York.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/4_Jean_Pucelle._Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux._1325-28%2C_Metropolitan_Museum%2C_New-York.jpg/300px-4_Jean_Pucelle._Hours_of_Jeanne_d%27Evreux._1325-28%2C_Metropolitan_Museum%2C_New-York.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1333" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Arrest of Christ and Annunciation of the Virgin; by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Pucelle" title="Jean Pucelle">Jean Pucelle</a>; 1324–1328; <a href="/wiki/Grisaille" title="Grisaille">grisaille</a> and temprea on vellum; 8.9 x 12.4 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017152_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017152-140">[140]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonimo_inglese_o_francese,_dittico_wilton,_1395-99_ca._01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Wilton Diptych; c. 1395–1459; tempera and gold on panel; 53 × 37 cm; National Gallery (London)[139]"><img alt="The Wilton Diptych; c. 1395–1459; tempera and gold on panel; 53 × 37 cm; National Gallery (London)[139]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Anonimo_inglese_o_francese%2C_dittico_wilton%2C_1395-99_ca._01.jpg/150px-Anonimo_inglese_o_francese%2C_dittico_wilton%2C_1395-99_ca._01.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Anonimo_inglese_o_francese%2C_dittico_wilton%2C_1395-99_ca._01.jpg/225px-Anonimo_inglese_o_francese%2C_dittico_wilton%2C_1395-99_ca._01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Anonimo_inglese_o_francese%2C_dittico_wilton%2C_1395-99_ca._01.jpg/300px-Anonimo_inglese_o_francese%2C_dittico_wilton%2C_1395-99_ca._01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3774" data-file-height="2868" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <i><a href="/wiki/Wilton_Diptych" title="Wilton Diptych">Wilton Diptych</a></i>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1395–1459; tempera and gold on panel; 53 × 37 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery" title="National Gallery">National Gallery</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017151_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017151-139">[139]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marienkirche_am_Abend.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="St. Mary's Church, 1265-1352, in Lübeck, Germany"><img alt="St. Mary's Church, 1265-1352, in Lübeck, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Marienkirche_am_Abend.jpg/150px-Marienkirche_am_Abend.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Marienkirche_am_Abend.jpg/225px-Marienkirche_am_Abend.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Marienkirche_am_Abend.jpg/300px-Marienkirche_am_Abend.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2826" data-file-height="1781" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Church,_L%C3%BCbeck" title="St. Mary's Church, Lübeck">St. Mary's Church</a>, 1265-1352, in <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stralsunder_Rathaus_mit_Schaufassade,_dahinter_die_Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Town Hall and St. Nicholas' church in Stralsund, from around 1250 to 1400, Germany"><img alt="Town Hall and St. Nicholas' church in Stralsund, from around 1250 to 1400, Germany" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Stralsunder_Rathaus_mit_Schaufassade%2C_dahinter_die_Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg/150px-Stralsunder_Rathaus_mit_Schaufassade%2C_dahinter_die_Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Stralsunder_Rathaus_mit_Schaufassade%2C_dahinter_die_Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg/225px-Stralsunder_Rathaus_mit_Schaufassade%2C_dahinter_die_Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Stralsunder_Rathaus_mit_Schaufassade%2C_dahinter_die_Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg/300px-Stralsunder_Rathaus_mit_Schaufassade%2C_dahinter_die_Nikolaikirche-2630.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4480" data-file-height="4480" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Town Hall and <a href="/wiki/St._Nicholas%27_Church,_Stralsund" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Nicholas' Church, Stralsund">St. Nicholas' church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stralsund" title="Stralsund">Stralsund</a>, from around 1250 to 1400, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brick Gothic with some decoration of stone, Old St. John's Hospital, 13th to 15th century, in Bruges, Belgium"><img alt="Brick Gothic with some decoration of stone, Old St. John's Hospital, 13th to 15th century, in Bruges, Belgium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg/150px-00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg/225px-00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg/300px-00_Bruges_JPG6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Brick Gothic with some decoration of stone, <a href="/wiki/Old_St._John%27s_Hospital" title="Old St. John's Hospital">Old St. John's Hospital</a>, 13th to 15th century, in <a href="/wiki/Bruges" title="Bruges">Bruges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Renaissance">Renaissance</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section's source code: Renaissance"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance art</a></div>
<p>Encompassing Early, Northern and High Renaissance, the term Renaissance describes the 'rebirth' in Europe of a new interest for <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a>. For the first time since antiquity, art became convincingly lifelike. Besides the ancient past, Renaissance artists also studied nature, understanding the human body, animals, plants, space, perspective and the qualities of light. The most common theme were religious subjects, but depictions of mythological stories were produced as well. Also, there was no uniform Renaissance style. Each artist developed their own distinct visual language, influenced by their predecessors and contemporaries.
</p><p>The Early Renaissance was a period of great creative and intellectual activity when artists broke away completely from the parameters of <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine art</a>. It is generally accepted that it started in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> in the early 15th century. It is characterized by a surge of interest in <a href="/wiki/Classical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical literature">classical literature</a>, philosophy and art, the growth of commerce, the discovery of new continents, and new inventions. There was a revival of interest in the art and literature of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>, and the study of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin texts</a> instigated concepts of individualism and reason, which became known as <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanism</a>. Humanists considered life in the present and emphasized the importance of individual thought, which affected artists' approaches.
</p><p>Despite being highly associated with Italy, particularly with Florence, Rome, and Venice, the rest of Western Europe participated to the Renaissance as well.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> The Northern Renaissance occurred in Europe north of the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> from the early 15th century, following a period of artistic cross-fertilization between north and south known as 'International Gothic'. There was a big difference between the Northern and Italian Renaissance. The North artists did not seek to revive the values of ancient Greece and Rome like the Italians, while in the south Italian artists and patrons were amazed by the empirical study of nature and the human society, and by the deep colors that northern artists could achieve in the newly developed medium of <a href="/wiki/Oil_paint" title="Oil paint">oil paint</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> increased the northern interest in secular painting, like portraits or landscapes. Two key northern artists are <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a>, known for his surreal paintings filled with hybrid creatures like <i><a href="/wiki/The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights" title="The Garden of Earthly Delights">The Garden of Earthly Delights</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>, who brought the new art of printmaking to a new level.
</p><p>The High Renaissance took place in the late 15th-early 16th centuries and was influenced by the fact that as papal power stabilized in Rome, several popes commissioned art and architecture, determined to recreate the city's former glory. <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> produced vast and grandiose projects for the popes. The most famous artwork of this part of the Renaissance is probably the ceiling of the <a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling" title="Sistine Chapel ceiling">Sistine Chapel</a>.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a> broke away from High Renaissance ideals of harmony and a rational approach to art, to embrace exaggerated forms, elongated proportions, and more vibrant colors. It developed in Italy between 1510 and 1520, among artists who prized originality above all. The name of this movement comes from the Italian <i>maniera</i>, meaning 'style or 'manner'. The word was meant to describe the standard of excellence achieved during the High Renaissance, to which all art should now adhere, but in practice it led to stylization and art 'to show art', sometimes with great success, an example being <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>'s pupil <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Romano" title="Giulio Romano">Giulio Romano</a>. Mannerism has also been used more generally to describe a period following the Renaissance and preceding the Baroque.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201716,_17,_18,_19,_21Fortenberry2017156,_182,_188Hodge201926_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201716,_17,_18,_19,_21Fortenberry2017156,_182,_188Hodge201926-145">[145]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Florence_Duomo_(167859687).jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Florence Cathedral (Florence, Italy), 1294–1436, by Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo Brunelleschi and Emilio De Fabris[146]"><img alt="The Florence Cathedral (Florence, Italy), 1294–1436, by Arnolfo di Cambio, Filippo Brunelleschi and Emilio De Fabris[146]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Florence_Duomo_%28167859687%29.jpeg/150px-Florence_Duomo_%28167859687%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Florence_Duomo_%28167859687%29.jpeg/225px-Florence_Duomo_%28167859687%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Florence_Duomo_%28167859687%29.jpeg/300px-Florence_Duomo_%28167859687%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Florence_Cathedral" title="Florence Cathedral">Florence Cathedral</a> (<a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>), 1294–1436, by <a href="/wiki/Arnolfo_di_Cambio" title="Arnolfo di Cambio">Arnolfo di Cambio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi" title="Filippo Brunelleschi">Filippo Brunelleschi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emilio_De_Fabris" title="Emilio De Fabris">Emilio De Fabris</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201982_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201982-146">[146]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence,_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Crucifix; by Giotto; c. 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; Santa Maria Novella (Florence, Italy)[147]"><img alt="Crucifix; by Giotto; c. 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; Santa Maria Novella (Florence, Italy)[147]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence%2C_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg/114px-Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence%2C_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence%2C_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg/171px-Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence%2C_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence%2C_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg/228px-Giotto._the-crucifix-1290-1300_Florence%2C_Santa_Maria_Novella.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3855" data-file-height="5080" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Crucifix; by <a href="/wiki/Giotto" title="Giotto">Giotto</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1300; tempera on panel; 5.78 x 4.06 m; <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_Novella" title="Santa Maria Novella">Santa Maria Novella</a> (<a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, Italy)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017157_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017157-147">[147]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Arnolfini Portrait; by Jan van Eyck; 1434; oil on panel; 82.2 x 60 cm; National Gallery (London)[148]"><img alt="Arnolfini Portrait; by Jan van Eyck; 1434; oil on panel; 82.2 x 60 cm; National Gallery (London)[148]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg/110px-Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg/164px-Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg/219px-Van_Eyck_-_Arnolfini_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4386" data-file-height="6000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Arnolfini_Portrait" title="Arnolfini Portrait">Arnolfini Portrait</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan van Eyck</a>; 1434; oil on panel; 82.2 x 60 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery" title="National Gallery">National Gallery</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017191_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017191-148">[148]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="David; by Donatello; c. 1460s; bronze; height: 1.6 m; Bargello (Florence)[149]"><img alt="David; by Donatello; c. 1460s; bronze; height: 1.6 m; Bargello (Florence)[149]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg/100px-Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg/150px-Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg/200px-Florence_-_David_by_Donatello.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1066" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/David_(Donatello)" title="David (Donatello)">David</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Donatello" title="Donatello">Donatello</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1460s; bronze; height: 1.6 m; <a href="/wiki/Bargello" title="Bargello">Bargello</a> (Florence)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017165_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017165-149">[149]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paolo_Uccello_Heiliger_Georg_und_der_Drachen_1_470.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saint George and the Dragon; by Paolo Uccello; c. 1470; oil on canvas; 55.6 x 74.2 cm; National Gallery (London)[150]"><img alt="Saint George and the Dragon; by Paolo Uccello; c. 1470; oil on canvas; 55.6 x 74.2 cm; National Gallery (London)[150]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Paolo_Uccello_Heiliger_Georg_und_der_Drachen_1_470.jpg/150px-Paolo_Uccello_Heiliger_Georg_und_der_Drachen_1_470.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Paolo_Uccello_Heiliger_Georg_und_der_Drachen_1_470.jpg/225px-Paolo_Uccello_Heiliger_Georg_und_der_Drachen_1_470.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Paolo_Uccello_Heiliger_Georg_und_der_Drachen_1_470.jpg/300px-Paolo_Uccello_Heiliger_Georg_und_der_Drachen_1_470.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1301" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Saint_George_and_the_Dragon_(Uccello)" title="Saint George and the Dragon (Uccello)">Saint George and the Dragon</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Uccello" title="Paolo Uccello">Paolo Uccello</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1470; oil on canvas; 55.6 x 74.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery" title="National Gallery">National Gallery</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017168_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017168-150">[150]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Botticelli-primavera.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Primavera; by Sandro Botticelli; c. 1478; tempera on panel; 2 x 3.1 m; Uffizi Gallery (Florence)[151]"><img alt="Primavera; by Sandro Botticelli; c. 1478; tempera on panel; 2 x 3.1 m; Uffizi Gallery (Florence)[151]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Botticelli-primavera.jpg/150px-Botticelli-primavera.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Botticelli-primavera.jpg/225px-Botticelli-primavera.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Botticelli-primavera.jpg/300px-Botticelli-primavera.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4926" data-file-height="3236" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Primavera_(Botticelli)" title="Primavera (Botticelli)">Primavera</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli" title="Sandro Botticelli">Sandro Botticelli</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1478; tempera on panel; 2 x 3.1 m; <a href="/wiki/Uffizi" title="Uffizi">Uffizi Gallery</a> (Florence)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017170_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017170-151">[151]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tempietto_di_San_Pietro_in_Montorio.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio, Rome), 1502, by Donato Bramante[152]"><img alt="The Tempietto (San Pietro in Montorio, Rome), 1502, by Donato Bramante[152]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Tempietto_di_San_Pietro_in_Montorio.jpg/99px-Tempietto_di_San_Pietro_in_Montorio.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Tempietto_di_San_Pietro_in_Montorio.jpg/149px-Tempietto_di_San_Pietro_in_Montorio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Tempietto_di_San_Pietro_in_Montorio.jpg/198px-Tempietto_di_San_Pietro_in_Montorio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3549" data-file-height="5364" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio#The_Tempietto" title="San Pietro in Montorio">The Tempietto</a> (<a href="/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Montorio" title="San Pietro in Montorio">San Pietro in Montorio</a>, Rome), 1502, by <a href="/wiki/Donato_Bramante" title="Donato Bramante">Donato Bramante</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201926_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201926-152">[152]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mona_Lisa,_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mona Lisa; by Leonardo da Vinci; c.1503-1519; oil on poplar panel; 77 × 53 cm; Louvre[153]"><img alt="Mona Lisa; by Leonardo da Vinci; c.1503-1519; oil on poplar panel; 77 × 53 cm; Louvre[153]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/100px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/151px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/201px-Mona_Lisa%2C_by_Leonardo_da_Vinci%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7479" data-file-height="11146" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Mona_Lisa" title="Mona Lisa">Mona Lisa</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1503-1519; <a href="/wiki/Oil_painting" title="Oil painting">oil</a> on <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">poplar</a> panel; 77 × 53 cm; <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201768_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201768-153">[153]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Garden_of_earthly_delights.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Garden of Earthly Delights; by Hieronymus Bosch; c. 1504; oil on panel; 2.2 x 1.95 m; Museo del Prado (Madrid, Spain)[154]"><img alt="The Garden of Earthly Delights; by Hieronymus Bosch; c. 1504; oil on panel; 2.2 x 1.95 m; Museo del Prado (Madrid, Spain)[154]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/The_Garden_of_earthly_delights.jpg/150px-The_Garden_of_earthly_delights.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/The_Garden_of_earthly_delights.jpg/225px-The_Garden_of_earthly_delights.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/The_Garden_of_earthly_delights.jpg/300px-The_Garden_of_earthly_delights.jpg 2x" data-file-width="39137" data-file-height="22279" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights" title="The Garden of Earthly Delights">The Garden of Earthly Delights</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bosch" title="Hieronymus Bosch">Hieronymus Bosch</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1504; oil on panel; 2.2 x 1.95 m; <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">Museo del Prado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017194_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017194-154">[154]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sistine_ceiling.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sistine Chapel ceiling; by Michelangelo; 1508–1512; fresco; 13.7 x 39 m; Sistine Chapel (Vatican City)[155]"><img alt="Sistine Chapel ceiling; by Michelangelo; 1508–1512; fresco; 13.7 x 39 m; Sistine Chapel (Vatican City)[155]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Sistine_ceiling.jpg/66px-Sistine_ceiling.jpg" decoding="async" width="66" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Sistine_ceiling.jpg/99px-Sistine_ceiling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Sistine_ceiling.jpg/132px-Sistine_ceiling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1766" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel_ceiling" title="Sistine Chapel ceiling">Sistine Chapel ceiling</a>; by <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>; 1508–1512; <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a>; 13.7 x 39 m; <a href="/wiki/Sistine_Chapel" title="Sistine Chapel">Sistine Chapel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017177_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017177-155">[155]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The School of Athens; by Raphael; 1509–1510; fresco; 5.8 x 8.2 m; Apostolic Palace (Vatican City)[156]"><img alt="The School of Athens; by Raphael; 1509–1510; fresco; 5.8 x 8.2 m; Apostolic Palace (Vatican City)[156]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/150px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/225px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/300px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3820" data-file-height="2964" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>; 1509–1510; fresco; 5.8 x 8.2 m; <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Palace" title="Apostolic Palace">Apostolic Palace</a> (Vatican City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017175_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017175-156">[156]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Rhinoceros_(NGA_1964.8.697)_enhanced.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The Rhinoceros; by Albrecht Dürer; 1515; woodcut; 23.5 × 29.8 cm; National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C., US)"><img alt="The Rhinoceros; by Albrecht Dürer; 1515; woodcut; 23.5 × 29.8 cm; National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C., US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/The_Rhinoceros_%28NGA_1964.8.697%29_enhanced.png/150px-The_Rhinoceros_%28NGA_1964.8.697%29_enhanced.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/The_Rhinoceros_%28NGA_1964.8.697%29_enhanced.png/225px-The_Rhinoceros_%28NGA_1964.8.697%29_enhanced.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/The_Rhinoceros_%28NGA_1964.8.697%29_enhanced.png/300px-The_Rhinoceros_%28NGA_1964.8.697%29_enhanced.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2368" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCrer%27s_Rhinoceros" title="Dürer's Rhinoceros">The Rhinoceros</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a>; 1515; <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcut</a>; 23.5 × 29.8 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, US)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Château d'Azay-le-Rideau (Loire, France), 1518-1527[157]"><img alt="Château d'Azay-le-Rideau (Loire, France), 1518-1527[157]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg/150px-Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg/225px-Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg/300px-Chateau-Azay-le-Rudeau-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4272" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_d%27Azay-le-Rideau" title="Château d'Azay-le-Rideau">Château d'Azay-le-Rideau</a> (<a href="/wiki/Loire" title="Loire">Loire</a>, France), 1518-1527<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201447_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201447-157">[157]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_(Vienna)_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Tower of Babel; by Pieter Bruegel the Elder; 1563; oil on panel; 1.14 x 1.55 m; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)[158]"><img alt="The Tower of Babel; by Pieter Bruegel the Elder; 1563; oil on panel; 1.14 x 1.55 m; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)[158]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/150px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/225px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg/300px-Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder_-_The_Tower_of_Babel_%28Vienna%29_-_Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="21952" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tower_of_Babel_(Bruegel)" title="The Tower of Babel (Bruegel)">The Tower of Babel</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Bruegel_the_Elder" title="Pieter Bruegel the Elder">Pieter Bruegel the Elder</a>; 1563; oil on panel; 1.14 x 1.55 m; <a href="/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum" title="Kunsthistorisches Museum">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017201_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017201-158">[158]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Armoire_Louvre_OA_6968.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cupboard; c. 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m; Louvre[159]"><img alt="Cupboard; c. 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m; Louvre[159]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Armoire_Louvre_OA_6968.jpg/116px-Armoire_Louvre_OA_6968.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Armoire_Louvre_OA_6968.jpg/175px-Armoire_Louvre_OA_6968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Armoire_Louvre_OA_6968.jpg/233px-Armoire_Louvre_OA_6968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2819" data-file-height="3632" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Cupboard; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1580; walnut and oak, partially gilded and painted; height: 2.06 m, width: 1.50 m; Louvre<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rathaus_Augsburg_perspective.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Augsburg Town Hall (Augsburg, Germany), 1615–1624, by Elias Holl"><img alt="The Augsburg Town Hall (Augsburg, Germany), 1615–1624, by Elias Holl" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rathaus_Augsburg_perspective.jpg/141px-Rathaus_Augsburg_perspective.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rathaus_Augsburg_perspective.jpg/211px-Rathaus_Augsburg_perspective.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Rathaus_Augsburg_perspective.jpg/282px-Rathaus_Augsburg_perspective.jpg 2x" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="898" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Augsburg_Town_Hall" title="Augsburg Town Hall">Augsburg Town Hall</a> (<a href="/wiki/Augsburg" title="Augsburg">Augsburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>), 1615–1624, by <a href="/wiki/Elias_Holl" title="Elias Holl">Elias Holl</a></div>
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Baroque">Baroque</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section's source code: Baroque"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_style" title="Louis XIV style">Louis XIV style</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1096954695/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">The <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Versailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles">Versailles</a>, France), one of the most iconic Baroque buildings, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1660</span> – 1715, by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Le_Vau" title="Louis Le Vau">Louis Le Vau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jules_Hardouin-Mansart" title="Jules Hardouin-Mansart">Jules Hardouin-Mansart</a></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:340px;max-width:340px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:224px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5,_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg/338px-Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="338" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg/507px-Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg/676px-Cour_de_Marbre_du_Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Versailles_October_5%2C_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Marble Court</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:226px;max-width:226px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Panorama_of_the_ceiling_of_Le_salon_d%27Hercule_(24275994646).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Panorama_of_the_ceiling_of_Le_salon_d%27Hercule_%2824275994646%29.jpg/224px-Panorama_of_the_ceiling_of_Le_salon_d%27Hercule_%2824275994646%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="224" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Panorama_of_the_ceiling_of_Le_salon_d%27Hercule_%2824275994646%29.jpg/336px-Panorama_of_the_ceiling_of_Le_salon_d%27Hercule_%2824275994646%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Panorama_of_the_ceiling_of_Le_salon_d%27Hercule_%2824275994646%29.jpg/448px-Panorama_of_the_ceiling_of_Le_salon_d%27Hercule_%2824275994646%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7699" data-file-height="5804" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Salon_d%27Hercule" title="Salon d'Hercule">Salon d'Hercule</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:112px;max-width:112px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:169px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg/110px-Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg/165px-Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg/220px-Versailles_Chapel_-_July_2006_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2274" data-file-height="3500" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Royal Chapel</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:110px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg/167px-Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg/251px-Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg/334px-Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3892" data-file-height="2584" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Mirrors" title="Hall of Mirrors">Hall of Mirrors</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:110px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg/167px-Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg/251px-Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg/334px-Vue_a%C3%A9rienne_du_domaine_de_Versailles_le_20_ao%C3%BBt_2014_par_ToucanWings_-_Creative_Commons_By_Sa_3.0_-_22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4726" data-file-height="3140" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Gardens_of_Versailles" title="Gardens of Versailles">The gardens</a></div></div></div></div></div>
<p>The 17th century was a period of volatile change, both in science, through inventions and developments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>, and in religion, as the Catholic Counter-Reformation contested the growing popularity of Protestant faith. After the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> reacted with the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>, decreeing that art should inspire viewers with passionate religious themes.
</p><p>Succeeding <a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a>, and developing as a result of religious tensions across Europe, Baroque art emerged in the late 16th century. The name may derive from 'barocco', the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> word for misshaped pearl, and it describes art that combined emotion, dynamism and drama with powerful color, realism and strong tonal contrasts. Between 1545 and 1563 at the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a>, it was decided that religious art must encourage piety, realism and accuracy, and, by attracting viewers' attention and empathy, glorify the Catholic Church and strengthen the image of Catholicism. In the next century the radical new styles of Baroque art both embraced and developed High Renaissance models, and broke new ground both in religious art and in new varieties of secular art – above all landscape. The Baroque and its late variant the <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> were the first truly global styles in the arts, dominating more than two centuries of art and architecture in Europe, Latin America and beyond from circa 1580 to circa 1750. Born in the painting studios of <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in the 1580s and 1590s, and in Roman sculptural and architectural ateliers in the second and third decades of the 17th century, the Baroque spread swiftly throughout <a href="/wiki/Italian_Baroque_architecture" title="Italian Baroque architecture">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Baroque_architecture" title="Spanish Baroque architecture">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baroque_architecture_in_Portugal" title="Baroque architecture in Portugal">Portugal</a>, Flanders, <a href="/wiki/French_Baroque_architecture" title="French Baroque architecture">France</a>, the Netherlands, England, Scandinavia, and Russia, as well as to central and eastern European centres from <a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a> (Germany) to <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a> empires and the Dutch treading network had a leading role in spreading the two styles into the Americas and colonial Africa and Asia, to places such as <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.
</p><p>Just like paintings and sculptures, Baroque cathedrals and palaces are characterised by the use of illusion and drama as well. They also frequently use dramatic effects of light and shade, and have sumptuous, highly decorated interiors that blurred the boundaries between architecture, painting and sculpture. Another important characteristic of Baroque architecture was the presence of dynamism, done through curves, <a href="/wiki/Solomonic_column" title="Solomonic column">Solomonic columns</a> and ovals. In France, Baroque is synonymous with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a> between 1643 and 1715, since multiple monumental buildings were built in Paris, Versailles and other parts of France during his rule, such as the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons" title="Château de Maisons">Château de Maisons</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Vaux-le-Vicomte" title="Vaux-le-Vicomte">Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Louvre_Colonnade" title="Louvre Colonnade">Louvre Colonnade</a> or The Dôme <a href="/wiki/Les_Invalides" title="Les Invalides">des Invalides</a>. Besides the building itself, the space where it was placed has a role too. Baroque buildings try to seize viewers' attention and to dominate their surroundings, whether on a small scale such as the <a href="/wiki/San_Carlo_alle_Quattro_Fontane" title="San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane">San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane</a> in Rome, or on a massive one, like the new facade of the <a href="/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela_Cathedral" title="Santiago de Compostela Cathedral">Santiago de Compostela Cathedral</a>, designed to tower over the city. Applied arts prospered during this period as well. Baroque furniture could be as bombastic as the rooms they were meant to adorn, and their motifs and techniques were carefully calibrated to coordinate with the architect's overall decorative programme. One of the most prestigious furniture makers was <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Charles_Boulle" class="mw-redirect" title="André Charles Boulle">André Charles Boulle</a>, known for his <a href="/wiki/Marquetry" title="Marquetry">marquetry</a> technique, made by gluing sheets of tortoiseshell and <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a> together and cut to form the design. His works were also adorned with gilded bronze mounts. Complex <a href="/wiki/Gobelins_Manufactory" title="Gobelins Manufactory">Gobelins</a> tapestries featured scenes inspired by <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Savonnerie_manufactory" title="Savonnerie manufactory">Savonnerie manufactory</a> produced big highly detailed carpets for the Louvre. These carpets with black or yellow backgrounds had a central motif or a <a href="/wiki/Medallion_(architecture)" title="Medallion (architecture)">medallion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chinese_porcelain" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese porcelain">Chinese porcelain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delftware" title="Delftware">Delftware</a> and mirrors fabricated at <a href="/wiki/Saint-Gobain#1665-1789:_Manufacture_royale" title="Saint-Gobain">Saint-Gobain</a> (France) spread rapidly in all princely palaces and aristocratic residences in France. During the reign of Louis XIV, big mirrors are put above <a href="/wiki/Fireplace_mantel" title="Fireplace mantel">fireplace mantels</a>, and this trend will last long after the Baroque period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201723Fortenberry2017243Hopkins201470,_73,_84Bailey20124,_205,_286Graur1970175,_176_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201723Fortenberry2017243Hopkins201470,_73,_84Bailey20124,_205,_286Graur1970175,_176-160">[160]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Four_Continents.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Four Continents; by Peter Paul Rubens; c.1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)"><img alt="The Four Continents; by Peter Paul Rubens; c.1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum (Vienna, Austria)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Four_Continents.jpg/150px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Four_Continents.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Four_Continents.jpg/225px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Four_Continents.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Four_Continents.jpg/300px-Peter_Paul_Rubens_-_The_Four_Continents.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3158" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Four_Continents" title="The Four Continents">The Four Continents</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1615; oil on canvas; 209 x 284 cm; <a href="/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum" title="Kunsthistorisches Museum">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vienna" title="Vienna">Vienna</a>, Austria)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Château de Maisons (France), by François Mansart, 1630-1651[161]"><img alt="Château de Maisons (France), by François Mansart, 1630-1651[161]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg/150px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg/225px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg/300px-Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons-Laffitte_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3970" data-file-height="2775" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Maisons" title="Château de Maisons">Château de Maisons</a> (France), by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mansart" title="François Mansart">François Mansart</a>, 1630-1651<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201485_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201485-161">[161]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolas_Poussin_-_L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_(1634-5).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Rape of the Sabine Women; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[162]"><img alt="The Rape of the Sabine Women; by Nicolas Poussin; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)[162]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Nicolas_Poussin_-_L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_%281634-5%29.jpg/150px-Nicolas_Poussin_-_L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_%281634-5%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Nicolas_Poussin_-_L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_%281634-5%29.jpg/225px-Nicolas_Poussin_-_L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_%281634-5%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Nicolas_Poussin_-_L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_%281634-5%29.jpg/300px-Nicolas_Poussin_-_L%27Enl%C3%A8vement_des_Sabines_%281634-5%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3907" data-file-height="2876" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women" title="The Rape of the Sabine Women">The Rape of the Sabine Women</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin" title="Nicolas Poussin">Nicolas Poussin</a>; 1634–1635; oil on canvas; 1.55 × 2.1 m; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017243_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017243-162">[162]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_ronda_de_noche,_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Night Watch; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, the Netherlands)[163]"><img alt="The Night Watch; by Rembrandt; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; Rijksmuseum (Amsterdam, the Netherlands)[163]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/La_ronda_de_noche%2C_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg/150px-La_ronda_de_noche%2C_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/La_ronda_de_noche%2C_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg/225px-La_ronda_de_noche%2C_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/La_ronda_de_noche%2C_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg/300px-La_ronda_de_noche%2C_por_Rembrandt_van_Rijn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="14168" data-file-height="11528" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Night_Watch" title="The Night Watch">The Night Watch</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>; 1642; oil on canvas; 3.63 × 4.37 m; <a href="/wiki/Rijksmuseum" title="Rijksmuseum">Rijksmuseum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017256_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017256-163">[163]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ecstasy of Saint Teresa; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; Santa Maria della Vittoria (Rome)[164]"><img alt="Ecstasy of Saint Teresa; by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; Santa Maria della Vittoria (Rome)[164]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg/94px-Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg/142px-Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg/189px-Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa_September_2015-2a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4242" data-file-height="6722" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_of_Saint_Teresa" title="Ecstasy of Saint Teresa">Ecstasy of Saint Teresa</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Gian_Lorenzo_Bernini" title="Gian Lorenzo Bernini">Gian Lorenzo Bernini</a>; 1647–1652; marble; height: 3.5 m; <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_della_Vittoria,_Rome" title="Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome">Santa Maria della Vittoria</a> (Rome)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017252_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017252-164">[164]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Las_Meninas,_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Las Meninas; by Diego Velázquez; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; Museo del Prado (Madrid, Spain)[165]"><img alt="Las Meninas; by Diego Velázquez; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; Museo del Prado (Madrid, Spain)[165]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/130px-Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/195px-Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/261px-Las_Meninas%2C_by_Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="26065" data-file-height="30000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Las_Meninas" title="Las Meninas">Las Meninas</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a>; 1656; oil on canvas; 3.18 cm × 2.76 m; <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">Museo del Prado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, Spain)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017262_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017262-165">[165]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maria_van_Oosterwijck,_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien,_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vanitas Still Life; by Maria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum[166]"><img alt="Vanitas Still Life; by Maria van Oosterwijck; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum[166]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Maria_van_Oosterwijck%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien%2C_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg/150px-Maria_van_Oosterwijck%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien%2C_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Maria_van_Oosterwijck%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien%2C_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg/225px-Maria_van_Oosterwijck%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien%2C_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Maria_van_Oosterwijck%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien%2C_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg/300px-Maria_van_Oosterwijck%2C_Kunsthistorisches_Museum_Wien%2C_Gem%C3%A4ldegalerie_-_Vanitas-Stilleben_-_GG_5714.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="1165" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Vanitas Still Life</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Maria_van_Oosterwijck" title="Maria van Oosterwijck">Maria van Oosterwijck</a>; 1668; oil on canvas; 73 x 88.5 cm; Kunsthistorisches Museum<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carpet_with_Fame_and_Fortitude_MET_DP212204.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Carpet with fame and fortitude; by the Savonnerie manufactory; 1668–1685; knotted and cut wool pile, woven with about 90 knots per square inch; 909.3 x 459.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Carpet with fame and fortitude; by the Savonnerie manufactory; 1668–1685; knotted and cut wool pile, woven with about 90 knots per square inch; 909.3 x 459.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Carpet_with_Fame_and_Fortitude_MET_DP212204.jpg/76px-Carpet_with_Fame_and_Fortitude_MET_DP212204.jpg" decoding="async" width="76" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Carpet_with_Fame_and_Fortitude_MET_DP212204.jpg/113px-Carpet_with_Fame_and_Fortitude_MET_DP212204.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Carpet_with_Fame_and_Fortitude_MET_DP212204.jpg/151px-Carpet_with_Fame_and_Fortitude_MET_DP212204.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1987" data-file-height="3933" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Carpet with fame and fortitude; by the <a href="/wiki/Savonnerie_manufactory" title="Savonnerie manufactory">Savonnerie manufactory</a>; 1668–1685; knotted and cut wool pile, woven with about 90 knots per square inch; 909.3 x 459.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides,_140309_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dôme des Invalides (Paris), 1677–1706, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart[167]"><img alt="Dôme des Invalides (Paris), 1677–1706, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart[167]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides%2C_140309_2.jpg/112px-Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides%2C_140309_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides%2C_140309_2.jpg/169px-Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides%2C_140309_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides%2C_140309_2.jpg/225px-Cath%C3%A9drale_Saint-Louis-des-Invalides%2C_140309_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3364" data-file-height="4485" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Dôme <a href="/wiki/Les_Invalides" title="Les Invalides">des Invalides</a> (Paris), 1677–1706, by <a href="/wiki/Jules_Hardouin-Mansart" title="Jules Hardouin-Mansart">Jules Hardouin-Mansart</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2012238_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2012238-167">[167]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Commode; by André Charles Boulle; c. 1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[168]"><img alt="Commode; by André Charles Boulle; c. 1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and marquetry of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art[168]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg/150px-Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg/225px-Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg/300px-Commode_MET_DP108742.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3857" data-file-height="3222" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Commode; by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Charles_Boulle" class="mw-redirect" title="André Charles Boulle">André Charles Boulle</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1710–1732; walnut veneered with ebony and <a href="/wiki/Marquetry" title="Marquetry">marquetry</a> of engraved brass and tortoiseshell, gilt-bronze mounts, antique marble top; 87.6 x 128.3 x 62.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2012287_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2012287-168">[168]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Beaker_MET_DP223288_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Part of a Meissen porcelain tea and chocolate service, c. 1725, given to Vittorio Amadeo II, King of Sardinia (1666–1732) by Augustus the Strong, owner of the Meissen factory"><img alt="Part of a Meissen porcelain tea and chocolate service, c. 1725, given to Vittorio Amadeo II, King of Sardinia (1666–1732) by Augustus the Strong, owner of the Meissen factory" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Beaker_MET_DP223288_%28cropped%29.jpg/150px-Beaker_MET_DP223288_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Beaker_MET_DP223288_%28cropped%29.jpg/225px-Beaker_MET_DP223288_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Beaker_MET_DP223288_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Beaker_MET_DP223288_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2691" data-file-height="1924" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Meissen_porcelain" title="Meissen porcelain">Meissen porcelain</a> tea and chocolate service, c. 1725, given to <a href="/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_II_of_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia">Vittorio Amadeo II, King of Sardinia</a> (1666–1732) by <a href="/wiki/Augustus_the_Strong" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus the Strong">Augustus the Strong</a>, owner of the Meissen factory</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:100130_150006_Dresden_Frauenkirche_winter_blue_sky-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Frauenkirche in Dresden, 1726-1743, by George Bähr"><img alt="Frauenkirche in Dresden, 1726-1743, by George Bähr" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/100130_150006_Dresden_Frauenkirche_winter_blue_sky-2.jpg/101px-100130_150006_Dresden_Frauenkirche_winter_blue_sky-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/100130_150006_Dresden_Frauenkirche_winter_blue_sky-2.jpg/152px-100130_150006_Dresden_Frauenkirche_winter_blue_sky-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/100130_150006_Dresden_Frauenkirche_winter_blue_sky-2.jpg/202px-100130_150006_Dresden_Frauenkirche_winter_blue_sky-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3075" data-file-height="4559" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Frauenkirche,_Dresden" title="Frauenkirche, Dresden">Frauenkirche</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>, 1726-1743, by <a href="/wiki/George_B%C3%A4hr" title="George Bähr">George Bähr</a></div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Rococo">Rococo</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section's source code: Rococo"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Style_Louis_XV" class="mw-redirect" title="Style Louis XV">Style Louis XV</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coiffure_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99ind%C3%A9pendance_ou_Le_triomphe_de_la_libert%C3%A9_14524_podl.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Coiffure_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99ind%C3%A9pendance_ou_Le_triomphe_de_la_libert%C3%A9_14524_podl.jpg/220px-Coiffure_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99ind%C3%A9pendance_ou_Le_triomphe_de_la_libert%C3%A9_14524_podl.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/Coiffure_%C3%A0_l%E2%80%99ind%C3%A9pendance_ou_Le_triomphe_de_la_libert%C3%A9_14524_podl.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="270" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Coiffure à l’Indépendance ou Le Triomphe de la Liberté, 1778, depicting a fashionable aristocratic woman is applying the finishing touches to her toilette<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Originating in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1720 Paris, Rococo is characterized by natural motifs, soft colours, curving lines, asymmetry and themes including love, nature and light-hearted entertainment. Its ideals were delicacy, gaiety, youthfulness and sensuality.
</p><p>Beginning in France as a reaction against the heavy Baroque grandeur of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV" title="Louis XIV">Louis XIV</a>'s court at the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a>, the rococo movement became associated particularly with the powerful <a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Pompadour" title="Madame de Pompadour">Madame de Pompadour</a> (1721–1764), the mistress of the new king <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV" title="Louis XV">Louis XV</a> (1710–1774). Because of this, the style was also known as 'Pompadour'. The name of the movement derives from the French 'rocaille', or pebble, and refers to stones and shells that decorate the interiors of caves, as similar shell forms became a common feature in Rococo design. It began as a design and <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a> style, and was characterized by elegant flowing shapes. Architecture followed and then painting and sculpture. The French painter with whom the term Rococo is most often associated is <a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Watteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Antoine Watteau">Jean-Antoine Watteau</a>, whose pastoral scenes, or <i>fêtes galantes</i>, dominate the early part of the 18th century.
</p><p>Although there are some important Bavarian churches in this style, such as the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage_Church_of_Wies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrimage Church of Wies">Wieskirche</a>, Rococo is most often associated with secular buildings, principally great palaces and salons where educated elites would meet to discuss literary and philosophical ideas. In Paris, its popularity coincided with the emergence of the salon as a new type of social gathering, the venues for which were often decorated in the Rococo style. Among the most characteristically elegant and refined examples is the Salon Oval de la Princesse of the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise" title="Hôtel de Soubise">Hôtel de Soubise</a>, one of the most beautiful 18th century <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_particulier" title="Hôtel particulier">mansions</a> in Paris. The Rococo introduced dramatic changes to elite furniture, as it favoured smaller pieces with narrow, sinewy frames and more delicate, often asymmetrical decoration, often including elements of <a href="/wiki/Chinoiserie" title="Chinoiserie">chinoiserie</a>. The taste for <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far Eastern</a> objects (mainly Chinese) lead to the use of Chinese painted and lacquered panels for furniture.
</p><p>The movement spread quickly throughout Europe and as far as <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turkey</a> and China thanks to ornament books featuring <a href="/wiki/Cartouche_(design)" title="Cartouche (design)">cartouches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">arabesques</a> and shell work, as well as designs for wall panels and fireplaces. The most popular were made by <a href="/wiki/Juste-Aur%C3%A8le_Meissonnier" title="Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier">Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier</a> (1695–1750), <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Fran%C3%A7ois_Blondel" title="Jacques-François Blondel">Jacques-François Blondel</a> (1705–1774), <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Edm%C3%A9_Babel" title="Pierre-Edmé Babel">Pierre-Edmé Babel</a> (1720–1775) and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Cuvilli%C3%A9s" title="François de Cuvilliés">François de Cuvilliés</a> (1695–1768).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201724Fortenberry2017256Hopkins201492,_95Bailey2012272,_288Graur1970194,_195_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201724Fortenberry2017256Hopkins201492,_95Bailey2012272,_288Graur1970194,_195-170">[170]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27Embarquement_pour_Cyth%C3%A8re,_by_Antoine_Watteau,_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Embarkation for Cythera; by Jean-Antoine Watteau; 1718; oil on canvas; 1.29 x 1.94 m; Schloss Charlottenburg[171]"><img alt="The Embarkation for Cythera; by Jean-Antoine Watteau; 1718; oil on canvas; 1.29 x 1.94 m; Schloss Charlottenburg[171]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/L%27Embarquement_pour_Cyth%C3%A8re%2C_by_Antoine_Watteau%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/150px-L%27Embarquement_pour_Cyth%C3%A8re%2C_by_Antoine_Watteau%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/L%27Embarquement_pour_Cyth%C3%A8re%2C_by_Antoine_Watteau%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/225px-L%27Embarquement_pour_Cyth%C3%A8re%2C_by_Antoine_Watteau%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/L%27Embarquement_pour_Cyth%C3%A8re%2C_by_Antoine_Watteau%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg/300px-L%27Embarquement_pour_Cyth%C3%A8re%2C_by_Antoine_Watteau%2C_from_C2RMF_retouched.jpg 2x" data-file-width="19842" data-file-height="13013" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Embarkation_for_Cythera" title="The Embarkation for Cythera">The Embarkation for Cythera</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Antoine_Watteau" class="mw-redirect" title="Jean-Antoine Watteau">Jean-Antoine Watteau</a>; 1718; oil on canvas; 1.29 x 1.94 m; Schloss Charlottenburg<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017265_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017265-171">[171]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zwinger, Dresden, Germany, by Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, 1719[172]"><img alt="Zwinger, Dresden, Germany, by Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann, 1719[172]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg/150px-Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg/225px-Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg/300px-Dresden-Zwinger-Wallpavillion-gp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6367" data-file-height="5154" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Zwinger_(Dresden)" title="Zwinger (Dresden)">Zwinger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a>, Germany, by <a href="/wiki/Matth%C3%A4us_Daniel_P%C3%B6ppelmann" title="Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann">Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann</a>, 1719<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Salon_ovale_de_la_princesse_in_the_H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise_(11).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the Hôtel de Soubise (Paris), 1737–1739, by Germain Boffrand, Charles-Joseph Natoire and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne[173]"><img alt="The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the Hôtel de Soubise (Paris), 1737–1739, by Germain Boffrand, Charles-Joseph Natoire and Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne[173]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Salon_ovale_de_la_princesse_in_the_H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise_%2811%29.jpg/112px-Salon_ovale_de_la_princesse_in_the_H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise_%2811%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Salon_ovale_de_la_princesse_in_the_H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise_%2811%29.jpg/168px-Salon_ovale_de_la_princesse_in_the_H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise_%2811%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Salon_ovale_de_la_princesse_in_the_H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise_%2811%29.jpg/224px-Salon_ovale_de_la_princesse_in_the_H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise_%2811%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2983" data-file-height="3996" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Salon Oval de la Princesse of the <a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_Soubise" title="Hôtel de Soubise">Hôtel de Soubise</a> (Paris), 1737–1739, by <a href="/wiki/Germain_Boffrand" title="Germain Boffrand">Germain Boffrand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles-Joseph_Natoire" title="Charles-Joseph Natoire">Charles-Joseph Natoire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lemoyne" title="Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne">Jean-Baptiste Lemoyne</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267-173">[173]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Joseph_de_Saint-Germain_-_Candelabrum_-_1946.81_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Candelabrum; by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain; c.1750; gilt bronze; overall: 72.4 x 49.3 x 39.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)"><img alt="Candelabrum; by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain; c.1750; gilt bronze; overall: 72.4 x 49.3 x 39.7 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Jean_Joseph_de_Saint-Germain_-_Candelabrum_-_1946.81_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-110px-Jean_Joseph_de_Saint-Germain_-_Candelabrum_-_1946.81_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Jean_Joseph_de_Saint-Germain_-_Candelabrum_-_1946.81_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-165px-Jean_Joseph_de_Saint-Germain_-_Candelabrum_-_1946.81_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Jean_Joseph_de_Saint-Germain_-_Candelabrum_-_1946.81_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Jean_Joseph_de_Saint-Germain_-_Candelabrum_-_1946.81_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3673" data-file-height="5000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Candelabrum; by Jean Joseph de Saint-Germain; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1750; gilt bronze; overall: 72.4 x 49.3 x 39.7 cm; <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, US)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fire_MET_DP104979.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fire; by Jean-Pierre Defrance; c.1750-1760; limestone; height: 223 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Fire; by Jean-Pierre Defrance; c.1750-1760; limestone; height: 223 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Fire_MET_DP104979.jpg/150px-Fire_MET_DP104979.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Fire_MET_DP104979.jpg/225px-Fire_MET_DP104979.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Fire_MET_DP104979.jpg/300px-Fire_MET_DP104979.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Fire</i>; by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pierre_Defrance&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Pierre Defrance (page does not exist)">Jean-Pierre Defrance</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1750-1760; limestone; height: 223 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wieskirche,_Gemeinde_Steingaden_Ortsteil_Wies.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Pilgrimage Church of Wies, Steingaden, Germany, by Dominikus and Johann Baptist Zimmermann, 1754[174]"><img alt="Pilgrimage Church of Wies, Steingaden, Germany, by Dominikus and Johann Baptist Zimmermann, 1754[174]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Wieskirche%2C_Gemeinde_Steingaden_Ortsteil_Wies.JPG/150px-Wieskirche%2C_Gemeinde_Steingaden_Ortsteil_Wies.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Wieskirche%2C_Gemeinde_Steingaden_Ortsteil_Wies.JPG/225px-Wieskirche%2C_Gemeinde_Steingaden_Ortsteil_Wies.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Wieskirche%2C_Gemeinde_Steingaden_Ortsteil_Wies.JPG/300px-Wieskirche%2C_Gemeinde_Steingaden_Ortsteil_Wies.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Wieskirche" title="Wieskirche">Pilgrimage Church of Wies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steingaden" title="Steingaden">Steingaden</a>, Germany, by <a href="/wiki/Dominikus_Zimmermann" title="Dominikus Zimmermann">Dominikus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Johann_Baptist_Zimmermann" title="Johann Baptist Zimmermann">Johann Baptist Zimmermann</a>, 1754<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014238_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014238-174">[174]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Side_table_(commode_en_console)_MET_DP105703.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Side table (commode en console); by Bernard II van Risamburgh; c.1755-1760; Japanese lacquer, gilt-bronze mounts and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Side table (commode en console); by Bernard II van Risamburgh; c.1755-1760; Japanese lacquer, gilt-bronze mounts and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Side_table_%28commode_en_console%29_MET_DP105703.jpg/150px-Side_table_%28commode_en_console%29_MET_DP105703.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Side_table_%28commode_en_console%29_MET_DP105703.jpg/225px-Side_table_%28commode_en_console%29_MET_DP105703.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Side_table_%28commode_en_console%29_MET_DP105703.jpg/300px-Side_table_%28commode_en_console%29_MET_DP105703.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3791" data-file-height="3792" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Side table (commode en console); by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_II_van_Risamburgh" title="Bernard II van Risamburgh">Bernard II van Risamburgh</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1755-1760; Japanese lacquer, gilt-bronze mounts and Sarrancolin marble top; height: 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Madame de Pompadour; by François Boucher; 1756; oil on canvas; 2.01 x 1.57 m; Alte Pinakothek (Munich, Germany)[173]"><img alt="Madame de Pompadour; by François Boucher; 1756; oil on canvas; 2.01 x 1.57 m; Alte Pinakothek (Munich, Germany)[173]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg/117px-Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg/175px-Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg/234px-Madame_de_Pompadour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3672" data-file-height="4707" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Madame_de_Pompadour" title="Madame de Pompadour">Madame de Pompadour</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Boucher" title="François Boucher">François Boucher</a>; 1756; oil on canvas; 2.01 x 1.57 m; <a href="/wiki/Alte_Pinakothek" title="Alte Pinakothek">Alte Pinakothek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267_173-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267-173">[173]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coffeepot_MET_DP103144_(cropped),.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coffeepot; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Coffeepot; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Coffeepot_MET_DP103144_%28cropped%29%2C.jpg/111px-Coffeepot_MET_DP103144_%28cropped%29%2C.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Coffeepot_MET_DP103144_%28cropped%29%2C.jpg/167px-Coffeepot_MET_DP103144_%28cropped%29%2C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Coffeepot_MET_DP103144_%28cropped%29%2C.jpg/223px-Coffeepot_MET_DP103144_%28cropped%29%2C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2470" data-file-height="3325" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Coffeepot; 1757; silver; height: 29.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%A8vres_Porcelain_Manufactory_-_Covered_Tureen_(Terrine_du_roi)_-_1949.15_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Covered tureen (terrine du roi); by the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres 1756; soft-paste porcelain with enamel and gilt decoration; overall: 24.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art"><img alt="Covered tureen (terrine du roi); by the Manufacture nationale de Sèvres 1756; soft-paste porcelain with enamel and gilt decoration; overall: 24.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/S%C3%A8vres_Porcelain_Manufactory_-_Covered_Tureen_%28Terrine_du_roi%29_-_1949.15_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-150px-S%C3%A8vres_Porcelain_Manufactory_-_Covered_Tureen_%28Terrine_du_roi%29_-_1949.15_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/S%C3%A8vres_Porcelain_Manufactory_-_Covered_Tureen_%28Terrine_du_roi%29_-_1949.15_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-225px-S%C3%A8vres_Porcelain_Manufactory_-_Covered_Tureen_%28Terrine_du_roi%29_-_1949.15_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/S%C3%A8vres_Porcelain_Manufactory_-_Covered_Tureen_%28Terrine_du_roi%29_-_1949.15_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-300px-S%C3%A8vres_Porcelain_Manufactory_-_Covered_Tureen_%28Terrine_du_roi%29_-_1949.15_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4556" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Covered tureen (terrine du roi); by the <a href="/wiki/Manufacture_nationale_de_S%C3%A8vres" title="Manufacture nationale de Sèvres">Manufacture nationale de Sèvres</a> 1756; soft-paste porcelain with enamel and gilt decoration; overall: 24.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fragonard_-_swing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Swing; by Jean-Honoré Fragonard; 1767; oil on canvas; 81 x 64 cm; Wallace Collection (London)[173]"><img alt="The Swing; by Jean-Honoré Fragonard; 1767; oil on canvas; 81 x 64 cm; Wallace Collection (London)[173]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fragonard_-_swing.jpg/117px-Fragonard_-_swing.jpg" decoding="async" width="117" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fragonard_-_swing.jpg/176px-Fragonard_-_swing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fragonard_-_swing.jpg/235px-Fragonard_-_swing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1276" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Swing_(Fragonard)" title="The Swing (Fragonard)">The Swing</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Honor%C3%A9_Fragonard" title="Jean-Honoré Fragonard">Jean-Honoré Fragonard</a>; 1767; oil on canvas; 81 x 64 cm; <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Collection" title="Wallace Collection">Wallace Collection</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267_173-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267-173">[173]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Louise_Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e-Lebrun_-_Marie-Antoinette_dit_%C2%AB_%C3%A0_la_Rose_%C2%BB_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marie-Antoinette with the Rose; by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun; 1783; oil on canvas; 130 x 87 cm; Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France)"><img alt="Marie-Antoinette with the Rose; by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun; 1783; oil on canvas; 130 x 87 cm; Palace of Versailles (Versailles, France)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Louise_Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e-Lebrun_-_Marie-Antoinette_dit_%C2%AB_%C3%A0_la_Rose_%C2%BB_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/123px-Louise_Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e-Lebrun_-_Marie-Antoinette_dit_%C2%AB_%C3%A0_la_Rose_%C2%BB_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="123" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Louise_Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e-Lebrun_-_Marie-Antoinette_dit_%C2%AB_%C3%A0_la_Rose_%C2%BB_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/185px-Louise_Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e-Lebrun_-_Marie-Antoinette_dit_%C2%AB_%C3%A0_la_Rose_%C2%BB_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Louise_Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e-Lebrun_-_Marie-Antoinette_dit_%C2%AB_%C3%A0_la_Rose_%C2%BB_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/247px-Louise_Elisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e-Lebrun_-_Marie-Antoinette_dit_%C2%AB_%C3%A0_la_Rose_%C2%BB_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3894" data-file-height="4728" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Marie-Antoinette with the Rose</i>; by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun" title="Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun">Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun</a>; 1783; oil on canvas; 130 x 87 cm; <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Palace of Versailles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Versailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles">Versailles</a>, France)</div>
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</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section's source code: Neoclassicism"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacques-Louis_David,_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Jacques-Louis_David%2C_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg/220px-Jacques-Louis_David%2C_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Jacques-Louis_David%2C_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg/330px-Jacques-Louis_David%2C_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Jacques-Louis_David%2C_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg/440px-Jacques-Louis_David%2C_Le_Serment_des_Horaces.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2332" data-file-height="1797" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_the_Horatii" title="Oath of the Horatii">Oath of the Horatii</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David" title="Jacques-Louis David">Jacques-Louis David</a>, 1784, oil on canvas, <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017276_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017276-175">[175]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Inspired by the excavations of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Roman</a> cities of <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> from 1748, a renewed interest in the arts of antiquity occurred. Neoclassicism dominates Western art from the mid to late 18th century until the 1830s. Embracing order and restraint, it developed in reaction to the perceived frivolity, <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a> and decadence of Rococo and exemplifying the rational thinking of the '<a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>' (aka the 'Age of Reason'). Initially, the movement was developed not by artists, but by Enlightenment philosophers. They requested replacing Rococo with a style of rational art, moral and dedicated to the soul.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></sup> This fitted well with a perception of Classical art as the embodiment of realism, restraint and order. Inspired by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman art</a>, the classical history paintings of the French artist <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin" title="Nicolas Poussin">Nicolas Poussin</a> (1594–1665) and the ideas of the German writer <a href="/wiki/Anton_Raphael_Mengs" title="Anton Raphael Mengs">Anton Raphael Mengs</a> (1728–1779) and the German archaeologist and art historian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Joachim_Winckelmann" title="Johann Joachim Winckelmann">Johann Joachim Winckelmann</a> (1717–1768), Neoclassicism began in Rome, but soon spread throughout Europe. Rome had become the main focus of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Tour" title="Grand Tour">Grand Tour</a> by the mid-18th century, and aristocratic travellers went there in search of Classical visions to recreate on their country estates, thus spreading the style across Europe, particularly in England and France. The tour was also an opportunity for collecting Classical antiquities. Neoclassical paintings tended to be populated with figures posed like Classical statues or reliefs, set in a locations filled with archaeological details. The style favoured Greek art over Roman, considering it purer and more authentically classical in its aesthetic goal.
</p><p>In 1789, France was on the brink of <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">its first revolution</a> and Neoclassicism sought to express their patriotic feelings. Politics and art were closely entwined during this period. They believed that art should be serious, and valued drawings above painting; smooth contours and paint with no discernible brushstrokes were the ultimate aim. Both painting and sculpture exerted calmness and restraint and focused on heroic themes, expressing such noble notions as self-sacrifice and nationalism.
</p><p>This movement paved the way for <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>, that appeared when the idealism of the revolution faded away and after the Napoleonic period came to an end in the early 19th century. Neoclassicism should not be seen as the opposite of Romanticism, however, but in some ways an early manifestation of it.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201725Fortenberry2017273_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201725Fortenberry2017273-177">[177]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2012407_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2012407-178">[178]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Giovanni_Paolo_Panini_-_Fantasy_View_with_the_Pantheon_and_other_Monuments_of_Ancient_Rome_-_61.62_-_Museum_of_Fine_Arts.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome, by Giovanni Paolo Panini, 1737, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, US"><img alt="Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome, by Giovanni Paolo Panini, 1737, oil on canvas, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, US" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Giovanni_Paolo_Panini_-_Fantasy_View_with_the_Pantheon_and_other_Monuments_of_Ancient_Rome_-_61.62_-_Museum_of_Fine_Arts.jpg/150px-Giovanni_Paolo_Panini_-_Fantasy_View_with_the_Pantheon_and_other_Monuments_of_Ancient_Rome_-_61.62_-_Museum_of_Fine_Arts.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Giovanni_Paolo_Panini_-_Fantasy_View_with_the_Pantheon_and_other_Monuments_of_Ancient_Rome_-_61.62_-_Museum_of_Fine_Arts.jpg/225px-Giovanni_Paolo_Panini_-_Fantasy_View_with_the_Pantheon_and_other_Monuments_of_Ancient_Rome_-_61.62_-_Museum_of_Fine_Arts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Giovanni_Paolo_Panini_-_Fantasy_View_with_the_Pantheon_and_other_Monuments_of_Ancient_Rome_-_61.62_-_Museum_of_Fine_Arts.jpg/300px-Giovanni_Paolo_Panini_-_Fantasy_View_with_the_Pantheon_and_other_Monuments_of_Ancient_Rome_-_61.62_-_Museum_of_Fine_Arts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2282" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Paolo_Panini" title="Giovanni Paolo Panini">Giovanni Paolo Panini</a>, 1737, oil on canvas, <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Houston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Houston">Museum of Fine Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a>, US</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._(Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.)_MET_DP827987.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . ., by Giovanni Battista Piranesi, c.1750, etching, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City"><img alt="The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . ., by Giovanni Battista Piranesi, c.1750, etching, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._%28Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.%29_MET_DP827987.jpg/150px-The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._%28Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.%29_MET_DP827987.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._%28Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.%29_MET_DP827987.jpg/225px-The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._%28Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.%29_MET_DP827987.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._%28Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.%29_MET_DP827987.jpg/300px-The_ancient_Capitol_ascended_by_approximately_one_hundred_steps_._._._%28Campidoglio_antico_a_cui_si_ascendeva_per_circa_cento_gradini_._._.%29_MET_DP827987.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3683" data-file-height="2756" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps . . .</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Piranesi" title="Giovanni Battista Piranesi">Giovanni Battista Piranesi</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1750, etching, <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, New York City</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_(Paris)_(51346237676).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hôtel de la Marine, Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761–1770[179]"><img alt="Hôtel de la Marine, Paris, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1761–1770[179]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/L%27H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_%28Paris%29_%2851346237676%29.jpg/150px-L%27H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_%28Paris%29_%2851346237676%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/L%27H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_%28Paris%29_%2851346237676%29.jpg/225px-L%27H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_%28Paris%29_%2851346237676%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/L%27H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_%28Paris%29_%2851346237676%29.jpg/300px-L%27H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine_%28Paris%29_%2851346237676%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7389" data-file-height="4156" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_de_la_Marine" title="Hôtel de la Marine">Hôtel de la Marine</a>, Paris, by <a href="/wiki/Ange-Jacques_Gabriel" title="Ange-Jacques Gabriel">Ange-Jacques Gabriel</a>, 1761–1770<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[180]"><img alt="Petit Trianon, Versailles, France, by Ange-Jacques Gabriel, 1764[180]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG/150px-West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG/225px-West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG/300px-West_facade_of_Petit_Trianon_002.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2946" data-file-height="2102" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Petit_Trianon" title="Petit Trianon">Petit Trianon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Versailles" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles">Versailles</a>, France, by <a href="/wiki/Ange-Jacques_Gabriel" title="Ange-Jacques Gabriel">Ange-Jacques Gabriel</a>, 1764<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014272_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014272-180">[180]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wright_of_Derby,_The_Orrery.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery, by Joseph Wright of Derby, c.1766, oil on canvas, Derby Museum and Art Gallery, Derby, England[181]"><img alt="A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery, by Joseph Wright of Derby, c.1766, oil on canvas, Derby Museum and Art Gallery, Derby, England[181]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg/150px-Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg/225px-Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg/300px-Wright_of_Derby%2C_The_Orrery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6527" data-file-height="4581" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/A_Philosopher_Lecturing_on_the_Orrery" title="A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery">A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wright_of_Derby" title="Joseph Wright of Derby">Joseph Wright of Derby</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1766, oil on canvas, <a href="/wiki/Derby_Museum_and_Art_Gallery" title="Derby Museum and Art Gallery">Derby Museum and Art Gallery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derby" title="Derby">Derby</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017275_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017275-181">[181]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Osterley_House,_entrance_hall.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Hall, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1767[182]"><img alt="The Hall, Osterley Park, London, by Robert Adam, 1767[182]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Osterley_House%2C_entrance_hall.jpg/150px-Osterley_House%2C_entrance_hall.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Osterley_House%2C_entrance_hall.jpg/225px-Osterley_House%2C_entrance_hall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Osterley_House%2C_entrance_hall.jpg/300px-Osterley_House%2C_entrance_hall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The Hall, <a href="/wiki/Osterley_Park" title="Osterley Park">Osterley Park</a>, London, by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Adam" title="Robert Adam">Robert Adam</a>, 1767<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017274_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017274-182">[182]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Self-portrait_with_Her_Daughter_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Artist and her Daughter, by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, c.1785, oil on canvas, Louvre[183]"><img alt="The Artist and her Daughter, by Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, c.1785, oil on canvas, Louvre[183]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Self-portrait_with_Her_Daughter_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun.jpg/111px-Self-portrait_with_Her_Daughter_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Self-portrait_with_Her_Daughter_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun.jpg/166px-Self-portrait_with_Her_Daughter_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Self-portrait_with_Her_Daughter_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun.jpg/222px-Self-portrait_with_Her_Daughter_by_Elisabeth-Louise_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2565" data-file-height="3466" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>The Artist and her Daughter</i>, by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lisabeth_Vig%C3%A9e_Le_Brun" title="Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun">Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1785, oil on canvas, <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Washstand_(ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo)_MET_DP106594.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Washstand_%28ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo%29_MET_DP106594.jpg/133px-Washstand_%28ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo%29_MET_DP106594.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Washstand_%28ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo%29_MET_DP106594.jpg/200px-Washstand_%28ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo%29_MET_DP106594.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Washstand_%28ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo%29_MET_DP106594.jpg/266px-Washstand_%28ath%C3%A9nienne_or_lavabo%29_MET_DP106594.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3368" data-file-height="3792" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">Washstand (athénienne or lavabo), 1800–1814, legs, base and shelf of yew wood, gilt-bronze mounts, iron plate beneath shelf, Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes, by Marie-Denise Villers, 1801, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art[184]"><img alt="Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes, by Marie-Denise Villers, 1801, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art[184]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg/120px-Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg/180px-Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg/241px-Villers_Young_Woman_Drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="5921" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_Charlotte_du_Val_d%27Ognes_(Marie-Denise_Villers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes (Marie-Denise Villers)">Portrait of Charlotte du Val d'Ognes</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Marie-Denise_Villers" title="Marie-Denise Villers">Marie-Denise Villers</a>, 1801, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Canova_-_The_Three_Graces,_between_1813_and_1816,_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Three Graces, by Antonio Canova, 1813–1816, marble, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia[185]"><img alt="The Three Graces, by Antonio Canova, 1813–1816, marble, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia[185]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Canova_-_The_Three_Graces%2C_between_1813_and_1816%2C_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg/101px-Canova_-_The_Three_Graces%2C_between_1813_and_1816%2C_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg" decoding="async" width="101" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Canova_-_The_Three_Graces%2C_between_1813_and_1816%2C_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg/152px-Canova_-_The_Three_Graces%2C_between_1813_and_1816%2C_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Canova_-_The_Three_Graces%2C_between_1813_and_1816%2C_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg/202px-Canova_-_The_Three_Graces%2C_between_1813_and_1816%2C_%D0%9D.%D1%81%D0%BA-506.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Three_Graces_(Canova)" title="The Three Graces (Canova)">The Three Graces</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Canova" title="Antonio Canova">Antonio Canova</a>, 1813–1816, marble, <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_Museum" title="Hermitage Museum">Hermitage Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, Russia<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017278_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017278-185">[185]</a></sup></div>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Western_art_after_1770">Western art after 1770</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section's source code: Western art after 1770"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Blake_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/William_Blake_002.jpg/220px-William_Blake_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/William_Blake_002.jpg/330px-William_Blake_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/William_Blake_002.jpg/440px-William_Blake_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1162" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Ghost_of_a_Flea" title="The Ghost of a Flea">The Ghost of a Flea</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>; 1819; tempera with gold on panel (21.4 × 16.2 cm); Tate Britain, London</figcaption></figure>
<p>Many art historians place the origins of modern art in the late 18th century, others in the mid 19th century. Art historian <a href="/wiki/H._Harvard_Arnason" title="H. Harvard Arnason">H. Harvard Arnason</a> stated "a gradual metamorphosis took place in the course of a hundred years."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977740_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977740-186">[186]</a></sup> Events such as the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, revolutions and democracies in <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">America</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">France</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> had far reaching affects in western culture. People, commodities, ideas, and information could travel between countries and continents with unprecedented speed and these changes were reflected in the arts. The invention of photography in the 1830s further altered certain aspects of art, particularly painting. By the dawn of the 19th century, a long and gradual paradigm shift was complete, from the Gothic when artists were viewed as craftsmen in the service of the church and monarchies, to the idea of art for art's sake, where the ideas and visions of the individual artist were held in the high regard, with patronage from an increasingly literate, affluent, and urban middle and upper class population that had been emerging for 200 years (particularly in Paris and London). A dichotomy began in the late 18th century between neoclassicism and romanticism that subdivided and continued to run through virtually every new movement in modern art: "Spreading like waves, these "isms" defy national, ethnic, and chronological boundaries; never dominant anywhere for long, they compete or merge with each other in endlessly shifting patterns."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977767_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson1977767-187">[187]</a></sup>
</p><p>Modern art has consistently moved toward international influences and exchanges, from the exotic curiosity of <a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a>, the deeper influence of <a href="/wiki/Japonisme" title="Japonisme">Japonisme</a>, to the arts of Oceania, Africa, and the Americas. Conversely modern art has increasingly extended beyond western Europe. In Russia and the US the arts were developing to a degree that rivaled the leading European countries by the end of the 19th century. Many of the major movements appeared in Latin America, Australia, and Asia too and geography and nationality became increasingly insignificant with each passing decade. By the 20th century important and influential artists were emerging around the world: e.g. <a href="/wiki/Foujita" class="mw-redirect" title="Foujita">Foujita</a> (Japan), <a href="/wiki/Arshile_Gorky" title="Arshile Gorky">Arshile Gorky</a> (Armenia), <a href="/wiki/Diego_Rivera" title="Diego Rivera">Diego Rivera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frida_Kahlo" title="Frida Kahlo">Frida Kahlo</a> (Mexico), <a href="/wiki/Wifredo_Lam" title="Wifredo Lam">Wifredo Lam</a> (Cuba), <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Edvard Munch</a> (Norwegian), <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Matta" title="Roberto Matta">Roberto Matta</a> (Chilean), <a href="/wiki/Mark_Rothko" title="Mark Rothko">Mark Rothko</a> (Lithuanian-American), <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Botero_Angulo" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Botero Angulo">Fernando Botero Angulo</a> (Colombia), <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Br%C3%A2ncu%C8%99i" title="Constantin Brâncuși">Constantin Brâncuși</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Brauner" title="Victor Brauner">Victor Brauner</a> (Romania).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarobinski1964_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarobinski1964-188">[188]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeyser1965?_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeyser1965?-189">[189]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?-190">[190]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToman2000?_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToman2000?-191">[191]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979221_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979221-192">[192]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e_Memorial_Newton_Night.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Newton's Cenotaph, exterior by night; by Étienne-Louis Boullée; 1784; ink and wash, 40.2 × 63.3 cm.; Bibliothèque Nationale"><img alt="Newton's Cenotaph, exterior by night; by Étienne-Louis Boullée; 1784; ink and wash, 40.2 × 63.3 cm.; Bibliothèque Nationale" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e_Memorial_Newton_Night.jpg/150px-%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e_Memorial_Newton_Night.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e_Memorial_Newton_Night.jpg/225px-%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e_Memorial_Newton_Night.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e_Memorial_Newton_Night.jpg/300px-%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e_Memorial_Newton_Night.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="616" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Newton's Cenotaph, exterior by night</i>; by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Louis_Boull%C3%A9e" title="Étienne-Louis Boullée">Étienne-Louis Boullée</a>; 1784; ink and wash, 40.2 × 63.3 cm.; <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_Nationale" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibliothèque Nationale">Bibliothèque Nationale</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Goya_Dog.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Dog; Francisco de Goya; ca. 1819–1823; mural transferred to canvas, 131.5 × 79.3 cm.; Museo del Prado"><img alt="The Dog; Francisco de Goya; ca. 1819–1823; mural transferred to canvas, 131.5 × 79.3 cm.; Museo del Prado" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Goya_Dog.jpg/88px-Goya_Dog.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Goya_Dog.jpg/132px-Goya_Dog.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Goya_Dog.jpg/177px-Goya_Dog.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1739" data-file-height="2952" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dog_(Goya)" title="The Dog (Goya)">The Dog</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Goya" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco de Goya">Francisco de Goya</a>; ca. 1819–1823; mural transferred to canvas, 131.5 × 79.3 cm.; <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">Museo del Prado</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Death_on_a_pale_horse_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Death on a Pale Horse; J. M. W. Turner; c. 1830; oil on canvas, 60 × 76 cm.; Tate Britain"><img alt="Death on a Pale Horse; J. M. W. Turner; c. 1830; oil on canvas, 60 × 76 cm.; Tate Britain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Death_on_a_pale_horse_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Death_on_a_pale_horse_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Death_on_a_pale_horse_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Death_on_a_pale_horse_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Death_on_a_pale_horse_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Joseph_Mallord_William_Turner_-_Death_on_a_pale_horse_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2152" data-file-height="1696" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Death on a Pale Horse</i>; <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">J. M. W. Turner</a>; c. 1830; oil on canvas, 60 × 76 cm.; <a href="/wiki/Tate_Britain" title="Tate Britain">Tate Britain</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Honor%C3%A9_daumier,_le_celebrit%C3%A0_dell%27Aurea_mediocritas,_terracotta,_1832-35,_charles_philipon.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Toothless Man Laughing, Charles Philipon form Célébrités du Juste milieu; Honoré Daumier; 1832–33; painted clay, 6.12 high; Musée d'Orsay"><img alt="Toothless Man Laughing, Charles Philipon form Célébrités du Juste milieu; Honoré Daumier; 1832–33; painted clay, 6.12 high; Musée d'Orsay" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Honor%C3%A9_daumier%2C_le_celebrit%C3%A0_dell%27Aurea_mediocritas%2C_terracotta%2C_1832-35%2C_charles_philipon.JPG/116px-Honor%C3%A9_daumier%2C_le_celebrit%C3%A0_dell%27Aurea_mediocritas%2C_terracotta%2C_1832-35%2C_charles_philipon.JPG" decoding="async" width="116" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Honor%C3%A9_daumier%2C_le_celebrit%C3%A0_dell%27Aurea_mediocritas%2C_terracotta%2C_1832-35%2C_charles_philipon.JPG/174px-Honor%C3%A9_daumier%2C_le_celebrit%C3%A0_dell%27Aurea_mediocritas%2C_terracotta%2C_1832-35%2C_charles_philipon.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Honor%C3%A9_daumier%2C_le_celebrit%C3%A0_dell%27Aurea_mediocritas%2C_terracotta%2C_1832-35%2C_charles_philipon.JPG/231px-Honor%C3%A9_daumier%2C_le_celebrit%C3%A0_dell%27Aurea_mediocritas%2C_terracotta%2C_1832-35%2C_charles_philipon.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Toothless Man Laughing, Charles Philipon form Célébrités du Juste milieu</i>; <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a>; 1832–33; painted clay, 6.12 high; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay" title="Musée d'Orsay">Musée d'Orsay</a></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Daguerre_kynzvart.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Still life with statue of Jupiter Tonans; by Louis Jacques Daguerre; c. 1839; daguerreotype"><img alt="Still life with statue of Jupiter Tonans; by Louis Jacques Daguerre; c. 1839; daguerreotype" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Daguerre_kynzvart.jpg/150px-Daguerre_kynzvart.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Daguerre_kynzvart.jpg/225px-Daguerre_kynzvart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Daguerre_kynzvart.jpg/300px-Daguerre_kynzvart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="575" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Kyn%C5%BEvart_Daguerreotype" title="Kynžvart Daguerreotype">Still life with statue of Jupiter Tonans</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Jacques_Daguerre" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Jacques Daguerre">Louis Jacques Daguerre</a>; c. 1839; daguerreotype</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="19th_century">19th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section's source code: 19th century"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<h4><span id="Romanticism_.28c._1790.E2.80.931880.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Romanticism_(c._1790–1880)">Romanticism (c. 1790–1880)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section's source code: Romanticism (c. 1790–1880)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Romanticism § Visual arts</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:English_landscape_garden_at_Stourhead,_England_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/English_landscape_garden_at_Stourhead%2C_England_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-English_landscape_garden_at_Stourhead%2C_England_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/English_landscape_garden_at_Stourhead%2C_England_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-English_landscape_garden_at_Stourhead%2C_England_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/English_landscape_garden_at_Stourhead%2C_England_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-English_landscape_garden_at_Stourhead%2C_England_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>English landscape garden at <a href="/wiki/Stourhead" title="Stourhead">Stourhead</a> (the UK), the 1740s, by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hoare" title="Henry Hoare">Henry Hoare</a><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caspar_David_Friedrich_Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Caspar_David_Friedrich_Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog.jpg/130px-Caspar_David_Friedrich_Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Caspar_David_Friedrich_Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog.jpg/195px-Caspar_David_Friedrich_Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Caspar_David_Friedrich_Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog.jpg/260px-Caspar_David_Friedrich_Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog.jpg 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="796" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wanderer_above_the_Sea_of_Fog" title="Wanderer above the Sea of Fog">Wanderer above the Sea of Fog</a> by <a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Caspar David Friedrich</a></figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> emerged in the late 18th century out of the German <i><a href="/wiki/Sturm_und_Drang" title="Sturm und Drang">Sturm und Drang</a></i> movement and flourished in the first half of the 19th century with significant and international manifestations in music, literature, and architecture, as well as the visual arts. It grew from a disillusionment with the rationalism of 18th century Enlightenment. Despite being often viewed as the opposite of Neoclassicism, there were some stylistic overlapping with both movements, and many Romantic artists were excited by classicism. The movement focused on intense emotions, imagination, and on the impressive power of nature, a bigger and more powerful force than the one of men, with its potential for disaster. "Neoclassicism is a new revival of classical antiquity... while Romanticism refers not to a specific style but to an attitude of mind that may reveal itself in any number of ways."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?-194">[194]</a></sup>
</p><p>One of the earliest expressions of romanticism was in the <a href="/wiki/English_landscape_garden" title="English landscape garden">English landscape garden</a>, carefully designed to appear natural and standing in dramatic contrast to the formal gardens of the time. The concept of the "natural" English garden was adopted throughout Europe and America in the following decades. In architecture, the romantics frequently turned to alternative sources other than the Greek and Roman examples admired by the neo-classicist. Romantic architecture often revived <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic</a> forms and other styles such as exotic eastern models. The <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a> (Houses of Parliament), London is an example of romantic architecture that is also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="Gothic Revival">Gothic Revival</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?-194">[194]</a></sup> In painting romanticism is exemplified by the paintings of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Francisco Goya</a> in Spain, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Théodore Géricault</a> in France, <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fuseli" title="Henry Fuseli">Henry Fuseli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Palmer" title="Samuel Palmer">Samuel Palmer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/J._M._W._Turner" title="J. M. W. Turner">William Turner</a> in England, <a href="/wiki/Caspar_David_Friedrich" title="Caspar David Friedrich">Caspar David Friedrich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Otto_Runge" title="Philipp Otto Runge">Philipp Otto Runge</a> in Germany, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Hayez" title="Francesco Hayez">Francesco Hayez</a> in Italy, <a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Claussen_Dahl" class="mw-redirect" title="Johan Christian Claussen Dahl">Johan Christian Claussen Dahl</a> in Norway, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cole" title="Thomas Cole">Thomas Cole</a> in America. Examples of sculptors of the romantic period include <a href="/wiki/Antoine-Louis_Barye" title="Antoine-Louis Barye">Antoine-Louis Barye</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Carpeaux" title="Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux">Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Pr%C3%A9ault" class="mw-redirect" title="Auguste Préault">Auguste Préault</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rude" title="François Rude">François Rude</a>. As romanticism ran its course, some aspects of the movement evolved into symbolism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201726_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201726-195">[195]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToman2000?_191-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToman2000?-191">[191]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBris1981?_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBris1981?-197">[197]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1981?_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1981?-198">[198]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Blake_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Elohim Creating Adam; by William Blake; 1795; color print finished in ink and watercolour on paper; 43.1 × 53.6 cm; Tate Britain (London)[199]"><img alt="Elohim Creating Adam; by William Blake; 1795; color print finished in ink and watercolour on paper; 43.1 × 53.6 cm; Tate Britain (London)[199]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/William_Blake_008.jpg/120px-William_Blake_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/William_Blake_008.jpg/180px-William_Blake_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/William_Blake_008.jpg/240px-William_Blake_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1641" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Elohim Creating Adam</i>; by <a href="/wiki/William_Blake" title="William Blake">William Blake</a>; 1795; color print finished in ink and watercolour on paper; 43.1 × 53.6 cm; <a href="/wiki/Tate_Britain" title="Tate Britain">Tate Britain</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2019286_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2019286-199">[199]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Tres_de_Mayo,_by_Francisco_de_Goya,_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Third of May 1808; by Francisco Goya; 1814; oil on canvas; 2.68 × 3.47 m; Museo del Prado (Madrid, Spain)[200]"><img alt="The Third of May 1808; by Francisco Goya; 1814; oil on canvas; 2.68 × 3.47 m; Museo del Prado (Madrid, Spain)[200]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/120px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/180px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg/240px-El_Tres_de_Mayo%2C_by_Francisco_de_Goya%2C_from_Prado_in_Google_Earth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="23131" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Third_of_May_1808" title="The Third of May 1808">The Third of May 1808</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Francisco Goya</a>; 1814; oil on canvas; 2.68 × 3.47 m; <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_Prado" title="Museo del Prado">Museo del Prado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, Spain)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017286_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017286-200">[200]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_(Museo_del_Louvre,_1818-19).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Raft of the Medusa; by Théodore Géricault; 1819; oil on canvas; 4.91 × 7.16 m; Louvre[201]"><img alt="The Raft of the Medusa; by Théodore Géricault; 1819; oil on canvas; 4.91 × 7.16 m; Louvre[201]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg/120px-JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg/180px-JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg/240px-JEAN_LOUIS_TH%C3%89ODORE_G%C3%89RICAULT_-_La_Balsa_de_la_Medusa_%28Museo_del_Louvre%2C_1818-19%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5872" data-file-height="4008" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Raft_of_the_Medusa" title="The Raft of the Medusa">The Raft of the Medusa</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9odore_G%C3%A9ricault" title="Théodore Géricault">Théodore Géricault</a>; 1819; oil on canvas; 4.91 × 7.16 m; <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017280_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017280-201">[201]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_(1827).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Death of Sardanapalus; by Eugène Delacroix; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.92 × 4.96 m; Louvre[202]"><img alt="The Death of Sardanapalus; by Eugène Delacroix; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.92 × 4.96 m; Louvre[202]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg/120px-Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg/180px-Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg/240px-Delacroix_-_La_Mort_de_Sardanapale_%281827%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3873" data-file-height="3045" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_Sardanapalus" title="The Death of Sardanapalus">The Death of Sardanapalus</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Eugène Delacroix</a>; 1827; oil on canvas; 3.92 × 4.96 m; Louvre<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017281_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017281-202">[202]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Parliament_at_Sunset.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Palace of Westminster (London), 1840–1870, by Sir Charles Barry and A. Welby Pugin[203]"><img alt="Palace of Westminster (London), 1840–1870, by Sir Charles Barry and A. Welby Pugin[203]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Parliament_at_Sunset.JPG/120px-Parliament_at_Sunset.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Parliament_at_Sunset.JPG/180px-Parliament_at_Sunset.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Parliament_at_Sunset.JPG/240px-Parliament_at_Sunset.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster" title="Palace of Westminster">Palace of Westminster</a> (London), 1840–1870, by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Charles_Barry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Charles Barry">Sir Charles Barry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pugin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pugin">A. Welby Pugin</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2019114_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2019114-203">[203]</a></sup></div>
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<h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Academism">Academism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section's source code: Academism"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Academic_art" title="Academic art">Academic art</a></div>
<p>Academism is the codification of art into rules that can be learned in art academies. It promotes the Classical ideals of beauty and artistic perfection. There was also a very strict hierarchy of subjects. At the top, there were paintings that depicted historic events, including the biblical and <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> ones, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">portrait</a> and by the <a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">landscape</a>. At the bottom of the hierarchy were <a href="/wiki/Still_life" title="Still life">still life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genre_painting" title="Genre painting">genre painting</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Poussin" title="Nicolas Poussin">Nicolas Poussin</a> was the artist whose works and theories played the most significant role in the development of academism. The vales of academism were situated in the centre of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> project of discovering the basic principles and ideals of art.
</p><p>During the 18th century, across all Europe, many academies were founded, that will later dominate the art of the 19th century. In order to study at an art academy, young artists had to take an admission exam, and after being admitted, they would study there for multiple years. Most of the 19th century French <a href="/wiki/Art_movement" title="Art movement">art movements</a> were exterior or even opposing the values of academism.
</p><p>Some of the most important artists of the French academy were <a href="/wiki/William_Bouguereau" class="mw-redirect" title="William Bouguereau">William Bouguereau</a> (1825–1905), <a href="/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me" title="Jean-Léon Gérôme">Jean-Léon Gérôme</a> (1824–1904), <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Cabanel" title="Alexandre Cabanel">Alexandre Cabanel</a> (1823–1889) and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Couture" title="Thomas Couture">Thomas Couture</a> (1815–1879). Academic art is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Beaux-Arts_architecture" title="Beaux-Arts architecture">Beaux-Arts architecture</a>, which developed in the same place and holds to a similar classicizing ideal. The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the <a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_des_Beaux-Arts" title="École des Beaux-Arts">École des Beaux-Arts</a> in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Palais Garnier (Paris), 1860–1875, by Charles Garnier[206]"><img alt="Palais Garnier (Paris), 1860–1875, by Charles Garnier[206]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg/120px-Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg/180px-Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg/240px-Paris_Palais_Garnier_2010-04-06_16.55.07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4085" data-file-height="2310" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Palais_Garnier" title="Palais Garnier">Palais Garnier</a> (Paris), 1860–1875, by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Garnier_(architect)" title="Charles Garnier (architect)">Charles Garnier</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014296_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014296-206">[206]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down); by Jean-Léon Gérôme; 1872; oil on canvas; height: 96.5 cm; Phoenix Art Museum (Phoenix, Arizona, US)"><img alt="Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down); by Jean-Léon Gérôme; 1872; oil on canvas; height: 96.5 cm; Phoenix Art Museum (Phoenix, Arizona, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg/120px-Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg/180px-Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg/240px-Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2425" data-file-height="1630" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Pollice Verso</i> (Thumbs Down); by <a href="/wiki/Jean-L%C3%A9on_G%C3%A9r%C3%B4me" title="Jean-Léon Gérôme">Jean-Léon Gérôme</a>; 1872; oil on canvas; height: 96.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Art_Museum" title="Phoenix Art Museum">Phoenix Art Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona" title="Phoenix, Arizona">Phoenix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, US)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_(1879).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Birth of Venus; by William-Adolphe Bouguereau; 1879; oil on canvas; 300 x 215 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[207]"><img alt="The Birth of Venus; by William-Adolphe Bouguereau; 1879; oil on canvas; 300 x 215 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[207]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_%281879%29.jpg/85px-The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_%281879%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_%281879%29.jpg/127px-The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_%281879%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_%281879%29.jpg/170px-The_Birth_of_Venus_by_William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_%281879%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1749" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_Venus_(Bouguereau)" title="The Birth of Venus (Bouguereau)">The Birth of Venus</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/William-Adolphe_Bouguereau" title="William-Adolphe Bouguereau">William-Adolphe Bouguereau</a>; 1879; oil on canvas; 300 x 215 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay" title="Musée d'Orsay">Musée d'Orsay</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Phaedra; by Alexandre Cabanel; 1880; oil on canvas; 194 x 286 cm; Musée Fabre (Montpellier, France)[208]"><img alt="Phaedra; by Alexandre Cabanel; 1880; oil on canvas; 194 x 286 cm; Musée Fabre (Montpellier, France)[208]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg/120px-Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg/180px-Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg/240px-Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2090" data-file-height="1430" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Phaedra</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Cabanel" title="Alexandre Cabanel">Alexandre Cabanel</a>; 1880; oil on canvas; 194 x 286 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Fabre" title="Musée Fabre">Musée Fabre</a> (<a href="/wiki/Montpellier" title="Montpellier">Montpellier</a>, France)<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Roses of Heliogabalus; by Lawrence Alma-Tadema; 1888; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 2.1 m; private collection of Juan Antonio Pérez Simón[209]"><img alt="The Roses of Heliogabalus; by Lawrence Alma-Tadema; 1888; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 2.1 m; private collection of Juan Antonio Pérez Simón[209]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus.jpg/120px-The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="74" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus.jpg/180px-The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus.jpg/240px-The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="3694" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Roses_of_Heliogabalus" title="The Roses of Heliogabalus">The Roses of Heliogabalus</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Alma-Tadema" title="Lawrence Alma-Tadema">Lawrence Alma-Tadema</a>; 1888; oil on canvas; 1.3 x 2.1 m; private collection of <a href="/wiki/Juan_Antonio_P%C3%A9rez_Sim%C3%B3n" title="Juan Antonio Pérez Simón">Juan Antonio Pérez Simón</a><sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a></sup></div>
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<h5><span class="mw-headline" id="Revivalism_and_Eclecticism">Revivalism and Eclecticism</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section's source code: Revivalism and Eclecticism"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h5>
<p>When it comes to architecture and applied arts, the 19th century is best known as the century of <a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">revivals</a>. One of the most well-known revivalist styles is the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival</a> or Neo-Gothic, which first appeared in the mid-18th century in a few houses in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, like the <a href="/wiki/Strawberry_Hill_House" title="Strawberry Hill House">Strawberry Hill House</a> in London. However, these houses were isolated cases, since the beginning of the 19th century was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a>. Later, between 1830 and 1840, a taste and nostalgia for the rediscovery of past styles, ranging from the Middle Ages to the 18th century, developed under the influence of romanticism. Approximatively until World War I, rehashes of the past dominated the world of architecture and applied arts. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Egyptian</a> for prisons, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic</a> for churches, or <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture" title="Renaissance Revival architecture">Renaissance Revival</a> for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaohs</a> with <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">eternity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> with <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, or the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Medici" title="House of Medici">Medici family</a> with the rise of banking and modern commerce. Sometimes, these styles were also seen in a nationalistic way, on the idea that architecture might represent the glory of a nation. Some of them were seen as 'national styles', like the Gothic Revival in the UK and the German states or the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Revival_architecture" title="Romanian Revival architecture">Romanian Revival</a> in Romania. <a href="/wiki/Augustus_Pugin" title="Augustus Pugin">Augustus Pugin</a> called the Gothic style the 'absolute duty'<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a></sup> of the English architect, despite the fact that the style is of French origin. This way, architecture and the applied arts were used to grant the aura of a highly idealized glorious past. Some architects and designers associated historic styles, especially the medieval ones, with an idealized fantasy organic life, which they put in comparison with the reality of their time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergdoll2000139,_141,_142_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergdoll2000139,_141,_142-211">[211]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite revivalism being so prevalent, this doesn't mean that there was no originality in these works. Architects, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89b%C3%A9niste" title="Ébéniste">ébénistes</a> and other craftsmen, especially during the second half of the 19th century, created mixes of styles, by extracting and interpreting elements specific to certain eras and areas. This practice is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclecticism</a></i>. This stylistic development occurred during a period when the competition of World's Fairs motivated many countries to invent new industrial methods of creation.
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_cabinet_MET_DP103176.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Egyptian Revival - Coin cabinet; 1809–1819; mahogany (probably Swietenia mahagoni), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Egyptian Revival - Coin cabinet; 1809–1819; mahogany (probably Swietenia mahagoni), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Coin_cabinet_MET_DP103176.jpg/120px-Coin_cabinet_MET_DP103176.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Coin_cabinet_MET_DP103176.jpg/180px-Coin_cabinet_MET_DP103176.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Coin_cabinet_MET_DP103176.jpg/240px-Coin_cabinet_MET_DP103176.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3802" data-file-height="3791" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revival_decorative_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revival decorative arts">Egyptian Revival</a> - Coin cabinet; 1809–1819; <a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a> (probably <a href="/wiki/Swietenia_mahagoni" title="Swietenia mahagoni">Swietenia mahagoni</a>), with applied and inlaid silver; 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vase_(vase_gothique_Fragonard)_(one_of_a_pair)_MET_DP169251.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gothic Revival - Pair of vases; manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844; hard-paste porcelain; 36.4 x 32.7 x 20 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Gothic Revival - Pair of vases; manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844; hard-paste porcelain; 36.4 x 32.7 x 20 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Vase_%28vase_gothique_Fragonard%29_%28one_of_a_pair%29_MET_DP169251.jpg/120px-Vase_%28vase_gothique_Fragonard%29_%28one_of_a_pair%29_MET_DP169251.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Vase_%28vase_gothique_Fragonard%29_%28one_of_a_pair%29_MET_DP169251.jpg/180px-Vase_%28vase_gothique_Fragonard%29_%28one_of_a_pair%29_MET_DP169251.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Vase_%28vase_gothique_Fragonard%29_%28one_of_a_pair%29_MET_DP169251.jpg/240px-Vase_%28vase_gothique_Fragonard%29_%28one_of_a_pair%29_MET_DP169251.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3027" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Revival_architecture" title="Gothic Revival architecture">Gothic Revival</a> - Pair of vases; manufactured in 1832, decorated in 1844; hard-paste porcelain; 36.4 x 32.7 x 20 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Augustin_Church_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Eclectic - Église Saint-Augustin de Paris, 1860–1868, by Victor Baltard"><img alt="Eclectic - Église Saint-Augustin de Paris, 1860–1868, by Victor Baltard" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Saint_Augustin_Church_Paris.jpg/120px-Saint_Augustin_Church_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Saint_Augustin_Church_Paris.jpg/180px-Saint_Augustin_Church_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Saint_Augustin_Church_Paris.jpg/240px-Saint_Augustin_Church_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2741" data-file-height="2741" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism_in_architecture" title="Eclecticism in architecture">Eclectic</a> - <a href="/wiki/Saint-Augustin,_Paris" title="Saint-Augustin, Paris">Église Saint-Augustin de Paris</a>, 1860–1868, by <a href="/wiki/Victor_Baltard" title="Victor Baltard">Victor Baltard</a></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs_Gr%C3%BCnderzeit-B%C3%BCffet_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Renaissance Revival - Buffet; by Henri-Auguste Fourdinois, Nivillier, Party, Hugues Protat, Primo and Maigret; 1867; walnut, jasper and lapis lazuli marquetry, and ivory and silver-inlayed interior; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris)"><img alt="Renaissance Revival - Buffet; by Henri-Auguste Fourdinois, Nivillier, Party, Hugues Protat, Primo and Maigret; 1867; walnut, jasper and lapis lazuli marquetry, and ivory and silver-inlayed interior; unknown dimensions; Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mus%C3%A9e_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs_Gr%C3%BCnderzeit-B%C3%BCffet_%281%29.jpg/67px-Mus%C3%A9e_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs_Gr%C3%BCnderzeit-B%C3%BCffet_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="67" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mus%C3%A9e_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs_Gr%C3%BCnderzeit-B%C3%BCffet_%281%29.jpg/101px-Mus%C3%A9e_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs_Gr%C3%BCnderzeit-B%C3%BCffet_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mus%C3%A9e_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs_Gr%C3%BCnderzeit-B%C3%BCffet_%281%29.jpg/135px-Mus%C3%A9e_des_arts_d%C3%A9coratifs_Gr%C3%BCnderzeit-B%C3%BCffet_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2268" data-file-height="4032" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Revival_architecture" title="Renaissance Revival architecture">Renaissance Revival</a> - Buffet; by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri-Auguste_Fourdinois&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri-Auguste Fourdinois (page does not exist)">Henri-Auguste Fourdinois</a>, Nivillier, Party, Hugues Protat, Primo and Maigret; 1867; walnut, <a href="/wiki/Jasper" title="Jasper">jasper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> marquetry, and ivory and silver-inlayed interior; unknown dimensions; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_des_Arts_d%C3%A9coratifs,_Paris" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris">Musée des Arts Décoratifs</a> (Paris)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Immeuble_rue_La_Bo%C3%A9tie,_rue_de_Miromesnil,_Paris_8e.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rococo Revival - Apartment building no. 8 on Rue de Miromesnil (Paris), 1900, by P. Lobrot"><img alt="Rococo Revival - Apartment building no. 8 on Rue de Miromesnil (Paris), 1900, by P. Lobrot" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Immeuble_rue_La_Bo%C3%A9tie%2C_rue_de_Miromesnil%2C_Paris_8e.jpg/97px-Immeuble_rue_La_Bo%C3%A9tie%2C_rue_de_Miromesnil%2C_Paris_8e.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Immeuble_rue_La_Bo%C3%A9tie%2C_rue_de_Miromesnil%2C_Paris_8e.jpg/146px-Immeuble_rue_La_Bo%C3%A9tie%2C_rue_de_Miromesnil%2C_Paris_8e.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Immeuble_rue_La_Bo%C3%A9tie%2C_rue_de_Miromesnil%2C_Paris_8e.jpg/194px-Immeuble_rue_La_Bo%C3%A9tie%2C_rue_de_Miromesnil%2C_Paris_8e.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3494" data-file-height="4310" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Rococo_Revival" title="Rococo Revival">Rococo Revival</a> - Apartment building no. 8 on <a href="/wiki/Rue_de_Miromesnil" title="Rue de Miromesnil">Rue de Miromesnil</a> (Paris), 1900, by P. Lobrot</div>
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</ul>
<h4><span id="Realism_.28c._1830.E2.80.931890.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Realism_(c._1830–1890)">Realism (c. 1830–1890)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section's source code: Realism (c. 1830–1890)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism (art movement)</a></div>
<p>Realism emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, c. 1840, and had counterparts in sculpture, literature, and drama, often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism</a> in literature. In nineteenth-century painting, the term Realism refers more to the subject matter depicted than to the style or technique. Realist paintings typically represent ordinary places and people engaged in everyday activities, as opposed to grand, idealized landscapes, mythological gods, biblical subjects, and historical figures and events that had often dominated painting in western culture. Courbet said "I cannot paint an angel because I have never seen one".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?-194">[194]</a></sup>
</p><p>Realism was also in part a reaction to the often dramatic, exotic, and emotionally charged work of romanticism. The term realism is applied relative to the idealized imagery of neo-classicism and the romanticized imagery of romanticism. Artists such as <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste-Camille_Corot" title="Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot">Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a> had loose associations with realism, as did members of the <a href="/wiki/Barbizon_School" title="Barbizon School">Barbizon School</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet" title="Jean-François Millet">Jean-François Millet</a>, but it was perhaps <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Courbet" title="Gustave Courbet">Gustave Courbet</a> who was the central figure in the movement, self identifying as a realist, advocating realism, and influencing younger artists such as <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a>. One significant aspect of realism was the practice of painting landscapes <a href="/wiki/En_plein_air" title="En plein air">en plein air</a> and its subsequent influence on <a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">impressionism</a>.
</p><p>Beyond France, realism is exemplified by artists such as <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Leibl" title="Wilhelm Leibl">Wilhelm Leibl</a> in Germany, <a href="/wiki/Ford_Madox_Brown" title="Ford Madox Brown">Ford Madox Brown</a> in England, and <a href="/wiki/Winslow_Homer" title="Winslow Homer">Winslow Homer</a> in the United States. Art historian <a href="/wiki/H._Harvard_Arnason" title="H. Harvard Arnason">H. H. Arnason</a> wrote, "The chronological sequence of neo-classicism, romanticism, and realism is, of course, only a convenient stratification of movements or tendencies so inextricably bound up with one another and with the preceding movements that it is impossible to tell where one ended and another began",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup> and this becomes even more pertinent and complex as one follows all of the movements and "isms" into the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1962?_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1962?-213">[213]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?-214">[214]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1973?_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1973?-215">[215]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1973?_215-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1973?-215">[215]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaunce1993?_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaunce1993?-216">[216]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Courbet_LAtelier_du_peintre.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Painter's Studio; by Gustave Courbet; 1854–1855; oil on canvas; 3.59 x 5.98 m; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[217]"><img alt="The Painter's Studio; by Gustave Courbet; 1854–1855; oil on canvas; 3.59 x 5.98 m; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[217]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Courbet_LAtelier_du_peintre.jpg/150px-Courbet_LAtelier_du_peintre.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Courbet_LAtelier_du_peintre.jpg/225px-Courbet_LAtelier_du_peintre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Courbet_LAtelier_du_peintre.jpg/300px-Courbet_LAtelier_du_peintre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="16951" data-file-height="9989" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Painter%27s_Studio" title="The Painter's Studio">The Painter's Studio</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Courbet" title="Gustave Courbet">Gustave Courbet</a>; 1854–1855; oil on canvas; 3.59 x 5.98 m; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay" title="Musée d'Orsay">Musée d'Orsay</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017289_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017289-217">[217]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Gleaners; by Jean-François Millet; 1857; oil on canvas; 0.84 x 1.12 m; Musée d'Orsay[217]"><img alt="The Gleaners; by Jean-François Millet; 1857; oil on canvas; 0.84 x 1.12 m; Musée d'Orsay[217]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/150px-Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/225px-Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg/300px-Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet_-_Gleaners_-_Google_Art_Project_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5354" data-file-height="4006" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Gleaners" title="The Gleaners">The Gleaners</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Millet" title="Jean-François Millet">Jean-François Millet</a>; 1857; oil on canvas; 0.84 x 1.12 m; Musée d'Orsay<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017289_217-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017289-217">[217]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Honor%C3%A9_Daumier,_The_Third-Class_Carriage_-_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Third-Class Carriage; by Honoré Daumier; c.1862–1864; oil on canvas; 65.4 x 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="The Third-Class Carriage; by Honoré Daumier; c.1862–1864; oil on canvas; 65.4 x 90.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier%2C_The_Third-Class_Carriage_-_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/150px-Honor%C3%A9_Daumier%2C_The_Third-Class_Carriage_-_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier%2C_The_Third-Class_Carriage_-_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/225px-Honor%C3%A9_Daumier%2C_The_Third-Class_Carriage_-_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier%2C_The_Third-Class_Carriage_-_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/300px-Honor%C3%A9_Daumier%2C_The_Third-Class_Carriage_-_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3811" data-file-height="2756" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Third-Class_Carriage" title="The Third-Class Carriage">The Third-Class Carriage</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier" title="Honoré Daumier">Honoré Daumier</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1862–1864; oil on canvas; 65.4 x 90.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Iron Rolling Mill; by Adolph von Menzel; 1875; oil on canvas; 153 x 253 cm; Alte Nationalgalerie (Berlin, Germany)[218]"><img alt="The Iron Rolling Mill; by Adolph von Menzel; 1875; oil on canvas; 153 x 253 cm; Alte Nationalgalerie (Berlin, Germany)[218]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Adolph_Menzel_-_Eisenwalzwerk_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3543" data-file-height="2199" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>The Iron Rolling Mill</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Adolph_von_Menzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Adolph von Menzel">Adolph von Menzel</a>; 1875; oil on canvas; 153 x 253 cm; <a href="/wiki/Alte_Nationalgalerie" title="Alte Nationalgalerie">Alte Nationalgalerie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Farthing302_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farthing302-218">[218]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Poor, Picking up Pieces of Coal; by Nikolay Kasatkin; 1894; oil on canvas; 80 x 107 cm; Russian Museum (Saint Petersburg, Russia)[218]"><img alt="The Poor, Picking up Pieces of Coal; by Nikolay Kasatkin; 1894; oil on canvas; 80 x 107 cm; Russian Museum (Saint Petersburg, Russia)[218]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/%D0%A1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/150px-%D0%A1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/%D0%A1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/225px-%D0%A1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/%D0%A1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg/300px-%D0%A1%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BB%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="755" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>The Poor, Picking up Pieces of Coal</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Kasatkin" title="Nikolay Kasatkin">Nikolay Kasatkin</a>; 1894; oil on canvas; 80 x 107 cm; <a href="/wiki/Russian_Museum" title="Russian Museum">Russian Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Farthing302_218-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farthing302-218">[218]</a></sup></div>
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<h4><span id="Impressionism_.28c._1865.E2.80.931885.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Impressionism_(c._1865–1885)">Impressionism (c. 1865–1885)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section's source code: Impressionism (c. 1865–1885)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Claude_Monet,_Impression,_soleil_levant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Claude_Monet%2C_Impression%2C_soleil_levant.jpg/220px-Claude_Monet%2C_Impression%2C_soleil_levant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Claude_Monet%2C_Impression%2C_soleil_levant.jpg/330px-Claude_Monet%2C_Impression%2C_soleil_levant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Claude_Monet%2C_Impression%2C_soleil_levant.jpg/440px-Claude_Monet%2C_Impression%2C_soleil_levant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1245" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Impression,_Sunrise" title="Impression, Sunrise">Impression, Sunrise</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Monet" title="Claude Monet">Claude Monet</a>; 1872; oil on canvas; 48.1 x 62.8 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Marmottan_Monet" title="Musée Marmottan Monet">Musée Marmottan Monet</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291-219">[219]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Impressionism emerged in France, under the influences of <a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Barbizon_School" title="Barbizon School">Barbizon School</a>, and <a href="/wiki/En_plein_air" title="En plein air">en plein air</a> painters like <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Boudin" title="Eugène Boudin">Eugène Boudin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camille_Corot" class="mw-redirect" title="Camille Corot">Camille Corot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Daubigny" title="Charles-François Daubigny">Charles- Francois Daubigny</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Johan_Barthold_Jongkind" class="mw-redirect" title="Johan Barthold Jongkind">Johan Barthold Jongkind</a>. Starting in the late 1850s, several of the impressionists had made acquaintances and friendships as students in Paris, notably at the free <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Suisse" title="Académie Suisse">Académie Suisse</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gleyre" title="Charles Gleyre">Charles Gleyre</a>'s studio. Their progressive work was frequently rejected by the conservative juries of the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Beaux-Arts" title="Académie des Beaux-Arts">Académie des Beaux Arts</a> salons, a forum where many artist turned to establish their reputations, and many of the young artist were included in a highly publicized, but much ridiculed <a href="/wiki/Salon_des_Refus%C3%A9s" title="Salon des Refusés">Salon des Refusés</a> in 1863. In 1874 they formed the Société Anonyme Coopérative des Artistes Peintres, Sculpteurs, Graveurs, independent of the academy, and mounted the first of several impressionist exhibitions in Paris, through to 1886 when their eighth and final exhibition was held. Important figures in the movement included <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bazille" title="Frédéric Bazille">Frédéric Bazille</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Caillebotte" title="Gustave Caillebotte">Gustave Caillebotte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Cassatt" title="Mary Cassatt">Mary Cassatt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Degas" title="Edgar Degas">Edgar Degas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armand_Guillaumin" title="Armand Guillaumin">Armand Guillaumin</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Monet" title="Claude Monet">Claude Monet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berthe_Morisot" title="Berthe Morisot">Berthe Morisot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camille_Pissarro" title="Camille Pissarro">Camille Pissarro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir" title="Pierre-Auguste Renoir">Pierre-Auguste Renoir</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sisley" title="Alfred Sisley">Alfred Sisley</a>. Although impressionism was primarily a movement of painters, Degas and Renoir also produced sculptures and others like <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin" title="Auguste Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medardo_Rosso" title="Medardo Rosso">Medardo Rosso</a> are sometimes linked to impressionism. By 1885 impressionism had achieved some prominence, and yet a younger generation were already pushing the limits beyond impressionism. Artist from <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Russian_impressionism" title="Museum of Russian impressionism">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_School" title="Heidelberg School">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Impressionism" title="American Impressionism">America</a> and Latin America soon adopted impressionist styles. A few of the original impressionist continued producing significant work into the 1910s and 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?_214-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?-214">[214]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourthion1979?_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECourthion1979?-220">[220]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1955?_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1955?-221">[221]</a></sup>
</p><p>Although not unprecedented, many of the techniques used were in contrast to traditional methods. Paintings were often completed in hours or days with wet paint applied to wet paint (opposed to wet on dry paint, completed in weeks and months). Rather than applying glazes and mixed colors, pure colors were often applied side by side, in thick, opaque, <a href="/wiki/Impasto" title="Impasto">impasto</a> strokes; blending in the eye of the viewer when observed from a distance. Black was used very sparingly, or not at all, and defining lines replaced with nuanced strokes of color forming the subjects, contours, and shapes. Art historian H. W. Janson said "instead of adding to the illusion of real space, it strengthens the unity of the actual painted surface."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?-194">[194]</a></sup> Impressionist paintings typically depict landscapes, portraits, still lifes, domestic scenes, daily leisure and nightlife, all treated in a realist manner. Compositions were often based on unusual perspectives, appearing spontaneous and candid. The paintings were usually void of didactic, symbolic, or metaphoric meanings, and rarely addressed the biblical, mythological, and historical subjects that were so highly regarded by the academies or the darker and psychological interest explored by the symbolist. The nuances of light, shadow, atmosphere, and reflections of colors from surfaces were examined, sometimes emphasizing changes of these elements in time. The painting itself was the subject of the painting. It was <a href="/wiki/Art_for_art%27s_sake" title="Art for art's sake">art for art's sake</a>, an idea that had been floating around for a few of decades but it perhaps reached a new high and consistency in impressionism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?-190">[190]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?_214-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?-214">[214]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourthion1979?_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECourthion1979?-220">[220]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1955?_221-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1955?-221">[221]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edgar_Degas_-_At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="At the Races in the Countryside; by Edgar Degas; 1869; oil on canvas; 36.5 x 56 cm; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)[219]"><img alt="At the Races in the Countryside; by Edgar Degas; 1869; oil on canvas; 36.5 x 56 cm; Museum of Fine Arts (Boston, US)[219]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Edgar_Degas_-_At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Edgar_Degas_-_At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Edgar_Degas_-_At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Edgar_Degas_-_At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Edgar_Degas_-_At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Edgar_Degas_-_At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6301" data-file-height="4012" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/At_the_Races_in_the_Countryside" title="At the Races in the Countryside">At the Races in the Countryside</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Degas" title="Edgar Degas">Edgar Degas</a>; 1869; oil on canvas; 36.5 x 56 cm; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Fine_Arts,_Boston" title="Museum of Fine Arts, Boston">Museum of Fine Arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291-219">[219]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Claude_Monet,_1873-74,_Boulevard_des_Capucines,_oil_on_canvas,_80.3_x_60.3_cm,_Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art,_Kansas_City.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Boulevard des Capucines; by Claude Monet; 1873; oil on canvas; 80.5 x 60.2 cm; Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art (Kansas City, Missouri, US)[219]"><img alt="Boulevard des Capucines; by Claude Monet; 1873; oil on canvas; 80.5 x 60.2 cm; Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art (Kansas City, Missouri, US)[219]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Claude_Monet%2C_1873-74%2C_Boulevard_des_Capucines%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.3_x_60.3_cm%2C_Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art%2C_Kansas_City.jpg/111px-Claude_Monet%2C_1873-74%2C_Boulevard_des_Capucines%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.3_x_60.3_cm%2C_Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art%2C_Kansas_City.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Claude_Monet%2C_1873-74%2C_Boulevard_des_Capucines%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.3_x_60.3_cm%2C_Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art%2C_Kansas_City.jpg/167px-Claude_Monet%2C_1873-74%2C_Boulevard_des_Capucines%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.3_x_60.3_cm%2C_Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art%2C_Kansas_City.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Claude_Monet%2C_1873-74%2C_Boulevard_des_Capucines%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.3_x_60.3_cm%2C_Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art%2C_Kansas_City.jpg/223px-Claude_Monet%2C_1873-74%2C_Boulevard_des_Capucines%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_80.3_x_60.3_cm%2C_Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art%2C_Kansas_City.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1336" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Boulevard_des_Capucines_(Monet)" title="Boulevard des Capucines (Monet)">Boulevard des Capucines</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Monet" title="Claude Monet">Claude Monet</a>; 1873; oil on canvas; 80.5 x 60.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Nelson-Atkins_Museum_of_Art" title="Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art">Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291-219">[219]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Camille_Pissarro_-_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche,_ancienne_route_d%C2%B4Ennery,_Pontoise_-_1873.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hoarfrost: Old Road to Ennery, Pontoise; by Camille Pissarro; 1873; oil on canvas; 64.7 x 92.6 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[219]"><img alt="Hoarfrost: Old Road to Ennery, Pontoise; by Camille Pissarro; 1873; oil on canvas; 64.7 x 92.6 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)[219]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Camille_Pissarro_-_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche%2C_ancienne_route_d%C2%B4Ennery%2C_Pontoise_-_1873.jpg/150px-Camille_Pissarro_-_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche%2C_ancienne_route_d%C2%B4Ennery%2C_Pontoise_-_1873.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Camille_Pissarro_-_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche%2C_ancienne_route_d%C2%B4Ennery%2C_Pontoise_-_1873.jpg/225px-Camille_Pissarro_-_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche%2C_ancienne_route_d%C2%B4Ennery%2C_Pontoise_-_1873.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Camille_Pissarro_-_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche%2C_ancienne_route_d%C2%B4Ennery%2C_Pontoise_-_1873.jpg/300px-Camille_Pissarro_-_Gel%C3%A9e_blanche%2C_ancienne_route_d%C2%B4Ennery%2C_Pontoise_-_1873.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4951" data-file-height="3504" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Hoarfrost: Old Road to Ennery, Pontoise</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Camille_Pissarro" title="Camille Pissarro">Camille Pissarro</a>; 1873; oil on canvas; 64.7 x 92.6 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay" title="Musée d'Orsay">Musée d'Orsay</a> (Paris)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291-219">[219]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfred_Sisley,_L%27automne_-_Bords_de_la_Seine_pres_Bougival_(Autumn_-_Banks_of_the_Seine_near_Bougival),_1873.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Banks of the Seine near Bougival; by Alfred Sisley; 1873; oil on canvas; 46.2 x 62.1 cm; Montreal Museum of Fine Arts (Montreal, Canada)[219]"><img alt="Banks of the Seine near Bougival; by Alfred Sisley; 1873; oil on canvas; 46.2 x 62.1 cm; Montreal Museum of Fine Arts (Montreal, Canada)[219]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Alfred_Sisley%2C_L%27automne_-_Bords_de_la_Seine_pres_Bougival_%28Autumn_-_Banks_of_the_Seine_near_Bougival%29%2C_1873.jpg/150px-Alfred_Sisley%2C_L%27automne_-_Bords_de_la_Seine_pres_Bougival_%28Autumn_-_Banks_of_the_Seine_near_Bougival%29%2C_1873.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Alfred_Sisley%2C_L%27automne_-_Bords_de_la_Seine_pres_Bougival_%28Autumn_-_Banks_of_the_Seine_near_Bougival%29%2C_1873.jpg/225px-Alfred_Sisley%2C_L%27automne_-_Bords_de_la_Seine_pres_Bougival_%28Autumn_-_Banks_of_the_Seine_near_Bougival%29%2C_1873.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Alfred_Sisley%2C_L%27automne_-_Bords_de_la_Seine_pres_Bougival_%28Autumn_-_Banks_of_the_Seine_near_Bougival%29%2C_1873.jpg/300px-Alfred_Sisley%2C_L%27automne_-_Bords_de_la_Seine_pres_Bougival_%28Autumn_-_Banks_of_the_Seine_near_Bougival%29%2C_1873.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3023" data-file-height="2265" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Banks of the Seine near Bougival</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sisley" title="Alfred Sisley">Alfred Sisley</a>; 1873; oil on canvas; 46.2 x 62.1 cm; <a href="/wiki/Montreal_Museum_of_Fine_Arts" title="Montreal Museum of Fine Arts">Montreal Museum of Fine Arts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291-219">[219]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_023.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="La Loge; Pierre-Auguste Renoir; 1874; oil on canvas; 80 x 63.4 cm; Courtauld Gallery (London)[219]"><img alt="La Loge; Pierre-Auguste Renoir; 1874; oil on canvas; 80 x 63.4 cm; Courtauld Gallery (London)[219]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_023.jpg/120px-Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_023.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_023.jpg/180px-Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_023.jpg/240px-Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2527" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/La_Loge" title="La Loge">La Loge</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir" title="Pierre-Auguste Renoir">Pierre-Auguste Renoir</a>; 1874; oil on canvas; 80 x 63.4 cm; <a href="/wiki/Courtauld_Gallery" title="Courtauld Gallery">Courtauld Gallery</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291-219">[219]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustave_Caillebotte_-_The_Floor_Planers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Floor Scrapers; by Gustave Caillebotte; 1875; oil on canvas; 1 x 1.54 m; Musée d'Orsay[222]"><img alt="The Floor Scrapers; by Gustave Caillebotte; 1875; oil on canvas; 1 x 1.54 m; Musée d'Orsay[222]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gustave_Caillebotte_-_The_Floor_Planers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Gustave_Caillebotte_-_The_Floor_Planers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gustave_Caillebotte_-_The_Floor_Planers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Gustave_Caillebotte_-_The_Floor_Planers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Gustave_Caillebotte_-_The_Floor_Planers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Gustave_Caillebotte_-_The_Floor_Planers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5224" data-file-height="3670" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Les_raboteurs_de_parquet" title="Les raboteurs de parquet">The Floor Scrapers</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Caillebotte" title="Gustave Caillebotte">Gustave Caillebotte</a>; 1875; oil on canvas; 1 x 1.54 m; Musée d'Orsay<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293-222">[222]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustave_Caillebotte_-_Paris_Street;_Rainy_Day_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Paris Street; Rainy Day; by Gustave Caillebotte; 1877; oil on canvas; 2.12 x 2.76 cm; Art Institute of Chicago[222]"><img alt="Paris Street; Rainy Day; by Gustave Caillebotte; 1877; oil on canvas; 2.12 x 2.76 cm; Art Institute of Chicago[222]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Gustave_Caillebotte_-_Paris_Street%3B_Rainy_Day_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Gustave_Caillebotte_-_Paris_Street%3B_Rainy_Day_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Gustave_Caillebotte_-_Paris_Street%3B_Rainy_Day_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Gustave_Caillebotte_-_Paris_Street%3B_Rainy_Day_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Gustave_Caillebotte_-_Paris_Street%3B_Rainy_Day_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Gustave_Caillebotte_-_Paris_Street%3B_Rainy_Day_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5982" data-file-height="4531" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Paris_Street;_Rainy_Day" title="Paris Street; Rainy Day">Paris Street; Rainy Day</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Caillebotte" title="Gustave Caillebotte">Gustave Caillebotte</a>; 1877; oil on canvas; 2.12 x 2.76 cm; <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293_222-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293-222">[222]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Berthe_Morisot_-_Sommertag_-_1879.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Summer's Day; by Berthe Morisot; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 cm × 75.2 cm; National Portrait Gallery (London)[222]"><img alt="Summer's Day; by Berthe Morisot; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 cm × 75.2 cm; National Portrait Gallery (London)[222]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Berthe_Morisot_-_Sommertag_-_1879.jpeg/150px-Berthe_Morisot_-_Sommertag_-_1879.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Berthe_Morisot_-_Sommertag_-_1879.jpeg/225px-Berthe_Morisot_-_Sommertag_-_1879.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Berthe_Morisot_-_Sommertag_-_1879.jpeg/300px-Berthe_Morisot_-_Sommertag_-_1879.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="6914" data-file-height="4226" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Summer%27s_Day" title="Summer's Day">Summer's Day</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Berthe_Morisot" title="Berthe Morisot">Berthe Morisot</a>; 1879; oil on canvas; 45.7 cm × 75.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293_222-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293-222">[222]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edouard_Manet,_A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Bar at the Folies-Bergère; by Édouard Manet; 1881–1882; oil on canvas; 0.96 × 1.30 cm.; Courtauld Institute of Art (London)[223]"><img alt="A Bar at the Folies-Bergère; by Édouard Manet; 1881–1882; oil on canvas; 0.96 × 1.30 cm.; Courtauld Institute of Art (London)[223]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Edouard_Manet%2C_A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re.jpg/150px-Edouard_Manet%2C_A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Edouard_Manet%2C_A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re.jpg/225px-Edouard_Manet%2C_A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Edouard_Manet%2C_A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re.jpg/300px-Edouard_Manet%2C_A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3419" data-file-height="2553" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Berg%C3%A8re" title="A Bar at the Folies-Bergère">A Bar at the Folies-Bergère</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet" title="Édouard Manet">Édouard Manet</a>; 1881–1882; oil on canvas; 0.96 × 1.30 cm.; <a href="/wiki/Courtauld_Institute_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtauld Institute of Art">Courtauld Institute of Art</a> (London)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017294_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017294-223">[223]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicolae_Grigorescu_-_Car_cu_boi_(8).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ox-Drawn Cart; by Nicolae Grigorescu; 1899; oil on canvas; 66 x 81 cm; National Museum of Art of Romania (Bucharest, Romania)"><img alt="Ox-Drawn Cart; by Nicolae Grigorescu; 1899; oil on canvas; 66 x 81 cm; National Museum of Art of Romania (Bucharest, Romania)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Nicolae_Grigorescu_-_Car_cu_boi_%288%29.jpg/150px-Nicolae_Grigorescu_-_Car_cu_boi_%288%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Nicolae_Grigorescu_-_Car_cu_boi_%288%29.jpg/225px-Nicolae_Grigorescu_-_Car_cu_boi_%288%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Nicolae_Grigorescu_-_Car_cu_boi_%288%29.jpg/300px-Nicolae_Grigorescu_-_Car_cu_boi_%288%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2232" data-file-height="1777" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Ox-Drawn Cart</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Nicolae_Grigorescu" title="Nicolae Grigorescu">Nicolae Grigorescu</a>; 1899; oil on canvas; 66 x 81 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Art_of_Romania" title="National Museum of Art of Romania">National Museum of Art of Romania</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>)</div>
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</ul>
<h4><span id="Symbolism_.28c._1860.E2.80.931915.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Symbolism_(c._1860–1915)">Symbolism (c. 1860–1915)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section's source code: Symbolism (c. 1860–1915)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbolism (art)">Symbolism (art)</a></div>
<p>Symbolism emerged in France and Belgium in the 3rd quarter of the nineteenth century and spread throughout Europe in the 1870s, and later to America to a lesser extent. It evolved from romanticism without a clear or defining demarcation point, although poetry, literature, and specifically the publication of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Charles Baudelaire</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Les_Fleurs_du_mal" title="Les Fleurs du mal">Les Fleurs du mal</a></i> (<i>The Flowers of Evil</i>) in 1857 were significant in the development of symbolism. It had international expression in poetry, literature, drama, and music. In architecture, the applied arts, and decorative arts symbolism closely paralleled and overlapped into <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a>. Symbolism is often inextricably linked to other contemporary art movements, surfacing and finding expression within other styles like <a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Les_Nabis" title="Les Nabis">Les Nabis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Decadent_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Decadent Movement">Decadent Movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fin_de_si%C3%A8cle" title="Fin de siècle">Fin-de Siecle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Munich_Secession" title="Munich Secession">Munich Secession</a>, The <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Secession" title="Vienna Secession">Vienna Secession</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a>, and even the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelites" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Raphaelites">Pre-Raphaelites</a>, which had formed before and influenced symbolism as well. Artist as diverse as <a href="/wiki/James_McNeill_Whistler" title="James McNeill Whistler">James McNeill Whistler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Carri%C3%A8re" title="Eugène Carrière">Eugène Carrière</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Hodler" title="Ferdinand Hodler">Ferdinand Hodler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Khnopff" title="Fernand Khnopff">Fernand Khnopff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Segantini" title="Giovanni Segantini">Giovanni Segantini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucien_L%C3%A9vy-Dhurmer" title="Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer">Lucien Lévy-Dhurmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Delville" title="Jean Delville">Jean Delville</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_Ensor" title="James Ensor">James Ensor</a> all had varying degrees of association with symbolism. Art historian Robert L. Delevoy wrote "Symbolism was less a school than the atmosphere of a period."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?-224">[224]</a></sup> It quickly began to fade with the onset of <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a> and had largely dissipated by the outbreak of the First World War, however it did find some sustained development and relevance in the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical art">metaphysical school</a>, which in turn had a profound influence on surrealism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?_224-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?-224">[224]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?-190">[190]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassou1979?_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECassou1979?-225">[225]</a></sup>
</p><p>The subjects, themes, and meanings of symbolist art are frequently veiled and obscure, but at its best still manage to resonate deeply on psychological or emotional levels. The subjects are often presented as <a href="/wiki/Metaphors" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphors">metaphors</a> or <a href="/wiki/Allegories" class="mw-redirect" title="Allegories">allegories</a>, aiming to evoke highly subjective, personal, introspective emotions and ideas in the viewer, without clearly defining or addressing the subject directly. The poet <a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9" title="Stéphane Mallarmé">Stéphane Mallarmé</a> wrote "depict not the thing but the effect it produces"<sup id="cite_ref-nyt-morris-2007_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-morris-2007-226">[226]</a></sup> and "To name an object is to suppress three quarters of the pleasure of the poem which is made to be understood little by little".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassou1979?_225-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECassou1979?-225">[225]</a></sup> The English painter <a href="/wiki/George_Frederic_Watts" title="George Frederic Watts">George Frederic Watts</a> stated "I paint ideas, not things."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?_224-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?-224">[224]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?-190">[190]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassou1979?_225-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECassou1979?-225">[225]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_of_Orpheus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thracian Girl with Head of Orpheus on his Lyre; by Gustave Moreau; 1865; oil; 154 × 99.5 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)"><img alt="Thracian Girl with Head of Orpheus on his Lyre; by Gustave Moreau; 1865; oil; 154 × 99.5 cm; Musée d'Orsay (Paris)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Head_of_Orpheus.jpg/95px-Head_of_Orpheus.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Head_of_Orpheus.jpg/143px-Head_of_Orpheus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Head_of_Orpheus.jpg/190px-Head_of_Orpheus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1313" data-file-height="2069" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Thracian Girl with Head of Orpheus on his Lyre</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Moreau" title="Gustave Moreau">Gustave Moreau</a>; 1865; oil; 154 × 99.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay" title="Musée d'Orsay">Musée d'Orsay</a> (Paris)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_vision_apr%C3%A8s_le_sermon_(Paul_Gauguin).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Vision After the Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel); 1888; oil on canvas; 73 x 92 cm; Scottish National Gallery (Edinburgh, Scotland)[227]"><img alt="Vision After the Sermon (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel); 1888; oil on canvas; 73 x 92 cm; Scottish National Gallery (Edinburgh, Scotland)[227]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/La_vision_apr%C3%A8s_le_sermon_%28Paul_Gauguin%29.jpg/150px-La_vision_apr%C3%A8s_le_sermon_%28Paul_Gauguin%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/La_vision_apr%C3%A8s_le_sermon_%28Paul_Gauguin%29.jpg/225px-La_vision_apr%C3%A8s_le_sermon_%28Paul_Gauguin%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/La_vision_apr%C3%A8s_le_sermon_%28Paul_Gauguin%29.jpg/300px-La_vision_apr%C3%A8s_le_sermon_%28Paul_Gauguin%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1958" data-file-height="1564" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Vision_After_the_Sermon" title="Vision After the Sermon">Vision After the Sermon</a></i> (Jacob Wrestling with the Angel); 1888; oil on canvas; 73 x 92 cm; <a href="/wiki/Scottish_National_Gallery" title="Scottish National Gallery">Scottish National Gallery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307-227">[227]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edvard_Munch,_1893,_The_Scream,_oil,_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard,_91_x_73_cm,_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Scream; by Edvard Munch; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; National Gallery (Oslo, Norway)[227]"><img alt="The Scream; by Edvard Munch; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; National Gallery (Oslo, Norway)[227]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/121px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/181px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/242px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3223" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scream" title="The Scream">The Scream</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Edvard Munch</a>; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_(Norway)" title="National Gallery (Norway)">National Gallery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307_227-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307-227">[227]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Redon_-_Green_Death_c._1905.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Green Death; by Odilon Redon; c.1905; oil on canvas; 54.9 x 46.3 cm; Museum of Modern Art[228]"><img alt="Green Death; by Odilon Redon; c.1905; oil on canvas; 54.9 x 46.3 cm; Museum of Modern Art[228]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Redon_-_Green_Death_c._1905.jpg/126px-Redon_-_Green_Death_c._1905.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Redon_-_Green_Death_c._1905.jpg/189px-Redon_-_Green_Death_c._1905.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Redon_-_Green_Death_c._1905.jpg/253px-Redon_-_Green_Death_c._1905.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1685" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Green Death</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Odilon_Redon" title="Odilon Redon">Odilon Redon</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1905; oil on canvas; 54.9 x 46.3 cm; Museum of Modern Art<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Odilon_Redon_-_The_Cyclops,_c._1914.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Cyclops; by Odilon Redon; c.1914; oil on cardboard on panel; 64 x 51 cm; Kröller-Müller Museum (Otterlo, the Netherlands)[227]"><img alt="The Cyclops; by Odilon Redon; c.1914; oil on cardboard on panel; 64 x 51 cm; Kröller-Müller Museum (Otterlo, the Netherlands)[227]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Odilon_Redon_-_The_Cyclops%2C_c._1914.jpg/119px-Odilon_Redon_-_The_Cyclops%2C_c._1914.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Odilon_Redon_-_The_Cyclops%2C_c._1914.jpg/179px-Odilon_Redon_-_The_Cyclops%2C_c._1914.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Odilon_Redon_-_The_Cyclops%2C_c._1914.jpg/238px-Odilon_Redon_-_The_Cyclops%2C_c._1914.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2846" data-file-height="3579" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Cyclops_(Redon)" title="The Cyclops (Redon)">The Cyclops</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Odilon_Redon" title="Odilon Redon">Odilon Redon</a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1914; oil on cardboard on panel; 64 x 51 cm; <a href="/wiki/Kr%C3%B6ller-M%C3%BCller_Museum" title="Kröller-Müller Museum">Kröller-Müller Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Otterlo" title="Otterlo">Otterlo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307_227-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307-227">[227]</a></sup></div>
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<h4><span id="Post-Impressionism_.28c._1885.E2.80.931910.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Post-Impressionism_(c._1885–1910)">Post-Impressionism (c. 1885–1910)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section's source code: Post-Impressionism (c. 1885–1910)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Sunday_on_La_Grande_Jatte,_Georges_Seurat,_1884.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/A_Sunday_on_La_Grande_Jatte%2C_Georges_Seurat%2C_1884.jpg/220px-A_Sunday_on_La_Grande_Jatte%2C_Georges_Seurat%2C_1884.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/A_Sunday_on_La_Grande_Jatte%2C_Georges_Seurat%2C_1884.jpg/330px-A_Sunday_on_La_Grande_Jatte%2C_Georges_Seurat%2C_1884.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/A_Sunday_on_La_Grande_Jatte%2C_Georges_Seurat%2C_1884.jpg/440px-A_Sunday_on_La_Grande_Jatte%2C_Georges_Seurat%2C_1884.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6231" data-file-height="4192" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/A_Sunday_Afternoon_on_the_Island_of_La_Grande_Jatte" title="A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte">A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Georges Seurat</a>; 1884–1886; oil on canvas; 2.08 x 3.08 m; <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305-229">[229]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Post-Impressionism is a rather imprecise term applied to a diverse generation of artists. In its strictest sense, it pertains to four highly influential artists: <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaynal1954?_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaynal1954?-230">[230]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchapiro1962?_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchapiro1962?-231">[231]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gauguin" title="Paul Gauguin">Paul Gauguin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953a?_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953a?-232">[232]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldwater1972?_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldwater1972?-233">[233]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Georges Seurat</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourthion1988?_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECourthion1988?-234">[234]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexandrian1980?_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexandrian1980?-235">[235]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953b?_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953b?-236">[236]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchapiro1950?_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchapiro1950?-237">[237]</a></sup> Each passed through an impressionist phase, but ultimately emerged with four very original but different styles. Collectively, their work anticipated, and often directly influenced, much of the <a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">avant-garde</a> art that appeared before the First World War including fauvism, cubism, expressionism, and early abstraction. Cézanne (particularly influential on cubism) and Van Gogh worked in relative isolation, away from Paris, at critical points in their careers, while Seurat and Gauguin worked in groups, more collaboratively, at key points in their development. Another important artist of the period is <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec" title="Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec">Toulouse-Lautrec</a>, an influential painter as well as graphic artist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELassaigne1950?_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELassaigne1950?-238">[238]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper1966?_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1966?-239">[239]</a></sup> In a broader sense, post-impressionism includes a generation of predominantly French and Belgian artist who worked in a range of styles and groups. Most had come under the sway of impressionism at some point, but pushed their work beyond it into a number of factions as early as the mid-1880s, sometimes as a logical development of impressionism, other times as a reaction against it. Post-Impressionists typically depicted impressionist subjects, but the work, particularly synthetism, often contained symbolism, spiritualism, and moody atmospheres that rarely appeared in impressionism. Unnatural colors, patterns, flat plains, odd perspectives and viewpoints pushed to extremes, all moved the center of modernism a step closer to abstraction with a standard for experimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaynal1953?_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaynal1953?-240">[240]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?-241">[241]</a></sup>
</p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Neo-Impressionism" title="Neo-Impressionism">Neo-Impressionism</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Divisionism" title="Divisionism">Divisionism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pointillism" title="Pointillism">Pointillism</a>, c. 1884–1894) explored light and color based on scientific color theories, creating mosaics of brush strokes in pure colors, sometimes laid out in rhythmic patterns with lines influenced by <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a>. The leading artists were <a href="/wiki/Georges_Seurat" title="Georges Seurat">Georges Seurat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Signac" title="Paul Signac">Paul Signac</a>, others include <a href="/wiki/Henri-Edmond_Cross" title="Henri-Edmond Cross">Henri-Edmond Cross</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Luce" title="Maximilien Luce">Maximilien Luce</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Dubois-Pillet" title="Albert Dubois-Pillet">Albert Dubois-Pillet</a>, and for a period <a href="/wiki/Pissarro" class="mw-redirect" title="Pissarro">Pissarro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Van_Gogh" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Gogh">Van Gogh</a>. It was influential on fauvism, and elements of the style appeared in expressionism, cubism, and early abstraction. <b><a href="/wiki/Synthetism" title="Synthetism">Synthetism</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Cloisonnism" title="Cloisonnism">Cloisonnism</a> c. 1888–1903) Cloisonnism was conceived by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Bernard" title="Émile Bernard">Émile Bernard</a> and immediately taken up and developed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gauguin" title="Paul Gauguin">Paul Gauguin</a> and others while at an artists' colony in Pont-Aven (Brittany, France). The style resembled <a href="/wiki/Cloisonn%C3%A9_enamel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloisonné enamel">cloisonné enamel</a> or <a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">stained glass</a>, with flat, bold colors outlined in black or dark colors. Synthetism, exemplified in the work of Gauguin and <a href="/wiki/Paul_S%C3%A9rusier" title="Paul Sérusier">Paul Sérusier</a>, is slightly a broader term with less emphasis on dark outlines and cloisonné qualities. Other artist include <a href="/wiki/Cuno_Amiet" title="Cuno Amiet">Cuno Amiet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Anquetin" title="Louis Anquetin">Louis Anquetin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Filiger" title="Charles Filiger">Charles Filiger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meyer_de_Haan" class="mw-redirect" title="Meyer de Haan">Jacob Meyer de Haan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Laval" title="Charles Laval">Charles Laval</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armand_S%C3%A9guin_(painter)" title="Armand Séguin (painter)">Armand Seguin</a>. Their work greatly influenced fauvism and expressionism. <b><a href="/wiki/Les_Nabis" title="Les Nabis">Les Nabis</a></b> (c. 1890–1905: Hebrew for prophets or illuminati) was a larger movement in France and Belgium that eclectically drew on progressive elements in synthetism, neo-impressionism, symbolism, and Art Nouveau. Perhaps more influential than the art, were the numerous theories, manifestoes, and infectious enthusiasm for the avant-garde, setting the tone for the proliferation of movements and "isms" in the first quarter of the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/La_Revue_Blanche" title="La Revue Blanche">La Revue Blanche</a> often published Les Nabis and symbolist content. The work of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Vuillard" title="Édouard Vuillard">Édouard Vuillard</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston1974?_242-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston1974?-242">[242]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarnod1989?_243-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarnod1989?-243">[243]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bonnard" title="Pierre Bonnard">Pierre Bonnard</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETerrasse1964?_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETerrasse1964?-244">[244]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFermigier1969?_245-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFermigier1969?-245">[245]</a></sup> ca. 1890–1910 is exemplary of Les Nabis, though both evolved in their styles and produced significant work into the 1940s. Other artist include <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Denis" title="Maurice Denis">Maurice Denis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maxime_Dethomas" title="Maxime Dethomas">Maxime Dethomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meyer_de_Haan" class="mw-redirect" title="Meyer de Haan">Meyer de Haan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri-Gabriel_Ibels" title="Henri-Gabriel Ibels">Henri-Gabriel Ibels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lacombe_(painter)" title="Georges Lacombe (painter)">Georges Lacombe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristide_Maillol" title="Aristide Maillol">Aristide Maillol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ranson" title="Paul Ranson">Paul Ranson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ker-Xavier_Roussel" title="Ker-Xavier Roussel">Ker-Xavier Roussel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armand_S%C3%A9guin" title="Armand Séguin">Armand Séguin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_S%C3%A9rusier" title="Paul Sérusier">Paul Sérusier</a>, <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Vallotton" title="Félix Vallotton">Félix Vallotton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Verkade" title="Jan Verkade">Jan Verkade</a>, and others.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaynal1953?_240-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaynal1953?-240">[240]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?-241">[241]</a></sup>
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Van_Gogh_-_Starry_Night_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Starry Night; by Vincent van Gogh; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)"><img alt="The Starry Night; by Vincent van Gogh; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Van_Gogh_-_Starry_Night_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Van_Gogh_-_Starry_Night_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Van_Gogh_-_Starry_Night_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Van_Gogh_-_Starry_Night_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Van_Gogh_-_Starry_Night_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Van_Gogh_-_Starry_Night_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="30000" data-file-height="23756" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Starry_Night" title="The Starry Night">The Starry Night</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh" title="Vincent van Gogh">Vincent van Gogh</a>; 1889; oil on canvas; height: 73.7 cm; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> (New York City)</div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Signac_-_Portrait_de_F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Félix Fénéon; by Paul Signac; 1890; oil on canvas; 73.5 x 92.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[229]"><img alt="Félix Fénéon; by Paul Signac; 1890; oil on canvas; 73.5 x 92.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[229]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Signac_-_Portrait_de_F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on.jpg/150px-Signac_-_Portrait_de_F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Signac_-_Portrait_de_F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on.jpg/225px-Signac_-_Portrait_de_F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Signac_-_Portrait_de_F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on.jpg/300px-Signac_-_Portrait_de_F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6229" data-file-height="4973" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_217._Against_the_Enamel_of_a_Background_Rhythmic_with_Beats_and_Angles,_Tones,_and_Tints,_Portrait_of_M._F%C3%A9lix_F%C3%A9n%C3%A9on_in_1890" title="Opus 217. Against the Enamel of a Background Rhythmic with Beats and Angles, Tones, and Tints, Portrait of M. Félix Fénéon in 1890">Félix Fénéon</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Signac" title="Paul Signac">Paul Signac</a>; 1890; oil on canvas; 73.5 x 92.5 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305-229">[229]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eh_quoi!_Tu_es_jaloux%3F_by_Paul_Gauguin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aha Oe Feii? (Are You Jealous?); by Paul Gauguin; 1892; oil on canvas; 68 x 92 cm; Pushkin Museum (Moscow, Russia)[229]"><img alt="Aha Oe Feii? (Are You Jealous?); by Paul Gauguin; 1892; oil on canvas; 68 x 92 cm; Pushkin Museum (Moscow, Russia)[229]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Eh_quoi%21_Tu_es_jaloux%3F_by_Paul_Gauguin.jpg/150px-Eh_quoi%21_Tu_es_jaloux%3F_by_Paul_Gauguin.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Eh_quoi%21_Tu_es_jaloux%3F_by_Paul_Gauguin.jpg/225px-Eh_quoi%21_Tu_es_jaloux%3F_by_Paul_Gauguin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Eh_quoi%21_Tu_es_jaloux%3F_by_Paul_Gauguin.jpg/300px-Eh_quoi%21_Tu_es_jaloux%3F_by_Paul_Gauguin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3176" data-file-height="2335" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Aha_Oe_Feii%3F" title="Aha Oe Feii?">Aha Oe Feii?</a></i> (Are You Jealous?); by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gauguin" title="Paul Gauguin">Paul Gauguin</a>; 1892; oil on canvas; 68 x 92 cm; <a href="/wiki/Pushkin_Museum" title="Pushkin Museum">Pushkin Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305-229">[229]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec,_At_the_Moulin_Rouge.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="At the Moulin Rouge; by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; 1892/1895; oil on canvas, 1.23 × 1.41 m; Art Institute of Chicago[229]"><img alt="At the Moulin Rouge; by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec; 1892/1895; oil on canvas, 1.23 × 1.41 m; Art Institute of Chicago[229]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec%2C_At_the_Moulin_Rouge.jpg/150px-Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec%2C_At_the_Moulin_Rouge.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec%2C_At_the_Moulin_Rouge.jpg/225px-Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec%2C_At_the_Moulin_Rouge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec%2C_At_the_Moulin_Rouge.jpg/300px-Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec%2C_At_the_Moulin_Rouge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="1218" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/At_the_Moulin_Rouge" title="At the Moulin Rouge">At the Moulin Rouge</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec" title="Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec">Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec</a>; 1892/1895; oil on canvas, 1.23 × 1.41 m; <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305-229">[229]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_C%C3%A9zanne,_French_-_The_Large_Bathers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Bathers; by Paul Cézanne; 1898–1905; oil on canvas; 210.5 cm × 250.8 cm; Philadelphia Museum of Art (Philadelphia, US)"><img alt="The Bathers; by Paul Cézanne; 1898–1905; oil on canvas; 210.5 cm × 250.8 cm; Philadelphia Museum of Art (Philadelphia, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_French_-_The_Large_Bathers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/150px-Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_French_-_The_Large_Bathers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_French_-_The_Large_Bathers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/225px-Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_French_-_The_Large_Bathers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_French_-_The_Large_Bathers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Paul_C%C3%A9zanne%2C_French_-_The_Large_Bathers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6385" data-file-height="5337" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Bathers_(C%C3%A9zanne)" title="The Bathers (Cézanne)">The Bathers</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne" title="Paul Cézanne">Paul Cézanne</a>; 1898–1905; oil on canvas; 210.5 cm × 250.8 cm; <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Museum_of_Art" title="Philadelphia Museum of Art">Philadelphia Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, US)</div>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section's source code: Early 20th century"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">20th-century Western painting</a></div>
<p>The history of <a href="/wiki/20th-century_art" title="20th-century art">20th-century art</a> is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. The art movements of <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">abstract art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dadaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a> led to further explorations of new creative styles and manners of expression. Increasing <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">global</a> interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art, such as <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a> being influenced by <a href="/wiki/Iberian_sculpture" title="Iberian sculpture">Iberian sculpture</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">African sculpture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">Primitivism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Japonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Japonism">Japonism</a>, and Japanese <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcuts</a> (which had themselves been influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on Impressionism and subsequent artistic developments. The influential example set by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gauguin" title="Paul Gauguin">Paul Gauguin</a>'s interest in <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic art">Oceanic art</a> and the sudden popularity among the <a href="/wiki/Connoisseur" title="Connoisseur">cognoscenti</a> in early 20th century Paris of newly discovered African fetish sculptures and other works from non-European cultures were taken up by Picasso, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>, and many of their colleagues. Later in the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Pop_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Pop Art">Pop Art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Expressionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Expressionism">Abstract Expressionism</a> came to prominence.
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<h4><span id="Art_Nouveau_.28c._1890.E2.80.931914.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Art_Nouveau_(c._1890–1914)">Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1914)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section's source code: Art Nouveau (c. 1890–1914)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paris_Metro_2_Porte_Dauphine_Libellule.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Paris_Metro_2_Porte_Dauphine_Libellule.JPG/220px-Paris_Metro_2_Porte_Dauphine_Libellule.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Paris_Metro_2_Porte_Dauphine_Libellule.JPG/330px-Paris_Metro_2_Porte_Dauphine_Libellule.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Paris_Metro_2_Porte_Dauphine_Libellule.JPG/440px-Paris_Metro_2_Porte_Dauphine_Libellule.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Porte_Dauphine_(Paris_M%C3%A9tro)" class="mw-redirect" title="Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro)">Porte Dauphine Métro Station</a> (Paris), by <a href="/wiki/Hector_Guimard" title="Hector Guimard">Hector Guimard</a>, 1900<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins2014141_246-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins2014141-246">[246]</a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>Art Nouveau (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">new art</i>) was an international and widespread art and design movement that emerged in the final decades of the 19th century until the First World War in 1914. It was catapulted into international prominence with the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1900)" title="Exposition Universelle (1900)">1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris</a>. Developing almost simultaneously in parts of Europe and the US, it was an attempt to create a unique and modern form of expression that evoked the spirit of the new century. It manifested in painting, illustration, sculpture, jewellery, metalwork, glass, ceramics, textiles, graphic design, furniture, architecture, costume design and fashion. Art Nouveau artists aimed to raise the status of craft and design to the level of <a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">fine art</a>.
</p><p>The movement is highly associated with sinuous organic forms, such as flowers, vines and leaves, but also insects and animals, through the works of artists like <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_Mucha" title="Alphonse Mucha">Alphonse Mucha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Horta" title="Victor Horta">Victor Horta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hector_Guimard" title="Hector Guimard">Hector Guimard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antoni_Gaud%C3%AD" title="Antoni Gaudí">Antoni Gaudí</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Lalique" title="René Lalique">René Lalique</a> or <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gall%C3%A9" title="Émile Gallé">Émile Gallé</a>. Art Nouveau designs and buildings can often be asymmetrical. Although there are identifying characteristics, the style also displayed many regional and national interpretations.
</p><p>Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the <a href="/wiki/Modern_architecture" title="Modern architecture">modern architecture</a> and design of the 20th century. It was the first architectural style without historic precedent, the 19th century being notorious for a practice known as <a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a>, which is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a previous artistic era. Between <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr>1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression. Despite this, Art Nouveau was also heavily influenced by styles from the past such as <a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a> art, and also by the <a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a> and especially by <a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japanese art</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201731Hopkins2014140,_141Hodge201936_248-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201731Hopkins2014140,_141Hodge201936-248">[248]</a></sup>
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<h4><span id="Fauvism_.28c._1898.E2.80.931909.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Fauvism_(c._1898–1909)">Fauvism (c. 1898–1909)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section's source code: Fauvism (c. 1898–1909)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></div>
<p>Fauvism emerged from post-impressionism, gradually developing into the first major movement of the 20th century. Its genesis was in 1895 when <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>, the oldest and central figure, entered the studio of <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Moreau" title="Gustave Moreau">Gustave Moreau</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Ecole_des_Beaux_Arts_(Paris)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecole des Beaux Arts (Paris)">Ecole des Beaux-Arts</a>. There he met <a href="/wiki/Georges_Rouault" title="Georges Rouault">Georges Rouault</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Camoin" title="Charles Camoin">Charles Camoin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Manguin" title="Henri Manguin">Henri Manguin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Marquet" title="Albert Marquet">Albert Marquet</a>. Marquet said "As early as 1898 Matisse and I were working in what was later to be called the Fauve manner. The first exhibitions at the Indepéndants in which we were, I believe, the only ones to paint in pure tones, go back to 1901."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?-249">[249]</a></sup> By 1902–03 the circle of like-minded artist had grown to include <a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Georges Braque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Derain" title="André Derain">André Derain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raoul_Dufy" title="Raoul Dufy">Raoul Dufy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Othon_Friesz" title="Othon Friesz">Othon Friesz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Metzinger" title="Jean Metzinger">Jean Metzinger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Puy" title="Jean Puy">Jean Puy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Valtat" title="Louis Valtat">Louis Valtat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kees_van_Dongen" title="Kees van Dongen">Kees van Dongen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_de_Vlaminck" title="Maurice de Vlaminck">Maurice de Vlaminck</a>. During this period a number of influential retrospective exhibitions were held in Paris: Seurat (1900, 1905), Van Gogh (1901, 1905), Toulouse-Lautrec (1902), Gauguin (1906), Cézanne (1907), all relatively unknown to the public at that time. Matisse and Derain collected African carvings, a novel but growing curiosity of the time. Matisse spent the summer of 1904 in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Tropez" title="Saint-Tropez">Saint-Tropez</a> painting with the neo-impressionist <a href="/wiki/Paul_Signac" title="Paul Signac">Paul Signac</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henri-Edmond_Cross" title="Henri-Edmond Cross">Henri-Edmond Cross</a>, followed in 1905 by Camoin, Manguin, and Marquet. The artist exhibited regularity at the <a href="/wiki/Salon_Des_Independants" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon Des Independants">Salon des Indepéndants</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Salon_d%27Automne" title="Salon d'Automne">Salon d'Automne</a> 1903–1908 and in 1905 their work created a sensation and a scandal. Matisse stated "We were exhibiting at the Salon d'Automne, Derain, Manguin, Marquet, Puy, and a few others were hung together in one of the larger galleries. In the center of this room the sculptor <a href="/wiki/Albert_Marque" title="Albert Marque">Marque</a> exhibited a bust of a child very much in the Italian style. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Vauxcelles" title="Louis Vauxcelles">Vauxcelles</a> [art critic for <a href="/wiki/Gil_Blas_(periodical)" title="Gil Blas (periodical)">Gil Blas</a>] entered the room and said, Well! well! <a href="/wiki/Donatello" title="Donatello">Donatello</a> in the mist of wild beasts! [Donatello chez les fauves]."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1978_250-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1978-250">[250]</a></sup> The movement had not been perceived as an entity by the public, but once published the name stuck. Unlike the impressionist and their long struggle for acceptance, the avant-garde had an eager audience by 1906–1907 and the fauvist were attracting collectors from America to Russia. However fauvism largely dissolved in 1908, as cubism appeared, most of the artist began exploring other styles and moving in different directions. Only Matisse and Dufy continued to explore fauvism into the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?-249">[249]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1978?_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1978?-251">[251]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diehl_(1972)_252-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diehl_(1972)-252">[252]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELassaigne1959?_253-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELassaigne1959?-253">[253]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jacobus_(1973)_254-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobus_(1973)-254">[254]</a></sup>
</p><p>The fauvist painted landscapes <a href="/wiki/En_plein_air" title="En plein air">en plein air</a>, interiors, figures, and still lifes, following examples of realism, impressionism, and post-impressionism. They applied paint with loose brushstrokes, in thick, unnatural, often contrasting, vibrant colors, at times straight from the tube. Gauguin's influence, with his exploration of the expressive values and spatial aspects of patterning with flat, pure colors, as well as his interest in <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">primitivism</a> were significant, as was neo-impressionism. Matisse explained – for a long time color served as a complement of design, the painters of the Renaissance constructed the picture by line, adding local color afterwards – writing: "From <a href="/wiki/Eug%C3%A8ne_Delacroix" title="Eugène Delacroix">Delacroix</a> to Van Gogh and chiefly to Gauguin, by way of the Impressionist, who cleared the ground, and Cézanne, who gave the final impulse and introduced colored volumes, we can follow this rehabilitation of color's function, this restoration of its emotive power"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?-249">[249]</a></sup> Fauvism was the culmination in a shift, from drawing and line as the fundamental foundations of design in painting to color, and they depicted their subjects on the verge of abstraction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?-249">[249]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1978?_251-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1978?-251">[251]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diehl_(1972)_252-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diehl_(1972)-252">[252]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELassaigne1959?_253-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELassaigne1959?-253">[253]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jacobus_(1973)_254-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jacobus_(1973)-254">[254]</a></sup>
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<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Woman with a Hat; by Henri Matisse; 1905; oil on canvas; 80.7 x 59.7 cm; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (San Francisco, US)[255]"><img alt="Woman with a Hat; by Henri Matisse; 1905; oil on canvas; 80.7 x 59.7 cm; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (San Francisco, US)[255]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg/110px-Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg/165px-Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg/220px-Matisse-Woman-with-a-Hat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1214" data-file-height="1653" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Woman_with_a_Hat" title="Woman with a Hat">Woman with a Hat</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Matisse" title="Henri Matisse">Henri Matisse</a>; 1905; oil on canvas; 80.7 x 59.7 cm; <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="San Francisco Museum of Modern Art">San Francisco Museum of Modern Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>, US)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDempsey201831_255-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempsey201831-255">[255]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fauvism_Landscape;_by_Louis_Valtat;_oil_on_canvas,_Speed_Art_Museum,_Louisville,_Kentucky_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fauve Landscape; by Louis Valtat; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; Speed Art Museum (Louisville, Kentucky, US)"><img alt="Fauve Landscape; by Louis Valtat; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; Speed Art Museum (Louisville, Kentucky, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Fauvism_Landscape%3B_by_Louis_Valtat%3B_oil_on_canvas%2C_Speed_Art_Museum%2C_Louisville%2C_Kentucky_II.jpg/150px-Fauvism_Landscape%3B_by_Louis_Valtat%3B_oil_on_canvas%2C_Speed_Art_Museum%2C_Louisville%2C_Kentucky_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Fauvism_Landscape%3B_by_Louis_Valtat%3B_oil_on_canvas%2C_Speed_Art_Museum%2C_Louisville%2C_Kentucky_II.jpg/225px-Fauvism_Landscape%3B_by_Louis_Valtat%3B_oil_on_canvas%2C_Speed_Art_Museum%2C_Louisville%2C_Kentucky_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Fauvism_Landscape%3B_by_Louis_Valtat%3B_oil_on_canvas%2C_Speed_Art_Museum%2C_Louisville%2C_Kentucky_II.jpg/300px-Fauvism_Landscape%3B_by_Louis_Valtat%3B_oil_on_canvas%2C_Speed_Art_Museum%2C_Louisville%2C_Kentucky_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1162" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Fauve Landscape</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Valtat" title="Louis Valtat">Louis Valtat</a>; 1905–1906; oil on canvas; <a href="/wiki/Speed_Art_Museum" title="Speed Art Museum">Speed Art Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a>, US)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Charing Cross Bridge, London; by André Derain; 1906; oil on canvas, 80.3 × 100.3 cm.; National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C., US)"><img alt="Charing Cross Bridge, London; by André Derain; 1906; oil on canvas, 80.3 × 100.3 cm.; National Gallery of Art (Washington, D.C., US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png/150px-Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png/225px-Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png/300px-Derain_CharingCrossBridge.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="828" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Charing Cross Bridge, London</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Derain" title="André Derain">André Derain</a>; 1906; oil on canvas, 80.3 × 100.3 cm.; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, US)</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LA_CIOTAT.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="La Ciotat; by Othon Friesz; 1907; oil on canvas, 65.7 by 81 cm.; unknown collection"><img alt="La Ciotat; by Othon Friesz; 1907; oil on canvas, 65.7 by 81 cm.; unknown collection" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/LA_CIOTAT.PNG/150px-LA_CIOTAT.PNG" decoding="async" width="150" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/LA_CIOTAT.PNG/225px-LA_CIOTAT.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/LA_CIOTAT.PNG/300px-LA_CIOTAT.PNG 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="671" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>La Ciotat</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Othon_Friesz" title="Othon Friesz">Othon Friesz</a>; 1907; oil on canvas, 65.7 by 81 cm.; unknown collection</div>
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<h4><span id="Expressionism_.28c._1905.E2.80.931930.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Expressionism_(c._1905–1930)">Expressionism (c. 1905–1930)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section's source code: Expressionism (c. 1905–1930)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner,_1913,_Street,_Berlin,_oil_on_canvas,_120.6_x_91.1_cm,_MoMA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner%2C_1913%2C_Street%2C_Berlin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_120.6_x_91.1_cm%2C_MoMA.jpg/220px-Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner%2C_1913%2C_Street%2C_Berlin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_120.6_x_91.1_cm%2C_MoMA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner%2C_1913%2C_Street%2C_Berlin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_120.6_x_91.1_cm%2C_MoMA.jpg/330px-Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner%2C_1913%2C_Street%2C_Berlin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_120.6_x_91.1_cm%2C_MoMA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner%2C_1913%2C_Street%2C_Berlin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_120.6_x_91.1_cm%2C_MoMA.jpg/440px-Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner%2C_1913%2C_Street%2C_Berlin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_120.6_x_91.1_cm%2C_MoMA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1501" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><i>Street, Berlin</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner" title="Ernst Ludwig Kirchner">Ernst Ludwig Kirchner</a>; 1913; oil on canvas; 1.21 x 0.91 m; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017335_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017335-256">[256]</a></sup></figcaption></figure><p> Expressionism was an international movement in painting, sculpture, the graphic arts, poetry, literature, theater, film, and architecture. Some associate the <a href="/wiki/Second_Viennese_School" title="Second Viennese School">Second Viennese School</a> and other music of the period with the movement. Most historians place the beginning of expressionism in 1905 with the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a>. However, several artist were producing influential work that was in the spirit of expressionism c. 1885–1905 including <a href="/wiki/Lovis_Corinth" title="Lovis Corinth">Lovis Corinth</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Ensor" title="James Ensor">James Ensor</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A4the_Kollwitz" title="Käthe Kollwitz">Käthe Kollwitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paula_Modersohn-Becker" title="Paula Modersohn-Becker">Paula Modersohn-Becker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Edvard Munch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emil_Nolde" title="Emil Nolde">Emil Nolde</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Rohlfs" title="Christian Rohlfs">Christian Rohlfs</a> among others. Many of these artist later exhibited and associated with various expressionist groups. Expressionist painting is characterized by loose, spontaneous, frequently thick, <a href="/wiki/Impasto" title="Impasto">impasto</a> brushwork. It often conveyed how the artist felt about their subject, opposed to what it looked like, putting intuition and gut feelings over realistic representations or art theories. Expressionism was frequently infused with an angst or joy, and an overall engagement with contemporary life and social issues that was often absent from fauvism's focus on design and color applied to neutral subjects. <a href="/wiki/Woodcut_print" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodcut print">Woodcut prints</a> are particularly noteworthy in expressionism. Expressionism can sometimes overlap and integrate with other styles and movements, such as <a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" title="Symbolism (arts)">symbolism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">fauvism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">cubism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">futurism</a>, abstraction, and <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">dada</a>. Several groups and factions of expressionist appeared at various times and places.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?-241">[241]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDube1983?-257">[257]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichard1978?-258">[258]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a> (The Bridge: 1905 -1913) aspired to connect "all revolutionary and surging elements."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDube1983?-257">[257]</a></sup> It was founded by four architectural students <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ludwig_Kirchner" title="Ernst Ludwig Kirchner">Ernst Ludwig Kirchner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Heckel" title="Erich Heckel">Erich Heckel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Schmidt-Rottluff" title="Karl Schmidt-Rottluff">Karl Schmidt-Rottluff</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Bleyl" title="Fritz Bleyl">Fritz Bleyl</a>. Sharing a studio in Dresden they produced paintings, carvings, prints, and organized exhibitions, separating in the summer to work independently. Their first exhibit was in 1905, later joined by <a href="/wiki/Emil_Nolde" title="Emil Nolde">Emil Nolde</a> and <a href="/wiki/Max_Pechstein" title="Max Pechstein">Max Pechstein</a> in 1906, and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Mueller" title="Otto Mueller">Otto Mueller</a> in 1910 among others. Influences included <a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">primitivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a>, and developments in Paris, particularly <a href="/wiki/Van_Gogh" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Gogh">Van Gogh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">fauvism</a>. The group shifted to Berlin in 1911 and later dissolved in 1913. <a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Der Blaue Reiter</a> (The Blue Rider: 1911–1914), founded by <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Wassily Kandinsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franz_Marc" title="Franz Marc">Franz Marc</a>, was a relatively informal group that organized exhibitions of art from Paris and Europe, as well their own. It was one in a series of increasingly progressive groups splitting from the Art Academy in Munich including The Munich Secession in 1892 (realist and impressionist), Phalanx in 1901 (postimpressionist), <a href="/wiki/Neue_K%C3%BCnstlervereinigung_M%C3%BCnchen" title="Neue Künstlervereinigung München">Neue Kunstler Vereiningung</a> in 1909, and The Blue Rider in 1911. Artist associated with the latter two groups included the <a href="/wiki/David_Burliuk" title="David Burliuk">Burliuk</a> brothers, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Campendonk" title="Heinrich Campendonk">Heinrich Campendonk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexej_von_Jawlensky" title="Alexej von Jawlensky">Alexej von Jawlensky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Paul Klee</a>, <a href="/wiki/August_Macke" title="August Macke">August Macke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabriele_M%C3%BCnter" title="Gabriele Münter">Gabriele Münter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marianne_von_Werefkin" title="Marianne von Werefkin">Marianne von Werefkin</a>. The euphonious almanac <i>Der Blaue Reiter</i>, a collection of influential essays, and Kandinsky's <i><a href="/wiki/Concerning_the_Spiritual_in_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Concerning the Spiritual in Art">Concerning the Spiritual in Art</a></i> with his ideas on non-objective art were both published in 1912. The Blue Rider ended with the outbreak of World War I in which Macke and Marc both died.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?-241">[241]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?-259">[259]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDube1983?-257">[257]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichard1978?-258">[258]</a></sup>
</p><p>Other artists such as <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Kokoschka" title="Oskar Kokoschka">Oskar Kokoschka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egon_Schiele" title="Egon Schiele">Egon Schiele</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gerstl" title="Richard Gerstl">Richard Gerstl</a> emerged in Austria. French artist <a href="/wiki/Georges_Rouault" title="Georges Rouault">Georges Rouault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Soutine" title="Chaïm Soutine">Chaïm Soutine</a> had affinities with the movement. Sculptors include <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Barlach" title="Ernst Barlach">Ernst Barlach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Lehmbruck" title="Wilhelm Lehmbruck">Wilhelm Lehmbruck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Marcks" title="Gerhard Marcks">Gerhard Marcks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Wauer" title="William Wauer">William Wauer</a>. Architects associated with expressionism include <a href="/wiki/Max_Berg" title="Max Berg">Max Berg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Finsterlin" title="Hermann Finsterlin">Hermann Finsterlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_H%C3%B6ger" title="Johann Friedrich Höger">Johann Friedrich Höger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Klerk" title="Michel de Klerk">Michel de Klerk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Poelzig" title="Hans Poelzig">Hans Poelzig</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Scharoun" title="Hans Scharoun">Hans Scharoun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Taut" title="Bruno Taut">Bruno Taut</a>. <a href="/wiki/Der_Sturm" title="Der Sturm">Der Sturm</a> (The Storm 1910–1932) was a magazine with much expressionist content founded by <a href="/wiki/Herwarth_Walden" title="Herwarth Walden">Herwarth Walden</a>, with an associated gallery in Berlin opened in 1912 and a theater company and school in opened 1918. Films regarded as expressionistic, some considered as classics, include <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cabinet_of_Dr._Caligari" title="The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari">The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Robert_Wiene" title="Robert Wiene">Robert Wiene</a>, 1920), <i><a href="/wiki/Nosferatu" title="Nosferatu">Nosferatu</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/F._W._Murnau" title="F. W. Murnau">F. W. Murnau</a>,1922), and <i><a href="/wiki/Metropolis_(1927_film)" title="Metropolis (1927 film)">Metropolis</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Fritz_Lang" title="Fritz Lang">Fritz Lang</a>, 1927).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?-241">[241]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?_259-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?-259">[259]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDube1983?-257">[257]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichard1978?-258">[258]</a></sup>
</p><p>After World War I a tendency to withdraw from the avant-garde by many artist occurred, seen in the work of the original fauvists during the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Picasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Picasso">Picasso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Stravinsky's</a> neoclassical periods, and <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico" title="Giorgio de Chirico">De Chirico's</a> late work. This tendency was called <b><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity" title="New Objectivity">New Objectivity</a> (ca. 1919–1933)</b> in Germany, and in contrast to the nostalgic nature of this work elsewhere, it was characterized by disillusionment and ruthless social criticisms. New objectivity artists mostly emerged from expressionist and <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">dada</a> milieus including <a href="/wiki/Otto_Dix" title="Otto Dix">Otto Dix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Schad" title="Christian Schad">Christian Schad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Schlichter" title="Rudolf Schlichter">Rudolf Schlichter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Scholz" title="Georg Scholz">Georg Scholz</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jeanne_Mammen" title="Jeanne Mammen">Jeanne Mammen</a>. <a href="/wiki/Max_Beckmann" title="Max Beckmann">Max Beckmann</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Grosz" title="George Grosz">George Grosz</a> also had some association with new objectivity for a period. Although not intrinsically expressionistic, the <b><a href="/wiki/Staatliches_Bauhaus" class="mw-redirect" title="Staatliches Bauhaus">Staatliches Bauhaus</a> (School of Building: 1919–1933)</b> was an influential German school merging crafts, decorative, and fine arts. Moving from Weimar, to Dessau, to Berlin, it changed and evolved in focus with time. Directors included architects <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gropius" title="Walter Gropius">Walter Gropius</a> (1919–1928), <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Meyer" title="Hannes Meyer">Hannes Meyer</a> (1928–1930), and <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe" title="Ludwig Mies van der Rohe">Ludwig Mies van der Rohe</a> (1930–1933). At various points the faculty included <a href="/wiki/Josef_Albers" title="Josef Albers">Josef Albers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theo_van_Doesburg" title="Theo van Doesburg">Theo van Doesburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyonel_Feininger" title="Lyonel Feininger">Lyonel Feininger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Itten" title="Johannes Itten">Johannes Itten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Paul Klee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Wassily Kandinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Lissitzky" title="El Lissitzky">El Lissitzky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Marcks" title="Gerhard Marcks">Gerhard Marcks</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Moholy-Nagy" title="László Moholy-Nagy">László Moholy-Nagy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oskar_Schlemmer" title="Oskar Schlemmer">Oskar Schlemmer</a>. Bauhaus architects greatly influenced the <a href="/wiki/International_Style_(architecture)" class="mw-redirect" title="International Style (architecture)">International Style</a>, which was characterized by simplified forms, a lack of ornamentation, a union of design and function, and the idea that mass production could be compatible with personal artistic vision. As the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> rose to power, modern art was dubbed "<a href="/wiki/Degenerate_art" title="Degenerate art">degenerate art</a>" and the Bauhaus was closed in 1933, subduing modernism in Germany for several years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212">[212]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?-241">[241]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?_259-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?-259">[259]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDube1983?-257">[257]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichard1978?-258">[258]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edvard_Munch,_1893,_The_Scream,_oil,_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard,_91_x_73_cm,_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Scream; by Edvard Munch; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; National Gallery of Norway (Oslo)[260]"><img alt="The Scream; by Edvard Munch; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; National Gallery of Norway (Oslo)[260]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/121px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/181px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg/242px-Edvard_Munch%2C_1893%2C_The_Scream%2C_oil%2C_tempera_and_pastel_on_cardboard%2C_91_x_73_cm%2C_National_Gallery_of_Norway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3223" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scream" title="The Scream">The Scream</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Munch" title="Edvard Munch">Edvard Munch</a>; 1893; tempera and crayon on cardboard; 91 x 73.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="National Gallery of Norway">National Gallery of Norway</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2017118_260-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2017118-260">[260]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Franz_Marc_028.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tower of Blue Horses; by Franz Marc; 1912; ink and guache on card; 14.3 x 9.4 cm; Bavarian State Painting Collections (Munich, Germany)[256]"><img alt="Tower of Blue Horses; by Franz Marc; 1912; ink and guache on card; 14.3 x 9.4 cm; Bavarian State Painting Collections (Munich, Germany)[256]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Franz_Marc_028.jpg/97px-Franz_Marc_028.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Franz_Marc_028.jpg/145px-Franz_Marc_028.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Franz_Marc_028.jpg/194px-Franz_Marc_028.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1256" data-file-height="1941" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Tower of Blue Horses</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Marc" title="Franz Marc">Franz Marc</a>; 1912; ink and <a href="/wiki/Guache" class="mw-redirect" title="Guache">guache</a> on card; 14.3 x 9.4 cm; <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_State_Painting_Collections" title="Bavarian State Painting Collections">Bavarian State Painting Collections</a> (<a href="/wiki/Munich" title="Munich">Munich</a>, Germany)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017335_256-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017335-256">[256]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wassily_Kandinsky_Composition_VII.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Composition VII; by Wassily Kandinsky; 1913; oil on canvas; 2 x 3 m; Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow, Russia)[261]"><img alt="Composition VII; by Wassily Kandinsky; 1913; oil on canvas; 2 x 3 m; Tretyakov Gallery (Moscow, Russia)[261]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Wassily_Kandinsky_Composition_VII.jpg/150px-Wassily_Kandinsky_Composition_VII.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Wassily_Kandinsky_Composition_VII.jpg/225px-Wassily_Kandinsky_Composition_VII.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Wassily_Kandinsky_Composition_VII.jpg/300px-Wassily_Kandinsky_Composition_VII.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1218" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Composition_VII" title="Composition VII">Composition VII</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky" title="Wassily Kandinsky">Wassily Kandinsky</a>; 1913; oil on canvas; 2 x 3 m; <a href="/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery" title="Tretyakov Gallery">Tretyakov Gallery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>, Russia)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017336_261-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017336-261">[261]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Einsteinturm_7443a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Einstein Tower (Potsdam, near Berlin, Germany), 1920–1924, by Erich Mendelsohn[262]"><img alt="The Einstein Tower (Potsdam, near Berlin, Germany), 1920–1924, by Erich Mendelsohn[262]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Einsteinturm_7443a.jpg/150px-Einsteinturm_7443a.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Einsteinturm_7443a.jpg/225px-Einsteinturm_7443a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Einsteinturm_7443a.jpg/300px-Einsteinturm_7443a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="824" data-file-height="616" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Einstein_Tower" title="Einstein Tower">Einstein Tower</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, Germany), 1920–1924, by <a href="/wiki/Erich_Mendelsohn" title="Erich Mendelsohn">Erich Mendelsohn</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2019156_262-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2019156-262">[262]</a></sup></div>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_klee_actors_mask_1924.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Actor's Mask; by Paul Klee; 1924; oil on canvas mounted on board; 36.7 x 33.8 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[263]"><img alt="Actor's Mask; by Paul Klee; 1924; oil on canvas mounted on board; 36.7 x 33.8 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[263]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Paul_klee_actors_mask_1924.jpg/138px-Paul_klee_actors_mask_1924.jpg" decoding="async" width="138" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Paul_klee_actors_mask_1924.jpg/207px-Paul_klee_actors_mask_1924.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Paul_klee_actors_mask_1924.jpg/276px-Paul_klee_actors_mask_1924.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1838" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Actor's Mask</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Klee" title="Paul Klee">Paul Klee</a>; 1924; oil on canvas mounted on board; 36.7 x 33.8 cm; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201732_263-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201732-263">[263]</a></sup></div>
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<h4><span id="Cubism_.28c._1907.E2.80.931914.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Cubism_(c._1907–1914)">Cubism (c. 1907–1914)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section's source code: Cubism (c. 1907–1914)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a> consisted in the rejection of perspective, which leads to a new organisation of space where viewpoints multiply producing a fragmentation of the object that renders the predilection for form over the content of the representation obvious. <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Georges Braque</a> and other Cubist artists, were inspired by the sculptures of <a href="/wiki/Iberian_sculpture" title="Iberian sculpture">Iberia</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic art">Oceania</a> exhibited in the <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a> and the ethnographic museum in the <a href="/wiki/Trocad%C3%A9ro" title="Trocadéro">Trocadéro</a>, and which were being offered at flee markets and in sale rooms.
</p><p>'A Picasso studies an object the way a surgeon dissects a corpse,' wrote the critic and poet <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Apollinaire" title="Guillaume Apollinaire">Guillaume Apollinaire</a> in 1913. Five years earlier, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Georges Braque</a> – friends, colleagues and rivals – had begun to reject perspectival <a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">realism</a> for a form of artistic autopsy: an utterly revolutionary painting style that looked inside and around objects, presenting them analytically, objectively and completely impersonally.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330_264-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330-264">[264]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon; by Pablo Picasso; 1907; oil on canvas; 2.43 × 2.3 m; Museum of Modern Art[264]"><img alt="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon; by Pablo Picasso; 1907; oil on canvas; 2.43 × 2.3 m; Museum of Modern Art[264]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/145px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg" decoding="async" width="145" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/217px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg/290px-Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="4661" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Les_Demoiselles_d%27Avignon" title="Les Demoiselles d'Avignon">Les Demoiselles d'Avignon</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>; 1907; oil on canvas; 2.43 × 2.3 m; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330_264-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330-264">[264]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Georges_Braque,_1909-10,_Pitcher_and_Violin,_oil_on_canvas,_116.8_x_73.2_cm,_Kunstmuseum_Basel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Violin and Pitcher; by Georges Braque; 1909–1910; oil on canvas; 1.17 x 0.73 cm; Kunstmuseum Basel (Basel, Switzerland)[264]"><img alt="Violin and Pitcher; by Georges Braque; 1909–1910; oil on canvas; 1.17 x 0.73 cm; Kunstmuseum Basel (Basel, Switzerland)[264]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0b/Georges_Braque%2C_1909-10%2C_Pitcher_and_Violin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_116.8_x_73.2_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum_Basel.jpg/94px-Georges_Braque%2C_1909-10%2C_Pitcher_and_Violin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_116.8_x_73.2_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum_Basel.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0b/Georges_Braque%2C_1909-10%2C_Pitcher_and_Violin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_116.8_x_73.2_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum_Basel.jpg/142px-Georges_Braque%2C_1909-10%2C_Pitcher_and_Violin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_116.8_x_73.2_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum_Basel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0b/Georges_Braque%2C_1909-10%2C_Pitcher_and_Violin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_116.8_x_73.2_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum_Basel.jpg/189px-Georges_Braque%2C_1909-10%2C_Pitcher_and_Violin%2C_oil_on_canvas%2C_116.8_x_73.2_cm%2C_Kunstmuseum_Basel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Violin and Pitcher</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Braque" title="Georges Braque">Georges Braque</a>; 1909–1910; oil on canvas; 1.17 x 0.73 cm; <a href="/wiki/Kunstmuseum_Basel" title="Kunstmuseum Basel">Kunstmuseum Basel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330_264-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330-264">[264]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Delaunay_-_Eiffel_Tower_-_1911_-_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Eiffel Tower; by Robert Delaunay; 1911; oil on canvas; 2.02 x 1.38 m; Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (New York City)[265]"><img alt="The Eiffel Tower; by Robert Delaunay; 1911; oil on canvas; 2.02 x 1.38 m; Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum (New York City)[265]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Robert_Delaunay_-_Eiffel_Tower_-_1911_-_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/103px-Robert_Delaunay_-_Eiffel_Tower_-_1911_-_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="103" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Robert_Delaunay_-_Eiffel_Tower_-_1911_-_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/154px-Robert_Delaunay_-_Eiffel_Tower_-_1911_-_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Robert_Delaunay_-_Eiffel_Tower_-_1911_-_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg/205px-Robert_Delaunay_-_Eiffel_Tower_-_1911_-_Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="1271" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower_(Delaunay_series)" title="Eiffel Tower (Delaunay series)">The Eiffel Tower</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Delaunay" title="Robert Delaunay">Robert Delaunay</a>; 1911; oil on canvas; 2.02 x 1.38 m; <a href="/wiki/Solomon_R._Guggenheim_Museum" title="Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum">Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017332_265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017332-265">[265]</a></sup></div>
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<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1914_Gris_Le_Petit_D%C3%A9jeuner.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Breakfast; by Juan Gris; 1914; gouache, oil and crayon on cut-and-pasted printed paper on canvas; 80.9 x 59.7 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[265]"><img alt="Breakfast; by Juan Gris; 1914; gouache, oil and crayon on cut-and-pasted printed paper on canvas; 80.9 x 59.7 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[265]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1914_Gris_Le_Petit_D%C3%A9jeuner.jpg/110px-1914_Gris_Le_Petit_D%C3%A9jeuner.jpg" decoding="async" width="110" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1914_Gris_Le_Petit_D%C3%A9jeuner.jpg/165px-1914_Gris_Le_Petit_D%C3%A9jeuner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1914_Gris_Le_Petit_D%C3%A9jeuner.jpg/220px-1914_Gris_Le_Petit_D%C3%A9jeuner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>Breakfast</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Juan_Gris" title="Juan Gris">Juan Gris</a>; 1914; gouache, oil and crayon on cut-and-pasted printed paper on canvas; 80.9 x 59.7 cm; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017332_265-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017332-265">[265]</a></sup></div>
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<h4><span id="Art_Deco_.28c._1920.E2.80.931940.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Art_Deco_(c._1920–1940)">Art Deco (c. 1920–1940)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section's source code: Art Deco (c. 1920–1940)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></div>
<p>Art Deco appeared in France as a style of luxury and modernity. Soon, it spread quickly throughout the world, most dramatically in America, becoming more <a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">streamlined</a> though the 1930s. The style was named after the <a href="/wiki/International_Exhibition_of_Modern_Decorative_and_Industrial_Arts" title="International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts">International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts</a> held in Paris in 1925. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> during the 1930s. It had <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">ancient Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">African</a>, Aztec and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japanese</a> influences, but also <a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a> ones. It sometimes blended with the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Egyptian Revival</a> style, due to the discovery in 1922 of the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Tutankhamun" title="Tomb of Tutankhamun">Tomb of Tutankhamun</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Egyptomania" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptomania">Egyptomania</a> that it caused. Two examples of this are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Le_Louxor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Le Louxor (page does not exist)">Le Louxor</a> Cinema in Paris, 1919–1921, by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henri_Zipcy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henri Zipcy (page does not exist)">Henri Zipcy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Theatre_(DeKalb,_Illinois)" title="Egyptian Theatre (DeKalb, Illinois)">Egyptian Theatre</a> in <a href="/wiki/DeKalb,_Illinois" title="DeKalb, Illinois">DeKalb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a>, US), 1929–1930, by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Elmer_F._Behrns&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elmer F. Behrns (page does not exist)">Elmer F. Behrns</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorative arts</a>, including architecture, low-relief designs, and angular patterns and shapes were used. Predominant materials include <a href="/wiki/Chrome_plating" title="Chrome plating">chrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brass" title="Brass">brass</a>, polished steel and <a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a>, inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.
</p><p>Some of the most important Art Deco artists are the Paris-based Polish painter <a href="/wiki/Tamara_de_Lempicka" title="Tamara de Lempicka">Tamara de Lempicka</a>, the Ukrainian-born French poster artist Adolphe Jean-Marie Mouron, known as <a href="/wiki/Cassandre" title="Cassandre">Cassandre</a>, and the French furniture designer and interior decorator <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile-Jacques_Ruhlmann" title="Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann">Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDempsey201870_266-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempsey201870-266">[266]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201944_267-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201944-267">[267]</a></sup>
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<h4><span id="Surrealism_.28c._1924.E2.80.931966.29"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Surrealism_(c._1924–1966)">Surrealism (c. 1924–1966)</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section's source code: Surrealism (c. 1924–1966)"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4>
<p><a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a> emerged as a faction of <a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a>, formally announcing its inception in 1924 with <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Breton" title="André Breton">André Breton</a>'s <i>Manifesto of Surrealism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreton1924?_268-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreton1924?-268">[268]</a></sup> Originally a literary group of poets and writers in Paris, it soon developed into an international movement that included painters, sculptors, photographers, and filmmakers. A <i>Second Manifeste du Surréalisme</i> was published in 1929.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreton1929?_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreton1929?-269">[269]</a></sup> Surrealism did not have significant expression in applied or decorative arts, architecture, or music, although a few isolated examples could be identified (e.g. chess sets, furniture, and <a href="/wiki/Las_Pozas" title="Las Pozas">Las Pozas</a>). The small and short lived <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical art">Metaphysical School</a> (c. 1910–1921), with <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico" title="Giorgio de Chirico">Giorgio de Chirico</a> as its principal figure, was highly influential on surrealism. The surrealist explored a myriad of innovative techniques, some had recently been developed in Cubism and Dada, others were new, including <a href="/wiki/Collage" title="Collage">collage</a>, found objects, assemblage, random chance, rayographs (photograms), painting on sand, dripping and flinging paint, <a href="/wiki/Decalcomania" title="Decalcomania">decalcomania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frottage_(art)" class="mw-redirect" title="Frottage (art)">frottage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fumage" title="Fumage">fumage</a>, and raclage. Two fundamental approaches predominate surrealist art. <a href="/wiki/Surrealist_automatism" title="Surrealist automatism">Automatism</a> dominated in the early years which can be seen in the work of artist like <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Masson" title="André Masson">André Masson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joan_Mir%C3%B3" title="Joan Miró">Joan Miró</a>. Other artist, swayed by work of Giorgio de Chirico, used more traditional methods and mediums to illustrate unfiltered thoughts and incongruous juxtapositions, including <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Dal%C3%AD" title="Salvador Dalí">Salvador Dalí</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Magritte" title="René Magritte">René Magritte</a>. Significant artist include <a href="/wiki/Jean_Arp" title="Jean Arp">Jean Arp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bellmer" title="Hans Bellmer">Hans Bellmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Brauner" title="Victor Brauner">Victor Brauner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luis_Bu%C3%B1uel" title="Luis Buñuel">Luis Buñuel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Cornell" title="Joseph Cornell">Joseph Cornell</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%93scar_Dom%C3%ADnguez" title="Óscar Domínguez">Óscar Domínguez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Max_Ernst" title="Max Ernst">Max Ernst</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wifredo_Lam" title="Wifredo Lam">Wifredo Lam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yves_Tanguy" title="Yves Tanguy">Yves Tanguy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Man_Ray" title="Man Ray">Man Ray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Giacometti" title="Alberto Giacometti">Alberto Giacometti</a>, <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9ret_Oppenheim" title="Méret Oppenheim">Méret Oppenheim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Matta" title="Roberto Matta">Roberto Matta</a>. Other important artist informally accosted with surrealism include <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Marcel Duchamp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frida_Kahlo" title="Frida Kahlo">Frida Kahlo</a>. Surrealist ideas and theories were discussed in a successive series of journals, <i><a href="/wiki/La_R%C3%A9volution_Surr%C3%A9aliste" class="mw-redirect" title="La Révolution Surréaliste">La Révolution Surréaliste</a></i> (1924–1929), <i><a href="/wiki/Le_Surrealisme_au_service_de_la_revolution" title="Le Surrealisme au service de la revolution">Le Surrealisme au service de la revolution</a></i> (1930–1933), <i><a href="/wiki/Minotaure" title="Minotaure">Minotaure</a></i> (1933–1939), <i><a href="/wiki/VVV_(magazine)" title="VVV (magazine)">VVV</a></i> (1942–1944). The automatic paintings produced by André Masson and Joan Miró, as well as latecomers to surrealism like Roberto Matta and <a href="/wiki/Arshile_Gorky" title="Arshile Gorky">Arshile Gorky</a> had a considerable influenced on the <a href="/wiki/Abstract_expressionist" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract expressionist">abstract expressionist</a> in the late 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldberg1962?_270-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldberg1962?-270">[270]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1968?_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin1968?-271">[271]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneede1974?_272-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneede1974?-272">[272]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPasseron1975?_273-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPasseron1975?-273">[273]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPicon1977?_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPicon1977?-274">[274]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJean1980?_275-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJean1980?-275">[275]</a></sup>
</p><p>With a measure of Dada's irreverence and contempt for the traditional political, religious, and bourgeois values of western culture that they believed had led the world into the First World War (Breton and other founding members were veterans); the surrealist explored the possibilities that had been opened up by <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> regarding the subconscious mind: "Pure psychic automatism, by which one intends to express verbally, in writing or by any other method, the real functioning of the mind. Dictation by thought, in the absence of any control exercised by reason, and beyond any aesthetic or moral preoccupation."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreton1924?_268-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreton1924?-268">[268]</a></sup> Surrealism sought to express pure thought, unfiltered and uncensored by political, religious, moral, or rational principles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldberg1962?_270-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldberg1962?-270">[270]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1968?_271-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin1968?-271">[271]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneede1974?_272-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneede1974?-272">[272]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPasseron1975?_273-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPasseron1975?-273">[273]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPicon1977?_274-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPicon1977?-274">[274]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJean1980?_275-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJean1980?-275">[275]</a></sup>
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<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Chirico%27s_Love_Song.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Song of Love; by Giorgio de Chirico; 1914; oil on canvas; 73 x 59.1 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[276]"><img alt="The Song of Love; by Giorgio de Chirico; 1914; oil on canvas; 73 x 59.1 cm; Museum of Modern Art (New York City)[276]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/De_Chirico%27s_Love_Song.jpg/98px-De_Chirico%27s_Love_Song.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/De_Chirico%27s_Love_Song.jpg/146px-De_Chirico%27s_Love_Song.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/De_Chirico%27s_Love_Song.jpg/195px-De_Chirico%27s_Love_Song.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1249" data-file-height="1535" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Song_of_Love" title="The Song of Love">The Song of Love</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_de_Chirico" title="Giorgio de Chirico">Giorgio de Chirico</a>; 1914; oil on canvas; 73 x 59.1 cm; <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a> (New York City)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017351_276-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017351-276">[276]</a></sup></div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Elephant Celebes; by Max Ernst; 1921; oil on canvas; 125.4 × 107.9 cm; Tate Modern (London)"><img alt="The Elephant Celebes; by Max Ernst; 1921; oil on canvas; 125.4 × 107.9 cm; Tate Modern (London)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2b/The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg/104px-The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2b/The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg/157px-The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2b/The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg/209px-The_Elephant_Celebes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="609" data-file-height="699" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Elephant_Celebes" title="The Elephant Celebes">The Elephant Celebes</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Max_Ernst" title="Max Ernst">Max Ernst</a>; 1921; oil on canvas; 125.4 × 107.9 cm; <a href="/wiki/Tate_Modern" title="Tate Modern">Tate Modern</a> (London)</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mid_and_late_20th_century">Mid and late 20th century</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section's source code: Mid and late 20th century"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Expressionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Expressionism">Abstract Expressionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(visual_arts)" title="Minimalism (visual arts)">Minimalism (visual arts)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptual art</a></div>
<p>As Europe struggled to recover from World War II, America moved into a position of political, economic and cultural strength. During the 1940s and 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Abstract_Expressionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract Expressionism">Abstract Expressionism</a> emerged as the first specifically American art movement to have an international impact. In consequence, the art world's focus shifted from Europe to New York. Abstract Expressionists were a small group of loosely associated artists who had similar outlooks but different approaches. They were influenced by Surrealism, and believed in spontaneity, freedom of expression and abandonment of the themes of American life that had characterized national art of recent decades. One of the most famous representative of this movement was <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Pollock" title="Jackson Pollock">Jackson Pollock</a>, known for his painting made by pouring, flicking and dripping paint on to huge canvases on the ground. Other artists include <a href="/wiki/Willem_de_Kooning" title="Willem de Kooning">Willem de Kooning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Kline" title="Franz Kline">Franz Kline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Motherwell" title="Robert Motherwell">Robert Motherwell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barnett_Newman" title="Barnett Newman">Barnett Newman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Rothko" title="Mark Rothko">Mark Rothko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clyfford_Still" title="Clyfford Still">Clyfford Still</a>.
</p><p>After World War II, consumerism and the mass media surged, and as a result, <a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop art</a> developed in both London and New York. In a London exhibition in 1956, the word 'Pop' was used in a collage created by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hamilton_(artist)" title="Richard Hamilton (artist)">Richard Hamilton</a> (1922–2011) made of American magazines. Pop art was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, and interpreted ideas of pop culture. In celebrating and commenting on consumerism, pop artists, as they became known, produced colorful images based on advertising, the media and shopping, featuring film stars, comic strips, flags, packaging and food – things that everyone, rather than just a highbrow few, could relate to.
</p><p>The term <a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(visual_arts)" title="Minimalism (visual arts)">Minimalism</a> was not new, but it gained momentum in the 1960s, specifically describing a style of art characterized by detached restraint. Originating in New York, it was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism, but it also embraced <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivist</a> ideas that art should be made of modern materials. Thus, Minimalist artists, primarily sculptors, often used non-traditional materials and production methods, often employing industrial or specialist fabricators to produce works to their specifications. The term was chiefly used to describe a group of American sculptors who re-evaluated the space around them, aiming to challenge assumptions and present familiar objects in new ways. Their artworks don't have any symbolism or hidden meaning, as they try to enable viewers to re-evaluate art and space around forms. Unlike a figural sculpture on which the viewer focuses to the exclusion of the room in which it stands, Minimalist art becomes one with its space. By focusing on the effects of context and the theatricality of the viewing experience, Minimalism exerted an indirect but powerful influence on later developments in <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a>, as well as providing a foil for the rise of <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a>.
</p><p>Despite developing almost 50 years after <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Duchamp" title="Marcel Duchamp">Marcel Duchamp</a>'s ideas, <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptual art</a> showed that art does not always have to be judged aesthetically. It was never a single, cohesive movement, but an umbrella term that now covers several types of art and emerged more or less concurrently in America and Europe, first defined in New York. Conceptual artists promote the art of ideas, or concepts, suggesting that they can be more valid in the modern world than technical skill or aesthetics. No matter the art media of an artwork, it is considered as no more than a vehicle for presenting the concept. At its most extreme, Conceptual art foregoes the physical object completely, using verbal or written message to convey the idea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201742,_44,_46,_47_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201742,_44,_46,_47-277">[277]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDempsey2018104,_136_278-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempsey2018104,_136-278">[278]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017387_279-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017387-279">[279]</a></sup>
</p><p>Traditionally, many creative acts such as <a href="/wiki/Sewing" title="Sewing">sewing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weaving" title="Weaving">weaving</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quilting" title="Quilting">quilting</a> have been considered as <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_work" title="Women's work">women's work</a>, described as <a href="/wiki/Craft" title="Craft">crafts</a>, and denied the cachet and public recognition of so-called <a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">high or fine arts</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">sculpture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">painting</a>. Many artists have now challenged this hierarchy by either expanding the scope of a fine art such as sculpture, by creating <a href="/wiki/Soft_sculpture" title="Soft sculpture">soft sculptures</a> using unconventional materials and practices, or by reclaiming and redefining the materials and methods of so-called craftwork, publicly exhibiting their work in museums and galleries and thus elevating the status of the decorative and applied arts.<sup id="cite_ref-280" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a></sup> Artists of the twentieth and twenty first centuries effecting this radical change include <a href="/wiki/Maria_Martinez" title="Maria Martinez">Maria Martinez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anni_Albers" title="Anni Albers">Anni Albers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucie_Rie" title="Lucie Rie">Lucie Rie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lenore_Tawney" title="Lenore Tawney">Lenore Tawney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louise_Bourgeois" title="Louise Bourgeois">Louise Bourgeois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miriam_Schapiro" title="Miriam Schapiro">Miriam Schapiro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faith_Ringgold" title="Faith Ringgold">Faith Ringgold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magdalena_Abakanowicz" title="Magdalena Abakanowicz">Magdalena Abakanowicz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sheila_Hicks" title="Sheila Hicks">Sheila Hicks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marva_Lee_Pitchford-Jolly" title="Marva Lee Pitchford-Jolly">Marva Lee Pitchford-Jolly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judy_Chicago" title="Judy Chicago">Judy Chicago</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dindga_McCannon" title="Dindga McCannon">Dindga McCannon</a>.
</p>
<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional">
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IKB_191.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="IKB 191; by Yves Klein; 1962"><img alt="IKB 191; by Yves Klein; 1962" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/IKB_191.jpg/116px-IKB_191.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/IKB_191.jpg/175px-IKB_191.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/IKB_191.jpg/233px-IKB_191.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1496" data-file-height="1927" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i>IKB 191</i>; by <a href="/wiki/Yves_Klein" title="Yves Klein">Yves Klein</a>; 1962</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Keith_Haring_Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Boxers; by Keith Haring; 1987"><img alt="The Boxers; by Keith Haring; 1987" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Keith_Haring_Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg/112px-Keith_Haring_Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Keith_Haring_Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg/169px-Keith_Haring_Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Keith_Haring_Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg/225px-Keith_Haring_Berlin-Tiergarten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Boxers_(sculpture)" title="The Boxers (sculpture)">The Boxers</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Keith_Haring" title="Keith Haring">Keith Haring</a>; 1987</div>
</li>
<li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px">
<div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Barcelona_(3392396182).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="El Cap de Barcelona; by Roy Lichtenstein; 1991–1992"><img alt="El Cap de Barcelona; by Roy Lichtenstein; 1991–1992" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg/100px-Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg/150px-Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg/200px-Barcelona_%283392396182%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a></span></div>
<div class="gallerytext"><i><a href="/wiki/El_Cap_de_Barcelona" title="El Cap de Barcelona">El Cap de Barcelona</a></i>; by <a href="/wiki/Roy_Lichtenstein" title="Roy Lichtenstein">Roy Lichtenstein</a>; 1991–1992</div>
</li>
</ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section's source code: See also"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_animation" title="History of animation">History of animation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_art" title="History of Asian art">History of Asian art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_film" title="History of film">History of film</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History of literature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_music" title="History of music">History of music</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nude_art" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nude art">History of nude art</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_poetry" title="History of poetry">History of poetry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History of theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">History of video games</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List of art movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_artistic_movements" title="List of French artistic movements">List of French artistic movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods in Western art history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_for_invention_in_the_arts" title="Timeline for invention in the arts">Timeline for invention in the arts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_art" title="Timeline of art">Timeline of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Women_artists" title="Women artists">Women artists</a></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section's source code: Notes"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-Henshilwood_2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Henshilwood_2002_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1133582631">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFHenshilwood2002" class="citation journal cs1">Henshilwood, Christopher; et al. (2002). "Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa". <i>Science</i>. <b>295</b> (5558): 1278–1280. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002Sci...295.1278H">2002Sci...295.1278H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1067575">10.1126/science.1067575</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11786608">11786608</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31169551">31169551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Emergence+of+Modern+Human+Behavior%3A+Middle+Stone+Age+Engravings+from+South+Africa&rft.volume=295&rft.issue=5558&rft.pages=1278-1280&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1067575&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31169551%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11786608&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Sci...295.1278H&rft.aulast=Henshilwood&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Henshilwood_et_al._2009-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Henshilwood_et_al._2009_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHenshilwoodd'ErricoWatts2009" class="citation journal cs1">Henshilwood, Christopher S.; d'Errico, Francesco; Watts, Ian (2009). "Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa". <i>Journal of Human Evolution</i>. <b>57</b> (1): 27–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2009.01.005">10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19487016">19487016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Human+Evolution&rft.atitle=Engraved+ochres+from+the+Middle+Stone+Age+levels+at+Blombos+Cave%2C+South+Africa&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-47&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2009.01.005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19487016&rft.aulast=Henshilwood&rft.aufirst=Christopher+S.&rft.au=d%27Errico%2C+Francesco&rft.au=Watts%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Texier-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Texier_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTexierPorrazParkingtonRigaud2010" class="citation journal cs1">Texier, P. J.; Porraz, G.; Parkington, J.; Rigaud, J. P.; Poggenpoel, C.; Miller, C.; Tribolo, C.; Cartwright, C.; Coudenneau, A.; Klein, R.; Steele, T.; Verna, C. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851956">"A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>107</b> (14): 6180–6185. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PNAS..107.6180T">2010PNAS..107.6180T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0913047107">10.1073/pnas.0913047107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851956">2851956</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20194764">20194764</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+Howiesons+Poort+tradition+of+engraving+ostrich+eggshell+containers+dated+to+60%2C000+years+ago+at+Diepkloof+Rock+Shelter%2C+South+Africa&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=6180-6185&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2851956%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20194764&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0913047107&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PNAS..107.6180T&rft.aulast=Texier&rft.aufirst=P.+J.&rft.au=Porraz%2C+G.&rft.au=Parkington%2C+J.&rft.au=Rigaud%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Poggenpoel%2C+C.&rft.au=Miller%2C+C.&rft.au=Tribolo%2C+C.&rft.au=Cartwright%2C+C.&rft.au=Coudenneau%2C+A.&rft.au=Klein%2C+R.&rft.au=Steele%2C+T.&rft.au=Verna%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2851956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/14/science/14paint.html">"African Cave Yields Evidence of a Prehistoric Paint Factory"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. 13 October 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=African+Cave+Yields+Evidence+of+a+Prehistoric+Paint+Factory&rft.date=2011-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F10%2F14%2Fscience%2F14paint.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-unesco-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-unesco_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/229">"Place Stanislas, Place de la Carrière and Place d'Alliance in Nancy"</a>. <i>UNESCO World Heritage Centre</i>. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Place+Stanislas%2C+Place+de+la+Carri%C3%A8re+and+Place+d%27Alliance+in+Nancy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-figurative-art-now-world-treasure-180964035/">"World's Oldest Figurative Art is Now an Official World Treasure"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World%27s+Oldest+Figurative+Art+is+Now+an+Official+World+Treasure&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Foldest-figurative-art-now-world-treasure-180964035%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-18196349">"Earliest music instruments found"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 24 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Earliest+music+instruments+found&rft.date=2012-05-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-18196349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201712Fortenberry20171_&_2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201712Fortenberry20171_&_2_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, pp. 1 & 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20172-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20172_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20173-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20173_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 3.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174,_5,_6,_9,_12,_13-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174,_5,_6,_9,_12,_13_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGipson2021" class="citation book cs1">Gipson, Ferren (2021). <i>The Ultimate Art Museum</i>. Phaidon. pp. 20, 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-83866-2967" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-83866-2967"><bdi>978-1-83866-2967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Art+Museum&rft.pages=20%2C+21&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-83866-2967&rft.aulast=Gipson&rft.aufirst=Ferren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry20174_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 4.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201712-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201712_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 12.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201713-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201713_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>10,000 YEARS OF ART</i>. Phaidon. 2009. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0"><bdi>978-0-7148-4969-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=10%2C000+YEARS+OF+ART&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>10,000 YEARS OF ART</i>. Phaidon. 2009. p. 82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0"><bdi>978-0-7148-4969-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=10%2C000+YEARS+OF+ART&rft.pages=82&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAzcárate198329–34-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAzcárate198329–34_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAzcárate1983">Azcárate 1983</a>, pp. 29–34.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201719-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201719_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 19.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>10,000 YEARS OF ART</i>. Phaidon. 2009. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0"><bdi>978-0-7148-4969-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=10%2C000+YEARS+OF+ART&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201716-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201716_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201430-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201430_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 30.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017209_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 209.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>India - A History in Objects</i>. Thames & Hudson. 2022. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-48064-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-48064-9"><bdi>978-0-500-48064-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+-+A+History+in+Objects&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-500-48064-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201774-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201774_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 74.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201771_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 71.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. pp. 42, 43, 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=42%2C+43%2C+44&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201772-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201772_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 72.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Farthing44-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farthing44_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farthing44_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFNixey2017" class="citation book cs1">Nixey, Catherine (2017). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Darkening_Age" title="The Darkening Age">The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0544800885" title="Special:BookSources/978-0544800885"><bdi>978-0544800885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Darkening+Age%3A+The+Christian+Destruction+of+the+Classical+World&rft.pub=Macmillan+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0544800885&rft.aulast=Nixey&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201713-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201713_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201725-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201725_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 25.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins20146-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins20146_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, p. 6.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFZukowsky2019" class="citation book cs1">Zukowsky, John (2019). <i>A Chronology of Architecture</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-34356-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-34356-2"><bdi>978-0-500-34356-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Chronology+of+Architecture&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-500-34356-2&rft.aulast=Zukowsky&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFVinzenz_Brinkmann,_Renée_Dreyfus_and_Ulrike_Koch-Brinkmanny2017" class="citation book cs1">Vinzenz Brinkmann, Renée Dreyfus and Ulrike Koch-Brinkmanny (2017). <i>Gods in Color – polychromy in the ancient world</i>. Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Legion of Honor. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7913-5707-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7913-5707-2"><bdi>978-3-7913-5707-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gods+in+Color+%E2%80%93+polychromy+in+the+ancient+world&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Fine+Arts+Museums+of+San+Francisco%2C+Legion+of+Honor&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-7913-5707-2&rft.au=Vinzenz+Brinkmann%2C+Ren%C3%A9e+Dreyfus+and+Ulrike+Koch-Brinkmanny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201730-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201730_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 30.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201733-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201733_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 33.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2017" class="citation book cs1">Smith, David Michael (2017). <i>Pocket Museum - Ancient Greece</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-51958-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-51958-5"><bdi>978-0-500-51958-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pocket+Museum+-+Ancient+Greece&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-500-51958-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2017" class="citation book cs1">Smith, David Michael (2017). <i>Pocket Museum - Ancient Greece</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-51958-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-51958-5"><bdi>978-0-500-51958-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pocket+Museum+-+Ancient+Greece&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-500-51958-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=David+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Woodford2020" class="citation book cs1">Susan Woodford (2020). <i>Greek and Roman Art</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29525-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29525-0"><bdi>978-0-500-29525-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+and+Roman+Art&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-500-29525-0&rft.au=Susan+Woodford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201432-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201432_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201432_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 32.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSusan_Woodford2020" class="citation book cs1">Susan Woodford (2020). <i>Greek and Roman Art</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 265. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29525-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29525-0"><bdi>978-0-500-29525-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek+and+Roman+Art&rft.pages=265&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-500-29525-0&rft.au=Susan+Woodford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201752-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201752_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 52.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201446-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones201446_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 46.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToynbee1971439–442-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToynbee1971439–442_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToynbee1971">Toynbee 1971</a>, pp. 439–442.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757,_56,_55-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757,_56,_55_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 57, 56, 55.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201412Hodge201916-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201412Hodge201916_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, p. 12; <a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan2006" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan, Glancey (2006). <i>Architecture A Visual History</i>. DK, <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Random_House" title="Penguin Random House">Penguin Random House</a>. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2412-8843-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2412-8843-6"><bdi>978-0-2412-8843-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+A+Visual+History&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=DK%2C+Penguin+Random+House&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-2412-8843-6&rft.aulast=Jonathan&rft.aufirst=Glancey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201716_&_18-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201716_&_18_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, pp. 16 & 18.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201751-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201751_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 51.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201757_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 57.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIrving201936-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIrving201936_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIrving2019">Irving 2019</a>, p. 36.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017117-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017117_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 117.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017119-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017119_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017119_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 119.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017125-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017125_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 125.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014120-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014120_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 120.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017128-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017128_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 128.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGipson2021" class="citation book cs1">Gipson, Ferren (2021). <i>The Ultimate Art Museum</i>. Phaidon. pp. 92, 93, 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-83866-2967" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-83866-2967"><bdi>978-1-83866-2967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Art+Museum&rft.pages=92%2C+93%2C+94&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-83866-2967&rft.aulast=Gipson&rft.aufirst=Ferren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229,_232,_234-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229,_232,_234_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 229, 232, 234.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. pp. 34, 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=34%2C+35&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017229_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 229.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>10,000 YEARS OF ART</i>. Phaidon. 2009. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0"><bdi>978-0-7148-4969-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=10%2C000+YEARS+OF+ART&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017232-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017232_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 232.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>10,000 YEARS OF ART</i>. Phaidon. 2009. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0"><bdi>978-0-7148-4969-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=10%2C000+YEARS+OF+ART&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017234_66-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 234.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 238.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGipson2021" class="citation book cs1">Gipson, Ferren (2021). <i>The Ultimate Art Museum</i>. Phaidon. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-83866-2967" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-83866-2967"><bdi>978-1-83866-2967</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ultimate+Art+Museum&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-83866-2967&rft.aulast=Gipson&rft.aufirst=Ferren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238,_239,_240-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017238,_239,_240_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 238, 239, 240.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. pp. 19, 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=19%2C+113&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017240-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017240_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 240.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017241-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017241_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 241.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-1a-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1a_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTamara_Talbot_Rice2011" class="citation book cs1">Tamara Talbot Rice (July 2011). <i>Visual Arts</i>. Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visual+Arts&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2011-07&rft.au=Tamara+Talbot+Rice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-1b-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1b_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFİzWylieRice2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">İz, Fahir; Wylie, Turrell V.; Rice, Tamara Talbot (7 December 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Central-Asian-arts">"Central Asian arts"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Central+Asian+arts&rft.btitle=Britannica&rft.date=2023-12-07&rft.aulast=%C4%B0z&rft.aufirst=Fahir&rft.au=Wylie%2C+Turrell+V.&rft.au=Rice%2C+Tamara+Talbot&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fart%2FCentral-Asian-arts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201766-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201766_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201766_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 66.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201767-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201767_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 67.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation magazine cs1">"Mussée National des Arts Asiatiques Guimet". <i>Conaissance des Arts</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conaissance+des+Arts&rft.atitle=Muss%C3%A9e+National+des+Arts+Asiatiques+Guimet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarkman2015" class="citation book cs1">Barkman, Adam (2015). <i>Making sens of Islamic art & architecture</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29171-9"><bdi>978-0-500-29171-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+sens+of+Islamic+art+%26+architecture&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-500-29171-9&rft.aulast=Barkman&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBarkman2015" class="citation book cs1">Barkman, Adam (2015). <i>Making sens of Islamic art & architecture</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29171-9"><bdi>978-0-500-29171-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+sens+of+Islamic+art+%26+architecture&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-500-29171-9&rft.aulast=Barkman&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeiko201057–63-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeiko201057–63_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeiko2010">Keiko 2010</a>, pp. 57–63.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199426–47,_105–117-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199426–47,_105–117_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarle1994">Harle 1994</a>, pp. 26–47, 105–117.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarle199459–70-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarle199459–70_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarle1994">Harle 1994</a>, pp. 59–70.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201915-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201915_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017210-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017210_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 210.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017213-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017213_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017213_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 213.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017215-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017215_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017215_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 215.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014114-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014114_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 114.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>10,000 YEARS OF ART</i>. Phaidon. 2009. p. 228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-4969-0"><bdi>978-0-7148-4969-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=10%2C000+YEARS+OF+ART&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-4969-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017217-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017217_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 217.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201999-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201999_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 99.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014140-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014140_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 140.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201782-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201782_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 82.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201775-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201775_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 75.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201779-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201779_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 79.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201784-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201784_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 84.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201778-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry201778_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 78.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum2014159-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum2014159_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBritish_Museum2014">British Museum 2014</a>, p. 159.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014242-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014242_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 242.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014144-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014144_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 144.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017105-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017105_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 105.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017103-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017103_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 103.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017309-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017309_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017309_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 309.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017311-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017311_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 311.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017314_105-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 314.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2022" class="citation book cs1">Robertson, Hutton (2022). <i>The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 1040. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-02236-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-02236-8"><bdi>978-0-500-02236-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Art+-+From+Prehistory+to+Presentday+-+A+Global+View&rft.pages=1040&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-500-02236-8&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Hutton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017318-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017318_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 318.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201465-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201465_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBritish_Museum2014">British Museum 2014</a>, p. 65.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201452-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritish_Museum201452_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBritish_Museum2014">British Museum 2014</a>, p. 52.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruntThomasSalmondKasarherou2018104-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBruntThomasSalmondKasarherou2018104_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBruntThomasSalmondKasarherou2018">Brunt et al. 2018</a>, p. 104.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201715-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201715_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201962-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201962_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 62.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECavarnosMichelis1956506-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECavarnosMichelis1956506_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCavarnosMichelis1956">Cavarnos & Michelis 1956</a>, p. 506.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann1981?-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann1981?_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeitzmann1981">Weitzmann 1981</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKitzinger1977">Kitzinger 1977</a>, pp. 1‒3.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRice1968">Rice 1968</a>; <a href="#CITEREFWeitzmann1982">Weitzmann 1982</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRice1968">Rice 1968</a>, Chapters 15–17; <a href="#CITEREFWeitzmann1982">Weitzmann 1982</a>, Chapters 2–7; <a href="#CITEREFEvans2004">Evans 2004</a>, pp. 389–555.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_D._Hurmuziadis1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">George D. Hurmuziadis (1979). <i>Cultura Greciei</i> (in Romanian). Editura științifică și enciclopedică. p. 92 & 93.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultura+Greciei&rft.pages=92+%26+93&rft.pub=Editura+%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bific%C4%83+%C8%99i+enciclopedic%C4%83&rft.date=1979&rft.au=George+D.+Hurmuziadis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201417-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201417_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, p. 17.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017108-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017108_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 108.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017114-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017114_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 114.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017115-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017115_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 115.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arthistorians.info/janitschekh">"Dictionary of Art Historians: Janitschek, Hubert"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Art+Historians%3A+Janitschek%2C+Hubert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farthistorians.info%2Fjanitschekh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Suckale-Redlefsen,_524-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Suckale-Redlefsen,_524_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suckale-Redlefsen, 524</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beckwith, 81–86; Lasko, 82; Dodwell, 123–126</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Honour_and_Fleming,_277-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Honour_and_Fleming,_277_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Honour and Fleming, 277</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-HG-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HG_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGardnerKleiner2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Gardner_(art_historian)" title="Helen Gardner (art historian)">Gardner, Helen</a>; Kleiner, Fred S. (2009). <i>Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global History</i> (13th ed.). Australia: <a href="/wiki/Thomson/Wadsworth" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson/Wadsworth">Thomson/Wadsworth</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gardner%27s+Art+through+the+Ages%3A+A+Global+History&rft.place=Australia&rft.edition=13th&rft.pub=Thomson%2FWadsworth&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft.au=Kleiner%2C+Fred+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECaviness2001106-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECaviness2001106_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaviness2001">Caviness 2001</a>, p. 106.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoslin199028–29-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoslin199028–29_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoslin1990">Koslin 1990</a>, pp. 28–29.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMussetBertrand196623-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMussetBertrand196623_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMussetBertrand1966">Musset & Bertrand 1966</a>, p. 23.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017146-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017146_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 146.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160102083038/http://www.dom-speyer.de/daten/domspeyer/seiten/bauwerk.html">"Der Kaiserdom zu Speyer - Bauwerk"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dom-speyer.de/daten/domspeyer/seiten/bauwerk.html">the original</a> on 2016-01-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Der+Kaiserdom+zu+Speyer+-+Bauwerk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dom-speyer.de%2Fdaten%2Fdomspeyer%2Fseiten%2Fbauwerk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201924-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201924_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 24.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017147-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017147_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 147.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017144-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017144_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 144.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017149-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017149_137-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 149.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraur197052–53-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraur197052–53_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraur1970">Graur 1970</a>, pp. 52–53.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017151-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017151_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017151_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 151.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017152-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017152_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017152_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 152.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017153-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017153_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 153.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMelvin2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Melvin, Jeremy (2006). <i>…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale</i> (in Romanian). Enciclopedia RAO. p. 39. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-717-075-X" title="Special:BookSources/973-717-075-X"><bdi>973-717-075-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E2%80%A6isme+S%C4%83+%C3%8En%C8%9Belegem+Stilurile+Arhitecturale&rft.pages=39&rft.pub=Enciclopedia+RAO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=973-717-075-X&rft.aulast=Melvin&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017150-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017150_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 150.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Little, Stephen (2005). <i>…isme Să Înțelegem Arta</i> (in Romanian). Enciclopedia RAO. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-717-041-5" title="Special:BookSources/973-717-041-5"><bdi>973-717-041-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E2%80%A6isme+S%C4%83+%C3%8En%C8%9Belegem+Arta&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Enciclopedia+RAO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=973-717-041-5&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201716,_17,_18,_19,_21Fortenberry2017156,_182,_188Hodge201926-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201716,_17,_18,_19,_21Fortenberry2017156,_182,_188Hodge201926_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, pp. 16, 17, 18, 19, 21; <a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 156, 182, 188; <a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201982-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201982_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 82.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017157-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017157_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 157.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017191-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017191_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 191.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017165-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017165_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 165.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017168-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017168_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 168.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017170-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017170_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 170.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201926-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201926_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201768-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201768_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 68.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017194-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017194_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 194.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017177-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017177_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 177.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017175-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017175_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 175.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201447-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201447_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, p. 47.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017201-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017201_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 201.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJacquemart2012" class="citation book cs1">Jacquemart, Albert (2012). <i>Decorative Art</i>. Parkstone. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84484-899-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84484-899-7"><bdi>978-1-84484-899-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decorative+Art&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Parkstone&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-84484-899-7&rft.aulast=Jacquemart&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201723Fortenberry2017243Hopkins201470,_73,_84Bailey20124,_205,_286Graur1970175,_176-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201723Fortenberry2017243Hopkins201470,_73,_84Bailey20124,_205,_286Graur1970175,_176_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 23; <a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 243; <a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, pp. 70, 73, 84; <a href="#CITEREFBailey2012">Bailey 2012</a>, pp. 4, 205, 286; <a href="#CITEREFGraur1970">Graur 1970</a>, pp. 175, 176.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins201485-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins201485_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, p. 85.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017243-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017243_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 243.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017256-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017256_163-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 256.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017252-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017252_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 252.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017262-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017262_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 262.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMorrill2019" class="citation book cs1">Morrill, Rebecca (2019). <i>Great Women Artists</i>. Phaidon. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7877-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7877-5"><bdi>978-0-7148-7877-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Women+Artists&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2012238-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2012238_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBailey2012">Bailey 2012</a>, p. 238.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2012287-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2012287_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBailey2012">Bailey 2012</a>, p. 287.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMarnie2013" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Marnie, Fogg (2013). <i>Fashion: The Whole Story</i> (in Romanian). Thames & Hudson. p. 111 & 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500291108" title="Special:BookSources/9780500291108"><bdi>9780500291108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fashion%3A+The+Whole+Story&rft.pages=111+%26+112&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780500291108&rft.aulast=Marnie&rft.aufirst=Fogg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201724Fortenberry2017256Hopkins201492,_95Bailey2012272,_288Graur1970194,_195-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201724Fortenberry2017256Hopkins201492,_95Bailey2012272,_288Graur1970194,_195_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 24; <a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 256; <a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, pp. 92, 95; <a href="#CITEREFBailey2012">Bailey 2012</a>, pp. 272, 288; <a href="#CITEREFGraur1970">Graur 1970</a>, pp. 194, 195.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017265-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017265_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 265.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHall2019" class="citation book cs1">Hall, William (2019). <i>Stone</i>. Phaidon. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7925-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7925-3"><bdi>978-0-7148-7925-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stone&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267_173-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267_173-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017267_173-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 267.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014238-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014238_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2014">Jones 2014</a>, p. 238.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFJones2014 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017276-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017276_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 276.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 260. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=260&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201725Fortenberry2017273-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201725Fortenberry2017273_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 25; <a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 273.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailey2012407-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBailey2012407_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBailey2012">Bailey 2012</a>, p. 407.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFde_Martin1925" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Martin, Henry (1925). <i>Le Style Louis XV</i> (in French). Flammarion. p. 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+Style+Louis+XV&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Flammarion&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=de+Martin&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014272-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014272_180-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 272.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017275-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017275_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 275.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017274-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017274_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 274.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHonourFleming2009" class="citation book cs1">Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John (2009). <i>A World History of Art - Revised Seventh Edition</i>. Laurence King. p. 616. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-584-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-584-8"><bdi>978-1-85669-584-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+History+of+Art+-+Revised+Seventh+Edition&rft.pages=616&rft.pub=Laurence+King&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-85669-584-8&rft.aulast=Honour&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft.au=Fleming%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMorrill2019" class="citation book cs1">Morrill, Rebecca (2019). <i>Great Women Artists</i>. Phaidon. p. 419. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7877-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7877-5"><bdi>978-0-7148-7877-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Women+Artists&rft.pages=419&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-7877-5&rft.aulast=Morrill&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017278-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017278_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 278.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977740-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977740_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnason1977">Arnason 1977</a>, p. 740.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson1977767-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977767_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJanson1977">Janson 1977</a>, p. 767.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStarobinski1964-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStarobinski1964_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStarobinski1964">Starobinski 1964</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeyser1965?-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeyser1965?_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKeyser1965">Keyser 1965</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPonente1965?_190-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPonente1965">Ponente 1965</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToman2000?-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToman2000?_191-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToman2000?_191-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToman2000">Toman 2000</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979221-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979221_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaval1979">Daval 1979</a>, p. 221.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWeston2011" class="citation book cs1">Weston, Richard (2011). <i>100 Ideas That Changed Architecture</i>. Laurence King. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78627-567-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78627-567-7"><bdi>978-1-78627-567-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=100+Ideas+That+Changed+Architecture&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Laurence+King&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-78627-567-7&rft.aulast=Weston&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJanson1977?_194-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJanson1977">Janson 1977</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201726-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201726_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 267. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=267&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBris1981?-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBris1981?_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBris1981">Bris 1981</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1981?-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1981?_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClay1981">Clay 1981</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2019286-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2019286_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 286.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017286-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017286_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 286.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017280-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017280_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 280.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017281-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017281_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 281.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2019114-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2019114_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 114.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. pp. 276, 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=276%2C+277&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Little, Stephen (2005). <i>…isme Să Înțelegem Arta</i> (in Romanian). Rao. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-717-041-5" title="Special:BookSources/973-717-041-5"><bdi>973-717-041-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E2%80%A6isme+S%C4%83+%C3%8En%C8%9Belegem+Arta&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Rao&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=973-717-041-5&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014296-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogersGumuchdjianJones2014296_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014">Rogers, Gumuchdjian & Jones 2014</a>, p. 296.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 278. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=278&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 277. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=277&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFVictoria_Clarke2020" class="citation book cs1">Victoria Clarke, ed. (2020). <i>FLOWER: Exploring the World in Bloom</i>. Phaidon. p. 28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=FLOWER%3A+Exploring+the+World+in+Bloom&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLuckhurst2021" class="citation book cs1">Luckhurst, Roger (2021). <i>GOTHIC – An Illustrated History</i>. Thames & Hudson. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25251-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-25251-2"><bdi>978-0-500-25251-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=GOTHIC+%E2%80%93+An+Illustrated+History&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-500-25251-2&rft.aulast=Luckhurst&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergdoll2000139,_141,_142-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergdoll2000139,_141,_142_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBergdoll2000">Bergdoll 2000</a>, pp. 139, 141, 142.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEArnason1977?_212-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArnason1977">Arnason 1977</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1962?-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1962?_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeymarie1962">Leymarie 1962</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?_214-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?_214-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlunden1976?_214-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlunden1976">Blunden 1976</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1973?-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1973?_215-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1973?_215-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClay1973">Clay 1973</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaunce1993?-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFaunce1993?_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFaunce1993">Faunce 1993</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017289-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017289_217-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017289_217-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 289.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Farthing302-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farthing302_218-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farthing302_218-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFarthing2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Farthing, Stephen (2020). <i>ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană</i> (in Romanian). rao. p. 302. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-606-006-392-6"><bdi>978-606-006-392-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ARTA+Istoria+Artei+de+la+pictura+rupestr%C4%83+la+arta+urban%C4%83&rft.pages=302&rft.pub=rao&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-606-006-392-6&rft.aulast=Farthing&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017291_219-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 291.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECourthion1979?-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourthion1979?_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourthion1979?_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCourthion1979">Courthion 1979</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1955?-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1955?_221-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1955?_221-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeymarie1955">Leymarie 1955</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293_222-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293_222-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017293_222-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 293.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017294-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017294_223-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 294.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?_224-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?_224-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDelevoy1978?_224-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDelevoy1978">Delevoy 1978</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECassou1979?-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassou1979?_225-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassou1979?_225-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECassou1979?_225-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCassou1979">Cassou 1979</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-nyt-morris-2007-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-morris-2007_226-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2007" class="citation web cs1">Morris, Roderick Conway (2007-03-16). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html">"The elusive Symbolist movement"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/16/arts/16iht-conway.4930748.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+elusive+Symbolist+movement&rft.date=2007-03-16&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Roderick+Conway&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2007%2F03%2F16%2Farts%2F16iht-conway.4930748.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307_227-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307_227-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017307_227-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 307.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.moma.org/collection/works/80362">"Odilon Redon. Green Death. c. 1905"</a>. <i>moma.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=moma.org&rft.atitle=Odilon+Redon.+Green+Death.+c.+1905&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.moma.org%2Fcollection%2Fworks%2F80362&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017305_229-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 305.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaynal1954?-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaynal1954?_230-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRaynal1954">Raynal 1954</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchapiro1962?-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchapiro1962?_231-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchapiro1962">Schapiro 1962</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953a?-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953a?_232-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEstienne1953a">Estienne 1953a</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldwater1972?-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldwater1972?_233-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldwater1972">Goldwater 1972</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECourthion1988?-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourthion1988?_234-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCourthion1988">Courthion 1988</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexandrian1980?-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexandrian1980?_235-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlexandrian1980">Alexandrian 1980</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953b?-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEstienne1953b?_236-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEstienne1953b">Estienne 1953b</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchapiro1950?-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchapiro1950?_237-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchapiro1950">Schapiro 1950</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELassaigne1950?-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELassaigne1950?_238-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLassaigne1950">Lassaigne 1950</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper1966?-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooper1966?_239-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCooper1966">Cooper 1966</a>, p. ?.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaynal1953?-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaynal1953?_240-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaynal1953?_240-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRaynal1953">Raynal 1953</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1979?_241-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaval1979">Daval 1979</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPreston1974?-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston1974?_242-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPreston1974">Preston 1974</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarnod1989?-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarnod1989?_243-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarnod1989">Warnod 1989</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETerrasse1964?-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETerrasse1964?_244-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTerrasse1964">Terrasse 1964</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFermigier1969?-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFermigier1969?_245-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFermigier1969">Fermigier 1969</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins2014141-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins2014141_246-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, p. 141.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBergdoll2000" class="citation book cs1">Bergdoll, Barry (2000). <i>European Architecture 1750–1890</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 269, 279. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-284222-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-284222-0"><bdi>978-0-19-284222-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Architecture+1750%E2%80%931890&rft.pages=269%2C+279&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-284222-0&rft.aulast=Bergdoll&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201731Hopkins2014140,_141Hodge201936-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201731Hopkins2014140,_141Hodge201936_248-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 31; <a href="#CITEREFHopkins2014">Hopkins 2014</a>, pp. 140, 141; <a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 36.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeymarie1959?_249-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeymarie1959">Leymarie 1959</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1978-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1978_250-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClay1978">Clay 1978</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClay1978?-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1978?_251-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClay1978?_251-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClay1978">Clay 1978</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Diehl_(1972)-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Diehl_(1972)_252-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diehl_(1972)_252-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diehl, Gaston (1972) The Fauves: Library of Great Art Movements. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York. 168 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-0114-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-0114-5">0-8109-0114-5</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELassaigne1959?-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELassaigne1959?_253-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELassaigne1959?_253-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLassaigne1959">Lassaigne 1959</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Jacobus_(1973)-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobus_(1973)_254-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacobus_(1973)_254-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jacobus, J. (1973) Matisse: Library of Great Painters. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., Publishers, New York, 184 pp.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempsey201831-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDempsey201831_255-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDempsey2018">Dempsey 2018</a>, p. 31.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017335-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017335_256-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017335_256-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 335.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDube1983?-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDube1983?_257-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDube1983">Dube 1983</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichard1978?-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichard1978?_258-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichard1978">Richard 1978</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?_259-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?_259-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaval1980?_259-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDaval1980">Daval 1980</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2017118-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2017118_260-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 118.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017336-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017336_261-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 336.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge2019156-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge2019156_262-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 156.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201732-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201732_263-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, p. 32.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330_264-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330_264-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017330_264-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 330.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017332-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017332_265-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017332_265-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 332.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempsey201870-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDempsey201870_266-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDempsey2018">Dempsey 2018</a>, p. 70.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201944-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201944_267-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2019">Hodge 2019</a>, p. 44.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreton1924?-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreton1924?_268-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreton1924?_268-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBreton1924">Breton 1924</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreton1929?-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreton1929?_269-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBreton1929">Breton 1929</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldberg1962?-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldberg1962?_270-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldberg1962?_270-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaldberg1962">Waldberg 1962</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERubin1968?-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1968?_271-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERubin1968?_271-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRubin1968">Rubin 1968</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchneede1974?-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneede1974?_272-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchneede1974?_272-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchneede1974">Schneede 1974</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPasseron1975?-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPasseron1975?_273-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPasseron1975?_273-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPasseron1975">Passeron 1975</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPicon1977?-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPicon1977?_274-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPicon1977?_274-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPicon1977">Picon 1977</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJean1980?-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJean1980?_275-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJean1980?_275-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJean1980">Jean 1980</a>, p. ?.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017351-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017351_276-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 351.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge201742,_44,_46,_47-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge201742,_44,_46,_47_277-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge2017">Hodge 2017</a>, pp. 42, 44, 46, 47.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDempsey2018104,_136-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDempsey2018104,_136_278-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDempsey2018">Dempsey 2018</a>, pp. 104, 136.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017387-279"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFortenberry2017387_279-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortenberry2017">Fortenberry 2017</a>, p. 387.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-280"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGipson2022" class="citation book cs1">Gipson, Ferren (2022). <i>Women's work: from feminine arts to feminist art</i>. London: Frances Lincoln. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-6465-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-6465-6"><bdi>978-0-7112-6465-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women%27s+work%3A+from+feminine+arts+to+feminist+art&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Frances+Lincoln&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-7112-6465-6&rft.aulast=Gipson&rft.aufirst=Ferren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
</ol></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section's source code: References"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAlexandrian1980" class="citation book cs1">Alexandrian, Sarane (1980). <i>Seurat</i>. New York: Crown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-517-54106-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-517-54106-8"><bdi>0-517-54106-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seurat&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-517-54106-8&rft.aulast=Alexandrian&rft.aufirst=Sarane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFArnason1977" class="citation book cs1">Arnason, H. H. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Gup5wgEACAAJ"><i>History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture</i></a> (2d ed., rev. and enl. ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-390351-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-390351-6"><bdi>0-13-390351-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=Gup5wgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Modern+Art%3A+Painting%2C+Sculpture%2C+Architecture&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J.&rft.edition=2d+ed.%2C+rev.+and+enl.&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-13-390351-6&rft.aulast=Arnason&rft.aufirst=H.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGup5wgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAzcárate1983" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Azcárate, José María de (1983). <i>Historia del arte</i> (in Spanish). Madrid: Anaya. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-207-1408-9" title="Special:BookSources/84-207-1408-9"><bdi>84-207-1408-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+del+arte&rft.place=Madrid&rft.pub=Anaya&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=84-207-1408-9&rft.aulast=Azc%C3%A1rate&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9+Mar%C3%ADa+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBailey2012" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, Gauvin Alexander (2012). <i>Baroque & Rococo</i>. Phaidon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-5742-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-5742-8"><bdi>978-0-7148-5742-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Baroque+%26+Rococo&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-5742-8&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Gauvin+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBlunden1976" class="citation book cs1">Blunden, Maria (1976). <i>Impressionists and impressionism</i>. Geneva: Skira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-0047-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-0047-4"><bdi>0-8478-0047-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Impressionists+and+impressionism&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-8478-0047-4&rft.aulast=Blunden&rft.aufirst=Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBris1981" class="citation book cs1">Bris, Michel Le (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9l_kzQEACAAJ"><i>Romantics and Romanticism by Michel Le Bris</i></a>. MacMillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://books.google.com/books?id=9l_kzQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romantics+and+Romanticism+by+Michel+Le+Bris&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Bris&rft.aufirst=Michel+Le&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9l_kzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBreton1929" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Breton, André (1929-12-15) [1930]. Kra, Simon (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inventin.lautre.net/livres/La-revolution-surrealiste-12.pdf">"Second Manifeste du Surréalisme"</a> [Second manifesto of surrealism] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>La Révolution surréaliste</i> (in French). Paris: Éditions Kra. <b>2</b> (12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308225152/https://inventin.lautre.net/livres/La-revolution-surrealiste-12.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-03-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=La+R%C3%A9volution+surr%C3%A9aliste&rft.atitle=Second+Manifeste+du+Surr%C3%A9alisme&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=12&rft.date=1929-12-15&rft.aulast=Breton&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finventin.lautre.net%2Flivres%2FLa-revolution-surrealiste-12.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBreton1924" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Breton, André (1924), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tcf.ua.edu/Classes/Jbutler/T340/SurManifesto/ManifestoOfSurrealism.htm"><i>Manifeste du Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble</i></a> [<i>Manifesto of Surrealism: Poissòn Soluble</i>] (in French), vol. 1st, Paris: Aux du Sagittaire, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210427181009/https://www.tcf.ua.edu/Classes/Jbutler/T340/SurManifesto/ManifestoOfSurrealism.htm">archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-27<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manifeste+du+Surrealism%3A+Poiss%C3%B2n+Soluble&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Aux+du+Sagittaire&rft.date=1924&rft.aulast=Breton&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftcf.ua.edu%2FClasses%2FJbutler%2FT340%2FSurManifesto%2FManifestoOfSurrealism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBritish_Museum2014" class="citation book cs1"><i>Masterpieces of the British Museum</i>. The British Museum. 2014. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-5105-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-5105-2"><bdi>978-0-7141-5105-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masterpieces+of+the+British+Museum&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=The+British+Museum&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-7141-5105-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBruntThomasSalmondKasarherou2018" class="citation book cs1">Brunt, Peter William; Thomas, Nicholas; Salmond, Anne; Kasarherou, Emmanuel; Mel, Michael A. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kS7swEACAAJ"><i>Oceania</i></a>. Royal Academy of Arts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-910350-49-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-910350-49-2"><bdi>978-1-910350-49-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=2kS7swEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oceania&rft.pub=Royal+Academy+of+Arts&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-910350-49-2&rft.aulast=Brunt&rft.aufirst=Peter+William&rft.au=Thomas%2C+Nicholas&rft.au=Salmond%2C+Anne&rft.au=Kasarherou%2C+Emmanuel&rft.au=Mel%2C+Michael+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2kS7swEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCassou1979" class="citation book cs1">Cassou, Jean (1979). <i>The concise encyclopedia of symbolism</i>. Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89009-706-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-89009-706-2"><bdi>0-89009-706-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+concise+encyclopedia+of+symbolism&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Chartwell+Books&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-89009-706-2&rft.aulast=Cassou&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCavarnosMichelis1956" class="citation journal cs1">Cavarnos, Constantine; Michelis, P. A. (1956) [1946]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.indianculture.gov.in/aesthetic-approach-byzantine-art">"An Aesthetic Approach to Byzantine Art"</a>. <i>The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism</i>. <b>14</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F426006">10.2307/426006</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/426006">426006</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220203/https://www.indianculture.gov.in/aesthetic-approach-byzantine-art">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Aesthetics+and+Art+Criticism&rft.atitle=An+Aesthetic+Approach+to+Byzantine+Art&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F426006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F426006%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cavarnos&rft.aufirst=Constantine&rft.au=Michelis%2C+P.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.indianculture.gov.in%2Faesthetic-approach-byzantine-art&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCaviness2001" class="citation book cs1">Caviness, Madeline Harrison (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dca.lib.tufts.edu/caviness/abstract.html"><i>Reframing Medieval Art: Difference, Margins, Boundaries</i></a>. Medford, MA: Tufts University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/http://dca.lib.tufts.edu/caviness/abstract.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reframing+Medieval+Art%3A+Difference%2C+Margins%2C+Boundaries&rft.place=Medford%2C+MA&rft.pub=Tufts+University&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Caviness&rft.aufirst=Madeline+Harrison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdca.lib.tufts.edu%2Fcaviness%2Fabstract.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFClay1973" class="citation book cs1">Clay, Jean (1973). <i>Impressionism</i>. Secaucus: Chartwell Books Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-399-11039-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-399-11039-9"><bdi>0-399-11039-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Impressionism&rft.place=Secaucus&rft.pub=Chartwell+Books+Inc.&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-399-11039-9&rft.aulast=Clay&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFClay1978" class="citation book cs1">Clay, Jean, ed. (1978). <i>From Impressionism to Modern Art 1890–1918</i>. Secaucus, New Jersey: Chartwell Books Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89009-544-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-89009-544-2"><bdi>0-89009-544-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Impressionism+to+Modern+Art+1890%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Chartwell+Books+Inc&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-89009-544-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFClay1981" class="citation book cs1">Clay, Jean (1981). <i>Romanticism</i>. New Jersey: Chartwell Books, Inc. Secaucus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romanticism&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=Chartwell+Books%2C+Inc.+Secaucus&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Clay&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCooper1966" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Douglas (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ"><i>Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec</i></a>. New York: H.N. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-0512-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-0512-4"><bdi>0-8109-0512-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGhZwgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Henri+de+Toulouse-Lautrec&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=H.N.+Abrams&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=0-8109-0512-4&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgGhZwgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCourthion1979" class="citation book cs1">Courthion, Pierre (1979). <i>Impressionism</i>. New York: H.N. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-0202-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-0202-8"><bdi>0-8109-0202-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Impressionism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=H.N.+Abrams&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-8109-0202-8&rft.aulast=Courthion&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFCourthion1988" class="citation book cs1">Courthion, Pierre (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ"><i>Georges Seurat</i></a>. New York: H.N. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-1519-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-1519-7"><bdi>0-8109-1519-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224307/https://books.google.com/books?id=4ks8vQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georges+Seurat&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=H.N.+Abrams&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-8109-1519-7&rft.aulast=Courthion&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4ks8vQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDaval1979" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Daval, Jean Luc (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ"><i>Modern art: The decisive years 1884–1914</i></a> (in French). Translated by Harrison, Helga. Geneva: Skira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-0212-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-0212-4"><bdi>0-8478-0212-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224305/https://books.google.com/books?id=gtwQwgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+art%3A+The+decisive+years+1884%E2%80%931914&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-8478-0212-4&rft.aulast=Daval&rft.aufirst=Jean+Luc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgtwQwgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDaval1980" class="citation book cs1">Daval, Jean-Luc (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ"><i>Avant-garde art, 1914–1939</i></a>. Geneva: Skira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-0334-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-0334-1"><bdi>0-8478-0334-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=iIB7xwEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Avant-garde+art%2C+1914%E2%80%931939&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-8478-0334-1&rft.aulast=Daval&rft.aufirst=Jean-Luc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiIB7xwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDelevoy1978" class="citation book cs1">Delevoy, Robert L. (1978). <i>Symbolists and Symbolism</i>. New York: Skira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-0141-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-0141-1"><bdi>0-8478-0141-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Symbolists+and+Symbolism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-8478-0141-1&rft.aulast=Delevoy&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDempsey2018" class="citation book cs1">Dempsey, Amy (2018). <i>Modern Art</i>. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29322-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29322-5"><bdi>978-0-500-29322-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Art&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-500-29322-5&rft.aulast=Dempsey&rft.aufirst=Amy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDube1983" class="citation book cs1">Dube, Wolf Dieter (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ"><i>Expressionists and expressionism</i></a>. Geneva: Skira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8478-0494-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8478-0494-8"><bdi>978-0-8478-0494-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WyQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Expressionists+and+expressionism&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8478-0494-8&rft.aulast=Dube&rft.aufirst=Wolf+Dieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL-WyQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEstienne1953a" class="citation book cs1">Estienne, Charles (1953a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ"><i>Gauguin: Biographical and Critical Studies: The Taste of Our Time</i></a>. Vol. 1. Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtiuyAEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gauguin%3A+Biographical+and+Critical+Studies%3A+The+Taste+of+Our+Time&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Estienne&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGtiuyAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEstienne1953b" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Estienne, Charles (1953b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ"><i>Van Gogh: Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time</i></a> (in French). Vol. 2. Geneva: Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=eky8zQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Van+Gogh%3A+Critical+Study%3A+The+Taste+of+Our+Time&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Estienne&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Deky8zQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2004" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Helen C. (2004). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/byzantiumfaithpo0000unse"><i>Byzantium, Faith and Power (1261–1557)</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Metropolitan Museum of Art/Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-114-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-114-8"><bdi>978-1-58839-114-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%2C+Faith+and+Power+%281261%E2%80%931557%29&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art%2FYale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-114-8&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Helen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantiumfaithpo0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFaunce1993" class="citation book cs1">Faunce, Sarah (1993). <i>Gustave Courbet</i>. New York: H.N. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-3182-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-3182-6"><bdi>0-8109-3182-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gustave+Courbet&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=H.N.+Abrams&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-8109-3182-6&rft.aulast=Faunce&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFermigier1969" class="citation book cs1">Fermigier, André (1969). <i>Pierre Bonnard: The Library of Great Painters</i> (1st ed.). New York: Harry N. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-0041-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-0041-6"><bdi>0-8109-0041-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pierre+Bonnard%3A+The+Library+of+Great+Painters&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Harry+N.+Abrams&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-8109-0041-6&rft.aulast=Fermigier&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFFortenberry2017" class="citation book cs1">Fortenberry, Diane (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ"><i>The Art Museum</i></a> (Revised ed.). London: Phaidon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7502-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7148-7502-6"><bdi>978-0-7148-7502-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220204/https://books.google.com/books?id=YsxDswEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+Museum&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Phaidon+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7148-7502-6&rft.aulast=Fortenberry&rft.aufirst=Diane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYsxDswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGoldwater1972" class="citation book cs1">Goldwater, Robert (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YfA1yQEACAAJ"><i>Paul Gauguin: The Library of Great Painters</i></a>. Harry N. Abrams. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224306/https://books.google.com/books?id=YfA1yQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paul+Gauguin%3A+The+Library+of+Great+Painters&rft.pub=Harry+N.+Abrams&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Goldwater&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYfA1yQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGraur1970" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Graur, Neaga (1970). <i>Stiluri în arta decorativă</i> (in Romanian). Cerces.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stiluri+%C3%AEn+arta+decorativ%C4%83&rft.pub=Cerces&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Graur&rft.aufirst=Neaga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHarle1994" class="citation book cs1">Harle, J. C. (1994). <i>The art and architecture of the Indian subcontinent</i> (2nd ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06217-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-06217-6"><bdi>0-300-06217-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+and+architecture+of+the+Indian+subcontinent&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-300-06217-6&rft.aulast=Harle&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHodge2017" class="citation book cs1">Hodge, Susie (2017). <i>The Short Story of Art</i>. Laurence King Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78067-968-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78067-968-6"><bdi>978-1-78067-968-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Short+Story+of+Art&rft.pub=Laurence+King+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78067-968-6&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=Susie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHodge2019" class="citation book cs1">Hodge, Susie (2019). <i>The Short Story of Architecture</i>. Laurence King Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7862-7370-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7862-7370-3"><bdi>978-1-7862-7370-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Short+Story+of+Architecture&rft.pub=Laurence+King+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-7862-7370-3&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=Susie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHopkins2014" class="citation book cs1">Hopkins, Owen (2014). <i>Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide</i>. Laurence King. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-178067-163-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-178067-163-5"><bdi>978-178067-163-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architectural+Styles%3A+A+Visual+Guide&rft.pub=Laurence+King&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-178067-163-5&rft.aulast=Hopkins&rft.aufirst=Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFIrving2019" class="citation book cs1">Irving, Mark (2019). <i>1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die</i>. Cassell Illustrated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78840-176-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78840-176-0"><bdi>978-1-78840-176-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1001+Buildings+You+Must+See+Before+You+Die&rft.pub=Cassell+Illustrated&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-78840-176-0&rft.aulast=Irving&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJanson1977" class="citation book cs1">Janson, Anthony F. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17656707"><i>History of art, second edition, H.W. Janson. Instructor's manual</i></a>. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-389304-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-389304-9"><bdi>0-13-389304-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17656707">17656707</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030500/https://www.worldcat.org/title/history-of-art-second-edition-hw-janson-instructors-manual/oclc/17656707">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+art%2C+second+edition%2C+H.W.+Janson.+Instructor%27s+manual&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17656707&rft.isbn=0-13-389304-9&rft.aulast=Janson&rft.aufirst=Anthony+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F17656707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJean1980" class="citation book cs1">Jean, Marcel (1980). <i>The Autobiography of Surrealism</i>. New York: Viking Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-14235-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-670-14235-2"><bdi>0-670-14235-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Autobiography+of+Surrealism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-670-14235-2&rft.aulast=Jean&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKeiko2010" class="citation book cs1">Keiko, Yamada (2010). <i>Origin and Historical Evolution of the Identity of Modern Telugus</i>. Economic and Political Weekly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origin+and+Historical+Evolution+of+the+Identity+of+Modern+Telugus&rft.pub=Economic+and+Political+Weekly&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Keiko&rft.aufirst=Yamada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKeyser1965" class="citation book cs1">Keyser, Eugénie de (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ucHpAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Romantic West, 1789–1850</i></a>. World Publishing Company, Cleveland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-320-06349-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-320-06349-7"><bdi>978-0-320-06349-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ucHpAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romantic+West%2C+1789%E2%80%931850&rft.pub=World+Publishing+Company%2C+Cleveland&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-320-06349-7&rft.aulast=Keyser&rft.aufirst=Eug%C3%A9nie+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DucHpAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKitzinger1977" class="citation book cs1">Kitzinger, Ernst (1977). <i>Byzantine Art in the Making: Main Lines of Stylistic Development in Mediterranean Art, 3rd‒7th Century</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0571111541" title="Special:BookSources/978-0571111541"><bdi>978-0571111541</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Art+in+the+Making%3A+Main+Lines+of+Stylistic+Development+in+Mediterranean+Art%2C+3rd%E2%80%927th+Century&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0571111541&rft.aulast=Kitzinger&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKoslin1990" class="citation journal cs1">Koslin, Desirée (1990). "Turning Time in the Bayeux Embroidery". <i>Textile & Text</i>. <b>13</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Textile+%26+Text&rft.atitle=Turning+Time+in+the+Bayeux+Embroidery&rft.volume=13&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Koslin&rft.aufirst=Desir%C3%A9e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLassaigne1950" class="citation book cs1">Lassaigne, James (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2oTgzAEACAAJ"><i>Lautrec: Biographical and Critical Studies, The Taste of Our Time</i></a>. Vol. 3. Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224302/https://books.google.com/books?id=2oTgzAEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lautrec%3A+Biographical+and+Critical+Studies%2C+The+Taste+of+Our+Time&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Lassaigne&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2oTgzAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLassaigne1959" class="citation book cs1">Lassaigne, Jacques (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ"><i>Matisse: Biographical and Critical Study</i></a>. Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224301/https://books.google.com/books?id=irjqAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matisse%3A+Biographical+and+Critical+Study&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Lassaigne&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DirjqAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLeymarie1955" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Leymarie, Jean (1955). <i>Impressionism, Vols. 11 & 12: The Taste of Our Time</i>. Vol. 11–12. Geneva: Skira.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Impressionism%2C+Vols.+11+%26+12%3A+The+Taste+of+Our+Time&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Leymarie&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLeymarie1959" class="citation book cs1">Leymarie, Jean (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ"><i>Fauvism: Biographical and Critical Study. Translated by James Emmons</i></a>. Vol. 28. Geneva: Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224254/https://books.google.com/books?id=0GEKzQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fauvism%3A+Biographical+and+Critical+Study.+Translated+by+James+Emmons&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Leymarie&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0GEKzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLeymarie1962" class="citation book cs1">Leymarie, Jean (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ"><i>French Painting: The Nineteenth Century</i></a>. Geneva: Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224252/https://books.google.com/books?id=8pbDwgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French+Painting%3A+The+Nineteenth+Century&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Leymarie&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8pbDwgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMussetBertrand1966" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Musset, Lucien; Bertrand, Simone (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ"><i>La tapisserie de Bayeux: œuvre d'art et document historique</i></a> [<i>The Bayeux tapestry: work of art and historical document</i>] (in French). La Pierre-qui-Vire: Zodiaque. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7369-0170-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7369-0170-7"><bdi>978-2-7369-0170-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=5zpazgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>. <q>et combien pauvre alors ce nom de broderie nous apparaît-il!</q> [and how poor then this name of embroidery appears to us!]</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+tapisserie+de+Bayeux%3A+%C5%93uvre+d%27art+et+document+historique&rft.place=La+Pierre-qui-Vire&rft.pub=Zodiaque&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-2-7369-0170-7&rft.aulast=Musset&rft.aufirst=Lucien&rft.au=Bertrand%2C+Simone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5zpazgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPasseron1975" class="citation book cs1">Passeron, René (1975). <i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Surrealism</i>. Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89009-664-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-89009-664-3"><bdi>0-89009-664-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Surrealism&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Chartwell&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-89009-664-3&rft.aulast=Passeron&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPicon1977" class="citation book cs1">Picon, Gaëtan (1977). <i>Surrealists and Surrealism, 1919-1939</i>. New York: Rizzoli International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8478-0041-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8478-0041-5"><bdi>0-8478-0041-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surrealists+and+Surrealism%2C+1919-1939&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Rizzoli+International&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-8478-0041-5&rft.aulast=Picon&rft.aufirst=Ga%C3%ABtan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPonente1965" class="citation book cs1">Ponente, Nello (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Structures of the Modern World, 1850-1900</i></a>. Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224302/https://books.google.com/books?id=-rNXAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structures+of+the+Modern+World%2C+1850-1900&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Ponente&rft.aufirst=Nello&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-rNXAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPreston1974" class="citation book cs1">Preston, Stuart (1974). <i>Édouard Vuillard</i>. Harry N. Abrams, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%89douard+Vuillard&rft.pub=Harry+N.+Abrams%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Preston&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRaynal1953" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Raynal, Maurice (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ"><i>Modern Painting: Painting, Color, History</i></a> (in French). Translated by Gilbert, Stuart. Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224258/https://books.google.com/books?id=ApJIxgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Painting%3A+Painting%2C+Color%2C+History&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Raynal&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DApJIxgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRaynal1954" class="citation book cs1">Raynal, Maurice (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ"><i>Cézanne: Biographical and Critical Study: The Taste of Our Time</i></a>. Vol. 8. Geneva: Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224257/https://books.google.com/books?id=7quFzQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=C%C3%A9zanne%3A+Biographical+and+Critical+Study%3A+The+Taste+of+Our+Time&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Raynal&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7quFzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRice1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Talbot_Rice" title="David Talbot Rice">Rice, David Talbot</a> (1968). <i>Byzantine Art</i> (3rd ed.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Limited.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Art&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=David+Talbot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRichard1978" class="citation book cs1">Richard, Lionel (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Concise Encyclopedia of Expressionism</i></a>. Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89009-665-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-89009-665-1"><bdi>0-89009-665-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=XZHrAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Expressionism&rft.place=Secaucus%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Chartwell&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-89009-665-1&rft.aulast=Richard&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXZHrAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRogersGumuchdjianJones2014" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Richard; Gumuchdjian, Philip; Jones, Denna (2014). <i>Architecture The Whole Story</i>. Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29148-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-29148-1"><bdi>978-0-500-29148-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+The+Whole+Story&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-500-29148-1&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Gumuchdjian%2C+Philip&rft.au=Jones%2C+Denna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFRubin1968" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, William (1968). <i>Dada and surrealist art</i>. New York: H.N. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-0060-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-0060-2"><bdi>0-8109-0060-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dada+and+surrealist+art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=H.N.+Abrams&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-8109-0060-2&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSchneede1974" class="citation book cs1">Schneede, Uwe M. (1974). <i>Surrealism</i>. New York: H.N. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-0499-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8109-0499-3"><bdi>0-8109-0499-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surrealism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=H.N.+Abrams&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-8109-0499-3&rft.aulast=Schneede&rft.aufirst=Uwe+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSchapiro1950" class="citation book cs1">Schapiro, Meyer (1950). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ"><i>Vincent van Gogh: The Library of Great Painters</i></a>. Abrams. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224253/https://books.google.com/books?id=6RhbzgEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vincent+van+Gogh%3A+The+Library+of+Great+Painters&rft.pub=Abrams&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Schapiro&rft.aufirst=Meyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6RhbzgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSchapiro1962" class="citation book cs1">Schapiro, Meyer (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ"><i>Paul Cézanne</i></a>. Abrams. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8109-0052-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8109-0052-3"><bdi>978-0-8109-0052-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224259/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4-YvwEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paul+C%C3%A9zanne&rft.pub=Abrams&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-0-8109-0052-3&rft.aulast=Schapiro&rft.aufirst=Meyer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz4-YvwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFStarobinski1964" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Starobinski, Jean (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ"><i>The invention of liberty: 1700–1789</i></a> (in Spanish). Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224251/https://books.google.com/books?id=cQIZywEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+invention+of+liberty%3A+1700%E2%80%931789&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Starobinski&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcQIZywEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFTerrasse1964" class="citation book cs1">Terrasse, Antoine (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ"><i>Bonnard: Biographical and Critical Study, The Taste of Our Time</i></a>. Vol. 42. Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224256/https://books.google.com/books?id=WhU9vgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bonnard%3A+Biographical+and+Critical+Study%2C+The+Taste+of+Our+Time&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Terrasse&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWhU9vgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFToman2000" class="citation book cs1">Toman, Rolf (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45588077"><i>Neoclassicism and Romanticism: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Drawings, 1750–1848</i></a>. Cologne: Könemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8290-1575-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-8290-1575-5"><bdi>3-8290-1575-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45588077">45588077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030501/https://www.worldcat.org/title/neoclassicism-and-romanticism-architecture-sculpture-painting-drawings-1750-1848/oclc/45588077">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neoclassicism+and+Romanticism%3A+Architecture%2C+Sculpture%2C+Painting%2C+Drawings%2C+1750%E2%80%931848&rft.place=Cologne&rft.pub=K%C3%B6nemann&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F45588077&rft.isbn=3-8290-1575-5&rft.aulast=Toman&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F45588077&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFToynbee1971" class="citation journal cs1">Toynbee, J. M. C. (December 1971). "Roman Art". <i>The Classical Review</i>. <b>21</b> (3): 439–442. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009840X00221331">10.1017/S0009840X00221331</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/708631">708631</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163488573">163488573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Review&rft.atitle=Roman+Art&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=439-442&rft.date=1971-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163488573%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F708631%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009840X00221331&rft.aulast=Toynbee&rft.aufirst=J.+M.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWaldberg1962" class="citation book cs1">Waldberg, Patrick (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ"><i>Surrealismus</i></a>. Vol. 37. Skira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://books.google.com/books?id=QfUmwQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surrealismus&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Waldberg&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQfUmwQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWarnod1989" class="citation book cs1">Warnod, Jeanine (1989). <i>E. Vuillard</i>. New York: Crown Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-517-57277-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-517-57277-X"><bdi>0-517-57277-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=E.+Vuillard&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Crown+Publishers&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-517-57277-X&rft.aulast=Warnod&rft.aufirst=Jeanine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzmann1981" class="citation book cs1">Weitzmann, Kurt (1981). <i>Classical heritage in Byzantine and Near Eastern art</i>. London: Variorum Reprints. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-087-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-087-2"><bdi>0-86078-087-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+heritage+in+Byzantine+and+Near+Eastern+art&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Variorum+Reprints&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-86078-087-2&rft.aulast=Weitzmann&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzmann1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Weitzmann" title="Kurt Weitzmann">Weitzmann, Kurt</a> (1982). <i>The Icon</i>. London: Evans Brothers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-237-45645-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-237-45645-0"><bdi>978-0-237-45645-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Icon&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Evans+Brothers&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-237-45645-0&rft.aulast=Weitzmann&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section's source code: Further reading"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054258005"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>30,000 Years of Art: The Story of Human Creativity Across Time & Space</i> (2nd ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Phaidon_Press" title="Phaidon Press">Phaidon Press</a>. 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=30%2C000+Years+of+Art%3A+The+Story+of+Human+Creativity+Across+Time+%26+Space&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Phaidon+Press&rft.date=2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2007" class="citation book cs1">Adams, Laurie (2007). <i>Art across Time</i> (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+across+Time&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew2018" class="citation book cs1">Andrew, Graham-Dixon (2018). <i>Art : the definitive visual guide</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-25710-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-25710-4"><bdi>978-0-241-25710-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+%3A+the+definitive+visual+guide&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-241-25710-4&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=Graham-Dixon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBar-Yosef2016" class="citation journal cs1">Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2016). "The Archaeological Framework of the Upper Paleolithic Revolution". <i>Diogenes</i>. <b>54</b> (2): 3–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0392192107076869">10.1177/0392192107076869</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0392-1921">0392-1921</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145584993">145584993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diogenes&rft.atitle=The+Archaeological+Framework+of+the+Upper+Paleolithic+Revolution&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=3-18&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145584993%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0392-1921&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0392192107076869&rft.aulast=Bar-Yosef&rft.aufirst=Ofer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBelfer-CohenBar-Yosef1981" class="citation journal cs1">Belfer-Cohen, Anna; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1981_num_7_2_4296">"The Aurignacian at Hayonim Cave"</a>. <i>Paléorient</i>. <b>7</b> (2): 19–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fpaleo.1981.4296">10.3406/paleo.1981.4296</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190505194342/https://www.persee.fr/doc/paleo_0153-9345_1981_num_7_2_4296">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pal%C3%A9orient&rft.atitle=The+Aurignacian+at+Hayonim+Cave&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=19-42&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fpaleo.1981.4296&rft.aulast=Belfer-Cohen&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft.au=Bar-Yosef%2C+Ofer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fpaleo_0153-9345_1981_num_7_2_4296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBell2010" class="citation book cs1">Bell, Julian (2010). <i>Mirror of the World: A New History of Art</i> (2nd ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28754-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28754-5"><bdi>978-0-500-28754-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mirror+of+the+World%3A+A+New+History+of+Art&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-500-28754-5&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Julian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBenson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_P._Benson" title="Elizabeth P. Benson">Benson, Elizabeth P.</a> (1996). "110. Votive Axe". In Elizabeth P. Benson; Beatriz de la Fuente (eds.). <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i> (To accompany an exhibition at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, 30 June to 20 October 1996 ed.). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art" title="National Gallery of Art">National Gallery of Art</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-89468-250-4"><bdi>0-89468-250-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=110.+Votive+Axe&rft.btitle=Olmec+Art+of+Ancient+Mexico&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.edition=To+accompany+an+exhibition+at+the+National+Gallery+of+Art%2C+Washington%2C+30+June+to+20+October+1996&rft.pub=National+Gallery+of+Art&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-89468-250-4&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBlundell2006" class="citation book cs1">Blundell, Geoffrey (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63"><i>Origins: The Story of the Emergence of Humans and Humanity in Africa</i></a>. Juta and Company Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781770130401" title="Special:BookSources/9781770130401"><bdi>9781770130401</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200124231600/https://books.google.com/books?id=yzKeeReTRbwC&pg=PA63">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-01-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins%3A+The+Story+of+the+Emergence+of+Humans+and+Humanity+in+Africa&rft.pub=Juta+and+Company+Ltd&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781770130401&rft.aulast=Blundell&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyzKeeReTRbwC%26pg%3DPA63&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBoardmanJohnstonSmithPollitt1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Boardman_(art_historian)" title="John Boardman (art historian)">Boardman, John</a>; Johnston, Alan; Smith, R. R. R.; Pollitt, Jerome Jordan; Huskinson, Janet (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pcDpAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Oxford History of Classical Art</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814386-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814386-9"><bdi>0-19-814386-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030458/https://books.google.com/books?id=pcDpAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Classical+Art&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-814386-9&rft.aulast=Boardman&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Johnston%2C+Alan&rft.au=Smith%2C+R.+R.+R.&rft.au=Pollitt%2C+Jerome+Jordan&rft.au=Huskinson%2C+Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpcDpAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBouillon1985" class="citation book cs1">Bouillon, Jean-Paul (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lcNyQgAACAAJ"><i>Journal de l'art nouveau : 1870–1914</i></a> [<i>Journal of Art Nouveau: 1870-1914</i>]. Genèva: Skira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-605-00069-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-605-00069-9"><bdi>2-605-00069-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224303/https://books.google.com/books?id=lcNyQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+de+l%27art+nouveau+%3A+1870%E2%80%931914&rft.place=Gen%C3%A8va&rft.pub=Skira&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=2-605-00069-9&rft.aulast=Bouillon&rft.aufirst=Jean-Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlcNyQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFBranan2010" class="citation journal cs1">Branan, Nicole (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/neandertal-symbolism">"Neandertal Symbolism: Evidence Suggests a Biological Basis for Symbolic Thought"</a>. <i>Scientific American Mind</i>. <b>21</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamericanmind0510-7c">10.1038/scientificamericanmind0510-7c</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1555-2284">1555-2284</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180614194930/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/neandertal-symbolism/">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-06-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American+Mind&rft.atitle=Neandertal+Symbolism%3A+Evidence+Suggests+a+Biological+Basis+for+Symbolic+Thought&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamericanmind0510-7c&rft.issn=1555-2284&rft.aulast=Branan&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fneandertal-symbolism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDissanayake1974" class="citation journal cs1">Dissanayake, Ellen (1974). "A Hypothesis of the Evolution of Art from Play". <i>Leonardo</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 211–217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1572893">10.2307/1572893</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0024-094X">0024-094X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1572893">1572893</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49569697">49569697</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Leonardo&rft.atitle=A+Hypothesis+of+the+Evolution+of+Art+from+Play&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=211-217&rft.date=1974&rft.issn=0024-094X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A49569697%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1572893%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1572893&rft.aulast=Dissanayake&rft.aufirst=Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFDrimba1985" class="citation book cs1">Drimba, Ovidiu (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20934624"><i>Istoria Culturii și Civilizației</i></a> [<i>History of Culture and Civilization</i>]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/973-44-0118-1" title="Special:BookSources/973-44-0118-1"><bdi>973-44-0118-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/20934624">20934624</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030459/https://www.worldcat.org/title/istoria-culturii-si-civilizatiei-histoire-de-la-culture-et-de-la-civilisation/oclc/20934624">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Istoria+Culturii+%C8%99i+Civiliza%C8%9Biei&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F20934624&rft.isbn=973-44-0118-1&rft.aulast=Drimba&rft.aufirst=Ovidiu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F20934624&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGombrich1990" class="citation book cs1">Gombrich, E.H. (1990). <i>The Story of Art</i> (15th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Art&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+NJ&rft.edition=15th&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Gombrich&rft.aufirst=E.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFGrau2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Grau" title="Oliver Grau">Grau, Oliver</a>, ed. (2007). <i>MediaArtHistories</i>. Cambridge, MA: MIT-Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MediaArtHistories&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=MIT-Press&rft.date=2007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHaidle2014" class="citation book cs1">Haidle, M.N. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279253079">"Examining the evolution of artistic capacities: searching for mushrooms?"</a>. In Sütterlin, Christa; Schiefenhövel, Wulf; Lehmann, Christian; Forster, Johanna; Apfelauer, Gerhard (eds.). <i>Art as behaviour. An ethological approach to visual and verbal art, music and architecture</i>. Oldenburg: Bis-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. pp. 237–251. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030500/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279253079_Examining_the_evolution_of_artistic_capacities_searching_for_mushrooms">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Examining+the+evolution+of+artistic+capacities%3A+searching+for+mushrooms%3F&rft.btitle=Art+as+behaviour.+An+ethological+approach+to+visual+and+verbal+art%2C+music+and+architecture&rft.place=Oldenburg&rft.pages=237-251&rft.pub=Bis-Verlag+der+Carl+von+Ossietzky+Universit%C3%A4t+Oldenburg&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Haidle&rft.aufirst=M.N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F279253079&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHitti2002" class="citation book cs1">Hitti, Philip K. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lQbcCwAAQBAJ"><i>History of The Arabs</i></a> (10th ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-03982-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-03982-8"><bdi>978-1-137-03982-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://books.google.com/books?id=lQbcCwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+The+Arabs&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-137-03982-8&rft.aulast=Hitti&rft.aufirst=Philip+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlQbcCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHonourFleming2002" class="citation book cs1">Honour, Hugh; Fleming, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JHVOAAAAYAAJ"><i>A World History of Art</i></a> (Fifth ed.). London: Laurence King. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-314-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-314-1"><bdi>978-1-85669-314-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220207/https://books.google.com/books?id=JHVOAAAAYAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+History+of+Art&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Fifth&rft.pub=Laurence+King&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-85669-314-1&rft.aulast=Honour&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft.au=Fleming%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJHVOAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFHonourFleming2005" class="citation book cs1">Honour, H.; Fleming, J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qGb4pyoseH4C&pg=PT38"><i>A World History of Art</i></a>. Laurence King. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-451-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-451-3"><bdi>978-1-85669-451-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030459/https://books.google.com/books?id=qGb4pyoseH4C&pg=PT38">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+History+of+Art&rft.pub=Laurence+King&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85669-451-3&rft.aulast=Honour&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Fleming%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqGb4pyoseH4C%26pg%3DPT38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJansonDavies2007" class="citation book cs1">Janson, H.W.; Davies, Penelope J.E. (2007). <i>Janson's History of Art: The Western Tradition</i> (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Janson%27s+History+of+Art%3A+The+Western+Tradition&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Janson&rft.aufirst=H.W.&rft.au=Davies%2C+Penelope+J.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLa_Plante1992" class="citation book cs1">La Plante, John D. (1992). <i>Asian Art</i> (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asian+Art&rft.place=Dubuque%2C+IA&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Wm.+C.+Brown&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=La+Plante&rft.aufirst=John+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFJoordensd'ErricoWesselinghMunro2015" class="citation journal cs1">Joordens, Josephine C. A.; d'Errico, Francesco; Wesselingh, Frank P.; Munro, Stephen; de Vos, John; Wallinga, Jakob; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Reimann, Tony; Wijbrans, Jan R.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mücher, Herman J. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962">"Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>518</b> (7538): 228–231. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.518..228J">2015Natur.518..228J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature13962">10.1038/nature13962</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1476-4687">1476-4687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25470048">25470048</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4461751">4461751</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210302072249/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Homo+erectus+at+Trinil+on+Java+used+shells+for+tool+production+and+engraving&rft.volume=518&rft.issue=7538&rft.pages=228-231&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4461751%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015Natur.518..228J&rft.issn=1476-4687&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature13962&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25470048&rft.aulast=Joordens&rft.aufirst=Josephine+C.+A.&rft.au=d%27Errico%2C+Francesco&rft.au=Wesselingh%2C+Frank+P.&rft.au=Munro%2C+Stephen&rft.au=de+Vos%2C+John&rft.au=Wallinga%2C+Jakob&rft.au=Ankj%C3%A6rgaard%2C+Christina&rft.au=Reimann%2C+Tony&rft.au=Wijbrans%2C+Jan+R.&rft.au=Kuiper%2C+Klaudia+F.&rft.au=M%C3%BCcher%2C+Herman+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnature13962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFKeay2000" class="citation book cs1">Keay, John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ibLUu6RlvqwC"><i>India: A History</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87113-800-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87113-800-X"><bdi>0-87113-800-X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220205/https://books.google.com/books?id=ibLUu6RlvqwC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+A+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-87113-800-X&rft.aulast=Keay&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DibLUu6RlvqwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLaing2001" class="citation book cs1">Laing, Lloyd Robert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sw6DQgAACAAJ"><i>The Picts and the Scots</i></a> (Rev. pbk. ed.). Stroud: Sutton Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-2873-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-2873-5"><bdi>0-7509-2873-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220200/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sw6DQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Picts+and+the+Scots&rft.place=Stroud&rft.edition=Rev.+pbk.&rft.pub=Sutton+Pub&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7509-2873-5&rft.aulast=Laing&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSw6DQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLamberg-Karlovsky2002" class="citation journal cs1">Lamberg-Karlovsky, C. C. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/324130">"Archaeology and Language: The Indo-Iranians"</a>. <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>43</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F324130">10.1086/324130</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1808%2F21124">1808/21124</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3204">0011-3204</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162536112">162536112</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430224255/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/324130">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Archaeology+and+Language%3A+The+Indo-Iranians&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1808%2F21124&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162536112%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0011-3204&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F324130&rft.aulast=Lamberg-Karlovsky&rft.aufirst=C.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journals.uchicago.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.1086%2F324130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFLipińskiLerberghe1995" class="citation book cs1">Lipiński, Edward; Lerberghe, Karel van (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=thIxCmwfNoMC"><i>Immigration and Emigration Within the Ancient Near East: Festschrift E. Lipiński</i></a>. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-727-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-6831-727-5"><bdi>978-90-6831-727-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210913030459/https://books.google.com/books?id=thIxCmwfNoMC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-09-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immigration+and+Emigration+Within+the+Ancient+Near+East%3A+Festschrift+E.+Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.place=Leuven&rft.pub=Peeters+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-90-6831-727-5&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Lerberghe%2C+Karel+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DthIxCmwfNoMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMacKenzie1986" class="citation book cs1">MacKenzie, Andrew (1986). <i>Archaeology in Romania: The Mystery of the Roman Occupation</i>. London: Hale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7090-2724-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7090-2724-9"><bdi>0-7090-2724-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+in+Romania%3A+The+Mystery+of+the+Roman+Occupation&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hale&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-7090-2724-9&rft.aulast=MacKenzie&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1931" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, John (1931). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.722/page/n81"><i>Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927</i></a>. Arthur Probsthain.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mohenjo-Daro+and+the+Indus+Civilisation%3A+Being+an+Official+Account+of+Archaeological+Excavations+at+Mohenjo-Daro+Carried+Out+by+the+Government+of+India+Between+the+Years+1922+and+1927&rft.pub=Arthur+Probsthain&rft.date=1931&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.722%2Fpage%2Fn81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMattinson2019" class="citation book cs1">Mattinson, Lindsay (2019). <i>Understanding Architecture: A Guide To Architectural Styles</i>. London: Amber Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78274-748-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78274-748-2"><bdi>978-1-78274-748-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Architecture%3A+A+Guide+To+Architectural+Styles&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Amber+Books&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-78274-748-2&rft.aulast=Mattinson&rft.aufirst=Lindsay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMegaw2001" class="citation book cs1">Megaw, M. Ruth (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kKZ_QgAACAAJ"><i>Celtic art: From Its Beginnings to the Book of Kells</i></a> (Rev. and expanded ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-28265-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-28265-X"><bdi>0-500-28265-X</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220201/https://books.google.com/books?id=kKZ_QgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-04-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+art%3A+From+Its+Beginnings+to+the+Book+of+Kells&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=Rev.+and+expanded&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-500-28265-X&rft.aulast=Megaw&rft.aufirst=M.+Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkKZ_QgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMcCoidMcDermott1996" class="citation journal cs1">McCoid, Catherine Hodge; McDermott, Leroy D. (1996). "Toward Decolonizing Gender: Female Vision in the Upper Paleolithic". <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>98</b> (2): 319–326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1996.98.2.02a00080">10.1525/aa.1996.98.2.02a00080</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/682890">682890</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Toward+Decolonizing+Gender%3A+Female+Vision+in+the+Upper+Paleolithic&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=319-326&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1996.98.2.02a00080&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F682890%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=McCoid&rft.aufirst=Catherine+Hodge&rft.au=McDermott%2C+Leroy+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2008" class="citation book cs1">McIntosh, Jane (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC"><i>The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-907-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-907-2"><bdi>978-1-57607-907-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Indus+Valley%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-907-2&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1AJO2A-CbccC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2006" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Mary Ellen (2006). <i>The Art of Mesoamerica: From Olmec to Aztec</i>. <a href="/wiki/World_of_Art" title="World of Art">World of Art</a> (4th ed.). London: Thames & Hudson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Mesoamerica%3A+From+Olmec+to+Aztec&rft.place=London&rft.series=World+of+Art&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Mary+Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Molina, Antonio Luis Ramos. <i>La magia de la química fotográfica: El quimigrama. Conceptos, técnicas y procedimientos del quimigrama en la expresión artística</i>, In: <i>Tesis Doctoral</i>, Universidad de Granada 2018.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMorriss-Kay2010" class="citation journal cs1">Morriss-Kay, Gillian M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2815939">"The evolution of human artistic creativity"</a>. <i>Journal of Anatomy</i>. <b>216</b> (2): 158–176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-7580.2009.01160.x">10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01160.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8782">0021-8782</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2815939">2815939</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19900185">19900185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Anatomy&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+human+artistic+creativity&rft.volume=216&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=158-176&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2815939%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0021-8782&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19900185&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-7580.2009.01160.x&rft.aulast=Morriss-Kay&rft.aufirst=Gillian+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2815939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMountain1998" class="citation book cs1">Mountain, Harry (1998). <i>The Celtic encyclopedia</i> (1 ed.). Parkland, Fla.: Universal Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58112-889-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-58112-889-4"><bdi>1-58112-889-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+encyclopedia&rft.place=Parkland%2C+Fla.&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Universal+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-58112-889-4&rft.aulast=Mountain&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMura2012" class="citation journal cs1">Mura, Andrea (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151008211951/http://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf">"The Symbolic Function of Transmodernity"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Language and Psychoanalysis</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 68–87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7565%2Flandp.2012.0005">10.7565/landp.2012.0005</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.language-and-psychoanalysis.com/Mura%202012.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 8 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Psychoanalysis&rft.atitle=The+Symbolic+Function+of+Transmodernity&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=68-87&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7565%2Flandp.2012.0005&rft.aulast=Mura&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.language-and-psychoanalysis.com%2FMura%25202012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFOnians2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Onians" title="John Onians">Onians, John</a> (2004). <i>Atlas of World Art</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Laurence_King_Publishing" title="Laurence King Publishing">Laurence King Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-377-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85669-377-6"><bdi>978-1-85669-377-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+World+Art&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Laurence+King+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-85669-377-6&rft.aulast=Onians&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPetrieRoseTischGrant1986" class="citation book cs1">Petrie, Milton; Rose, Frederick; Tisch, Laurence A.; Grant, Eugene M.; Zuckerman, Mortimer B. (1986). O'Neill, John Patrick; Howard, Kathleen (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KPVTCRYPfFMC"><i>Treasures of the Holy Land: Ancient Art from the Israel Museum</i></a>. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-470-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-470-8"><bdi>978-0-87099-470-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210423220202/https://books.google.com/books?id=KPVTCRYPfFMC">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-04-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treasures+of+the+Holy+Land%3A+Ancient+Art+from+the+Israel+Museum&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-470-8&rft.aulast=Petrie&rft.aufirst=Milton&rft.au=Rose%2C+Frederick&rft.au=Tisch%2C+Laurence+A.&rft.au=Grant%2C+Eugene+M.&rft.au=Zuckerman%2C+Mortimer+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKPVTCRYPfFMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPevsner2005" class="citation book cs1">Pevsner, Nikolaus (2005). <i>Pioneers of Modern Design: From William Morris to Walter Gropius</i> (4th ed.). New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-10571-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-10571-1"><bdi>0-300-10571-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pioneers+of+Modern+Design%3A+From+William+Morris+to+Walter+Gropius&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Conn.&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-300-10571-1&rft.aulast=Pevsner&rft.aufirst=Nikolaus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPierceJanson2004" class="citation book cs1">Pierce, James Smith; Janson, H.W. (2004). <i>From Abacus to Zeus: A Handbook of Art History</i> (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Abacus+to+Zeus%3A+A+Handbook+of+Art+History&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=James+Smith&rft.au=Janson%2C+H.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFPohl2002" class="citation book cs1">Pohl, Frances K. (2002). <i>Framing America: A Social History of American Art</i>. New York: Thames & Hudson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Framing+America%3A+A+Social+History+of+American+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=Frances+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFStokstad2008" class="citation book cs1">Stokstad, Marilyn (2008). <i>Art History</i> (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+History&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Stokstad&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1995" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Nicholas (1995). <i>Oceanic Art</i>. World of Art. New York: Thames and Hudson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oceanic+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=World+of+Art&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFThuillier2002" class="citation book cs1">Thuillier, Jacques (2002). <i>Histoire de l'art</i>. Paris: Flammarion. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-08-012535-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-08-012535-4"><bdi>2-08-012535-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+de+l%27art&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Flammarion&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=2-08-012535-4&rft.aulast=Thuillier&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinsSchultzLinduff2008" class="citation book cs1">Wilkins, David G.; Schultz, Bernard; Linduff, Katheryn M. (2008). <i>Art Past, Art Present</i> (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+Past%2C+Art+Present&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft.au=Schultz%2C+Bernard&rft.au=Linduff%2C+Katheryn+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+art" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section's source code: External links"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/History_of_art" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/History of art">History of art</a></b></i>.</div></div>
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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Art_History" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Art History">Art History</a></b></i></div></div>
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html">"Art: The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism"</a> – <i>The Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306190600/http://witcombe.sbc.edu/arthlinks.html">Art History resources</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arssummum.es/">Ars Summum Project</a></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Timelines">Timelines</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_art&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section's source code: Timelines"><span>edit source</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://metmuseum.org/toah/"><i>Timeline of Art History</i></a> from <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1061467846">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western,_Modern_and_Contemporary_art_movements" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_art_movements" title="Template:Western art movements"><abbr title="View this template" style="background:#EAE0C8;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_art_movements" title="Template talk:Western art movements"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="background:#EAE0C8;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_art_movements" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western art movements"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="background:#EAE0C8;;;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western,_Modern_and_Contemporary_art_movements" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Western</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a> art movements</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">List of art movements</a> / <a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%">Premodern<br />(Western)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_art" title="Ancient art">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_treasure" title="Thracian treasure">Thracian</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_art" title="Dacian art">Dacian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization#Culture" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_art" title="Aegean art">Aegean</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_art" title="Cycladic art">Cycladic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_art" title="Minoan art">Minoan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minyan_ware" title="Minyan ware">Minyan ware</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenaean art">Mycenaean</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art" title="Ancient Greek art">Greek</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Mycenaean_pottery" title="Sub-Mycenaean pottery">Sub-Mycenaean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protogeometric_style" title="Protogeometric style">Protogeometric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_art" title="Geometric art">Geometric</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orientalizing_period" title="Orientalizing period">Orientalizing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic Greek art">Archaic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Black-figure_pottery" title="Black-figure pottery">Black-figure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Red-figure_pottery" title="Red-figure pottery">Red-figure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Severe_style" title="Severe style">Severe style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art#Classical" title="Ancient Greek art">Classical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kerch_style" title="Kerch style">Kerch style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art#"Baroque"" title="Hellenistic art">"Baroque"</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_art" title="Indo-Greek art">Indo-Greek</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Attic" title="Neo-Attic">Neo-Attic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etruscan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian art">Scythian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_sculpture" title="Iberian sculpture">Iberian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gauls#Art" title="Gauls">Gaulish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Roman</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_art" title="Roman Republican art">Republican</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Roman art">Gallo-Roman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augustan_and_Julio-Claudian_art" title="Augustan and Julio-Claudian art">Julio-Claudian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pompeian_Styles" title="Pompeian Styles">Pompeian Styles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trajanic_art" title="Trajanic art">Trajanic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Severan_art" title="Severan art">Severan</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_Antique_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antique art">Late antique</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">Early Christian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_art" title="Coptic art">Coptic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_art" title="Ethiopian art">Ethiopian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period_art" title="Migration Period art">Migration Period</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_art" title="Anglo-Saxon art">Anglo-Saxon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hunnic_art" title="Hunnic art">Hunnic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lombards#Art" title="Lombards">Lombard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_art_and_architecture" title="Visigothic art and architecture">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donor_portrait" title="Donor portrait">Donor portrait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Picts#Art" title="Picts">Pictish</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mozarabic_art_and_architecture" title="Mozarabic art and architecture">Mozarabic</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Repoblaci%C3%B3n_art_and_architecture" title="Repoblación art and architecture">Repoblación</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viking_art" title="Viking art">Viking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_art" title="Byzantine art">Byzantine</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclast</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_art_(Byzantine)" title="Macedonian art (Byzantine)">Macedonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Palaeologan_Renaissance#Art_and_architecture" title="Palaeologan Renaissance">Palaeologan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Byzantine" title="Italo-Byzantine">Italo-Byzantine</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Franks#Art_and_architecture" title="Franks">Frankish</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_art_and_architecture" title="Merovingian art and architecture">Merovingian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_art" title="Carolingian art">Carolingian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Romanesque_art_and_architecture" title="Pre-Romanesque art and architecture">Pre-Romanesque</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ottonian_art" title="Ottonian art">Ottonian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanesque_art" title="Romanesque art">Romanesque</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosan_art" title="Mosan art">Mosan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Romanesque" title="Spanish Romanesque">Spanish</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Normans#Visual_arts" title="Normans">Norman</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman%E2%80%93Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_culture" title="Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture">Norman-Sicilian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_Anglicanum" title="Opus Anglicanum">Opus Anglicanum</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_art" title="Gothic art">Gothic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Gothic" title="International Gothic">International Gothic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/International_Gothic_art_in_Italy" title="International Gothic art in Italy">International Gothic art in Italy</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lucchese_School" title="Lucchese School">Lucchese School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Crusades" title="Art of the Crusades">Crusades</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_School" title="Novgorod School">Novgorod School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sienese_School" title="Sienese School">Sienese School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mud%C3%A9jar_art" title="Mudéjar art">Mudéjar</a></li>
<li>Medieval <a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Medieval_Europe" title="History of cartography">cartography</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography#Italian_cartography_and_the_birth_of_portolan_charts" title="History of cartography">Italian school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Majorcan_cartographic_school" title="Majorcan cartographic school">Majorcan school</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mappa_mundi" title="Mappa mundi">Mappa mundi</a></i></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_painting" title="Italian Renaissance painting">Italian Renaissance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Renaissance">Proto-Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Florentine_painting" title="Florentine painting">Florentine School</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Pittura_infamante" title="Pittura infamante">Pittura infamante</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Ferrara" title="School of Ferrara">Ferrarese School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Forlivese_school_of_art" title="Forlivese school of art">Forlivese School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian School</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Di_sotto_in_s%C3%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="Di sotto in sù">Di sotto in sù</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bolognese_School" title="Bolognese School">Bolognese School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mannerism" title="Mannerism">Mannerism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Maniera" title="Counter-Maniera">Counter-<i>Maniera</i></a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Netherlandish_painting" title="Early Netherlandish painting">Early Netherlandish</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_landscape" title="World landscape">World landscape</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ghent-Bruges_school" title="Ghent-Bruges school">Ghent-Bruges school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Mannerism" title="Northern Mannerism">Northern Mannerism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">German Renaissance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_School_of_Painting" title="Cologne School of Painting">Cologne School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danube_school" title="Danube school">Danube school</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_and_Flemish_Renaissance_painting" title="Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting">Dutch and Flemish Renaissance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antwerp_Mannerism" title="Antwerp Mannerism">Antwerp Mannerism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Romanism_(painting)" title="Romanism (painting)">Romanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Still_life" title="Still life">Still life</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance#Visual_arts" title="English Renaissance">English Renaissance</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artists_of_the_Tudor_court" title="Artists of the Tudor court">Tudor court</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_School" title="Cretan School">Cretan School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Turquerie" title="Turquerie">Turquerie</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Fontainebleau" title="School of Fontainebleau">Fontainebleau School</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Baroque_painting" title="Flemish Baroque painting">Flemish Baroque</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Caravaggisti" title="Caravaggisti">Caravaggisti</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utrecht_Caravaggism" title="Utrecht Caravaggism">in Utrecht</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tenebrism" title="Tenebrism">Tenebrism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quadratura" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadratura">Quadratura</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIII_style" title="Louis XIII style">Louis XIII style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_baroque" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran baroque">Lutheran Baroque</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stroganov_School" title="Stroganov School">Stroganov School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Animal_painter" title="Animal painter">Animal painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guild_of_Romanists" title="Guild of Romanists">Guild of Romanists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age_painting" title="Dutch Golden Age painting">Dutch Golden Age</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delft_School_(painting)" title="Delft School (painting)">Delft School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capriccio_(art)" title="Capriccio (art)">Capriccio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heptanese_School_(painting)" title="Heptanese School (painting)">Heptanese School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classicism#In_the_fine_arts" title="Classicism">Classicism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_style" title="Louis XIV style">Louis XIV style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Poussinists_and_Rubenists" title="Poussinists and Rubenists">Poussinists and Rubenists</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rococo" title="Rococo">Rococo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocaille" title="Rocaille">Rocaille</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_style" title="Louis XV style">Louis XV style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frederician_Rococo" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederician Rococo">Frederician</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinoiserie" title="Chinoiserie">Chinoiserie</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%AAte_galante" title="Fête galante">Fête galante</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassicism" title="Neoclassicism">Neoclassicism</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Go%C3%BBt_grec" title="Goût grec">Goût grec</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Louis_XVI_style" title="Louis XVI style">Louis XVI style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Adam_style" title="Adam style">Adam style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Directoire_style" title="Directoire style">Directoire style</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Picturesque" title="Picturesque">Picturesque</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">Colonial art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Art of the <a href="/wiki/African_diaspora" title="African diaspora">African diaspora</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">African-American</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_art" title="Caribbean art">Caribbean</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_art" title="Haitian art">Haitian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li>Colonial Asian art
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_in_the_Philippines" title="Arts in the Philippines">Arts in the Philippines</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letras_y_figuras" title="Letras y figuras">Letras y figuras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tipos_del_Pa%C3%ADs" title="Tipos del País">Tipos del País</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baroque#Baroque_in_the_Spanish_and_Portuguese_Colonial_Asia" title="Baroque">Colonial Asian Baroque</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Company_style" title="Company style">Company style</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art" title="Latin American art">Latin American art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casta_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Casta painting">Casta painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_School_of_Religious_Imagery" title="Chilote School of Religious Imagery">Chilote School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" title="Cusco School">Cusco School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" title="Quito School">Quito School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baroque#Baroque_in_the_Spanish_and_Portuguese_Colonial_Americas" title="Baroque">Latin American Baroque</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">Art borrowing<br />Western elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Islamic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus#Art_and_architecture" title="Al-Andalus">Moorish</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_art" title="Manichaean art">Manichaean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal art">Mughal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_art" title="Qajar art">Qajar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qing_handicrafts" title="Qing handicrafts">Qing handicrafts</a></li>
<li>Western influence in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_art" title="Japanese art">Japan</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akita_ranga" title="Akita ranga">Akita ranga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uki-e" title="Uki-e">Uki-e</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Western_art_after_1770">Transition<br />to modern</a><br />(c. 1770–1862)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism#Visual_arts" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_painting" title="Fairy painting">Fairy painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Golden_Age" title="Danish Golden Age">Danish Golden Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Troubadour_style" title="Troubadour style">Troubadour style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nazarene_movement" title="Nazarene movement">Nazarene movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Purismo" title="Purismo">Purismo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ancients_(art_group)" title="Ancients (art group)">Shoreham Ancients</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf_school_of_painting" class="mw-redirect" title="Düsseldorf school of painting">Düsseldorf School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Raphaelite_Brotherhood" title="Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood">Pre-Raphaelites</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_River_School" title="Hudson River School">Hudson River School</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luminism_(American_art_style)" title="Luminism (American art style)">American luminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orientalism#Orientalist_art" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Norwich_School_of_painters" title="Norwich School of painters">Norwich School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Empire_style" title="Empire style">Empire style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Historicism_(art)" title="Historicism (art)">Historicism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revivalism_(architecture)" title="Revivalism (architecture)">Revivalism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biedermeier" title="Biedermeier">Biedermeier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(art_movement)" title="Realism (art movement)">Realism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbizon_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbizon school">Barbizon school</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Costumbrismo" title="Costumbrismo">Costumbrismo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verismo_(painting)" title="Verismo (painting)">Verismo</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macchiaioli" title="Macchiaioli">Macchiaioli</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Academic_art" title="Academic art">Academic art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munich_School" title="Munich School">Munich School</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_academic_art_of_the_19th_century" title="Greek academic art of the 19th century">in Greece</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Grec#Painting" title="Neo-Grec">Neo-Grec</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Etching_revival" title="Etching revival">Etching revival</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_art" title="Modern art">Modern</a><br />(1863–1944)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1863–1899</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-romanticism" title="Neo-romanticism">Neo-romanticism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism#Arts" title="Romantic nationalism">National romanticism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Y%C5%8Dga" title="Yōga">Yōga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nihonga" title="Nihonga">Nihonga</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Japonisme" title="Japonisme">Japonisme</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Japanese_style" title="Anglo-Japanese style">Anglo-Japanese style</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Beuron_Art_School" title="Beuron Art School">Beuron School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hague_School" title="Hague School">Hague School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Peredvizhniki" title="Peredvizhniki">Peredvizhniki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Impressionism" title="Impressionism">Impressionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Impressionism" title="American Impressionism">American</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoosier_Group" title="Hoosier Group">Hoosier Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boston_School_(painting)" title="Boston School (painting)">Boston School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Impressionism" title="Amsterdam Impressionism">Amsterdam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Impressionism" title="Canadian Impressionism">Canadian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_School" title="Heidelberg School">Heidelberg School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">Aestheticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_pottery" title="Art pottery">Art pottery</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tonalism" title="Tonalism">Tonalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Decadent_movement" title="Decadent movement">Decadent movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)" title="Symbolism (arts)">Symbolism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbolist_movement_in_Romania" title="Symbolist movement in Romania">Romanian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_symbolism#Visual_arts" title="Russian symbolism">Russian</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Volcano_School" title="Volcano School">Volcano School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Incoherents" title="Incoherents">Incoherents</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-Impressionism" title="Post-Impressionism">Post-Impressionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Impressionism" title="Neo-Impressionism">Neo-Impressionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luminism_(Impressionism)" title="Luminism (Impressionism)">Luminism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divisionism" title="Divisionism">Divisionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pointillism" title="Pointillism">Pointillism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pont-Aven_School" title="Pont-Aven School">Pont-Aven School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cloisonnism" title="Cloisonnism">Cloisonnism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Synthetism" title="Synthetism">Synthetism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Les_Nabis" title="Les Nabis">Les Nabis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_Barbizon_school" class="mw-redirect" title="American Barbizon school">American Barbizon school</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Tonalism" title="California Tonalism">California Tonalism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Costumbrismo#Visual_costumbrismo_in_the_Americas" title="Costumbrismo">Costumbrismo</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1900–1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Nouveau" title="Art Nouveau">Art Nouveau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Primitivism" title="Primitivism">Primitivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/California_Impressionism" title="California Impressionism">California Impressionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Secession_(art)" title="Secession (art)">Secessionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Paris" title="School of Paris">School of Paris</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munich_Secession" title="Munich Secession">Munich Secession</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Secession" title="Vienna Secession">Vienna Secession</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Secession" title="Berlin Secession">Berlin Secession</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sonderbund_westdeutscher_Kunstfreunde_und_K%C3%BCnstler" title="Sonderbund westdeutscher Kunstfreunde und Künstler">Sonderbund</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Impressionism" title="Pennsylvania Impressionism">Pennsylvania Impressionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mir_iskusstva" title="Mir iskusstva">Mir iskusstva</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ten_American_Painters" title="Ten American Painters">Ten American Painters</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fauvism" title="Fauvism">Fauvism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Expressionism" title="Expressionism">Expressionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Die_Br%C3%BCcke" title="Die Brücke">Die Brücke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Der_Blaue_Reiter" title="Der Blaue Reiter">Der Blaue Reiter</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noucentisme" title="Noucentisme">Noucentisme</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Werkbund" title="Deutscher Werkbund">Deutscher Werkbund</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_Realism" title="American Realism">American Realism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashcan_School" title="Ashcan School">Ashcan School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cubism" title="Cubism">Cubism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Cubism" title="Proto-Cubism">Proto-Cubism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(art)" title="Orphism (art)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_(painters)" title="The Eight (painters)">A Nyolcak</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neue_K%C3%BCnstlervereinigung_M%C3%BCnchen" title="Neue Künstlervereinigung München">Neue Künstlervereinigung München</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Futurism" title="Futurism">Futurism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cubo-Futurism" title="Cubo-Futurism">Cubo-Futurism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_Deco" title="Art Deco">Art Deco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_painting" title="Metaphysical painting">Metaphysical</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rayonism" title="Rayonism">Rayonism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Productivism_(art)" title="Productivism (art)">Productivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Synchromism" title="Synchromism">Synchromism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vorticism" title="Vorticism">Vorticism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1915–1944</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sosaku-hanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosaku-hanga">Sosaku-hanga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Suprematism" title="Suprematism">Suprematism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Paris" title="School of Paris">School of Paris</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_Cubism" title="Crystal Cubism">Crystal Cubism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(art)" title="Constructivism (art)">Constructivism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art#Constructivist_movement" title="Latin American art">Latin American</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Constructivism" title="Universal Constructivism">Universal Constructivism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dada" title="Dada">Dada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shin-hanga" title="Shin-hanga">Shin-hanga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasticism" title="Neoplasticism">Neoplasticism</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Stijl" title="De Stijl">De Stijl</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Purism" title="Purism">Purism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Return_to_order" title="Return to order">Return to order</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Novecento_Italiano" title="Novecento Italiano">Novecento Italiano</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Figurative_Constructivism" title="Figurative Constructivism">Figurative Constructivism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stupid_(art_movement)" title="Stupid (art movement)">Stupid</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cologne_Progressives" title="Cologne Progressives">Cologne Progressives</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arbeitsrat_f%C3%BCr_Kunst" title="Arbeitsrat für Kunst">Arbeitsrat für Kunst</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/November_Group_(German)" title="November Group (German)">November Group</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Australian_tonalism" title="Australian tonalism">Australian tonalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dresden_Secession" title="Dresden Secession">Dresden Secession</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_realism" title="Social realism">Social realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)" title="Functionalism (architecture)">Functionalism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_art" title="Kinetic art">Kinetic art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_Antrop%C3%B3fago" title="Manifesto Antropófago">Anthropophagy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mingei" title="Mingei">Mingei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_Seven_(artists)" title="Group of Seven (artists)">Group of Seven</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Objectivity" title="New Objectivity">New Objectivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grosvenor_School_of_Modern_Art" title="Grosvenor School of Modern Art">Grosvenor School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Surrealism" title="Surrealism">Surrealism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art#Surrealism_in_Iran" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Latin_American_art#Surrealism" title="Latin American art">Latin American</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_muralism" title="Mexican muralism">Mexican muralism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Fauvism" title="Neo-Fauvism">Neo-Fauvism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Precisionism" title="Precisionism">Precisionism</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeropittura" title="Aeropittura">Aeropittura</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Revolutionary_Visual_Artists" title="Association of Revolutionary Visual Artists">Asso</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scuola_Romana" title="Scuola Romana">Scuola Romana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cercle_et_Carr%C3%A9" title="Cercle et Carré">Cercle et Carré</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kapists" title="Kapists">Kapists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(art)" title="Regionalism (art)">Regionalism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Scene_Painting" title="California Scene Painting">California Scene Painting</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heroic_realism" title="Heroic realism">Heroic realism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_realism" title="Socialist realism">Socialist realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_Nazi_Germany" title="Art in Nazi Germany">Nazi art</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Streamline_Moderne" title="Streamline Moderne">Streamline Moderne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_art" title="Concrete art">Concrete art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstraction-Cr%C3%A9ation" title="Abstraction-Création">Abstraction-Création</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Ten_(Expressionists)" title="The Ten (Expressionists)">The Ten</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_dimension_in_art#Dimensionist_manifesto" title="Fourth dimension in art">Dimensionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Expressionism" title="Boston Expressionism">Boston Expressionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_School_of_Painting" title="Leningrad School of Painting">Leningrad School</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art" title="Contemporary art">Contemporary</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_art" title="Postmodern art">Postmodern</a><br />(1945–present)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1945–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Typographic_Style" title="International Typographic Style">International Typographic Style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_expressionism" title="Abstract expressionism">Abstract expressionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington_Color_School" title="Washington Color School">Washington Color School</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Visionary_art" title="Visionary art">Visionary art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_School_of_Fantastic_Realism" title="Vienna School of Fantastic Realism">Vienna School of Fantastic Realism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spatialism" title="Spatialism">Spatialism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Color_field" title="Color field">Color field</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lyrical_abstraction" title="Lyrical abstraction">Lyrical abstraction</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tachisme" title="Tachisme">Tachisme</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arte_Informale" title="Arte Informale">Arte Informale</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/COBRA_(art_movement)" title="COBRA (art movement)">COBRA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nuagisme" title="Nuagisme">Nuagisme</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generaci%C3%B3n_de_la_Ruptura" title="Generación de la Ruptura">Generación de la Ruptura</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jikken_K%C5%8Db%C5%8D" title="Jikken Kōbō">Jikken Kōbō</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Metcalf_Chateau" title="Metcalf Chateau">Metcalf Chateau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mono-ha" title="Mono-ha">Mono-ha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nanyang_Style" title="Nanyang Style">Nanyang Style</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Action_painting" title="Action painting">Action painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/American_Figurative_Expressionism" title="American Figurative Expressionism">American Figurative Expressionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Figurative_Expressionism" title="New York Figurative Expressionism">in New York</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_media_art" title="New media art">New media art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_York_School_(art)#Visual_arts" title="New York School (art)">New York School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hard-edge_painting" title="Hard-edge painting">Hard-edge painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bay_Area_Figurative_Movement" title="Bay Area Figurative Movement">Bay Area Figurative Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Les_Plasticiens" title="Les Plasticiens">Les Plasticiens</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gutai_Art_Association" title="Gutai Art Association">Gutai Art Association</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gendai_Bijutsu_Kondankai" title="Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai">Gendai Bijutsu Kondankai</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pop_art" title="Pop art">Pop art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationist International</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Nonconformist_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Nonconformist Art">Soviet Nonconformist</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_underground" title="Ukrainian underground">Ukrainian underground</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lettrism" title="Lettrism">Lettrism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letterist_International" title="Letterist International">Letterist International</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-Lettrist" title="Ultra-Lettrist">Ultra-Lettrist</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Highwaymen" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Highwaymen">Florida Highwaymen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cybernetic_art" title="Cybernetic art">Cybernetic art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antipodeans" title="Antipodeans">Antipodeans</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1960–1969</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otra_Figuraci%C3%B3n" title="Otra Figuración">Otra Figuración</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Presencia" title="Nueva Presencia">Nueva Presencia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zero_(art)" title="Zero (art)">ZERO</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Happening" title="Happening">Happening</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada" title="Neo-Dada">Neo-Dada</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Dada_Organizers" title="Neo-Dada Organizers">Neo-Dada Organizers</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Op_art" title="Op art">Op art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_r%C3%A9alisme" title="Nouveau réalisme">Nouveau réalisme</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nouvelle_tendance" title="Nouvelle tendance">Nouvelle tendance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_realism" title="Capitalist realism">Capitalist realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_%26_Language" title="Art & Language">Art & Language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arte_Povera" title="Arte Povera">Arte Povera</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Black_Arts_Movement" title="Black Arts Movement">Black Arts Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Caribbean_Artists_Movement" title="The Caribbean Artists Movement">The Caribbean Artists Movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_art_movement" title="Chicano art movement">Chicano art movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptual art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Land_art" title="Land art">Land art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Systems_art" title="Systems art">Systems art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Video_art" title="Video art">Video art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Minimalism_(visual_arts)" title="Minimalism (visual arts)">Minimalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fluxus" title="Fluxus">Fluxus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Generative_art" title="Generative art">Generative art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-painterly_abstraction" title="Post-painterly abstraction">Post-painterly abstraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Intermedia" title="Intermedia">Intermedia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychedelic_art" title="Psychedelic art">Psychedelic art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nut_Art" title="Nut Art">Nut Art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photorealism" title="Photorealism">Photorealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Environmental art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Process_art" title="Process art">Process art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_critique" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional critique">Institutional critique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Light_and_Space" title="Light and Space">Light and Space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Street_art" title="Street art">Street art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Feminist art movement</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Feminist art movement in the United States">in the US</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art#Saqqakhaneh_movement" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">Saqqakhaneh movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Stars_Art_Group" title="The Stars Art Group">The Stars Art Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tropic%C3%A1lia" title="Tropicália">Tropicália</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yoru_no_Kai" title="Yoru no Kai">Yoru no Kai</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_art" title="Artificial intelligence art">Artificial intelligence art</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">1970–1999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-conceptual_art" title="Post-conceptual art">Post-conceptual art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">Installation art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artscene" class="mw-redirect" title="Artscene">Artscene</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Postminimalism" title="Postminimalism">Postminimalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Endurance_art" title="Endurance art">Endurance art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sots_Art" title="Sots Art">Sots Art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Conceptualists" title="Moscow Conceptualists">Moscow Conceptualists</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pattern_and_Decoration" title="Pattern and Decoration">Pattern and Decoration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pliontanism" title="Pliontanism">Pliontanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Punk_visual_art" title="Punk visual art">Punk art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-expressionism" title="Neo-expressionism">Neo-expressionism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transavantgarde" title="Transavantgarde">Transavantgarde</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_art#Saint_Soleil_School" title="Haitian art">Saint Soleil School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_art" title="Guerrilla art">Guerrilla art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lowbrow_(art_movement)" title="Lowbrow (art movement)">Lowbrow art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telematic_art" title="Telematic art">Telematic art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-conceptual_art" title="Neo-conceptual art">Neo-conceptual art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_European_Painting" title="New European Painting">New European Painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_collaborative_painting" title="Tunisian collaborative painting">Tunisian collaborative painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_Group" title="Memphis Group">Memphis Group</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyberdelic" title="Cyberdelic">Cyberdelic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Slowenische_Kunst" title="Neue Slowenische Kunst">Neue Slowenische Kunst</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Scratch_video" title="Scratch video">Scratch video</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Retrofuturism" title="Retrofuturism">Retrofuturism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Young_British_Artists" title="Young British Artists">Young British Artists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Superfiction" title="Superfiction">Superfiction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Taring_Padi" title="Taring Padi">Taring Padi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Superflat" title="Superflat">Superflat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_Leipzig_School" title="New Leipzig School">New Leipzig School</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artist-run_initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Artist-run initiative">Artist-run initiative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artivism" title="Artivism">Artivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Designers_Republic" title="The Designers Republic">The Designers Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grunge#Graphic_design" title="Grunge">Grunge design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Verdadism" title="Verdadism">Verdadism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #EAE0C8;width:1%">2000–<br />present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazonian_pop_art" title="Amazonian pop art">Amazonian pop art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Altermodern" title="Altermodern">Altermodern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_for_art" title="Art for art">Art for art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_game" title="Art game">Art game</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_intervention" title="Art intervention">Art intervention</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brandalism" title="Brandalism">Brandalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_African_art" title="Contemporary African art">Contemporary African art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Indigenous_Australian_art" title="Contemporary Indigenous Australian art">Contemporary Indigenous Australian art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-fungible_token#Digital_art" title="Non-fungible token">Crypto art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_art" title="Cyborg art">Cyborg art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Excessivism" title="Excessivism">Excessivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fictive_art" title="Fictive art">Fictive art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flat_design" title="Flat design">Flat design</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_Memphis" title="Corporate Memphis">Corporate Memphis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypermodernism_(art)" title="Hypermodernism (art)">Hypermodernism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hyperrealism_(visual_arts)" title="Hyperrealism (visual arts)">Hyperrealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Idea_art" title="Idea art">Idea art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet_art" title="Internet art">Internet art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-Internet" title="Post-Internet">Post-Internet</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/IPhone_art" title="IPhone art">iPhone art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch_movement" title="Kitsch movement">Kitsch movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lightpainting" title="Lightpainting">Lightpainting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Massurrealism" title="Massurrealism">Massurrealism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modern_European_ink_painting" title="Modern European ink painting">Modern European ink painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neo-futurism" title="Neo-futurism">Neo-futurism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neomodern#Artist_group" title="Neomodern">Neomodern</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neosymbolism" title="Neosymbolism">Neosymbolism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Passionism" title="Passionism">Passionism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Post-YBAs" title="Post-YBAs">Post-YBAs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relational_art" title="Relational art">Relational art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skeuomorph#In_design" title="Skeuomorph">Skeuomorphism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Software_art" title="Software art">Software art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sound_art" title="Sound art">Sound art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stuckism" title="Stuckism">Stuckism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Superflat" title="Superflat">Superflat</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/SoFlo_Superflat" title="SoFlo Superflat">SoFlo Superflat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Superstroke" title="Superstroke">Superstroke</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Toyism" title="Toyism">Toyism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unilalianism" title="Unilalianism">Unilalianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walking_Artists_Network" title="Walking Artists Network">Walking Artists Network</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#EAE0C8;;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_art" title="Abstract art">Abstract art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asemic_writing" title="Asemic writing">Asemic writing</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anti-art" title="Anti-art">Anti-art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Avant-garde" title="Avant-garde">Avant-garde</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ballets_Russes" title="Ballets Russes">Ballets Russes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Christian art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Catholic art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Lutheran art</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">Digital art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_art" title="Fantastic art">Fantastic art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Folk_art" title="Folk art">Folk art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_genres" title="Hierarchy of genres">Hierarchy of genres</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genre_painting" title="Genre painting">Genre painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_painting" title="History painting">History painting</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">Illuminated manuscript</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Illustration" title="Illustration">Illustration</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_art" title="Interactive art">Interactive art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish art">Jewish art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kitsch" title="Kitsch">Kitsch</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting" title="Landscape painting">Landscape painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_sculpture" title="Modern sculpture">Modern sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Late_modernism" title="Late modernism">Late modernism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_art" title="Naïve art">Naïve art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outsider_art" title="Outsider art">Outsider art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">Portrait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art#Europe" title="Prehistoric art">Prehistoric European art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Queer_art" title="Queer art">Queer art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(arts)" title="Realism (arts)">Realism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shock_art" title="Shock art">Shock art</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Trompe-l%27%C5%93il" title="Trompe-l'œil">Trompe-l'œil</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Western painting</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#EAE0C8;"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Art_movements" title="Category:Art movements">Category</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_art_by_continent" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="History_of_art_by_continent" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History of art by continent</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px">
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Art_of_Africa" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topic" title="Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topic" title="Template talk:Africa topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topic"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Art_of_Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Africa">Art of Africa </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Algeria">Algeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Angola" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Angola">Angola</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Benin">Benin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Botswana" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Botswana">Botswana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Burkina_Faso" title="Art of Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Burundi">Burundi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Cameroon" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Cape_Verde&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Cape Verde (page does not exist)">Cape Verde</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Central_African_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Central African Republic (page does not exist)">Central African Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Chad" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Chad">Chad</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Comoros&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Comoros (page does not exist)">Comoros</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Republic of the Congo (page does not exist)">Republic of the Congo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Equatorial_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Eritrea" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Eswatini&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Eswatini (page does not exist)">Eswatini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Gabon">Gabon</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Gambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Gambia (page does not exist)">The Gambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Ghana">Ghana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Guinea">Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Guinea-Bissau" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Kenya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Kenya (page does not exist)">Kenya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Lesotho" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Liberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Liberia">Liberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Libya">Libya</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Madagascar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Madagascar (page does not exist)">Madagascar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Malawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Malawi">Malawi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Mali">Mali</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Mauritania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Mauritania (page does not exist)">Mauritania</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Mauritius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Mauritius (page does not exist)">Mauritius</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Morocco">Morocco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mozambique" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Namibia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Namibia">Namibia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Niger">Niger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of São Tomé and Príncipe (page does not exist)">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Senegal" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Senegal">Senegal</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Seychelles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Seychelles (page does not exist)">Seychelles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Somalia">Somalia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of South Africa">South Africa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Sudan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Sudan (page does not exist)">Sudan</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Tanzania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Tanzania (page does not exist)">Tanzania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Togo" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Togo">Togo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Uganda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Uganda (page does not exist)">Uganda</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Zambia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Zambia (page does not exist)">Zambia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">States with limited<br />recognition</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (page does not exist)">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Somaliland" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Somaliland">Somaliland</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Canary_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Canary Islands (page does not exist)">Canary Islands</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Ceuta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Ceuta (page does not exist)">Ceuta</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Melilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Melilla (page does not exist)">Melilla</a>  <span style="font-size:85%;">(Spain)</span></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Madeira&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Madeira (page does not exist)">Madeira</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Portugal)</span></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Mayotte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Mayotte (page does not exist)">Mayotte</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_R%C3%A9union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Réunion (page does not exist)">Réunion</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(France)</span></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Saint_Helena&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Saint Helena (page does not exist)">Saint Helena</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Ascension_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Ascension Island (page does not exist)">Ascension Island</a> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Tristan_da_Cunha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Tristan da Cunha (page does not exist)">Tristan da Cunha</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(United Kingdom)</span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Western_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li></ul>
</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Art_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Art_of_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Asia">Art of Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Afghanistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Armenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Bahrain" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Bhutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Brunei">Brunei</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Cambodia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of China">China</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_East_Timor" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Egypt">Egypt</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of India">India</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Iran">Iran</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Iraq">Iraq</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Israel">Israel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Japan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Japan">Japan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Jordan">Jordan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_North_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of North Korea">North Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of South Korea">South Korea</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Kuwait" title="Art of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Kyrgyzstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Laos">Laos</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Maldives&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Maldives (page does not exist)">Maldives</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Myanmar" title="Art of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Nepal">Nepal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Oman">Oman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Qatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Qatar">Qatar</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Russia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Singapore">Singapore</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Syria">Syria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Tajikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Thailand" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Thailand">Thailand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Turkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Turkmenistan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Turkmenistan (page does not exist)">Turkmenistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the United Arab Emirates (page does not exist)">United Arab Emirates</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Uzbekistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Yemen" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the British Indian Ocean Territory (page does not exist)">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Macau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Macau (page does not exist)">Macau</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" title="Category:Asia">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Art_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Art_of_Europe" title="Template:Art of Europe"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Art_of_Europe" title="Template talk:Art of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Art_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Art of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Art_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Albania">Albania</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Andorra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Andorra (page does not exist)">Andorra</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Armenia">Armenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Austria">Austria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Belarus">Belarus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Belgium" title="Art of Belgium">Belgium</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Croatia">Croatia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Denmark">Denmark</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Estonia">Estonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Finland">Finland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of France">France</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Germany">Germany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Greece">Greece</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Hungary">Hungary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Iceland">Iceland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li>
<li class="mw-empty-elt"></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Italy">Italy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Latvia">Latvia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Liechtenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Liechtenstein (page does not exist)">Liechtenstein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Malta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Malta (page does not exist)">Malta</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Moldova">Moldova</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Monaco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Monaco (page does not exist)">Monaco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Norway">Norway</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Poland">Poland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Portugal">Portugal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Russia">Russia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_San_Marino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of San Marino (page does not exist)">San Marino</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Serbia">Serbia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Slovenia" title="Art of Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Spain">Spain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Sweden">Sweden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Turkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Art of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br />recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br />other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Faroe_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Gibraltar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Gibraltar (page does not exist)">Gibraltar</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Isle_of_Man&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Isle of Man (page does not exist)">Isle of Man</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Jersey (page does not exist)">Jersey</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Art_of_Oceania" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Oceania_topic" title="Template talk:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Oceania topic"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Art_of_Oceania" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Oceania">Art of Oceania </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Australia">Australia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Federated States of Micronesia (page does not exist)">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Fiji" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Fiji">Fiji</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Kiribati&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Kiribati (page does not exist)">Kiribati</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Marshall_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Marshall Islands (page does not exist)">Marshall Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Nauru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Nauru (page does not exist)">Nauru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Palau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Palau (page does not exist)">Palau</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Papua_New_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Samoa (page does not exist)">Samoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Solomon_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Solomon Islands (page does not exist)">Solomon Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Tonga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Tonga (page does not exist)">Tonga</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Tuvalu" title="Art of Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated states<br />of New Zealand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Cook_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Niue&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Niue (page does not exist)">Niue</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies<br />and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_American_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of American Samoa (page does not exist)">American Samoa</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Christmas_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Christmas Island (page does not exist)">Christmas Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Clipperton_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Clipperton Island (page does not exist)">Clipperton Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (page does not exist)">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Easter_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Easter Island (page does not exist)">Easter Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_French_Polynesia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of French Polynesia (page does not exist)">French Polynesia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Guam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Guam (page does not exist)">Guam</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_New_Caledonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of New Caledonia (page does not exist)">New Caledonia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Norfolk_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Norfolk Island (page does not exist)">Norfolk Island</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Northern Mariana Islands (page does not exist)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Pitcairn_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Pitcairn Islands (page does not exist)">Pitcairn Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Tokelau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Tokelau (page does not exist)">Tokelau</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Wallis_and_Futuna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Wallis and Futuna (page does not exist)">Wallis and Futuna</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Art_of_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Art_of_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Art of North America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Bahamas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Bahamas (page does not exist)">Bahamas</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Barbados&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Barbados (page does not exist)">Barbados</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Belize">Belize</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Canada">Canada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Cuba">Cuba</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Dominican_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Dominican Republic (page does not exist)">Dominican Republic</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Haiti">Haiti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Honduras">Honduras</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Mexico">Mexico</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Nicaragua" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Panama" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Panama">Panama</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of the United States">United States</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Anguilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Anguilla (page does not exist)">Anguilla</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Art_of_South_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:South_America_topic" title="Template:South America topic"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:South_America_topic" title="Template talk:South America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:South_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:South America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Art_of_South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Art_of_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of South America">Art of South America </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Argentina">Argentina</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_Bolivia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of Bolivia (page does not exist)">Bolivia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Brazil">Brazil</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Chile">Chile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Colombia">Colombia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Guyana">Guyana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Peru">Peru</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Suriname" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Suriname">Suriname</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_the_Falkland_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of the Falkland Islands (page does not exist)">Falkland Islands</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_French_Guiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of French Guiana (page does not exist)">French Guiana</a></li>
<li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Art_of_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Art of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)"><span style="white-space:normal;">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</span></a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Visual_arts_and_the_art_world" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Art_world" title="Template:Art world"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Art_world" title="Template talk:Art world"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Art_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Art world"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Visual_arts_and_the_art_world" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Art_world" title="Art world">art world</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artwork</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriation_(art)" title="Appropriation (art)">Appropriation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collage" title="Collage">Collage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_art" title="Conceptual art">Conceptual art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">Cultural artifact</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Drawing" title="Drawing">Drawing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fine_art" title="Fine art">Fine art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fine-art_photography" title="Fine-art photography">Fine-art photograph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Found_object" title="Found object">Found object</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Installation_art" title="Installation art">Installation art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_art" title="Kinetic art">Kinetic art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_media" title="Mixed media">Mixed media</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bricolage" title="Bricolage">bricolage</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">Mural</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/New_media_art" title="New media art">New media art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_art_history" title="Media art history">history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_art" title="Digital art">digital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_art" title="Virtual art">virtual</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Performance_art" title="Performance art">Performance art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_arts" title="Plastic arts">Plastic arts</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portrait" title="Portrait">Portrait</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Printmaking" title="Printmaking">Printmaking</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_art" title="Public art">Public art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Street_art" title="Street art">street art</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carving" title="Carving">carving</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Statue" title="Statue">statue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_statues" title="List of tallest statues">tallest</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Site-specific_art" title="Site-specific art">Site-specific art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_sculpture" title="Social sculpture">Social sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soft_sculpture" title="Soft sculpture">Soft sculpture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">Stained glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artwork_title" title="Artwork title">Artwork title</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artist" title="Artist">Artist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Private_collection" title="Private collection">Collector</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservator-restorer" title="Conservator-restorer">Conservator-restorer</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paintings_conservator" title="Paintings conservator">paintings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_frescos" title="Conservation and restoration of frescos">frescos</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_critic" title="Art critic">Critic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Curator" title="Curator">Curator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_dealer" title="Art dealer">Dealer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Model_(art)" title="Model (art)">Model</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">Patron</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_education" title="Visual arts education">Visual arts education</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_universities_and_colleges_in_Europe" title="List of art universities and colleges in Europe">Europe</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places<br />and events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_auction" title="Art auction">Art auction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_colony" title="Art colony">Art colony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_commune" class="mw-redirect" title="Art commune">Art commune</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_exhibition" title="Art exhibition">Art exhibition</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_exhibition_space" title="Alternative exhibition space">alternative exhibition space</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_gallery" title="Art gallery">Art gallery</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art_gallery" title="Contemporary art gallery">Contemporary art gallery</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_museum" title="Art museum">Art museum</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-artist_museum" title="Single-artist museum">Single-artist museum</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_school" title="Art school">Art school</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_schools_in_Europe" title="List of art schools in Europe">Europe</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arts_centre" title="Arts centre">Arts centre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arts_festival" title="Arts festival">Arts festival</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artist_collective" title="Artist collective">Artist collective</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artist_cooperative" title="Artist cooperative">Artist cooperative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artist-in-residence" title="Artist-in-residence">Artist-in-residence program</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artist-run_initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Artist-run initiative">Artist-run initiative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Artist-run_space" title="Artist-run space">Artist-run space</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biennale" title="Biennale">Biennale</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Commission_(art)" title="Commission (art)">Commission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_garden" title="Sculpture garden">Sculpture garden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_trail" title="Sculpture trail">Sculpture trail</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_museum" title="Virtual museum">Virtual museum</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_art" title="Timeline of art">Timeline of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">Art history (academic study)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_manifesto" title="Art manifesto">Art manifesto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_movement" title="Art movement">Art movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_criticism" title="Art criticism">Criticism</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">feminist</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting" title="History of painting">History of painting</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_painting_history" title="Outline of painting history">outline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_20th_century_printmaking_in_America" title="Timeline of 20th century printmaking in America">Timeline of 20th century printmaking in America</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_market" title="Art market">Art market</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_raisonn%C3%A9" title="Catalogue raisonné">Catalogue raisonné</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Classificatory_disputes_about_art" title="Classificatory disputes about art">Classificatory disputes</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Collection_Management_Policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Collection Management Policy">Museum collection management</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deaccessioning_(museum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deaccessioning (museum)">deaccessioning</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_cultural_heritage" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage">Conservation-restoration</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_paintings" title="Conservation and restoration of paintings">paintings</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_policy" title="Cultural policy">Cultural policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Destination_painting" title="Destination painting">Destination painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism_in_art" title="Eclecticism in art">Eclecticism in art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_the_arts_and_literature" title="Economics of the arts and literature">Economics of art</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_finance" title="Art finance">art finance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Art_valuation" title="Art valuation">art valuation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_art" title="Elements of art">Elements of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_painting-related_articles" title="Index of painting-related articles">Index of painting-related articles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_visual_arts" title="Outline of the visual arts">Outline of the visual arts</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_painting" title="Outline of painting">painting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sculpture" title="Outline of sculpture">sculpture</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Provenance" title="Provenance">Provenance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Sociology of art</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Style</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_magazines" title="List of art magazines">Art magazines</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_media" title="List of art media">Art media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_techniques" title="List of art techniques">Art techniques</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_movements" title="List of art movements">Art movements</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_museums" title="List of art museums">Art museums</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_art_museums" title="List of largest art museums">largest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-visited_art_museums" title="List of most-visited art museums">most visited</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sculpture_parks" title="List of sculpture parks">sculpture parks</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_single-artist_museums" title="List of single-artist museums">single artist</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_art_reference_books" title="List of art reference books">Art reference books</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colossal_sculptures_in_situ" title="List of colossal sculptures in situ">Colossal sculptures in situ</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_artists" title="List of contemporary artists">Contemporary artists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_art_galleries" title="List of contemporary art galleries">Contemporary art galleries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_artists" title="List of modern artists">Modern artists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_galleries" title="List of national galleries">National galleries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_painters" title="Lists of painters">Painters</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_painters_by_name" title="List of painters by name">by name</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_painters_by_nationality" title="Lists of painters by nationality">by nationality</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sculptors" title="List of sculptors">Sculptors</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_sculptors" title="List of female sculptors">female</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stolen_paintings" title="List of stolen paintings">Stolen paintings</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_paintings" title="List of most expensive paintings">Most expensive paintings</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_sculptures" title="List of most expensive sculptures">sculptures</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_artworks_by_living_artists" title="List of most expensive artworks by living artists">works by living artists</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Painting" title="Portal:Painting">Painting portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Visual_arts" title="Portal:Visual arts">Visual arts portal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Arts">Arts portal</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q50641#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7503709-9">Germany</a></span></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | '1710073712' |