Examine individual changes

'{{Refimprove|date=May 2007}} [[Image:BoliviaChile.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Example of recent expressions of Bolivian irredentism over territorial losses in the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879-1884). In the mural it is written; "What once was ours, will be ours once again", and "Hold fast ''[[roto]]s'' (Chileans), for here come the ''Colorados'' of Bolivia"]] '''Irredentism''' (from [[Italian language|Italian]] ''irredento'', "unredeemed") is any position advocating [[annexation]] of territories administered by another [[State (polity)|state]] on the grounds of common [[ethnicity]] or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. Some of these movements are also called [[pan-nationalism|pan-nationalist]] movements. It is a feature of [[identity politics]] and [[cultural geography|cultural]] and [[political geography]]. Because most [[border]]s have been moved and redrawn over time, a great many countries could theoretically present irredentist claims to their neighbors. [[Germany]]'s [[Anschluss]] of [[Austria]] and annexation of German-speaking Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in [[1938]] and a return of territory from Czechoslovakia to [[Hungary]] as a result of the [[First Vienna Award]] are perhaps historical examples of this idea in practice. However, some states are the subject of potential irredentism from their inception. Post–World War I [[Eastern Europe]], the [[Balkans]], and the [[Near East]] had borders carved out by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] that left many of the new states in that region unsatisfied due to minority populations and conflicting historical claims. Many of Africa's borders were artificially imposed by European colonial powers. The result split ethnic groups between different countries, such as the [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] who are divided between [[Nigeria]] and [[Benin]]. In some cases, the irredentist argumentation continued well past the Second World War and on to the present day. An area that may be subjected to a potential claim is therefore sometimes called an '''''irredenta'''''. Not all irredentas are involved in actual irredentism.{{Attribution needed|date=May 2010}} ==Origins== {{Main|Italia irredenta}} The word was coined in [[Italy]] from the phrase ''Italia irredenta'' ("unredeemed Italy"). This originally referred to [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] rule over mostly or partly Italian-inhabited territories such as [[Trentino]], [[Trieste]], [[Istria]] and [[Dalmatia]] during the 19th and early 20th century. A common way to express a claim to adjacent territories on the grounds of historical or ethnic association is by using the epithet "Greater" before the country name. This conveys the image of national territory at its maximum conceivable extent with the country "proper" at its core. It must be noted that the use of "Greater" does not always convey an irredentistic meaning. During the [[unification of Germany]], the term ''[[German question#Later influence|Großdeutschland]]'' (or greater Germany) referred to a possible German nation consisting of the states that later comprised the Second German Empire ''and'' Austria; the term ''lesser'' Germany, or small Germany, or ''[[Kleindeutschland]]'', referred to a possible German state without Austria. These were also called the "little German" solution and the "big German" solution to the question of unification.{{Attribution needed|date=May 2010}} The term was also used by Germans referring to Greater Germany, a state consisting of pre World War I Germany, actual Austria and the Sudetenland. ==Constitutional irredentism== Some states formalize their irredentist claims by including them in their constitutional documents. === Afghanistan === The [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] border with [[Pakistan]], known as the [[Durand Line]], was arbitrarily drawn by colonial officials of the British Empire in 1893 following the [[Second Afghan War]]. Accordingly, the [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] tribes inhabiting the border areas were arbitrarily divided; the tribes have never accepted the still-porous border. The Durand Line was not intended as a permanent border, and clashes broke out in the 1950s and 1960s between Afghanistan and Pakistan over the issue. All Afghan governments of the past century have declared, with varying intensity, a long-term goal of re-uniting all Pashtun-dominated areas under Afghan rule.{{Attribution needed|date=May 2010}} === Argentina === {{Refimprove|date=November 2010}} {{see also|Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute}} [[Image:Malvinas-cartel.JPG|thumb|200px|A sign at the Argentine-Brazilian border, translated into English, proclaims "The [[Falkland Islands|Falklands]] are Argentine" to visitors entering the country from Brazil.]] Part III, Section 1 of the [[Constitution of Argentina]] states that "The [[Argentina|Argentine Nation]] ratifies its legitimate and non-prescribing sovereignty over [[Falkland Islands|the Malvinas]] (Falkland Islands), [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] and over the corresponding maritime and insular zones, as they are an integral part of the national territory. The recovery of said territories and the full exercise of sovereignty, respectful of the way of life of their inhabitants and according to the principles of international law, are a permanent and unrelinquished goal of the Argentine people." On 2 April 1982, Argentina launched an invasion and occupation of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Britain immediately countered with a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Argentine Air Force, and then retook the islands by amphibious assault in a conflict known as the [[Falklands War]]. The conflict ended with the Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982, and the islands remained under British control. Britain claims [[de jure]] sovereignty from 1690, and the United Kingdom has exercised de facto sovereignty over the [[archipelago]] almost constantly since 1833. It is further maintained that the islanders themselves are British citizens and have no wish to be under Argentinian control. Argentina briefly controlled the islands for a brief period prior to 1833. Argentina had some boundary disputes with its neighbor [[Chile]] and the Argentine military junta conflicted with the Chilean military junta of [[Augusto Pinochet]]. Some of the military leaders like Generals [[Jorge Rafael Videla]] and [[Leopoldo Galtieri]] in the late 1970s held a strong hatred of Chileans and they felt that the territory of Chile should be invaded by declaration of war, conquered and annexed into Argentina. He demanded the Argentinan military junta declare Chile as Argentine land. Argentine General [[Luciano Benjamin Menendez]] was a leading advocate for war during the [[1978]] [[Beagle conflict]], and was known for his aggressive and vulgar discourse against Chileans: «Si nos dejan atacar a los chilotes, los corremos hasta la isla de Pascua, el brindis de fin de año lo hacemos en el Palacio La Moneda y después iremos a mear el champagne en el Pacífico» (Translation: «If they let us attack the Chileans, we'll chase them to [[Easter Island]], we'll drink the New Year's Eve toast in the [[Palacio de La Moneda]], and then we'll piss the champagne into the Pacific»). === Bolivia === The 2009 constitution of [[Bolivia]] states that the country has an unrenounceable right over the territory that gives it access to the [[Pacific Ocean]] and its maritime space. This is understood as Chilean territory that Bolivia ceded in the [[Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904 between Chile and Bolivia]] after the [[War of the Pacific]] which left Bolivia a [[landlocked]] country.<ref>CAPÍTULO CUARTO, REIVINDICACIÓN MARÍTIMA. Artículo 267. I. El Estado boliviano declara su derecho irrenunciable e imprescriptible sobre el territorio que le dé acceso al océano Pacífico y su espacio marítimo. II. La solución effectiva al differendo marítimo a través de medios pacíficos y el ejercicio pleno de la soberanía sobre dicho territorio constituyen objetivos permanentes e irrenunciables del Estado boliviano.[http://www.presidencia.gob.bo/download/constitucion.pdf Constitution of Bolivia]</ref> === People's Republic of China === [[File:ROC Administrative and Claims.svg|thumb|right|Official territorial claims according to the Constitution of the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan).]] The preamble to the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] states "[[Taiwan]] is part of the sacred territory of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It is the lofty duty of the entire [[Chinese people]], including our compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of [[Chinese reunification|reunifying the motherland]]." The PRC claim to sovereignty over Taiwan is generally based on the [[Succession of states|successor state]] theory, with the PRC claiming that it is the successor state to the Republic of China.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} === Republic of China (Taiwan) === Article 4 of the [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] originally stated that "[t]he territory of the Republic of China within its existing national boundaries shall not be altered except by a resolution of the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]]", although recent constitutional changes have moved this power to that of a national referendum.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} The PRC's influence in international organizations prevents Taiwan from participating in many such organizations. In some organizations the [[Republic of China]] is able to participate as [[Chinese Taipei]]. The PRC has an extensive missile build-up near Taiwan and passed an [[Anti-Secession Law]] in 2005 threatening to use force. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the ROC government on Taiwan maintained itself to be the legitimate ruler of Mainland China. As part of its current policy of 'status quo', the ROC has not renounced claims over the territories currently controlled by the People's Republic of China, [[Mongolia]], and [[Tuvan Republic]] in [[Russia]], Northern Burma and some [[Central Asia]]n states bordering areas. However, the ROC does not actively pursue these claims in practice; the remaining claims that the ROC are actively seeking are the [[Diaoyu Islands]], whose sovereignty is also asserted by [[Japan]] and the PRC; and the [[Spratly Islands]] in [[South China Sea]], with multiple claimants. === Comoros === Article 1 of the Constitution of the Union of the [[Comoros]] begins: "The Union of the Comoros is a republic, composed of the autonomous islands of [[Mohéli]], [[Mayotte]], [[Anjouan]], and [[Grande Comore]]." Mayotte, geographically a part of the Comoro Islands, was the only island of the four to vote against independence from France (independence losing 37%-63%) in the referendum held December 22, 1974. The total vote was 94%-5% in favor of independence. Mayotte is currently a "departmental collectivity" of the French Republic.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} === India === All European colonies not part of the [[British Raj]] were annexed by the [[Republic of India]] since its independence, first as a [[Dominion of India|dominion]], from the [[British Empire]]. An example of such territories was the Portuguese enclave of Goa. === India / Pakistan === From 1956, [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] have both claimed the entire area of [[Kashmir]] as part of their state's "national territory." Both currently administer large sections of the area, and the two countries have fought multiple wars over the area. India aspires to unite [[Azad Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], also known as [[Pakistan-administered Kashmir]], with [[Indian-administered Kashmir]]. Similarly, Pakistan has a desire to unite [[Indian-administered Kashmir]] with [[Pakistan-administered Kashmir]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} === Indonesia === Indonesia claimed all territories of the [[Dutch East Indies]], and previously viewed British plan to group the [[Straits Settlements]], the [[Federated Malay States]], the [[Unfederated Malay States]], [[Sarawak]] and [[Sabah|British North Borneo]] into a new independent federation a threat to its objective to create a united Malay state (this was during Soekarno's era). It had also annexed [[History of Timor Leste|Portuguese Timor]] in the 1970s till the 2000s. === Ireland === From 1937 until 1998, [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland|Articles 2 and 3]] of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] provided that "[t]he national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland". However, "[p]ending the re-integration of the national territory", the powers of the state were restricted to legislate only for the area that had ceded from the [[United Kingdom]]. Arising from the [[Northern Ireland peace process]], the matter was mutually resolved in 1998. The [[Republic of Ireland]]'s constitution was altered by [[referendum]] and its territorial claim to [[Northern Ireland]] was dropped. The amended constitution asserts that while it is the entitlement of "every person born in the island of Ireland … to be part of the Irish Nation" and to hold Irish citizenship, "a united Ireland shall be brought about only by peaceful means with the consent of a majority of the people, democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island." Certain [[North/South Ministerial Council|joint policy and executive bodies]] were created between Northern Ireland, the part of the island that remained in the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland, and these were given executive authority. The advisory and consultative role of the government of Ireland in the government of Northern Ireland granted by the United Kingdom, that had begun with the 1985 [[Anglo-Irish Agreement]], was maintained. The two states also settled the long-running [[Names of the Irish state|dispute concerning their respective names]]: ''Ireland'' and the ''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland'', with both governments agreeing to use those names. === Palestinian Territories === Article 3 of the Basic Law of the [[Palestinian Authority]], which was ratified in 2002 by the [[Palestinian National Authority]] and serves as an interim constitution, states that "[[Jerusalem]] is the capital of Palestine." ==European, Asian, African claims== [[Spain]] claims the [[British Overseas Territories|British overseas territory]] of [[Gibraltar]], ceded to Britain in perpetuity in 1713 under the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], and argues its case at the [[United Nations]] claiming its territorial integrity is affected. During World War II, the Spanish Falangist media agitated for irredentism claiming for Spain the French Navarre, French Basque Country and Roussillon (French Catalonia) as well. [[Morocco]] makes similar claims against Spain over the [[North Africa]]n enclaves of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]. [[Portugal]] does not recognize as Spanish the territory of [[Olivenza]] conquered by Spain during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. [http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/eterna/disputa/Olivenza-Olivenca/elpepunac/20061204elpepinac_13/Tes] Some of the most violent irredentist conflicts of recent times in [[Europe]] flared up as a consequence of the break-up of the former [[Yugoslavia]] in the early 1990s. The wars in [[Croatia]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] were largely about creating a new political framework of states, each of which would be ethnically and politically homogeneous. The conflict erupted further south with the ethnic Albanian majority in [[Kosovo]] seeking to switch allegiance to the adjoining state of [[Albania]].<ref>See [[Naomi Chazan]] 1991, ''Irredentism and international politics''</ref> [[Greece]] claims that the use of the name [[Republic of Macedonia]] by its northern neighbor signifies an irredentist claim on the northern province of [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] in Greece. [[Southeast Asia]] too is another region in which armed irredentist movements have been active for almost a century, due to the [[Balkanization]] of [[North-East India]], Burma and [[Bangladesh]] under [[British colonialism]]. Most prominent amongst them are the [[Naga (clan)|Naga]] fight for [[Greater Nagaland]], the [[Chin people|Chin]] struggle for a unified [[Chinland]] and other self-determinist movements by the [[ethnic]] [[indigenous peoples]] of the erstwhile [[Assam]] both under the British and post-British Assam under India.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Some have alleged irredentism by Armenia in its support of the predominantly Armenian-populated region of [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] to gain independence from Azerbaijan. However, [[Armenia]] denies direct involvement in the [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} In the view of Nadia Milanova, Nagorno-Karabakh represents a combination of separatism and irredentism.<ref>Nadia Milanova. The Territory-Identity Nexus in the Conflict over Nagorno Karabakh: Implications for OSCE Peace Efforts, Human Rights Without Frontiers International, 2003</ref> The [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party]], which operates in [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]], works for the unification of most modern states of the [[Levant]] and beyond in a single state referred to as [[Greater Syria]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} The proposed Syrian country includes [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]]; and southern [[Turkey]], northern [[Egypt]], and southwestern [[Iran]]. Japan claims the [[South Korea]]n-administered [[Liancourt Rocks]] and the Russian-administered [[Kuril Islands]], the four southernmost isles of the island chain north of [[Hokkaido]], annexed by the [[Soviet Union]] following World War II.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Irredentism is commonplace in [[Africa]] due to the artificially declared political boundaries of former European colonial nation-states passing through tribal boundaries. The [[Ethiopia]]n Great Imperium of [[Eastern Africa]] in some Ethiopian nationalist circles aims to extend the ancient Ethiopian empire into the former Ethiopian province of [[Eritrea]], the [[Sudan]] including Christian [[Southern Sudan]], [[Kodok|Fachoda]] and the [[Darfur]] region, neighboring [[Djibouti]], [[Somalia]] and parts of Egypt.{{Attribution needed|date=May 2010}} ==North American Issues== Irredentism is also expressed in the North America [[Mexico]] [[United States]] by some [[Chicano]] "nationalists" and [[Mexican-American]] activists in the [[Aztlan]] movement. They call for the return of formerly Mexican-dominated lands in the [[American Southwest|Southwestern United States]] back to [[Mexico]] after the [[United States of America|US]] annexed lands in the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] to become the present-day states of [[California]], [[Texas]], [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]]; and parts of [[Colorado]], [[Nevada]] and [[Utah]]. {{Citation needed|date=September 2008}} ==U.K. issues== A unique situation exists with that of [[Berwick-upon-Tweed|Berwick]]. Part of the citizenry of the town support the transfer [[Berwick-upon-Tweed|Berwick]] to Scotland.{{Attribution needed|date=May 2010}} However, due to the nature of the political union between [[Scotland]] and [[England]] forming the [[UK]] the reunification of [[Berwick]] goes largely unpursued. Various debates have arisen surrounding the constitutional future of Berwick, or [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] as it is known in England, but have been largely academic. A BBC poll suggested that with the rise in Scottish Nationalism, Berwick may opt to hold a referendum should the UK dissolve.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} [[Venezuela]] keeps its claim over the [[Guayana Esequiba]] territory in nearby [[Guyana]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Irrendentism was also one of main reasons for the People's Republic of China to strike to assume sovereignty over Hong Kong and Macau. The two territories had been British for over a century and Portuguese for four centuries respectively, until the United Kingdom and Portugal relinquished the territories in 1997 and 1999. However, in the case of Hong Kong, irrendentism was incidental: The New Territories part of the British colony were only on a lease expiring in 1997 anyway and, with their surrender, it was thought the Crown territory of Hong Kong itself would be unviable as an entity independent of mainland China. Of course, irrendentism could be considered to have played a role in that the People's Republic of China had no intention of renewing the lease on the New Territories. ==See also== {{Wiktionary}} *[[List of irredentist claims or disputes]] *[[Annexationism]] *[[Ethnic nationalism]] *[[Expansionism]] *[[Lebensraum]] *[[Reconquista (Mexico)]] *[[Revanchism]] *[[Status quo ante bellum]] *[[Territorial dispute]] ==References== <references /> {{Irredentism}} {{Nationalism}} {{commons category|Irredentism}} [[Category:Irredentism| ]] [[Category:Pan movements| ]] [[Category:International relations theory]] [[Category:Divided regions]] [[bs:Iredentizam]] [[bg:Иредентизъм]] [[ca:Irredemptisme]] [[cs:Iredentismus]] [[da:Irredentisme]] [[de:Irredentismus]] [[es:Irredentismo]] [[eo:Iredentismo]] [[eu:Irredentismo]] [[fr:Irrédentisme]] [[fur:Iredentisim]] [[gl:Irredentismo]] [[hr:Iredentizam]] [[it:Irredentismo]] [[he:אירידנטה]] [[hu:Irredentizmus]] [[mk:Иредентизам]] [[nl:Irredentisme]] [[ja:民族統一主義]] [[no:Irredentisme]] [[pl:Irredenta]] [[pt:Irredentismo]] [[ro:Iredentism]] [[rm:Irredentissem (sursilvan)]] [[ru:Ирредентизм]] [[simple:Irredentism]] [[sk:Iredentizmus]] [[sl:Iredentizem]] [[sr:Иредентизам]] [[sh:Iredentizam]] [[fi:Irredentismi]] [[sv:Irredentism]] [[tr:İrredantizm]] [[uk:Іредентизм]] [[zh:民族统一主义]]'