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The '''Goguryeo controversies''' are disputes between [[China]] and [[Korea]] on the history of [[Goguryeo]], an ancient kingdom (37 BC – 668 AD) located in present-day [[Northeast China]] and two thirds of the Korean Peninsula. At the heart of the Goguryeo controversy is whether Goguryeo is a part of Chinese history exclusively, Korean history exclusively, separate from both, or shared by all. During the 1980s, Chinese scholarship was liberated from the strictures of the Maoist era, and social scientists began studying the history of Goguryeo, challenging the conventional view that Goguryeo was exclusively part of Korean history. In 2002, the [[Northeast Project]] conducted by the [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (CASS), which claimed Goguryeo as a Tungusic ethnic state since it was founded by the Tungusic Yemaek and populated by Tungusic Mohe people and part of Chinese regional history since Tungisic ethinicites like Manchus, Xibe, Oroqen, and Nanai are citizens of China, sparked a major academic and diplomatic controversy, as Korean experts on Goguryeo history accused the Chinese government of using history for political purposes. In response, in 2004 South Korea established the Goguryeo Research Foundation (renamed the Northeast Asian History Foundation in 2006), and summoned its Chinese ambassador{{clarify|date=January 2013|China's ambassador to Korea or Korea's ambassador to China?}}. In 2007, the Northeast Project ended, and the study of Goguryeo history in China has dramatically declined.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences continues to hold its historical perspective on its homepage.
Various analyses of the controversy have focused on external motivations for the reevaluation of history, including Korean [[irredentism]] towards adjacent Chinese territory, the possibility of [[North Korea]]n collapse, and the challenge to China from transnational separatism. Nationalist historiography has inflamed both sides of the debate, as [[Korean nationalism]] treats the themes of a powerful Korean Goguryeo and independence from China as central, while [[Chinese nationalism]] stresses the inviolability of its territory and the unity of its ethnic groups. Some scholars have also criticized the projection of modern-day national identities onto ancient peoples.
==History of the dispute==
===Background===
<!-- Speculation on how nationalist historiographical frames, such as Zhonghua minzu, contributed to the development are treated in a separate section dedicated to that. This is purely for describing the facts of how the scholarship unfolded. -->
As neighboring areas, northeast China and North Korea have both laid claim to the history of ancient kingdoms that occupied the region. The interpretation of history in this region has implications for contemporary territorial sovereignty.<ref name="Chung"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} During the heyday of [[Maoism]], the Chinese government line was that the history of [[Goguryeo]] (''Gaogouli'' in Chinese) was Korean history.<ref name="Chung"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} However, there was almost no research published in Goguryeo from China at the time, and China had a motivation to say so, because of its good relations with [[North Korea]].<ref name="Chen"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} Since the 1980s, government control over scholarship liberalized, and more than 500 books about Goguryeo-related topics were published since then, comprising 90% of China's research since 1949.<ref name="Chung"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}<ref name="Chen"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} During this time, some scholars such as [[Tan Qixiang]] questioned the state's old interpretation of history, arguing for the study of all polities within China's territory as part of Chinese history. Jiang Mengshan proposed a "one history, dual use" ({{lang|zh-Hans-CN|一史两用}}, ''yīshǐ liǎngyòng'') system whereby Goguryeo would also be considered part of China's history,<ref>Sun, Jinji 2004-a, “Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research)”, paper presented at the conference titled Koguryo yoksawa munhwa yusan (History and Cultural Heritage of Koguryo), March 26–27, 2004</ref> arguing that the kingdom's capital, for 460 out of 706 years, lay in modern northeast China, and that three-quarters of its population were not [[Koreans|ethnic Korean]].<ref name="Chung">{{Cite journal|title=China's "Soft" Clash with South Korea: The History War and Beyond|first=Jae Ho|last=Chung|journal=Asian Survey|volume=49|number=3|date=May–June 2009|pages=468–483|doi=10.1525/as.2009.49.3.468}}</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}<ref name="Chen"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}<ref>Byington, Mark. “The Creation of an Ancient Minority Nationality: Koguryo in Chinese Historiography.” In Embracing the Other: The Interaction of Korean and Foreign Cultures: Proceedings of the 1st World Congress of Korean Studies, III. Songnam, Republic of Korea: The Academy of Korean Studies, 2002.</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} He related ancient identities to modern-day peoples by suggesting that "the people of [[Buyeo kingdom|Buyeo]] and Goguryeo had the same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the [[Silla]] lineage."<ref>Sun, Jinji 1986, ''Dongbei minzu yuanliu'' (The Ethnic Origin of the Northeast), Harbin: Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe.</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}
===2002–03===
Another faction of historians, led by Sun Jinji ({{lang|zh-Hans-CN|孙进己}}, ''Sūn Jìnjǐ'') and Zhang Bibo ({{lang|zh-Hans-CN|张碧波}}, ''Zhāng Bìbō''), of the Heilongjiang Academy of Sciences, criticized Tan and put forth the thesis that Goguryeo should be regarded as local Chinese, and not as Korean history.{{clarify|how does this position differ from Tan's?|date=January 2013}} They cited the traditional view in [[Chinese historiography]] that Korea was founded by the Chinese prince [[Jizi]], as well as Goguryeo's status as a [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|tributary to ancient China]]. These [[Historical revisionism|revisionist]] scholars, mostly from northeast China themselves, established the Northeast Project of the [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] in 2002 to investigate this view.<ref name="Chung"/> The establishment of the Northeast Project marks the beginning of the modern Goguryeo controversy. However, the Northeast Project cannot be equated with the study of Goguryeo, because it studied more topics than Goguryeo, including the history of the [[Russian Far East]], the [[Bohai Kingdom]], economic history, and local histories in ancient China and Korea.<ref name="Chen">{{cite journal|title=Domestic Politics, National Identity, and International Conflict: the case of the Koguryo controversy|first=Dingding|last=Chen|date=February 2012|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=21|issue=74|pages=227–241|doi=10.1080/10670564.2012.635928}}</ref>
China asserted that Goguryeo was an ethnic [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] state and in modern-day China, Tungusic ethnicities like Manchus, Xibe, Oroqen, and Nanai are citizens of China and viewed as part of China's multi-ethnic historical civilization. The Tungusic Yemaek founded Goguryeo and it was also populated by Tungusic Mohe people.
In 2003, China applied with [[UNESCO]] to register the [[Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom]] within its territory as a [[World Heritage Site]]. In December of that year, the South Korean government published a report denying that Goguryeo could be considered part of Chinese history, and giving directions to Korean civil society groups on how to counter Chinese claims.<ref name="Chen"/> [[Korean nationalism|Korean nationalists]] groups and the South Korean popular press in [[South Korea]] expressed outrage over the Northeast Project,<ref name="Chen"/><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LSD&office_id=078&article_id=0000026912§ion_id=117&menu_id=117
| title = Korean-Russian academia jointly respond to Northeast Project
| accessdate = 2007-03-06
| date = 2006-10-31
| publisher = [[Naver]]
| language = Korean
}}</ref> and some commentators suspected, that because the CASS receives government funding, the Chinese government might support the Northeast Project.<ref name="Chung"/> However, the CASS's Center for Borderland History and Geography Research is underfunded, understaffed (containing only 21 researchers), and not self-sufficient; government subsidies came in response to the extremely low salaries in CASS's history and philosophy departments, in contrast to the more lucrative fields of economics and law, and the money given does not match the high strategic value of borderland research.<ref name="Chen"/> Historically, the CASS has produced research that disagreed with or is critical of government policies.<ref name="Chen"/> Other, still more moderate voices in Korea pointed out that several official publications in China refer to Goguryeo simply as Korea's history.<ref name="Chung"/> Chinese scholars who disagreed with Sun and Zhang's "Chinese local history" view were interviewed by South Korean newspapers.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Chinese Scholar Slams Co-opting Korean History
|url=http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609130027.html
|work=[[Chosun Ilbo]]
|date=2006-09-13
|accessdate=2007-03-06
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019012559/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609130027.html
|archivedate=2006-10-19
|deadurl=yes
|df=
}}</ref> The negative press coverage over the Goguryeo issues increased the incidence of [[Sinophobia]] in South Korea,<ref name="Chen"/><ref>{{cite news
|title = South Koreans believe China likely to be biggest security threat in 10 years
|url = http://english.ohmynews.com/ArticleView/article_view.asp?no=280522&rel_no=1
|work = [[Associated Press]]
|date = 2006-03-20
|accessdate = 2007-03-31
|deadurl = yes
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071128060009/http://english.ohmynews.com/ArticleView/article_view.asp?no=280522&rel_no=1
|archivedate = 2007-11-28
|df =
}}</ref> and has possibly influenced South Korea's security strategy to become more pro-American and anti-China.<ref>{{cite journal
| title = The Koguryo Controversy, National Identity, and Sino-Korean relations Today
| last = Gries
| first = Peter Hays
}}</ref>
===2004–2007===
In March 2004, the South Korean government established the Goguryeo Research Foundation to publish research conducive to its view of Goguryeo as part of Korean history.<ref>{{cite book|title=China's Rise: Threat Or Opportunity?|first=Hebert|last=Yee|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|year=2011|page=162}}</ref> In April, China's [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] deleted references to Korea's premodern history on its website, prompting South Korea to summon its Chinese ambassador.<ref name="Chen"/> In August 2004, China sent its Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs [[Wu Dawei]] to Seoul to defuse tensions.<ref name="Chen"/> China recognized Korea's concerns and pledged not to place the Northeast Project's conclusions in its history textbooks, and both South Korea and China expressed the desire not to see the issue damage relations.<ref>{{cite news
| first = Hyun-jin
| last = Seo
| title = Skepticism Lingers over History Issue
| url = http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/skepticism-lingers-over-history-issue
| format = Reprint
| work = [[The Korea Herald]]
| date = 2004-08-24
| accessdate = 2012-01-08
}}</ref> However, China's expressed concerns about Korean [[irredentism]] towards northeast China were not addressed by the South Korean side.<ref name="Chen"/> In September, the South Korean government declared the 1909 [[Gando Convention|Jiandao Convention]], which ceded Korean claims to northeast Chinese territory, invalid. In 2005, South Korea conducted joint research projects with [[North Korea]] on Goguryeo relics near [[Pyongyang]]. Meanwhile, Chinese social scientists continued to publish research articles on the ancient Northeast Asian polities, including [[Guchaoxian]] (Gija Chosun), [[Fuyu (kingdom)|Fuyu]] (Puyo), Goguryeo, and Bohai, which Koreans exclusively considered their own.<ref name="Chen"/> In 2006, South Korean president [[Roh Moo-hyun]] protested this research at the 2006 [[Asia–Europe Meeting]]. That year, his government renamed the Goguryeo Research Foundation to the [[Northeast Asian History Foundation]], expanding its mandate. In 2007, the Northeast Project concluded, but neither China nor South Korea has changed its view of Goguryeo history after the dispute. In China, the diplomatic imbroglio meant that research on Goguryeo has become taboo, and former Chinese Goguryeo researchers have diverted their time and resources to other areas.<ref name="Chen"/>
==Japanese and North Korean views==
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]] differentiated Goguryeo from the other Three Kingdoms of Korea to claim Japanese (Wa) influence in the non-Goguryeo kingdoms of [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]] in order to justify its colonization of Korea. In order to demonstrate their theories, they moved a stone monument (棕蟬縣神祠碑), which was originally located at [[Liaodong]], into Pyongyang.<ref>{{cite book|first=순진|last=리|title=평양일대 락랑무덤에 대한 연구(A Research about the Tombs of Nangnang around Pyongyang)|publisher=중심|location=서울|isbn=89-89524-05-9|year=2001}}</ref>
Meanwhile, North Korea has glorified Goguryeo's independent qualities as part of their [[Juche]] ("self-reliance") ideology, identifying itself with Goguryeo, while equating South Korea with [[Silla]], and the [[United States]] with [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]]. North Korea narrates their national history to conform it to Juche, by denying any indication of foreign occupation of the Korean peninsula, such as the existence of any [[Four Commanderies of Han|Chinese commanderies]] there.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|title=Restoring the Glorious Past: North Korean Juche Historiography and Goguryeo
|last=Petrov
|first=Leonid A.
|url=http://www.aks.ac.kr/aks_kor/book/pdf/7-3-9-Restoring%20the%20Glorious%20Past.pdf
|format=PDF
|year=2004
|journal=The Review of Korean Studies Vol. 7 No. 3
|pages=231–252
|publisher=The Academy of Korean Studies
|accessdate=2007-06-05
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194719/http://www.aks.ac.kr/aks_kor/book/pdf/7-3-9-Restoring%20the%20Glorious%20Past.pdf
|archivedate=2007-09-27
|df=
}}
</ref> [[North Korea]]'s state run media has denounced Chinese claims as “a pathetic attempt to manipulate history for its own interests” or “intentionally distorting historical facts through biased perspectives” in North Korean media.<ref>[http://www.freenorthkorea.net/archives/freenorthkorea/00818.html north korea teaching english in at freenorthkorea.net<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901222656/http://www.freenorthkorea.net/archives/freenorthkorea/00818.html |date=September 1, 2009 }}</ref>
==Speculative motives==
Much of the scholarship on the Goguryeo controversy has focused on China's strategic intentions towards the Koreas, and presumptively overlooked the validity of Chinese scholars' historical claims.<ref name="Chen"/> Yonson Ahn, a Korean scholar who has studied Korean [[comfort women]] and historical debates in Korea and Japan,<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> writes that historians such as Quan Zhezhu, Sun Jinji, Kim Hui-kyo, and Mark Byington "perceive the launching of the Project as a defensive reaction to preserve China’s own territorial integrity and stability."<ref name=autogenerated4 /> Various explanations advanced for China's interest in northeastern history include: South Korean [[irredentism]] over [[Jiandao]] (''Gando'' in Korean),<ref name="Chung"/> privileges granted by South Korea to [[Koreans in China]],<ref name="Chung"/> and the possible collapse of [[North Korea]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html Asia Times - News and analysis from Korea; North and South<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/30047.html
| title = China and Korea can't escape their pasts
| accessdate = 2007-03-08
| last = Lankov
| first = Andrei
| date = 2006-09-16
| work = [http://hnn.us History News Network]
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.aei.org/speech/foreign-and-defense-policy/regional/asia/briefing-north-korea/
|archive-url=https://archive.is/20130224095531/http://www.aei.org/speech/foreign-and-defense-policy/regional/asia/briefing-north-korea/
|dead-url=yes
|archive-date=2013-02-24
|title=Briefing: North Korea
|accessdate=2011-01-08
|last=Lilley
|first=James
|date=2007-01-18
|work=[http://www.aei.org/ American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research]
}}</ref> Modern [[Chinese nationalism]], which in contrast to [[Korean ethnic nationalism|Korean nationalism]], is not based on a "pure blood line" and instead stresses unity in diversity and a supraethnic "Chinese people" or ''[[Zhonghua minzu]]''. China also has an interest in promoting stability and the territorial ''status quo'' in its border territories, in order to tackle the advanced cross-border problems of [[drug trafficking]], fundamentalist religious proselytism, ethnic separatism, and [[illegal immigration]].<ref name="Chen"/> An interpretation which suspects aggressive Chinese motivations is inconsistent with China's own [[China's peaceful rise|"peaceful rise"]] rhetoric and with its record of peacefully settling 17 of 23 of its territorial disputes with substantial compromises.<ref name="Chen"/>
On the other hand, some Chinese scholars perceive the [[Korean nationalism|Korean nationalistic]] sentiments of some Koreans in both North and South Koreas as threatening to its territorial integrity. In fact, there are proponents in both the Korean liberal and conservative camps advocating for the “restoration of the lost former territories.”<ref>Kim, Hui-kyo 2004,“Chunggukuitongbuk kongjonkwa hanguk minjokjuuiui chilro ( China’s Northeast Project and the Course of Korean Nationalism)”, Yoksa pip’yong (History Critics) 2004, Spring, Seoul:Yoksa bip’yongsa.</ref> Chinese scholars are afraid of border changes when the North Korean government collapses. Because there are more than 2 million ethnic Koreans living in China's [[Jilin]] province, China fears that they might secede from China and join a newly unified Korea.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://hnn.us/articles/7077.html The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
On the whole, the Goguryeo controversy is more significant to Koreans than Chinese. Reasons for this imbalance include the fact that in modern [[Korean nationalism]], Goguryeo's history is presented as a contrast to Korean history in the 19th and 20th century, where it was a "feminine and helpless victim of imperialism". Another founding tenet of Korean nationalism is to establish cultural independence from China. For example, in the 20th century, Koreans switched the central figure in their founding myth from [[Jizi]], a Chinese human sage, to [[Tangun]], a god.<ref name="Chen"/>
== Arguments for Goguryeo being a part of Chinese history ==
Among the arguments that some Chinese scholars use for its claims on Goguryeo:
* Goguryeo was founded from [[Han Dynasty|Han Chinese]] commandaries such as [[Xuantu]] (in Chinese territory).<ref name=autogenerated3>http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January.txt.gz</ref>{{dead link|date=March 2018}}
* Goguryeo kings actively sought and accepted a tributary relation with Chinese dynasties.<ref>See Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭) (1999). 韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed.. {{ISBN|89-445-9101-6}}, p. 40. See TANAKA Toshiaki:"The Rise of Goguryeo and Xuan-Tu Shire" [[:ja:田中俊明|田中俊明]]:《高句丽的兴起和玄菟郡》, from 32 BC to 666 AD Goguryeo paid 205 tributes to the Chinese Central Plains dynasties. From 32 BC to 391 AD, Goguryeo paid only 17 tributes, but between 423 AD and 666 AD, 188 tributes were paid.</ref>
* Goguryeo was founded by the Tungusic [[Yemaek]] peoples and was also populated by the Tungusic [[Mohe people|Mohe]] (Malgal) peoples, an ancestor of modern-day Tungusic [[Manchu]]s, who are citizens of China, and ruled China's [[Qing Dynasty|last dynasty]];{{Or|date=November 2008}}<ref>''Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi'' (History Department of People’s Education Press), ''Zhongguo lishi'' (Chinese History) II, Beijing: ''Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe'' (People’s Education Press), 2004, p.16.</ref>
* Goguryeo was established in Northeast China, the homeland of Tungusic ethnicities, and that two-thirds of its territory was in present-day China, and Tungusic ethnicities like Manchus, Evenks, and Oroqen are Chinese citizens.
* That after the end of Goguryeo, some of its people were assimilated into [[Han Chinese|Han]] and other ethnicities of China;<ref>{{cite web|author=Alexandre Y. Mansourov|url=http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/|publisher=Harvard Asia Quarterly|title=Will Flowers Bloom without Fragrance? Korean-Chinese Relations|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108074830/http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/|archivedate=2008-01-08|accessdate=2014-10-24}}</ref>
* That some remains of the tombs purported to be of Goguryeo in Ji’an are not Goguryeo’s but are those of the [[Han Chinese|Han]] or [[Xianbei]] (Sonbi) ethnicities of China.<ref>Sun, Jinji and Sun Hong 2004, “Gongyuan 3-7 shiji Ji’an yu Pingrang diqu bihua mu de zushu yu fenqi, mingming (The Racial Affiliation and Periodisation of Graves With Murals in the Ji’an and Pingrang Area From 3-7 Century A.D.)”, paper presented at the conference titled Koguryo yoksawa munhwa yusan (History and Cultural Heritage of Koguryo), March 26–27, 2004</ref>
== Arguments for Goguryeo as a part of Korean history ==
Korean historians generally make these arguments:<ref>{{cite book|first=The Society of Korean History|last=|title=동북공정과 고대사 왜곡의 대응방안 |publisher=백암|location=서울|isbn=89-7625-119-9|year=2006}}</ref>
* The places that the [[Four Commanderies of Han]] occupied were originally places of native Korean people. The Chinese commanderies were later taken over by [[Goguryeo]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]].
* Goguryeo is a country founded by [[Buyeo kingdom|Buyeo]] people, one of the major ancestors of Korean people. Both [[Goguryeo]] and [[Baekje]] are successor nations of Buyeo. The fact that large numbers of Goguryeo people were assimilated into China does not necessarily make it Chinese as many were also assimilated into other dynasties at the time.<ref>Discovered of Goguryeo (고구려의 발견), Written on South Korea historian Kim Yong-man.</ref>
* Goguryeo lasted about 700 years while no [[Chinese dynasty]] concurrent with Goguryeo's rule lasted for more than 500 years. It was [[Late Imperial China|Imperial China]]'s tributary only during some of its existence. More important, being a tributary of Imperial China doesn't make it Chinese. [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|Many East Asia dynasties and kingdoms]], like [[Silla]], [[Goryeo]], [[Japan]], [[Ryukyu]] etc., had tributary relationships with Chinese Dynasties during some time of their existence.
* Many of the customs ([[Ssireum]], traditional dance, musical instruments (e.g. Janggu),<ref>{{cite web|title=장구|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE008&cp_code=cp0225&index_id=cp02250037&content_id=cp022500370001&search_left_menu=|website=문화콘텐츠닷컴|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> clothing (e.g. traditional Korean hat),<ref>{{cite web|title=갓|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0000945|website=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture|publisher=Academy of Korean Studies|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> etc. depicted in Goguryeo murals are present in some form in Korean culture today.
* Goguryeo traditions such as [[ondol]],<ref>{{cite web|title=［문화재산책］고구려 온돌문화|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=200012241854581&code=960201|website=경향신문|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko|date=1 January 1970}}</ref> [[Korean fortress]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=이명우|title=[역사기획] 난공불락의 고구려 산성과 치(雉)|url=http://www.sgilbo.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=9316|website=성광일보|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko|date=25 October 2015}}</ref> fermented foods (e.g. [[doenjang]], [[jeotgal]], etc., as mentioned in [[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]),<ref>{{cite web|title='썩음'과 '삭음'의 절묘한 경계의 맛을 감각으로 가려내다|url=http://newsplus.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2013/10/23/2013102301125.html|website=조선닷컴 - 라이프|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref> [[onggi]],<ref>{{cite web|title=옹기의 역사성과 옹기장의 미래가치|url=http://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=5782&bbsId=BBSMSTR_1008&nm=NS_01_10|website=월간문화재사랑 상세|publisher=Cultural Heritage Administration|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> etc. are central mainstays of Korean culture.
* Only Southern Koreans from the [[Jeolla]] and [[Gyeongsang]] regions were descendants of Samhan, which is south of the [[Geum River]]. There are more Koreans descended from inhabitants outside [[Samhan]] and [[Silla]], i.e., north of [[Geum River]]. Many Koreans are descendants of people outside Samhan (especially people that have families originated from Norther Korea), i.e. Goguryeo {{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}, but we cannot state that the North Koreans are Chinese while they share the same language and culture with South Korea.
* Korean scholars believe that the people of the 3 kingdoms of Korea shared a common ancestor; the Yemaek tribe, distinct from the Tungus, Mongol and Turkic tribes. Because of this common ancestry, Goguryeo is distinctly Korean.<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
* The view that Goguryeo is Chinese contradicts with Chinese history records of the past Chinese dynasties - which considered it a part of the cultural Sinosphere, but was a separate and foreign political entity.
* Goryeo was founded by Wang Geon, who was descended from a noble Goguryeo family. Goryeo considered itself to be the continuation (successor state) of Goguryeo, and had ambitions to reclaim former Goguryeo territory as evidenced by [[Seo Hui]] who told the [[Liao dynasty]] "Our country is in fact former Goguryeo, and that is why it is named Goryeo and has a capital at Pyongyang. If you want to discuss territorial boundaries, the Eastern Capital of your country is within our borders."<ref>{{cite book|title=생방송 한국사 04. 고려: 수능 한국사 강의 1인자 고종훈의 동영상 강의 수록|date=2017|publisher=Owlbook|isbn=9788950963705|page=68|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LEMoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false|language=ko}}</ref>
* The word "[[Korea]]" comes from the word [[Goryeo]], one of [[Goguryeo]] successor states and the shortened form of the word Goguryeo by King [[Jangsu of Goguryeo]] in the 5th century AD.
* Legacy of names. Joseon ("[[Gojoseon]]") is considered the first Korean kingdom. After the collapse of Goguryeo, the Tang emperor gave to the last ruler of Goguryeo [[Bojang of Goguryeo]] the title "King of Joseon" named after the original Joseon kingdom showing that the Chinese themselves considered Goguryeo and Joseon the same lineage. Goguryeo was succeeded by Goryeo ("Later Goguryeo") which was succeeded again by "[[Joseon]]".
* Goguryeo was also succeeded by [[Balhae]]. Balhae was destroyed by the [[Liao dynasty]], but the last crown prince of Balhae and most of the nobility merged with the Goryeo royal family thus uniting the two successor dynasties of Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite web|last1=이기환|title=[이기환의 흔적의 역사]발해 멸망과 백두산 대폭발|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201205302126225|website=경향신문|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko|date=31 May 2012}}</ref>
* Legacy of royal tradition. The title Daewang (Taewang) "Great(est) King" is a Korean title that originated in Goguryeo and continued to be used in Goryeo and Joseon as a posthumous title until the end of Joseon dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=황제 칭제 안한 고구려, 자주의식 반영 `태왕` 때문|url=http://premium.mk.co.kr/view.php?no=19334|website=매경프리미엄|publisher=매경미디어그룹|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref>
* Foreign contemporaries regarded and treated Goryeo and Joseon as the same country as Goguryeo. Kublai Khan regarded Goryeo as the same country as Goguryeo. At the end of the [[Mongol invasions of Korea]] after seeing the Goryeo crown prince come to concede after decades of fighting, Kublai Khan was jubilant and said "Goryeo is a country that long ago even Tang Taizong personally campaigned against but was unable to defeat, but now the crown prince comes to me, it is the will of heaven!"<ref>{{cite web|last1=이기환|title=최강의 몽골제국군도 무서워했던…|url=http://leekihwan.khan.kr/entry/%EC%B5%9C%EA%B0%95%EC%9D%98-%EB%AA%BD%EA%B3%A8%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD%EA%B5%B0%EB%8F%84-%EB%AC%B4%EC%84%9C%EC%9B%8C%ED%96%88%EB%8D%98%E2%80%A6|website=이기환 기자의 흔적의 역사|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=김운회|title=<기황후>가 왜곡한 고려와 원나라의 결혼동맹|url=http://www.pressian.com/news/article.html?no=110138|website=Pressian|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=중국 남방 행재소에서 몽고 황제가 왕을 후대하다|url=http://db.history.go.kr/KOREA/document.do?recordId=kr_025_0030_0030_0090|website=한국사데이터베이스|publisher=National Institute of Korean History|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref> During the Mongol invasions of Japan there was a Japanese saying "The Mongol ("Mukuri") and Goguryeo ("Kokuri") ghosts are coming!" treating Goryeo as the same country as Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite web|title=일본에서 무서운 귀신을 나타내는 '무쿠리 코쿠리'는 몽골과 고려|url=http://bemil.chosun.com/nbrd/bbs/view.html?b_bbs_id=10038&pn=0&num=19775|website=유용원의 군사세계|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> [[Choe Bu]] of Joseon in 1488 who was stranded in Ming China was asked by a Ming government official "What special skills does your country have that it was able to defeat the Sui and Tang dynasties armies?" Choe Bu replied "Goguryeo had strategic experts and powerful generals who were skilled in military and had soldiers who served their superiors to the death. Therefore, Goguryeo is a small country but defeated the Tianxia's one million soldiers two times. Now, Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo have become one country, we have abundant products and large land, riches and powerful military, and immeasurable numbers of loyal and wise scholars."<ref>{{cite web|title=［한국사속의 만주］9. 조선, 華夷觀을 넘어|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=200403031838541&code=210000|website=경향신문|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=송정규|title=해외문견록: 제주목사 송정규, 바다 건너 경이로운 이야기를 기록하다|date=2016|publisher=휴머니스트|isbn=9791160800050|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fx7TDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA3-PT78&lpg=RA3-PT78&dq=%22%E4%BD%A0%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%89%E4%BD%95%E9%95%B7%E6%8A%80%22&source=bl&ots=liKeZjmUKG&sig=fN8_p2BCOZ1pwQI9-9KOxlqzJSw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVqP2-5arXAhVI6WMKHTrjBMAQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=%22%E4%BD%A0%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%89%E4%BD%95%E9%95%B7%E6%8A%80%22&f=false|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref>
==Foreign arguments==
Finnish linguist [[Juha Janhunen]] believes that it was likely that a "[[Tungusic languages|Tungusic-speaking]] elite" ruled Goguryeo and Balhae, describing them as "protohistorical Manchurian states" and that part of their population was Tungusic, and that the area of southern Manchuria was the origin of [[Tungusic peoples]] and inhabited continuously by them since ancient times, and Janhunen rejected opposing theories of Goguryeo and Balhae's ethnic composition.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false Pozzi & Janhunen & Weiers 2006], p. 109</ref>
== Validity of claims on ancient history ==
Nationalistic scholars in China and Korea analyze empirical evidence through the lens of nationalism and ethnocentrism. Yonson Ahn and Lim Jie-Hyun believe that projecting modern concepts of national territory and identity onto ancient nation states is self-serving.<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Chinese claims on Goguryeo history tend to be centered on territory: because Goguryeo and Parhae shared territories with modern-day China, it is therefore Chinese. Korean arguments tend to stem from ancestry, a common bloodline.<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Both philosophies contradict the exclusivity claim that many scholars try to make for either Korea or China because Goguryeo possessed territories that now are within the borders of North Korea as well as China, and descendents of Goguryeo people live in both Korea and China.
According to Korea scholar [[Andrei Lankov]]:<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/HI16Dg01.html|title=The legacy of long-gone states|first=Andrei|last=Lankov|publisher=Asia Times|date=September 16, 2006|accessdate=October 20, 2012}}</ref>
<blockquote>There is no doubt that the present-day dispute represents a case of retro-projection of modern identities. The real-life Koguryoans would have been surprised or even offended to learn that, in the future, they would be perceived by Koreans as members of the same community as their bitter enemies from Silla. Describing Koguryo as Chinese or Korean is as misleading as, say, describing medieval Brittany as French or English or Irish.</blockquote>
Controversy over Goguryeo history illustrates the rigidity of national history in East Asia. The strong distinction between "self" and "other" drives many scholars to accept only exclusive possession of history and its artifacts. Disputes over such claims are often laden with terms like "stealing."<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Many scholars focus on pure Chineseness or Koreaness, a perspective that ignores the permeability of ancient borders and the abundant cultural exchange that occurred.
== Recent developments ==
The Chinese city of Ji'an has built a Goguryeo museum within walking distance of the [[Yalu River]]. One of the major Goguryeo steles is displayed there.<ref>http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2013/12/29/2003580055</ref>
== See also ==
* [[China–North Korea relations]]
* [[China–South Korea relations]]
* [[History of Sino-Korean relations]]
* [[Nationalism and historiography]]
'''Similar articles:'''
* [[Triệu_dynasty#Historiography|Nanyue controversies]]
* [[Cambodian–Thai border dispute]]
* [[Karelian question]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|2}}
=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |title = Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary |editor1-first = Alessandra |editor1-last = Pozzi |editor2-first = Juha Antero |editor2-last = Janhunen |editor3-first = Michael |editor3-last = Weiers |others = Giovanni Stary (Contributor) |volume = Volume 20 of Tunguso Sibirica |year = 2006 |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |ISBN = 344705378X |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate = 1 April 2013 |ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
[[Category:Goguryeo]]
[[Category:China–South Korea relations]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Historiographical dispute between China and Korea}}{{NPOV|date=October 2016}}
The '''Goguryeo controversies''' are disputes between [[China]] and both [[Korea]]<nowiki/>s ([[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]]) on the history of [[Goguryeo]], an ancient kingdom (37 BC – 668 AD) located in present-day [[Northeast China]] and two thirds of the Korean Peninsula. At the heart of the Goguryeo controversy is whether Goguryeo is a part of Chinese history exclusively, Korean history exclusively, separate from both, or shared by all. During the 1980s, Chinese scholarship was liberated from the strictures of the Maoist era, and social scientists began studying the history of Goguryeo, challenging the conventional view that Goguryeo was exclusively part of Korean history. Goguryeo, which is the origin of the English name "'''Korea'''", is seen as foundational in Korean identity; and the territory of China is held as sacrosanct.
== Overview ==
In 2002, the [[Northeast Project]] conducted by the [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (CASS), which claimed Goguryeo as a [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] ethnic state since it was founded by the Tungusic Yemaek and populated by Tungusic Mohe people. Further, the Chinese scholars claimed Goguryeo was part of Chinese regional history since Tungusic ethinicites like [[Manchu people|Manchus]], [[Xibe people|Xibe]], [[Oroqen people|Oroqen]], and [[Nanai people|Nanai]] are [[Chinese nationality law|citizens of China]]. This sparked a major academic and diplomatic controversy, as Korean experts on Goguryeo history accused the Chinese government of using history for political purposes. In response, in 2004 South Korea established the Goguryeo Research Foundation (renamed the Northeast Asian History Foundation in 2006), and summoned its [[Chinese Ambassador to South Korea|Chinese ambassador]].{{clarify|date=January 2013|China's ambassador to Korea or Korea's ambassador to China?}} In 2007, the Northeast Project ended, and the study of Goguryeo history in China has dramatically declined.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences continues to hold its historical perspective on its homepage.
Various analyses of the controversy have focused on external motivations for the reevaluation of history, including Korean [[irredentism]] towards adjacent Chinese territory, the possibility of [[North Korea]]n collapse, and the challenge to China from [[Ethnic separatism|transnational separatism]]. [[Nationalist historiography]] has inflamed both sides of the debate, as [[Korean nationalism]] treats the themes of a powerful Korean Goguryeo and independence from China as central (see: [[Korean nationalist historiography]]), while [[Chinese nationalism]] stresses the inviolability of its territory and the unity of its ethnic groups. Some scholars have also criticized the projection of modern-day national identities onto ancient peoples.
==History of the dispute==
===Background===
<!-- Speculation on how nationalist historiographical frames, such as Zhonghua minzu, contributed to the development are treated in a separate section dedicated to that. This is purely for describing the facts of how the scholarship unfolded. -->
As neighboring areas, northeast China and North Korea have both laid claim to the history of ancient kingdoms that occupied the region. The interpretation of history in this region has implications for contemporary territorial sovereignty.<ref name="Chung"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} During the heyday of [[Maoism]], the Chinese government line was that the history of [[Goguryeo]] (''Gaogouli'' in Chinese) was Korean history.<ref name="Chung"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} However, there was almost no research published in Goguryeo from China at the time, and China had a motivation to say so, because of its good relations with [[North Korea]].<ref name="Chen"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} Since the 1980s, government control over scholarship liberalized, and more than 500 books about Goguryeo-related topics were published since then, comprising 90% of China's research since 1949.<ref name="Chung"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}<ref name="Chen"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} During this time, some scholars such as [[Tan Qixiang]] questioned the state's old interpretation of history, arguing for the study of all polities within China's territory as part of Chinese history. Jiang Mengshan proposed a "one history, dual use" ({{lang|zh-Hans-CN|一史两用}}, ''yīshǐ liǎngyòng'') system whereby Goguryeo would also be considered part of China's history,<ref>Sun, Jinji 2004-a, “Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research)”, paper presented at the conference titled Koguryo yoksawa munhwa yusan (History and Cultural Heritage of Koguryo), March 26–27, 2004</ref> arguing that the kingdom's capital, for 460 out of 706 years, lay in modern northeast China, and that three-quarters of its population were not [[Koreans|ethnic Korean]].<ref name="Chung">{{Cite journal|title=China's "Soft" Clash with South Korea: The History War and Beyond|first=Jae Ho|last=Chung|journal=Asian Survey|volume=49|number=3|date=May–June 2009|pages=468–483|doi=10.1525/as.2009.49.3.468}}</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}<ref name="Chen"/>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}<ref>Byington, Mark. “The Creation of an Ancient Minority Nationality: Koguryo in Chinese Historiography.” In Embracing the Other: The Interaction of Korean and Foreign Cultures: Proceedings of the 1st World Congress of Korean Studies, III. Songnam, Republic of Korea: The Academy of Korean Studies, 2002.</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2013}} He related ancient identities to modern-day peoples by suggesting that "the people of [[Buyeo kingdom|Buyeo]] and Goguryeo had the same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the [[Silla]] lineage."<ref>Sun, Jinji 1986, ''Dongbei minzu yuanliu'' (The Ethnic Origin of the Northeast), Harbin: Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe.</ref>{{page needed|date=January 2013}}
===2002–03===
Another faction of historians, led by Sun Jinji ({{lang|zh-Hans-CN|孙进己}}, ''Sūn Jìnjǐ'') and Zhang Bibo ({{lang|zh-Hans-CN|张碧波}}, ''Zhāng Bìbō''), of the Heilongjiang Academy of Sciences, criticized Tan and put forth the thesis that Goguryeo should be regarded as local Chinese, and not as Korean history.{{clarify|how does this position differ from Tan's?|date=January 2013}} They cited the traditional view in [[Chinese historiography]] that Korea was founded by the Chinese prince [[Jizi]], as well as Goguryeo's status as a [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|tributary to ancient China]]. These [[Historical revisionism|revisionist]] scholars, mostly from northeast China themselves, established the Northeast Project of the [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] in 2002 to investigate this view.<ref name="Chung"/> The establishment of the Northeast Project marks the beginning of the modern Goguryeo controversy. However, the Northeast Project cannot be equated with the study of Goguryeo, because it studied more topics than Goguryeo, including the history of the [[Russian Far East]], the [[Bohai Kingdom]], economic history, and local histories in ancient China and Korea.<ref name="Chen">{{cite journal|title=Domestic Politics, National Identity, and International Conflict: the case of the Koguryo controversy|first=Dingding|last=Chen|date=February 2012|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=21|issue=74|pages=227–241|doi=10.1080/10670564.2012.635928}}</ref>
China asserted that Goguryeo was an ethnic [[Tungusic peoples|Tungusic]] state and in modern-day China, Tungusic ethnicities like Manchus, Xibe, Oroqen, and Nanai are citizens of China and viewed as part of China's multi-ethnic historical civilization. The Tungusic Yemaek founded Goguryeo and it was also populated by Tungusic Mohe people.
In 2003, China applied with [[UNESCO]] to register the [[Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom]] within its territory as a [[World Heritage Site]]. In December of that year, the South Korean government published a report denying that Goguryeo could be considered part of Chinese history, and giving directions to Korean civil society groups on how to counter Chinese claims.<ref name="Chen"/> [[Korean nationalism|Korean nationalists]] groups and the South Korean popular press in [[South Korea]] expressed outrage over the Northeast Project,<ref name="Chen"/><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://news.naver.com/news/read.php?mode=LSD&office_id=078&article_id=0000026912§ion_id=117&menu_id=117
| title = Korean-Russian academia jointly respond to Northeast Project
| accessdate = 2007-03-06
| date = 2006-10-31
| publisher = [[Naver]]
| language = Korean
}}</ref> and some commentators suspected, that because the CASS receives government funding, the Chinese government might support the Northeast Project.<ref name="Chung"/> However, the CASS's Center for Borderland History and Geography Research is underfunded, understaffed (containing only 21 researchers), and not self-sufficient; government subsidies came in response to the extremely low salaries in CASS's history and philosophy departments, in contrast to the more lucrative fields of economics and law, and the money given does not match the high strategic value of borderland research.<ref name="Chen"/> Historically, the CASS has produced research that disagreed with or is critical of government policies.<ref name="Chen"/> Other, still more moderate voices in Korea pointed out that several official publications in China refer to Goguryeo simply as Korea's history.<ref name="Chung"/> Chinese scholars who disagreed with Sun and Zhang's "Chinese local history" view were interviewed by South Korean newspapers.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Chinese Scholar Slams Co-opting Korean History
|url=http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609130027.html
|work=[[Chosun Ilbo]]
|date=2006-09-13
|accessdate=2007-03-06
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019012559/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609130027.html
|archivedate=2006-10-19
|deadurl=yes
|df=
}}</ref> The negative press coverage over the Goguryeo issues increased the incidence of [[Sinophobia]] in South Korea,<ref name="Chen"/><ref>{{cite news
|title = South Koreans believe China likely to be biggest security threat in 10 years
|url = http://english.ohmynews.com/ArticleView/article_view.asp?no=280522&rel_no=1
|work = [[Associated Press]]
|date = 2006-03-20
|accessdate = 2007-03-31
|deadurl = yes
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071128060009/http://english.ohmynews.com/ArticleView/article_view.asp?no=280522&rel_no=1
|archivedate = 2007-11-28
|df =
}}</ref> and has possibly influenced South Korea's security strategy to become more pro-American and anti-China.<ref>{{cite journal
| title = The Koguryo Controversy, National Identity, and Sino-Korean relations Today
| last = Gries
| first = Peter Hays
}}</ref>
===2004–2007===
In March 2004, the South Korean government established the Goguryeo Research Foundation to publish research conducive to its view of Goguryeo as part of Korean history.<ref>{{cite book|title=China's Rise: Threat Or Opportunity?|first=Hebert|last=Yee|publisher=Taylor & Francis US|year=2011|page=162}}</ref> In April, China's [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] deleted references to Korea's premodern history on its website, prompting South Korea to summon its Chinese ambassador.<ref name="Chen"/> In August 2004, China sent its Vice Minister of Foreign Affairs [[Wu Dawei]] to Seoul to defuse tensions.<ref name="Chen"/> China recognized Korea's concerns and pledged not to place the Northeast Project's conclusions in its history textbooks, and both South Korea and China expressed the desire not to see the issue damage relations.<ref>{{cite news
| first = Hyun-jin
| last = Seo
| title = Skepticism Lingers over History Issue
| url = http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/skepticism-lingers-over-history-issue
| format = Reprint
| work = [[The Korea Herald]]
| date = 2004-08-24
| accessdate = 2012-01-08
}}</ref> However, China's expressed concerns about Korean [[irredentism]] towards northeast China were not addressed by the South Korean side.<ref name="Chen"/> In September, the South Korean government declared the 1909 [[Gando Convention|Jiandao Convention]], which ceded Korean claims to northeast Chinese territory, invalid. In 2005, South Korea conducted joint research projects with [[North Korea]] on Goguryeo relics near [[Pyongyang]]. Meanwhile, Chinese social scientists continued to publish research articles on the ancient Northeast Asian polities, including [[Guchaoxian]] (Gija Chosun), [[Fuyu (kingdom)|Fuyu]] (Puyo), Goguryeo, and Bohai, which Koreans exclusively considered their own.<ref name="Chen"/> In 2006, South Korean president [[Roh Moo-hyun]] protested this research at the 2006 [[Asia–Europe Meeting]]. That year, his government renamed the Goguryeo Research Foundation to the [[Northeast Asian History Foundation]], expanding its mandate. In 2007, the Northeast Project concluded, but neither China nor South Korea has changed its view of Goguryeo history after the dispute. In China, the diplomatic imbroglio meant that research on Goguryeo has become taboo, and former Chinese Goguryeo researchers have diverted their time and resources to other areas.<ref name="Chen"/>
==Japanese and North Korean views==
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]] differentiated Goguryeo from the other Three Kingdoms of Korea to claim Japanese (Wa) influence in the non-Goguryeo kingdoms of [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]] in order to justify its colonization of Korea. In order to demonstrate their theories, they moved a stone monument (棕蟬縣神祠碑), which was originally located at [[Liaodong]], into Pyongyang.<ref>{{cite book|first=순진|last=리|title=평양일대 락랑무덤에 대한 연구(A Research about the Tombs of Nangnang around Pyongyang)|publisher=중심|location=서울|isbn=89-89524-05-9|year=2001}}</ref>
Meanwhile, North Korea has glorified Goguryeo's independent qualities as part of their [[Juche]] ("self-reliance") ideology, identifying itself with Goguryeo, while equating South Korea with [[Silla]], and the [[United States]] with [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]]. North Korea narrates their national history to conform it to Juche, by denying any indication of foreign occupation of the Korean peninsula, such as the existence of any [[Four Commanderies of Han|Chinese commanderies]] there.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|title=Restoring the Glorious Past: North Korean Juche Historiography and Goguryeo
|last=Petrov
|first=Leonid A.
|url=http://www.aks.ac.kr/aks_kor/book/pdf/7-3-9-Restoring%20the%20Glorious%20Past.pdf
|format=PDF
|year=2004
|journal=The Review of Korean Studies Vol. 7 No. 3
|pages=231–252
|publisher=The Academy of Korean Studies
|accessdate=2007-06-05
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927194719/http://www.aks.ac.kr/aks_kor/book/pdf/7-3-9-Restoring%20the%20Glorious%20Past.pdf
|archivedate=2007-09-27
|df=
}}
</ref> [[North Korea]]'s state run media has denounced Chinese claims as “a pathetic attempt to manipulate history for its own interests” or “intentionally distorting historical facts through biased perspectives” in North Korean media.<ref>[http://www.freenorthkorea.net/archives/freenorthkorea/00818.html north korea teaching english in at freenorthkorea.net<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901222656/http://www.freenorthkorea.net/archives/freenorthkorea/00818.html |date=September 1, 2009 }}</ref>
==Speculative motives==
Much of the scholarship on the Goguryeo controversy has focused on China's strategic intentions towards the Koreas, and presumptively overlooked the validity of Chinese scholars' historical claims.<ref name="Chen"/> Yonson Ahn, a Korean scholar who has studied Korean [[comfort women]] and historical debates in Korea and Japan,<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> writes that historians such as Quan Zhezhu, Sun Jinji, Kim Hui-kyo, and Mark Byington "perceive the launching of the Project as a defensive reaction to preserve China’s own territorial integrity and stability."<ref name=autogenerated4 /> Various explanations advanced for China's interest in northeastern history include: South Korean [[irredentism]] over [[Jiandao]] (''Gando'' in Korean),<ref name="Chung"/> privileges granted by South Korea to [[Koreans in China]],<ref name="Chung"/> and the possible collapse of [[North Korea]].<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html Asia Times - News and analysis from Korea; North and South<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/30047.html
| title = China and Korea can't escape their pasts
| accessdate = 2007-03-08
| last = Lankov
| first = Andrei
| date = 2006-09-16
| work = [http://hnn.us History News Network]
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.aei.org/speech/foreign-and-defense-policy/regional/asia/briefing-north-korea/
|archive-url=https://archive.is/20130224095531/http://www.aei.org/speech/foreign-and-defense-policy/regional/asia/briefing-north-korea/
|dead-url=yes
|archive-date=2013-02-24
|title=Briefing: North Korea
|accessdate=2011-01-08
|last=Lilley
|first=James
|date=2007-01-18
|work=[http://www.aei.org/ American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research]
}}</ref> Modern [[Chinese nationalism]], which in contrast to [[Korean ethnic nationalism|Korean nationalism]], is not based on a "pure blood line" and instead stresses unity in diversity and a supraethnic "Chinese people" or ''[[Zhonghua minzu]]''. China also has an interest in promoting stability and the territorial ''status quo'' in its border territories, in order to tackle the advanced cross-border problems of [[drug trafficking]], fundamentalist religious proselytism, ethnic separatism, and [[illegal immigration]].<ref name="Chen"/> An interpretation which suspects aggressive Chinese motivations is inconsistent with China's own [[China's peaceful rise|"peaceful rise"]] rhetoric and with its record of peacefully settling 17 of 23 of its territorial disputes with substantial compromises.<ref name="Chen"/>
On the other hand, some Chinese scholars perceive the [[Korean nationalism|Korean nationalistic]] sentiments of some Koreans in both North and South Koreas as threatening to its territorial integrity. In fact, there are proponents in both the Korean liberal and conservative camps advocating for the “restoration of the lost former territories.”<ref>Kim, Hui-kyo 2004,“Chunggukuitongbuk kongjonkwa hanguk minjokjuuiui chilro ( China’s Northeast Project and the Course of Korean Nationalism)”, Yoksa pip’yong (History Critics) 2004, Spring, Seoul:Yoksa bip’yongsa.</ref> Chinese scholars are afraid of border changes when the North Korean government collapses. Because there are more than 2 million ethnic Koreans living in China's [[Jilin]] province, China fears that they might secede from China and join a newly unified Korea.<ref name=autogenerated1>[http://hnn.us/articles/7077.html The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
On the whole, the Goguryeo controversy is more significant to Koreans than Chinese. Reasons for this imbalance include the fact that in modern [[Korean nationalism]], Goguryeo's history is presented as a contrast to Korean history in the 19th and 20th century, where it was a "feminine and helpless victim of imperialism". Another founding tenet of Korean nationalism is to establish cultural independence from China. For example, in the 20th century, Koreans switched the central figure in their founding myth from [[Jizi]], a Chinese human sage, to [[Tangun]], a god.<ref name="Chen"/>
== Arguments for Goguryeo being a part of Chinese history ==
Among the arguments that some Chinese scholars use for its claims on Goguryeo:
* Goguryeo was founded from [[Han Dynasty|Han Chinese]] commandaries such as [[Xuantu]] (in Chinese territory).<ref name=autogenerated3>http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January.txt.gz</ref>{{dead link|date=March 2018}}
* Goguryeo kings actively sought and accepted a tributary relation with Chinese dynasties.<ref>See Byeon Tae-seop (변태섭) (1999). 韓國史通論 (Hanguksa tongnon) (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed.. {{ISBN|89-445-9101-6}}, p. 40. See TANAKA Toshiaki:"The Rise of Goguryeo and Xuan-Tu Shire" [[:ja:田中俊明|田中俊明]]:《高句丽的兴起和玄菟郡》, from 32 BC to 666 AD Goguryeo paid 205 tributes to the Chinese Central Plains dynasties. From 32 BC to 391 AD, Goguryeo paid only 17 tributes, but between 423 AD and 666 AD, 188 tributes were paid.</ref>
* Goguryeo was founded by the Tungusic [[Yemaek]] peoples and was also populated by the Tungusic [[Mohe people|Mohe]] (Malgal) peoples, an ancestor of modern-day Tungusic [[Manchu]]s, who are citizens of China, and ruled China's [[Qing Dynasty|last dynasty]];{{Or|date=November 2008}}<ref>''Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi'' (History Department of People’s Education Press), ''Zhongguo lishi'' (Chinese History) II, Beijing: ''Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe'' (People’s Education Press), 2004, p.16.</ref>
* Goguryeo was established in Northeast China, the homeland of Tungusic ethnicities, and that two-thirds of its territory was in present-day China, and Tungusic ethnicities like Manchus, Evenks, and Oroqen are Chinese citizens.
* That after the end of Goguryeo, some of its people were assimilated into [[Han Chinese|Han]] and other ethnicities of China;<ref>{{cite web|author=Alexandre Y. Mansourov|url=http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/|publisher=Harvard Asia Quarterly|title=Will Flowers Bloom without Fragrance? Korean-Chinese Relations|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080108074830/http://www.asiaquarterly.com/content/view/174/43/|archivedate=2008-01-08|accessdate=2014-10-24}}</ref>
* That some remains of the tombs purported to be of Goguryeo in Ji’an are not Goguryeo’s but are those of the [[Han Chinese|Han]] or [[Xianbei]] (Sonbi) ethnicities of China.<ref>Sun, Jinji and Sun Hong 2004, “Gongyuan 3-7 shiji Ji’an yu Pingrang diqu bihua mu de zushu yu fenqi, mingming (The Racial Affiliation and Periodisation of Graves With Murals in the Ji’an and Pingrang Area From 3-7 Century A.D.)”, paper presented at the conference titled Koguryo yoksawa munhwa yusan (History and Cultural Heritage of Koguryo), March 26–27, 2004</ref>
== Arguments for Goguryeo as a part of Korean history ==
Korean historians generally make these arguments:<ref>{{cite book|first=The Society of Korean History|last=|title=동북공정과 고대사 왜곡의 대응방안 |publisher=백암|location=서울|isbn=89-7625-119-9|year=2006}}</ref>
* The places that the [[Four Commanderies of Han]] occupied were originally places of native Korean people. The Chinese commanderies were later taken over by [[Goguryeo]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]].
* Goguryeo is a country founded by [[Buyeo kingdom|Buyeo]] people, one of the major ancestors of Korean people. Both [[Goguryeo]] and [[Baekje]] are successor nations of Buyeo. The fact that large numbers of Goguryeo people were assimilated into China does not necessarily make it Chinese as many were also assimilated into other dynasties at the time.<ref>Discovered of Goguryeo (고구려의 발견), Written on South Korea historian Kim Yong-man.</ref>
* Goguryeo lasted about 700 years while no [[Chinese dynasty]] concurrent with Goguryeo's rule lasted for more than 500 years. It was [[Late Imperial China|Imperial China]]'s tributary only during some of its existence. More important, being a tributary of Imperial China doesn't make it Chinese. [[List of tributaries of Imperial China|Many East Asia dynasties and kingdoms]], like [[Silla]], [[Goryeo]], [[Japan]], [[Ryukyu]] etc., had tributary relationships with Chinese Dynasties during some time of their existence.
* Many of the customs ([[Ssireum]], traditional dance, musical instruments (e.g. Janggu),<ref>{{cite web|title=장구|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE008&cp_code=cp0225&index_id=cp02250037&content_id=cp022500370001&search_left_menu=|website=문화콘텐츠닷컴|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> clothing (e.g. traditional Korean hat),<ref>{{cite web|title=갓|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0000945|website=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture|publisher=Academy of Korean Studies|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> etc. depicted in Goguryeo murals are present in some form in Korean culture today.
* Goguryeo traditions such as [[ondol]],<ref>{{cite web|title=［문화재산책］고구려 온돌문화|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=200012241854581&code=960201|website=경향신문|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko|date=1 January 1970}}</ref> [[Korean fortress]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=이명우|title=[역사기획] 난공불락의 고구려 산성과 치(雉)|url=http://www.sgilbo.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=9316|website=성광일보|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko|date=25 October 2015}}</ref> fermented foods (e.g. [[doenjang]], [[jeotgal]], etc., as mentioned in [[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]),<ref>{{cite web|title='썩음'과 '삭음'의 절묘한 경계의 맛을 감각으로 가려내다|url=http://newsplus.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2013/10/23/2013102301125.html|website=조선닷컴 - 라이프|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref> [[onggi]],<ref>{{cite web|title=옹기의 역사성과 옹기장의 미래가치|url=http://www.cha.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do?nttId=5782&bbsId=BBSMSTR_1008&nm=NS_01_10|website=월간문화재사랑 상세|publisher=Cultural Heritage Administration|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> etc. are central mainstays of Korean culture.
* Only Southern Koreans from the [[Jeolla]] and [[Gyeongsang]] regions were descendants of Samhan, which is south of the [[Geum River]]. There are more Koreans descended from inhabitants outside [[Samhan]] and [[Silla]], i.e., north of [[Geum River]]. Many Koreans are descendants of people outside Samhan (especially people that have families originated from Norther Korea), i.e. Goguryeo {{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}, but we cannot state that the North Koreans are Chinese while they share the same language and culture with South Korea.
* Korean scholars believe that the people of the 3 kingdoms of Korea shared a common ancestor; the Yemaek tribe, distinct from the Tungus, Mongol and Turkic tribes. Because of this common ancestry, Goguryeo is distinctly Korean.<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
* The view that Goguryeo is Chinese contradicts with Chinese history records of the past Chinese dynasties - which considered it a part of the cultural Sinosphere, but was a separate and foreign political entity.
* Goryeo was founded by Wang Geon, who was descended from a noble Goguryeo family. Goryeo considered itself to be the continuation (successor state) of Goguryeo, and had ambitions to reclaim former Goguryeo territory as evidenced by [[Seo Hui]] who told the [[Liao dynasty]] "Our country is in fact former Goguryeo, and that is why it is named Goryeo and has a capital at Pyongyang. If you want to discuss territorial boundaries, the Eastern Capital of your country is within our borders."<ref>{{cite book|title=생방송 한국사 04. 고려: 수능 한국사 강의 1인자 고종훈의 동영상 강의 수록|date=2017|publisher=Owlbook|isbn=9788950963705|page=68|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LEMoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false|language=ko}}</ref>
* The word "[[Korea]]" comes from the word [[Goryeo]], one of [[Goguryeo]] successor states and the shortened form of the word Goguryeo by King [[Jangsu of Goguryeo]] in the 5th century AD.
* Legacy of names. Joseon ("[[Gojoseon]]") is considered the first Korean kingdom. After the collapse of Goguryeo, the Tang emperor gave to the last ruler of Goguryeo [[Bojang of Goguryeo]] the title "King of Joseon" named after the original Joseon kingdom showing that the Chinese themselves considered Goguryeo and Joseon the same lineage. Goguryeo was succeeded by Goryeo ("Later Goguryeo") which was succeeded again by "[[Joseon]]".
* Goguryeo was also succeeded by [[Balhae]]. Balhae was destroyed by the [[Liao dynasty]], but the last crown prince of Balhae and most of the nobility merged with the Goryeo royal family thus uniting the two successor dynasties of Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite web|last1=이기환|title=[이기환의 흔적의 역사]발해 멸망과 백두산 대폭발|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=201205302126225|website=경향신문|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko|date=31 May 2012}}</ref>
* Legacy of royal tradition. The title Daewang (Taewang) "Great(est) King" is a Korean title that originated in Goguryeo and continued to be used in Goryeo and Joseon as a posthumous title until the end of Joseon dynasty.<ref>{{cite web|title=황제 칭제 안한 고구려, 자주의식 반영 `태왕` 때문|url=http://premium.mk.co.kr/view.php?no=19334|website=매경프리미엄|publisher=매경미디어그룹|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref>
* Foreign contemporaries regarded and treated Goryeo and Joseon as the same country as Goguryeo. Kublai Khan regarded Goryeo as the same country as Goguryeo. At the end of the [[Mongol invasions of Korea]] after seeing the Goryeo crown prince come to concede after decades of fighting, Kublai Khan was jubilant and said "Goryeo is a country that long ago even Tang Taizong personally campaigned against but was unable to defeat, but now the crown prince comes to me, it is the will of heaven!"<ref>{{cite web|last1=이기환|title=최강의 몽골제국군도 무서워했던…|url=http://leekihwan.khan.kr/entry/%EC%B5%9C%EA%B0%95%EC%9D%98-%EB%AA%BD%EA%B3%A8%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD%EA%B5%B0%EB%8F%84-%EB%AC%B4%EC%84%9C%EC%9B%8C%ED%96%88%EB%8D%98%E2%80%A6|website=이기환 기자의 흔적의 역사|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=김운회|title=<기황후>가 왜곡한 고려와 원나라의 결혼동맹|url=http://www.pressian.com/news/article.html?no=110138|website=Pressian|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=중국 남방 행재소에서 몽고 황제가 왕을 후대하다|url=http://db.history.go.kr/KOREA/document.do?recordId=kr_025_0030_0030_0090|website=한국사데이터베이스|publisher=National Institute of Korean History|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref> During the Mongol invasions of Japan there was a Japanese saying "The Mongol ("Mukuri") and Goguryeo ("Kokuri") ghosts are coming!" treating Goryeo as the same country as Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite web|title=일본에서 무서운 귀신을 나타내는 '무쿠리 코쿠리'는 몽골과 고려|url=http://bemil.chosun.com/nbrd/bbs/view.html?b_bbs_id=10038&pn=0&num=19775|website=유용원의 군사세계|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> [[Choe Bu]] of Joseon in 1488 who was stranded in Ming China was asked by a Ming government official "What special skills does your country have that it was able to defeat the Sui and Tang dynasties armies?" Choe Bu replied "Goguryeo had strategic experts and powerful generals who were skilled in military and had soldiers who served their superiors to the death. Therefore, Goguryeo is a small country but defeated the Tianxia's one million soldiers two times. Now, Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo have become one country, we have abundant products and large land, riches and powerful military, and immeasurable numbers of loyal and wise scholars."<ref>{{cite web|title=［한국사속의 만주］9. 조선, 華夷觀을 넘어|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_news/khan_art_view.html?artid=200403031838541&code=210000|website=경향신문|publisher=Kyunghyang Shinmun|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=송정규|title=해외문견록: 제주목사 송정규, 바다 건너 경이로운 이야기를 기록하다|date=2016|publisher=휴머니스트|isbn=9791160800050|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fx7TDQAAQBAJ&pg=RA3-PT78&lpg=RA3-PT78&dq=%22%E4%BD%A0%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%89%E4%BD%95%E9%95%B7%E6%8A%80%22&source=bl&ots=liKeZjmUKG&sig=fN8_p2BCOZ1pwQI9-9KOxlqzJSw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiVqP2-5arXAhVI6WMKHTrjBMAQ6AEIJjAA#v=onepage&q=%22%E4%BD%A0%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%89%E4%BD%95%E9%95%B7%E6%8A%80%22&f=false|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref>
==Foreign arguments==
Finnish linguist [[Juha Janhunen]] believes that it was likely that a "[[Tungusic languages|Tungusic-speaking]] elite" ruled Goguryeo and Balhae, describing them as "protohistorical Manchurian states" and that part of their population was Tungusic, and that the area of southern Manchuria was the origin of [[Tungusic peoples]] and inhabited continuously by them since ancient times, and Janhunen rejected opposing theories of Goguryeo and Balhae's ethnic composition.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false Pozzi & Janhunen & Weiers 2006], p. 109</ref>
== Validity of claims on ancient history ==
Nationalistic scholars in China and Korea analyze empirical evidence through the lens of nationalism and ethnocentrism. Yonson Ahn and Lim Jie-Hyun believe that projecting modern concepts of national territory and identity onto ancient nation states is self-serving.<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Chinese claims on Goguryeo history tend to be centered on territory: because Goguryeo and Parhae shared territories with modern-day China, it is therefore Chinese. Korean arguments tend to stem from ancestry, a common bloodline.<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
Both philosophies contradict the exclusivity claim that many scholars try to make for either Korea or China because Goguryeo possessed territories that now are within the borders of North Korea as well as China, and descendents of Goguryeo people live in both Korea and China.
According to Korea scholar [[Andrei Lankov]]:<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/HI16Dg01.html|title=The legacy of long-gone states|first=Andrei|last=Lankov|publisher=Asia Times|date=September 16, 2006|accessdate=October 20, 2012}}</ref>
<blockquote>There is no doubt that the present-day dispute represents a case of retro-projection of modern identities. The real-life Koguryoans would have been surprised or even offended to learn that, in the future, they would be perceived by Koreans as members of the same community as their bitter enemies from Silla. Describing Koguryo as Chinese or Korean is as misleading as, say, describing medieval Brittany as French or English or Irish.</blockquote>
Controversy over Goguryeo history illustrates the rigidity of national history in East Asia. The strong distinction between "self" and "other" drives many scholars to accept only exclusive possession of history and its artifacts. Disputes over such claims are often laden with terms like "stealing."<ref name=autogenerated4>[http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html The Korea-China Textbook War-What's It All About?<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Many scholars focus on pure Chineseness or Koreaness, a perspective that ignores the permeability of ancient borders and the abundant cultural exchange that occurred.
== Recent developments ==
The Chinese city of Ji'an has built a Goguryeo museum within walking distance of the [[Yalu River]]. One of the major Goguryeo steles is displayed there.<ref>http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2013/12/29/2003580055</ref>
== See also ==
* [[China–North Korea relations]]
* [[China–South Korea relations]]
* [[History of Sino-Korean relations]]
* [[Nationalism and historiography]]
'''Similar articles:'''
* [[Triệu_dynasty#Historiography|Nanyue controversies]]
* [[Cambodian–Thai border dispute]]
* [[Karelian question]]
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|2}}
=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |title = Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary |editor1-first = Alessandra |editor1-last = Pozzi |editor2-first = Juha Antero |editor2-last = Janhunen |editor3-first = Michael |editor3-last = Weiers |others = Giovanni Stary (Contributor) |volume = Volume 20 of Tunguso Sibirica |year = 2006 |publisher = Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |ISBN = 344705378X |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate = 1 April 2013 |ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
[[Category:Goguryeo]]
[[Category:China–South Korea relations]]' |
