Edit count of the user (user_editcount) | null |
Name of the user account (user_name) | '27.55.79.142' |
Age of the user account (user_age) | 0 |
Groups (including implicit) the user is in (user_groups) | [
0 => '*'
] |
Rights that the user has (user_rights) | [
0 => 'createaccount',
1 => 'read',
2 => 'edit',
3 => 'createtalk',
4 => 'writeapi',
5 => 'viewmywatchlist',
6 => 'editmywatchlist',
7 => 'viewmyprivateinfo',
8 => 'editmyprivateinfo',
9 => 'editmyoptions',
10 => 'abusefilter-log-detail',
11 => 'urlshortener-create-url',
12 => 'centralauth-merge',
13 => 'abusefilter-view',
14 => 'abusefilter-log',
15 => 'vipsscaler-test'
] |
Whether the user is editing from mobile app (user_app) | false |
Whether or not a user is editing through the mobile interface (user_mobile) | true |
Page ID (page_id) | 4989597 |
Page namespace (page_namespace) | 0 |
Page title without namespace (page_title) | 'Tempered glass' |
Full page title (page_prefixedtitle) | 'Tempered glass' |
Edit protection level of the page (page_restrictions_edit) | [] |
Last ten users to contribute to the page (page_recent_contributors) | [
0 => 'Ts12rAc',
1 => 'Surajrajput1998',
2 => 'Vysulo',
3 => 'Hiiisparks',
4 => 'Westley Turner',
5 => 'Citation bot',
6 => '50.51.225.34',
7 => 'Monkbot',
8 => 'Park taeho',
9 => 'Plantsurfer'
] |
Page age in seconds (page_age) | 485409495 |
Action (action) | 'edit' |
Edit summary/reason (summary) | '' |
Old content model (old_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
New content model (new_content_model) | 'wikitext' |
Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{More citations needed|date=January 2009}}
[[File:Broken phone box.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[vandalism|vandalised]] [[telephone booth]] with tempered glass]]
'''Tempered''' or '''toughened glass''' is a type of [[safety glass]] processed by controlled [[heat treatment|thermal]] or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into [[Compression (physics)|compression]] and the interior into [[Tension (physics)|tension]]. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.
Tempered glass is used for its safety and strength in a variety of applications, including [[passenger vehicle]] windows, shower doors, aquariums, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays, mobile phone screen protectors, [[bulletproof glass]] components, [[diving mask]]s, and plates and cookware.
== Properties ==
[[File:CarWindowPolarization.jpg|thumb|right|Tempered glass of car rear window. Variations in glass [[Stress (mechanics)|stress]]
are clearly seen when the glass is photographed through a [[Polarizing filter (photography)|polarizing filter]]
(bottom picture).]]
Tempered glass is about four times stronger than annealed glass.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ford |first1=Mark |title=How is tempered glass made? |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-is-tempered-glass-mad/ |website=Scientific American |publisher=Springer Nature America, LLC |access-date=12 June 2020 |date=22 January 2001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Block |editor1-first=Valerie |title=The use of glass in buildings |date=2002 |publisher=ASTM International |location=West Conshohocken, PA |isbn=978-0-8031-3458-4 |url=https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/STP/SOURCE_PAGES/STP1434.htm |access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> The greater contraction of the inner layer during manufacturing induces compressive stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. Fully tempered 6-mm thick glass must have either a minimum surface compression of 69 MPa (10 000 psi) or an edge compression of not less than 67 MPa (9 700 psi).<ref name="astmC1048">{{cite journal |title=ASTM C1048-18, Standard Specification for Heat-Strengthened and Fully Tempered Flat Glass |date=2018 |doi=10.1520/C1048-18 |url=http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/resolver.cgi?C1048-18 |access-date=12 June 2020 |publisher=ASTM International}}</ref> For it to be considered safety glass, the surface compressive stress should exceed {{convert|100|MPa|psi}}. As a result of the increased surface stress, when broken the glass breaks into small rounded chunks as opposed to sharp jagged shards.
Compressive surface stresses give tempered glass increased strength. [[annealing (glass)|Annealed glass]] has almost no internal stress and usually forms microscopic cracks on its surface. Tension applied to the glass can drive crack propagation which, once begun, concentrates tension at the tip of the crack driving crack propagation at the speed of sound through the glass. Consequently, annealed glass is fragile and breaks into irregular and sharp pieces.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass|title=Tempered vs. Annealed Glass {{!}} Hunker|work=Hunker.com|access-date=2017-12-13|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214071630/https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass|archive-date=2017-12-14}}</ref> The compressive stresses on the surface of tempered glass contain flaws, preventing their propagation or expansion.
Any cutting or grinding must be done prior to tempering. Cutting, grinding, and sharp impacts after tempering will cause the glass to fracture.
The strain pattern resulting from tempering can be observed by viewing through an optical [[polarizer]], such as a pair of polarizing sunglasses.
== Uses ==
[[File:Safeguard Glass Markings 1.jpg|thumb|right|Safety approval markings on an automobile vent window made for a [[Chrysler]] car by [[Pittsburgh Plate Glass|PPG]].]]
[[File:HKPF Airport Police Patrol Car AM8599.JPG|thumb|right| Police van with screen protector]]
Tempered glass is used when strength, thermal resistance, and safety are important considerations. Passenger vehicles, for example, have all three requirements. Since they are stored outdoors, they are subject to constant heating and cooling as well as dramatic temperature changes throughout the year. Moreover, they must withstand small impacts from road debris such as stones as well as road accidents. Because large, sharp glass shards would present additional and unacceptable danger to passengers, tempered glass is used so that if broken, the pieces are blunt and mostly harmless. The [[Windshield|windscreen]] or windshield is instead made of [[laminated glass]], which will not shatter into pieces when broken while side windows and the rear windshield have historically been made of tempered glass. Some newer luxury vehicles have laminated side windows to meet occupancy retention regulations, anti-theft purposes, or sound-deadening purposes.
Other typical applications of tempered glass include:
* Balcony doors
* Athletic facilities
* Swimming pools
* Façades
* Shower doors and bathroom areas
* Exhibition areas and displays
* Computer towers or cases
* Mobile phone screen protectors
=== Buildings and structures ===
Tempered glass is also used in buildings for unframed assemblies (such as frameless glass doors), structurally loaded applications, and any other application that would become dangerous in the event of human impact. Building codes in the United States require tempered or laminated glass in several situations including some skylights, glass installed near doorways and stairways, large windows, windows which extend close to floor level, sliding doors, elevators, fire department access panels, and glass installed near swimming pools.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hageman |first1=J.M. |last2=Beeston |first2=B.E.P. |last3=Hageman |first3=K. |title=Contractor's Guide to the Building Code |year=2008 |publisher=Craftsman Book Co |isbn=9781572182028 |edition=6th.}}</ref>
===Household uses===
Tempered glass is also used in the home. Some common household furniture and appliances that use tempered glass are frameless shower doors, glass table tops, glass shelves, cabinet glass and glass for fireplaces.
=== Food service ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2017}}
"Rim-tempered" indicates that a limited area, such as the rim of the glass or plate, is tempered and is popular in food service. However, there are also specialist manufacturers that offer a fully tempered/toughened drinkware solution that can bring increased benefits in the form of strength and thermal shock resistance. In some countries these products are specified in venues that require increased performance levels or have a requirement for a safer glass due to intense usage.
Tempered glass has also seen increased usage in bars and pubs, particularly in the United Kingdom and Australia, to prevent broken glass being [[Glassing|used as a weapon]]. Tempered glass products can be found in hotels, bars, and restaurants to reduce breakages and increase safety standards.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}
=== Cooking and baking ===
Some forms of tempered glass are used for [[cooking]] and [[baking]]. Manufacturers and brands include Glasslock, [[Pyrex]], [[Corelle]], and [[Arc International (tableware)|Arc International]]. This is also the type of glass used for oven doors.
=== Touchscreen devices ===
Most touchscreen mobile devices use some form of toughened glass (such as [[Corning Inc.|Corning]]'s [[Gorilla Glass]]), but there are also separate tempered screen protectors for touchscreen devices sold as an accessory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204|title=PET, TPU, or Tempered Glass – all you need to know to choose a screen protector|work=phonearena.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820115924/http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204|archive-date=2015-08-20}}</ref>
== Manufacturing ==
[[File:Broken Meat Case Window.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Tempered safety glass which has been laminated often does not fall out of its frame when it breaks – usually because an anti-splinter film has been applied on the glass, as seen in this grocery store meat case.]]
Tempered glass can be made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass is placed onto a roller table, taking it through a furnace that heats it well above its [[Glass transition|transition temperature]] of {{convert|564|°C|°F}} to around {{convert|620|°C|°F}}. The glass is then rapidly cooled with forced air drafts while the inner portion remains free to flow for a short time.
An alternative [[Chemically strengthened glass|chemical toughening process]] involves forcing a surface layer of glass at least 0.1 mm thick into compression by [[ion exchange]] of the sodium ions in the glass surface with potassium ions (which are 30% larger), by immersion of the glass into a bath of molten [[potassium nitrate]]. Chemical toughening results in increased toughness compared with thermal tempering and can be applied to glass objects of complex shapes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pfaender |first1=Heinz G. |title=Schott Guide to Glass |date=1996 |publisher=Chapman & Hall |location=London |isbn=9780412620607 |edition=2}}</ref>
== Disadvantages ==
[[File:-39 wreck.jpg|thumb|After hard car crash Automobile [[windshield]] displaying 'shattered pieces']]
Tempered glass must be cut to size or pressed to shape before tempering, and cannot be re-worked once tempered. Polishing the edges or drilling holes in the glass is carried out before the tempering process starts. Because of the balanced stresses in the glass, damage to any portion will eventually result in the glass shattering into thumbnail-sized pieces. The glass is most susceptible to breakage due to damage at its edge, where the tensile stress is the greatest, but can also shatter in the event of a hard impact in the middle of the glass pane or if the impact is concentrated (for example, the glass is struck with a hardened point).
Using tempered glass can pose a security risk in some situations because of the tendency of the glass to shatter completely upon hard impact rather than leaving shards in the window frame.<ref>{{cite book | first1=Robert L. | last1=O'Block | first2=Joseph F. |last2=Donnermeyer | first3=Stephen E.| last3=Doeren | title=Security and Crime Prevention | publisher=Butterworth–Heinemann |year=1991| url=https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo/page/118 118] | quote=The security value of tempered glass, however, is questionable. Although it will resist a brick or rock, it is susceptible to sharp instruments such as ice picks or screwdrivers. When attacked in this manner, tempered glass tends to crumple easily and quietly, leaving no sharp edges.}}</ref>
The surface of tempered glass does exhibit surface waves caused by contact with flattening rollers, if it has been formed using this process. This waviness is a significant problem in manufacturing of thin film solar cells.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walecki |first1=Wojtek J. |last2=Szondy |first2=Fanny |editor1-last=Dhere |editor1-first=Neelkanth G. |title=Integrated quantum efficiency, topography, and stress metrology for solar cell manufacturing: real space approach |journal=Reliability of Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components, and Systems. Proceedings of SPIE |series=Reliability of Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components, and Systems |date=2008 |volume=7048 |page=704804 |doi=10.1117/12.792934 |url=https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7048/1/Integrated-quantum-efficiency-topography-and-stress-metrology-for-solar-cell/10.1117/12.792934.short?SSO=1 |access-date=12 June 2020 |publisher=SPIE |location=Bellingham, WA |bibcode=2008SPIE.7048E..04W |s2cid=96798712 |issn=0277-786X}}</ref> The [[float glass]] process can be used to provide low-distortion sheets with very flat and parallel surfaces as an alternative for different glazing applications.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html|title=FLOAT GLASS TECHNOLOGY|website=ajzonca.tripod.com|access-date=2017-12-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214015128/http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html|archive-date=2017-12-14}}</ref>
[[Nickel sulfide#In glass manufacturing|Nickel sulfide]] defects can cause spontaneous breakage of tempered glass years after its manufacturing.<ref name="barry2006">{{cite web |last1=Barry |first1=John |title=The Achille Heel of a Wonderful Material: Toughened Glass |url=https://www.glassonweb.com/article/achille-heel-wonderful-material-toughened-glass |website=Glass on Web |access-date=16 August 2019 |date=12 January 2006}}</ref>
== History ==
[[Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastie]] (1830–1901) of Paris, France is credited with first developing a method of tempering glass<ref>"Glass." ''The Encyclopædia Britannica : A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and General Literature''. 9th ed. (American reprint). Vol. 10. Philadelphia: Sherman & co., 1894. 595. Print.</ref> by quenching almost molten glass in a heated bath of oil or grease in 1874, the method patented in England on August 12, 1874, patent number 2783. Tempered glass is sometimes known as ''Bastie glass'' after de la Bastie. In 1877 the German Friedrich Siemens developed a different process, sometimes called compressed glass or Siemens glass, producing a tempered glass stronger than the Bastie process by pressing the glass in cool molds.<ref>Uhlmann, D.R. and Kreidl, N. J. eds.. ''Glass. Science and Technology: Elasticity and Strength in Glasses''. Vol. 5. New York, N.Y.: Academic, 1980. 197. Print.</ref> The first patent on a whole process to make tempered glass was held by chemist [[Rudolph A. Seiden]] who was born in 1900 in Austria and emigrated to the United States in 1935.<ref>Barr, Johathan. "The Glass Tempering Handbook: Understanding the Glass Tempering Process". Self published. {{cite web |url=http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-02-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111119/http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-02 }} accessed February 28, 2015</ref>
Though the underlying mechanism was not known at the time, the effects of "tempering" glass have been known for centuries. In about 1660, [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]] brought the discovery of what are now known as "[[Prince Rupert's Drops]]" to the attention of [[King Charles II of England|King Charles II]]. These are teardrop-shaped bits of glass which are produced by allowing a molten drop of glass to fall into a bucket of water, thereby rapidly cooling it. They can withstand a blow from a hammer on the bulbous end without breaking, but the drops will disintegrate explosively into powder if the tail end is even slightly damaged.
== See also ==
* [[Thermal stress]]
* [[Borosilicate glass]]
* [[Fire glass]]
* [[Superglass]]
* [[Low-iron glass]]
* [[Stained glass]]
* [[Lead glass]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Glass science}}
[[Category:Glass engineering and science]]
[[Category:Glass types]]
[[Category:Glass physics]]
[[pl:Hartowanie#Hartowanie szkła]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{More citations needed|date=January 2009}}
[[File:Broken phone box.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[vandalism|vandalised]] [[telephone booth]] with tempered glass<ref>{{Cite web|title=Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon|url=https://screenglass.wordpress.com/|access-date=2021-09-19|website=Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon|language=en}}</ref>]]
'''Tempered''' or '''toughened [https://screenglass.wordpress.com/ glass]''' is a type of [[safety glass]] processed by controlled [[heat treatment|thermal]] or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into [[Compression (physics)|compression]] and the interior into [[Tension (physics)|tension]]. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.
Tempered glass is used for its safety and strength in a variety of applications, including [[passenger vehicle]] windows, shower doors, aquariums, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays, mobile phone screen protectors, [[bulletproof glass]] components, [[diving mask]]s, and plates and cookware.
== Properties ==
[[File:CarWindowPolarization.jpg|thumb|right|Tempered glass of car rear window. Variations in glass [[Stress (mechanics)|stress]]
are clearly seen when the glass is photographed through a [[Polarizing filter (photography)|polarizing filter]]
(bottom picture).]]
Tempered glass is about four times stronger than annealed glass.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ford |first1=Mark |title=How is tempered glass made? |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-is-tempered-glass-mad/ |website=Scientific American |publisher=Springer Nature America, LLC |access-date=12 June 2020 |date=22 January 2001 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Block |editor1-first=Valerie |title=The use of glass in buildings |date=2002 |publisher=ASTM International |location=West Conshohocken, PA |isbn=978-0-8031-3458-4 |url=https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/STP/SOURCE_PAGES/STP1434.htm |access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> The greater contraction of the inner layer during manufacturing induces compressive stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. Fully tempered 6-mm thick glass must have either a minimum surface compression of 69 MPa (10 000 psi) or an edge compression of not less than 67 MPa (9 700 psi).<ref name="astmC1048">{{cite journal |title=ASTM C1048-18, Standard Specification for Heat-Strengthened and Fully Tempered Flat Glass |date=2018 |doi=10.1520/C1048-18 |url=http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/resolver.cgi?C1048-18 |access-date=12 June 2020 |publisher=ASTM International}}</ref> For it to be considered safety glass, the surface compressive stress should exceed {{convert|100|MPa|psi}}. As a result of the increased surface stress, when broken the glass breaks into small rounded chunks as opposed to sharp jagged shards.
Compressive surface stresses give tempered glass increased strength. [[annealing (glass)|Annealed glass]] has almost no internal stress and usually forms microscopic cracks on its surface. Tension applied to the glass can drive crack propagation which, once begun, concentrates tension at the tip of the crack driving crack propagation at the speed of sound through the glass. Consequently, annealed glass is fragile and breaks into irregular and sharp pieces.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass|title=Tempered vs. Annealed Glass {{!}} Hunker|work=Hunker.com|access-date=2017-12-13|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214071630/https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass|archive-date=2017-12-14}}</ref> The compressive stresses on the surface of tempered glass contain flaws, preventing their propagation or expansion.
Any cutting or grinding must be done prior to tempering. Cutting, grinding, and sharp impacts after tempering will cause the glass to fracture.
The strain pattern resulting from tempering can be observed by viewing through an optical [[polarizer]], such as a pair of polarizing sunglasses.
== Uses ==
[[File:Safeguard Glass Markings 1.jpg|thumb|right|Safety approval markings on an automobile vent window made for a [[Chrysler]] car by [[Pittsburgh Plate Glass|PPG]].]]
[[File:HKPF Airport Police Patrol Car AM8599.JPG|thumb|right| Police van with screen protector]]
Tempered glass is used when strength, thermal resistance, and safety are important considerations. Passenger vehicles, for example, have all three requirements. Since they are stored outdoors, they are subject to constant heating and cooling as well as dramatic temperature changes throughout the year. Moreover, they must withstand small impacts from road debris such as stones as well as road accidents. Because large, sharp glass shards would present additional and unacceptable danger to passengers, tempered glass is used so that if broken, the pieces are blunt and mostly harmless. The [[Windshield|windscreen]] or windshield is instead made of [[laminated glass]], which will not shatter into pieces when broken while side windows and the rear windshield have historically been made of tempered glass. Some newer luxury vehicles have laminated side windows to meet occupancy retention regulations, anti-theft purposes, or sound-deadening purposes.
Other typical applications of tempered glass include:
* Balcony doors
* Athletic facilities
* Swimming pools
* Façades
* Shower doors and bathroom areas
* Exhibition areas and displays
* Computer towers or cases
* Mobile phone screen protectors
=== Buildings and structures ===
Tempered glass is also used in buildings for unframed assemblies (such as frameless glass doors), structurally loaded applications, and any other application that would become dangerous in the event of human impact. Building codes in the United States require tempered or laminated glass in several situations including some skylights, glass installed near doorways and stairways, large windows, windows which extend close to floor level, sliding doors, elevators, fire department access panels, and glass installed near swimming pools.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hageman |first1=J.M. |last2=Beeston |first2=B.E.P. |last3=Hageman |first3=K. |title=Contractor's Guide to the Building Code |year=2008 |publisher=Craftsman Book Co |isbn=9781572182028 |edition=6th.}}</ref>
===Household uses===
Tempered glass is also used in the home. Some common household furniture and appliances that use tempered glass are frameless shower doors, glass table tops, glass shelves, cabinet glass and glass for fireplaces.
=== Food service ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2017}}
"Rim-tempered" indicates that a limited area, such as the rim of the glass or plate, is tempered and is popular in food service. However, there are also specialist manufacturers that offer a fully tempered/toughened drinkware solution that can bring increased benefits in the form of strength and thermal shock resistance. In some countries these products are specified in venues that require increased performance levels or have a requirement for a safer glass due to intense usage.
Tempered glass has also seen increased usage in bars and pubs, particularly in the United Kingdom and Australia, to prevent broken glass being [[Glassing|used as a weapon]]. Tempered glass products can be found in hotels, bars, and restaurants to reduce breakages and increase safety standards.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}
=== Cooking and baking ===
Some forms of tempered glass are used for [[cooking]] and [[baking]]. Manufacturers and brands include Glasslock, [[Pyrex]], [[Corelle]], and [[Arc International (tableware)|Arc International]]. This is also the type of glass used for oven doors.
=== Touchscreen devices ===
Most touchscreen mobile devices use some form of toughened glass (such as [[Corning Inc.|Corning]]'s [[Gorilla Glass]]), but there are also separate tempered screen protectors for touchscreen devices sold as an accessory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204|title=PET, TPU, or Tempered Glass – all you need to know to choose a screen protector|work=phonearena.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820115924/http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204|archive-date=2015-08-20}}</ref>
== Manufacturing ==
[[File:Broken Meat Case Window.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Tempered safety glass which has been laminated often does not fall out of its frame when it breaks – usually because an anti-splinter film has been applied on the glass, as seen in this grocery store meat case.]]
Tempered glass can be made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass is placed onto a roller table, taking it through a furnace that heats it well above its [[Glass transition|transition temperature]] of {{convert|564|°C|°F}} to around {{convert|620|°C|°F}}. The glass is then rapidly cooled with forced air drafts while the inner portion remains free to flow for a short time.
An alternative [[Chemically strengthened glass|chemical toughening process]] involves forcing a surface layer of glass at least 0.1 mm thick into compression by [[ion exchange]] of the sodium ions in the glass surface with potassium ions (which are 30% larger), by immersion of the glass into a bath of molten [[potassium nitrate]]. Chemical toughening results in increased toughness compared with thermal tempering and can be applied to glass objects of complex shapes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pfaender |first1=Heinz G. |title=Schott Guide to Glass |date=1996 |publisher=Chapman & Hall |location=London |isbn=9780412620607 |edition=2}}</ref>
== Disadvantages ==
[[File:-39 wreck.jpg|thumb|After hard car crash Automobile [[windshield]] displaying 'shattered pieces']]
Tempered glass must be cut to size or pressed to shape before tempering, and cannot be re-worked once tempered. Polishing the edges or drilling holes in the glass is carried out before the tempering process starts. Because of the balanced stresses in the glass, damage to any portion will eventually result in the glass shattering into thumbnail-sized pieces. The glass is most susceptible to breakage due to damage at its edge, where the tensile stress is the greatest, but can also shatter in the event of a hard impact in the middle of the glass pane or if the impact is concentrated (for example, the glass is struck with a hardened point).
Using tempered glass can pose a security risk in some situations because of the tendency of the glass to shatter completely upon hard impact rather than leaving shards in the window frame.<ref>{{cite book | first1=Robert L. | last1=O'Block | first2=Joseph F. |last2=Donnermeyer | first3=Stephen E.| last3=Doeren | title=Security and Crime Prevention | publisher=Butterworth–Heinemann |year=1991| url=https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo/page/118 118] | quote=The security value of tempered glass, however, is questionable. Although it will resist a brick or rock, it is susceptible to sharp instruments such as ice picks or screwdrivers. When attacked in this manner, tempered glass tends to crumple easily and quietly, leaving no sharp edges.}}</ref>
The surface of tempered glass does exhibit surface waves caused by contact with flattening rollers, if it has been formed using this process. This waviness is a significant problem in manufacturing of thin film solar cells.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Walecki |first1=Wojtek J. |last2=Szondy |first2=Fanny |editor1-last=Dhere |editor1-first=Neelkanth G. |title=Integrated quantum efficiency, topography, and stress metrology for solar cell manufacturing: real space approach |journal=Reliability of Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components, and Systems. Proceedings of SPIE |series=Reliability of Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components, and Systems |date=2008 |volume=7048 |page=704804 |doi=10.1117/12.792934 |url=https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7048/1/Integrated-quantum-efficiency-topography-and-stress-metrology-for-solar-cell/10.1117/12.792934.short?SSO=1 |access-date=12 June 2020 |publisher=SPIE |location=Bellingham, WA |bibcode=2008SPIE.7048E..04W |s2cid=96798712 |issn=0277-786X}}</ref> The [[float glass]] process can be used to provide low-distortion sheets with very flat and parallel surfaces as an alternative for different glazing applications.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html|title=FLOAT GLASS TECHNOLOGY|website=ajzonca.tripod.com|access-date=2017-12-13|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214015128/http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html|archive-date=2017-12-14}}</ref>
[[Nickel sulfide#In glass manufacturing|Nickel sulfide]] defects can cause spontaneous breakage of tempered glass years after its manufacturing.<ref name="barry2006">{{cite web |last1=Barry |first1=John |title=The Achille Heel of a Wonderful Material: Toughened Glass |url=https://www.glassonweb.com/article/achille-heel-wonderful-material-toughened-glass |website=Glass on Web |access-date=16 August 2019 |date=12 January 2006}}</ref>
== History ==
[[Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastie]] (1830–1901) of Paris, France is credited with first developing a method of tempering glass<ref>"Glass." ''The Encyclopædia Britannica : A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and General Literature''. 9th ed. (American reprint). Vol. 10. Philadelphia: Sherman & co., 1894. 595. Print.</ref> by quenching almost molten glass in a heated bath of oil or grease in 1874, the method patented in England on August 12, 1874, patent number 2783. Tempered glass is sometimes known as ''Bastie glass'' after de la Bastie. In 1877 the German Friedrich Siemens developed a different process, sometimes called compressed glass or Siemens glass, producing a tempered glass stronger than the Bastie process by pressing the glass in cool molds.<ref>Uhlmann, D.R. and Kreidl, N. J. eds.. ''Glass. Science and Technology: Elasticity and Strength in Glasses''. Vol. 5. New York, N.Y.: Academic, 1980. 197. Print.</ref> The first patent on a whole process to make tempered glass was held by chemist [[Rudolph A. Seiden]] who was born in 1900 in Austria and emigrated to the United States in 1935.<ref>Barr, Johathan. "The Glass Tempering Handbook: Understanding the Glass Tempering Process". Self published. {{cite web |url=http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2015-02-28 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111119/http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf |archive-date=2015-04-02 }} accessed February 28, 2015</ref>
Though the underlying mechanism was not known at the time, the effects of "tempering" glass have been known for centuries. In about 1660, [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]] brought the discovery of what are now known as "[[Prince Rupert's Drops]]" to the attention of [[King Charles II of England|King Charles II]]. These are teardrop-shaped bits of glass which are produced by allowing a molten drop of glass to fall into a bucket of water, thereby rapidly cooling it. They can withstand a blow from a hammer on the bulbous end without breaking, but the drops will disintegrate explosively into powder if the tail end is even slightly damaged.
== See also ==
* [[Thermal stress]]
* [[Borosilicate glass]]
* [[Fire glass]]
* [[Superglass]]
* [[Low-iron glass]]
* [[Stained glass]]
* [[Lead glass]]
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Glass science}}
[[Category:Glass engineering and science]]
[[Category:Glass types]]
[[Category:Glass physics]]
[[pl:Hartowanie#Hartowanie szkła]]' |
Unified diff of changes made by edit (edit_diff) | '@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
{{More citations needed|date=January 2009}}
-[[File:Broken phone box.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[vandalism|vandalised]] [[telephone booth]] with tempered glass]]
+[[File:Broken phone box.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[vandalism|vandalised]] [[telephone booth]] with tempered glass<ref>{{Cite web|title=Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon|url=https://screenglass.wordpress.com/|access-date=2021-09-19|website=Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon|language=en}}</ref>]]
-'''Tempered''' or '''toughened glass''' is a type of [[safety glass]] processed by controlled [[heat treatment|thermal]] or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into [[Compression (physics)|compression]] and the interior into [[Tension (physics)|tension]]. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.
+'''Tempered''' or '''toughened [https://screenglass.wordpress.com/ glass]''' is a type of [[safety glass]] processed by controlled [[heat treatment|thermal]] or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into [[Compression (physics)|compression]] and the interior into [[Tension (physics)|tension]]. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.
Tempered glass is used for its safety and strength in a variety of applications, including [[passenger vehicle]] windows, shower doors, aquariums, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays, mobile phone screen protectors, [[bulletproof glass]] components, [[diving mask]]s, and plates and cookware.
' |
New page size (new_size) | 16087 |
Old page size (old_size) | 15841 |
Size change in edit (edit_delta) | 246 |
Lines added in edit (added_lines) | [
0 => '[[File:Broken phone box.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[vandalism|vandalised]] [[telephone booth]] with tempered glass<ref>{{Cite web|title=Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon|url=https://screenglass.wordpress.com/|access-date=2021-09-19|website=Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon|language=en}}</ref>]]',
1 => ''''Tempered''' or '''toughened [https://screenglass.wordpress.com/ glass]''' is a type of [[safety glass]] processed by controlled [[heat treatment|thermal]] or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into [[Compression (physics)|compression]] and the interior into [[Tension (physics)|tension]]. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.'
] |
Lines removed in edit (removed_lines) | [
0 => '[[File:Broken phone box.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[vandalism|vandalised]] [[telephone booth]] with tempered glass]]',
1 => ''''Tempered''' or '''toughened glass''' is a type of [[safety glass]] processed by controlled [[heat treatment|thermal]] or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into [[Compression (physics)|compression]] and the interior into [[Tension (physics)|tension]]. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.'
] |
All external links added in the edit (added_links) | [
0 => 'https://screenglass.wordpress.com/'
] |
All external links removed in the edit (removed_links) | [] |
All external links in the new text (all_links) | [
0 => 'https://screenglass.wordpress.com/',
1 => 'https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-is-tempered-glass-mad/',
2 => 'https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/STP/SOURCE_PAGES/STP1434.htm',
3 => 'http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/resolver.cgi?C1048-18',
4 => '//doi.org/10.1520%2FC1048-18',
5 => 'https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass',
6 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20171214071630/https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass',
7 => 'http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204',
8 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150820115924/http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204',
9 => 'https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo',
10 => 'https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo/page/118',
11 => 'https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7048/1/Integrated-quantum-efficiency-topography-and-stress-metrology-for-solar-cell/10.1117/12.792934.short?SSO=1',
12 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SPIE.7048E..04W',
13 => '//doi.org/10.1117%2F12.792934',
14 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/0277-786X',
15 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96798712',
16 => 'http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html',
17 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20171214015128/http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html',
18 => 'https://www.glassonweb.com/article/achille-heel-wonderful-material-toughened-glass',
19 => 'http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf',
20 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111119/http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf',
21 => '//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tempered+glass%22',
22 => '//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia',
23 => '//www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tempered+glass%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks',
24 => '//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia',
25 => '//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tempered+glass%22',
26 => 'https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Tempered+glass%22&acc=on&wc=on'
] |
Links in the page, before the edit (old_links) | [
0 => '//doi.org/10.1117%2F12.792934',
1 => '//doi.org/10.1117%2F12.792934',
2 => '//doi.org/10.1520%2FC1048-18',
3 => '//doi.org/10.1520%2FC1048-18',
4 => '//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tempered+glass%22',
5 => '//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tempered+glass%22',
6 => '//www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tempered+glass%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks',
7 => '//www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tempered+glass%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks',
8 => '//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tempered+glass%22',
9 => '//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tempered+glass%22',
10 => '//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia',
11 => '//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia',
12 => '//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia',
13 => '//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia',
14 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/0277-786X',
15 => '//www.worldcat.org/issn/0277-786X',
16 => 'http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html',
17 => 'http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/resolver.cgi?C1048-18',
18 => 'http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf',
19 => 'http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204',
20 => 'https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96798712',
21 => 'https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo',
22 => 'https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo/page/118',
23 => 'https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SPIE.7048E..04W',
24 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111119/http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf',
25 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20150820115924/http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204',
26 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20171214015128/http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html',
27 => 'https://web.archive.org/web/20171214071630/https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass',
28 => 'https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/STP/SOURCE_PAGES/STP1434.htm',
29 => 'https://www.glassonweb.com/article/achille-heel-wonderful-material-toughened-glass',
30 => 'https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass',
31 => 'https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Tempered+glass%22&acc=on&wc=on',
32 => 'https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-is-tempered-glass-mad/',
33 => 'https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7048/1/Integrated-quantum-efficiency-topography-and-stress-metrology-for-solar-cell/10.1117/12.792934.short?SSO=1'
] |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-parser-output"><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tempered_glass&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Tempered+glass%22">"Tempered glass"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.google.com/search?&q=%22Tempered+glass%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Tempered+glass%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Tempered+glass%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Tempered+glass%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Broken_phone_box.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Broken_phone_box.jpg/200px-Broken_phone_box.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="267" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Broken_phone_box.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A <a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">vandalised</a> <a href="/wiki/Telephone_booth" title="Telephone booth">telephone booth</a> with tempered glass<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p><b>Tempered</b> or <b>toughened <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://screenglass.wordpress.com/">glass</a></b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">safety glass</a> processed by controlled <a href="/wiki/Heat_treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat treatment">thermal</a> or chemical treatments to increase its strength compared with normal glass. Tempering puts the outer surfaces into <a href="/wiki/Compression_(physics)" title="Compression (physics)">compression</a> and the interior into <a href="/wiki/Tension_(physics)" title="Tension (physics)">tension</a>. Such stresses cause the glass, when broken, to shatter into small granular chunks instead of splintering into jagged shards as ordinary annealed glass does. The granular chunks are less likely to cause injury.
</p><p>Tempered glass is used for its safety and strength in a variety of applications, including <a href="/wiki/Passenger_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Passenger vehicle">passenger vehicle</a> windows, shower doors, aquariums, architectural glass doors and tables, refrigerator trays, mobile phone screen protectors, <a href="/wiki/Bulletproof_glass" title="Bulletproof glass">bulletproof glass</a> components, <a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">diving masks</a>, and plates and cookware.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Properties"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Properties</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Uses"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Uses</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Buildings_and_structures"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Buildings and structures</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Household_uses"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Household uses</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Food_service"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Food service</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Cooking_and_baking"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Cooking and baking</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Touchscreen_devices"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Touchscreen devices</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Manufacturing"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Manufacturing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Disadvantages"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Disadvantages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Properties">Properties</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CarWindowPolarization.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/CarWindowPolarization.jpg/220px-CarWindowPolarization.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1473" data-file-height="2097" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:CarWindowPolarization.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Tempered glass of car rear window. Variations in glass <a href="/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">stress</a> are clearly seen when the glass is photographed through a <a href="/wiki/Polarizing_filter_(photography)" title="Polarizing filter (photography)">polarizing filter</a> (bottom picture).</div></div></div>
<p>Tempered glass is about four times stronger than annealed glass.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> The greater contraction of the inner layer during manufacturing induces compressive stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. Fully tempered 6-mm thick glass must have either a minimum surface compression of 69 MPa (10 000 psi) or an edge compression of not less than 67 MPa (9 700 psi).<sup id="cite_ref-astmC1048_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-astmC1048-4">[4]</a></sup> For it to be considered safety glass, the surface compressive stress should exceed 100 megapascals (15,000 psi). As a result of the increased surface stress, when broken the glass breaks into small rounded chunks as opposed to sharp jagged shards.
</p><p>Compressive surface stresses give tempered glass increased strength. <a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">Annealed glass</a> has almost no internal stress and usually forms microscopic cracks on its surface. Tension applied to the glass can drive crack propagation which, once begun, concentrates tension at the tip of the crack driving crack propagation at the speed of sound through the glass. Consequently, annealed glass is fragile and breaks into irregular and sharp pieces.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> The compressive stresses on the surface of tempered glass contain flaws, preventing their propagation or expansion.
</p><p>Any cutting or grinding must be done prior to tempering. Cutting, grinding, and sharp impacts after tempering will cause the glass to fracture.
</p><p>The strain pattern resulting from tempering can be observed by viewing through an optical <a href="/wiki/Polarizer" title="Polarizer">polarizer</a>, such as a pair of polarizing sunglasses.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses">Uses</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Safeguard_Glass_Markings_1.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Safeguard_Glass_Markings_1.jpg/220px-Safeguard_Glass_Markings_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="559" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Safeguard_Glass_Markings_1.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Safety approval markings on an automobile vent window made for a <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a> car by <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Plate_Glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh Plate Glass">PPG</a>.</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:HKPF_Airport_Police_Patrol_Car_AM8599.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/HKPF_Airport_Police_Patrol_Car_AM8599.JPG/220px-HKPF_Airport_Police_Patrol_Car_AM8599.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:HKPF_Airport_Police_Patrol_Car_AM8599.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Police van with screen protector</div></div></div>
<p>Tempered glass is used when strength, thermal resistance, and safety are important considerations. Passenger vehicles, for example, have all three requirements. Since they are stored outdoors, they are subject to constant heating and cooling as well as dramatic temperature changes throughout the year. Moreover, they must withstand small impacts from road debris such as stones as well as road accidents. Because large, sharp glass shards would present additional and unacceptable danger to passengers, tempered glass is used so that if broken, the pieces are blunt and mostly harmless. The <a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">windscreen</a> or windshield is instead made of <a href="/wiki/Laminated_glass" title="Laminated glass">laminated glass</a>, which will not shatter into pieces when broken while side windows and the rear windshield have historically been made of tempered glass. Some newer luxury vehicles have laminated side windows to meet occupancy retention regulations, anti-theft purposes, or sound-deadening purposes.
</p><p>Other typical applications of tempered glass include:
</p>
<ul><li>Balcony doors</li>
<li>Athletic facilities</li>
<li>Swimming pools</li>
<li>Façades</li>
<li>Shower doors and bathroom areas</li>
<li>Exhibition areas and displays</li>
<li>Computer towers or cases</li>
<li>Mobile phone screen protectors</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Buildings_and_structures">Buildings and structures</span></h3>
<p>Tempered glass is also used in buildings for unframed assemblies (such as frameless glass doors), structurally loaded applications, and any other application that would become dangerous in the event of human impact. Building codes in the United States require tempered or laminated glass in several situations including some skylights, glass installed near doorways and stairways, large windows, windows which extend close to floor level, sliding doors, elevators, fire department access panels, and glass installed near swimming pools.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Household_uses">Household uses</span></h3>
<p>Tempered glass is also used in the home. Some common household furniture and appliances that use tempered glass are frameless shower doors, glass table tops, glass shelves, cabinet glass and glass for fireplaces.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Food_service">Food service</span></h3>
<table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tempered_glass&action=edit">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2017</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this template message</a>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>"Rim-tempered" indicates that a limited area, such as the rim of the glass or plate, is tempered and is popular in food service. However, there are also specialist manufacturers that offer a fully tempered/toughened drinkware solution that can bring increased benefits in the form of strength and thermal shock resistance. In some countries these products are specified in venues that require increased performance levels or have a requirement for a safer glass due to intense usage.
</p><p>Tempered glass has also seen increased usage in bars and pubs, particularly in the United Kingdom and Australia, to prevent broken glass being <a href="/wiki/Glassing" title="Glassing">used as a weapon</a>. Tempered glass products can be found in hotels, bars, and restaurants to reduce breakages and increase safety standards.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cooking_and_baking">Cooking and baking</span></h3>
<p>Some forms of tempered glass are used for <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baking" title="Baking">baking</a>. Manufacturers and brands include Glasslock, <a href="/wiki/Pyrex" title="Pyrex">Pyrex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corelle" title="Corelle">Corelle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arc_International_(tableware)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc International (tableware)">Arc International</a>. This is also the type of glass used for oven doors.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Touchscreen_devices">Touchscreen devices</span></h3>
<p>Most touchscreen mobile devices use some form of toughened glass (such as <a href="/wiki/Corning_Inc." title="Corning Inc.">Corning</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Gorilla_Glass" title="Gorilla Glass">Gorilla Glass</a>), but there are also separate tempered screen protectors for touchscreen devices sold as an accessory.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Broken_Meat_Case_Window.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Broken_Meat_Case_Window.JPG/170px-Broken_Meat_Case_Window.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Broken_Meat_Case_Window.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Tempered safety glass which has been laminated often does not fall out of its frame when it breaks – usually because an anti-splinter film has been applied on the glass, as seen in this grocery store meat case.</div></div></div>
<p>Tempered glass can be made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass is placed onto a roller table, taking it through a furnace that heats it well above its <a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">transition temperature</a> of 564 °C (1,047 °F) to around 620 °C (1,148 °F). The glass is then rapidly cooled with forced air drafts while the inner portion remains free to flow for a short time.
</p><p>An alternative <a href="/wiki/Chemically_strengthened_glass" title="Chemically strengthened glass">chemical toughening process</a> involves forcing a surface layer of glass at least 0.1 mm thick into compression by <a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">ion exchange</a> of the sodium ions in the glass surface with potassium ions (which are 30% larger), by immersion of the glass into a bath of molten <a href="/wiki/Potassium_nitrate" title="Potassium nitrate">potassium nitrate</a>. Chemical toughening results in increased toughness compared with thermal tempering and can be applied to glass objects of complex shapes.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:-39_wreck.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/-39_wreck.jpg/220px--39_wreck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="10430" data-file-height="13037" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:-39_wreck.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>After hard car crash Automobile <a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">windshield</a> displaying 'shattered pieces'</div></div></div>
<p>Tempered glass must be cut to size or pressed to shape before tempering, and cannot be re-worked once tempered. Polishing the edges or drilling holes in the glass is carried out before the tempering process starts. Because of the balanced stresses in the glass, damage to any portion will eventually result in the glass shattering into thumbnail-sized pieces. The glass is most susceptible to breakage due to damage at its edge, where the tensile stress is the greatest, but can also shatter in the event of a hard impact in the middle of the glass pane or if the impact is concentrated (for example, the glass is struck with a hardened point).
</p><p>Using tempered glass can pose a security risk in some situations because of the tendency of the glass to shatter completely upon hard impact rather than leaving shards in the window frame.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup>
</p><p>The surface of tempered glass does exhibit surface waves caused by contact with flattening rollers, if it has been formed using this process. This waviness is a significant problem in manufacturing of thin film solar cells.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Float_glass" title="Float glass">float glass</a> process can be used to provide low-distortion sheets with very flat and parallel surfaces as an alternative for different glazing applications.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Nickel_sulfide#In_glass_manufacturing" title="Nickel sulfide">Nickel sulfide</a> defects can cause spontaneous breakage of tempered glass years after its manufacturing.<sup id="cite_ref-barry2006_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-barry2006-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Francois_Barthelemy_Alfred_Royer_de_la_Bastie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastie (page does not exist)">Francois Barthelemy Alfred Royer de la Bastie</a> (1830–1901) of Paris, France is credited with first developing a method of tempering glass<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup> by quenching almost molten glass in a heated bath of oil or grease in 1874, the method patented in England on August 12, 1874, patent number 2783. Tempered glass is sometimes known as <i>Bastie glass</i> after de la Bastie. In 1877 the German Friedrich Siemens developed a different process, sometimes called compressed glass or Siemens glass, producing a tempered glass stronger than the Bastie process by pressing the glass in cool molds.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> The first patent on a whole process to make tempered glass was held by chemist <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Seiden" title="Rudolph A. Seiden">Rudolph A. Seiden</a> who was born in 1900 in Austria and emigrated to the United States in 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup>
</p><p>Though the underlying mechanism was not known at the time, the effects of "tempering" glass have been known for centuries. In about 1660, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert_of_the_Rhine" title="Prince Rupert of the Rhine">Prince Rupert of the Rhine</a> brought the discovery of what are now known as "<a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_Drops" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Rupert's Drops">Prince Rupert's Drops</a>" to the attention of <a href="/wiki/King_Charles_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="King Charles II of England">King Charles II</a>. These are teardrop-shaped bits of glass which are produced by allowing a molten drop of glass to fall into a bucket of water, thereby rapidly cooling it. They can withstand a blow from a hammer on the bulbous end without breaking, but the drops will disintegrate explosively into powder if the tail end is even slightly damaged.
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_stress" title="Thermal stress">Thermal stress</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fire_glass" title="Fire glass">Fire glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Superglass" title="Superglass">Superglass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Low-iron_glass" title="Low-iron glass">Low-iron glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stained_glass" title="Stained glass">Stained glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r999302996">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://screenglass.wordpress.com/">"Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon"</a>. <i>Novelty Solaris Lighting - Screen Glass & Amazon</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-09-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Novelty+Solaris+Lighting+-+Screen+Glass+%26+Amazon&rft.atitle=Novelty+Solaris+Lighting+-+Screen+Glass+%26+Amazon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscreenglass.wordpress.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFFord2001" class="citation web cs1">Ford, Mark (22 January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-is-tempered-glass-mad/">"How is tempered glass made?"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. Springer Nature America, LLC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=How+is+tempered+glass+made%3F&rft.date=2001-01-22&rft.aulast=Ford&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fhow-is-tempered-glass-mad%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBlock2002" class="citation book cs1">Block, Valerie, ed. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/STP/SOURCE_PAGES/STP1434.htm"><i>The use of glass in buildings</i></a>. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8031-3458-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8031-3458-4"><bdi>978-0-8031-3458-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+use+of+glass+in+buildings&rft.place=West+Conshohocken%2C+PA&rft.pub=ASTM+International&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8031-3458-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2FDIGITAL_LIBRARY%2FSTP%2FSOURCE_PAGES%2FSTP1434.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-astmC1048-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-astmC1048_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astm.org/cgi-bin/resolver.cgi?C1048-18">"ASTM C1048-18, Standard Specification for Heat-Strengthened and Fully Tempered Flat Glass"</a>. ASTM International. 2018. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1520%2FC1048-18">10.1520/C1048-18</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=ASTM+C1048-18%2C+Standard+Specification+for+Heat-Strengthened+and+Fully+Tempered+Flat+Glass&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1520%2FC1048-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astm.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Fresolver.cgi%3FC1048-18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-hidden-error error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass">"Tempered vs. Annealed Glass | Hunker"</a>. <i>Hunker.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171214071630/https://www.hunker.com/12000120/tempered-vs-annealed-glass">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hunker.com&rft.atitle=Tempered+vs.+Annealed+Glass+%7C+Hunker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hunker.com%2F12000120%2Ftempered-vs-annealed-glass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFHagemanBeestonHageman2008" class="citation book cs1">Hageman, J.M.; Beeston, B.E.P.; Hageman, K. (2008). <i>Contractor's Guide to the Building Code</i> (6th. ed.). Craftsman Book Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781572182028" title="Special:BookSources/9781572182028"><bdi>9781572182028</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contractor%27s+Guide+to+the+Building+Code&rft.edition=6th.&rft.pub=Craftsman+Book+Co&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781572182028&rft.aulast=Hageman&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rft.au=Beeston%2C+B.E.P.&rft.au=Hageman%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204">"PET, TPU, or Tempered Glass – all you need to know to choose a screen protector"</a>. <i>phonearena.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150820115924/http://www.phonearena.com/news/PET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-08-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=phonearena.com&rft.atitle=PET%2C+TPU%2C+or+Tempered+Glass+%E2%80%93+all+you+need+to+know+to+choose+a+screen+protector&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phonearena.com%2Fnews%2FPET-TPU-or-Tempered-Glass--all-you-need-to-know-to-choose-a-screen-protector_id58204&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFPfaender1996" class="citation book cs1">Pfaender, Heinz G. (1996). <i>Schott Guide to Glass</i> (2 ed.). London: Chapman & Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780412620607" title="Special:BookSources/9780412620607"><bdi>9780412620607</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schott+Guide+to+Glass&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780412620607&rft.aulast=Pfaender&rft.aufirst=Heinz+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFO'BlockDonnermeyerDoeren1991" class="citation book cs1">O'Block, Robert L.; Donnermeyer, Joseph F.; Doeren, Stephen E. (1991). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo"><i>Security and Crime Prevention</i></a></span>. Butterworth–Heinemann. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/securityandcrime0000oblo/page/118">118</a>. <q>The security value of tempered glass, however, is questionable. Although it will resist a brick or rock, it is susceptible to sharp instruments such as ice picks or screwdrivers. When attacked in this manner, tempered glass tends to crumple easily and quietly, leaving no sharp edges.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Security+and+Crime+Prevention&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Butterworth%E2%80%93Heinemann&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=O%27Block&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft.au=Donnermeyer%2C+Joseph+F.&rft.au=Doeren%2C+Stephen+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsecurityandcrime0000oblo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFWaleckiSzondy2008" class="citation journal cs1">Walecki, Wojtek J.; Szondy, Fanny (2008). Dhere, Neelkanth G. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/7048/1/Integrated-quantum-efficiency-topography-and-stress-metrology-for-solar-cell/10.1117/12.792934.short?SSO=1">"Integrated quantum efficiency, topography, and stress metrology for solar cell manufacturing: real space approach"</a>. <i>Reliability of Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components, and Systems. Proceedings of SPIE</i>. Reliability of Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components, and Systems. Bellingham, WA: SPIE. <b>7048</b>: 704804. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008SPIE.7048E..04W">2008SPIE.7048E..04W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.792934">10.1117/12.792934</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0277-786X">0277-786X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96798712">96798712</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reliability+of+Photovoltaic+Cells%2C+Modules%2C+Components%2C+and+Systems.+Proceedings+of+SPIE&rft.atitle=Integrated+quantum+efficiency%2C+topography%2C+and+stress+metrology+for+solar+cell+manufacturing%3A+real+space+approach&rft.volume=7048&rft.pages=704804&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.792934&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A96798712%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0277-786X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008SPIE.7048E..04W&rft.aulast=Walecki&rft.aufirst=Wojtek+J.&rft.au=Szondy%2C+Fanny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiedigitallibrary.org%2Fconference-proceedings-of-spie%2F7048%2F1%2FIntegrated-quantum-efficiency-topography-and-stress-metrology-for-solar-cell%2F10.1117%2F12.792934.short%3FSSO%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html">"FLOAT GLASS TECHNOLOGY"</a>. <i>ajzonca.tripod.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171214015128/http://ajzonca.tripod.com/glassprocess.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ajzonca.tripod.com&rft.atitle=FLOAT+GLASS+TECHNOLOGY&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fajzonca.tripod.com%2Fglassprocess.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-barry2006-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-barry2006_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite id="CITEREFBarry2006" class="citation web cs1">Barry, John (12 January 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.glassonweb.com/article/achille-heel-wonderful-material-toughened-glass">"The Achille Heel of a Wonderful Material: Toughened Glass"</a>. <i>Glass on Web</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Glass+on+Web&rft.atitle=The+Achille+Heel+of+a+Wonderful+Material%3A+Toughened+Glass&rft.date=2006-01-12&rft.aulast=Barry&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.glassonweb.com%2Farticle%2Fachille-heel-wonderful-material-toughened-glass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Glass." <i>The Encyclopædia Britannica : A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and General Literature</i>. 9th ed. (American reprint). Vol. 10. Philadelphia: Sherman & co., 1894. 595. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Uhlmann, D.R. and Kreidl, N. J. eds.. <i>Glass. Science and Technology: Elasticity and Strength in Glasses</i>. Vol. 5. New York, N.Y.: Academic, 1980. 197. Print.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barr, Johathan. "The Glass Tempering Handbook: Understanding the Glass Tempering Process". Self published. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r999302996"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111119/http://www.lambertgtservices.co.uk/book/TheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2015-04-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-02-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lambertgtservices.co.uk%2Fbook%2FTheGlassTemperingHandbook.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATempered+glass" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span> accessed February 28, 2015</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glass_science_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r992953826">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Glass_science" title="Template:Glass science"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;;text-decoration:inherit;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Glass_science" title="Template talk:Glass science"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;;text-decoration:inherit;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Glass_science&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;;text-decoration:inherit;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Glass_science_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a> science topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_transition" title="Glass transition">Glass transition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Supercooling" title="Supercooling">Supercooling</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formulation</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/AgInSbTe" title="AgInSbTe">AgInSbTe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bioglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioglass">Bioglass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Borophosphosilicate_glass" title="Borophosphosilicate glass">Borophosphosilicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Borosilicate_glass" title="Borosilicate glass">Borosilicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_glaze" title="Ceramic glaze">Ceramic glaze</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass" title="Chalcogenide glass">Chalcogenide glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_glass" title="Cobalt glass">Cobalt glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Cranberry glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crown_glass_(optics)" title="Crown glass (optics)">Crown glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Flint_glass" title="Flint glass">Flint glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fluorosilicate_glass" title="Fluorosilicate glass">Fluorosilicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fused_quartz" title="Fused quartz">Fused quartz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/GeSbTe" title="GeSbTe">GeSbTe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cranberry_glass" title="Cranberry glass">Gold ruby glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lead_glass" title="Lead glass">Lead glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Milk_glass" title="Milk glass">Milk glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phosphosilicate_glass" title="Phosphosilicate glass">Phosphosilicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass#Silicate_glass" title="Glass">Silicate glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">Soda–lime glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_hexametaphosphate" title="Sodium hexametaphosphate">Sodium hexametaphosphate</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_silicate" title="Sodium silicate">Soluble glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tellurite_glass" title="Tellurite glass">Tellurite glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thoriated_glass" title="Thoriated glass">Thoriated glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultra_low_expansion_glass" title="Ultra low expansion glass">Ultra low expansion glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_glass" title="Uranium glass">Uranium glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">Vitreous enamel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wood%27s_glass" title="Wood's glass">Wood's glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ZBLAN" title="ZBLAN">ZBLAN</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic" title="Glass-ceramic">Glass-ceramics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioactive_glass" title="Bioactive glass">Bioactive glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CorningWare" title="CorningWare">CorningWare</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass-ceramic-to-metal_seals" title="Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals">Glass-ceramic-to-metal seals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Macor" title="Macor">Macor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zerodur" title="Zerodur">Zerodur</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparation</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annealing_(glass)" title="Annealing (glass)">Annealing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition" title="Chemical vapor deposition">Chemical vapor deposition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_batch_calculation" title="Glass batch calculation">Glass batch calculation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">Glass forming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_production#Hot_end" title="Glass production">Glass melting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Calculation_of_glass_properties" title="Calculation of glass properties">Glass modeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liquidus" title="Liquidus">Liquidus temperature</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Viscosity#Viscosity_of_amorphous_materials" title="Viscosity">Viscosity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vitrification" title="Vitrification">Vitrification</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">Optics</a></th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatic_lens" title="Achromatic lens">Achromat</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">Dispersion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gradient-index_optics" title="Gradient-index optics">Gradient-index optics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">Optical amplifier</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_lens_design" title="Optical lens design">Optical lens design</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photochromic_lens" title="Photochromic lens">Photochromic lens</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photosensitive_glass" title="Photosensitive glass">Photosensitive glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_and_translucency" title="Transparency and translucency">Transparent materials</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface<br />modification</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-reflective_coating" title="Anti-reflective coating">Anti-reflective coating</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_strengthened_glass" title="Chemically strengthened glass">Chemically strengthened glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion#Corrosion_of_glasses" title="Corrosion">Corrosion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dealkalization" title="Dealkalization">Dealkalization</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_darkening" title="Hydrogen darkening">Hydrogen darkening</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Insulated_glazing" title="Insulated glazing">Insulated glazing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Self-cleaning_glass" title="Self-cleaning glass">Self-cleaning glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sol%E2%80%93gel_process" title="Sol–gel process">sol–gel technique</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tempered glass</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diverse<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glass-coated_wire" title="Glass-coated wire">Glass-coated wire</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Safety_glass" title="Safety glass">Safety glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_databases" title="Glass databases">Glass databases</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_electrode" title="Glass electrode">Glass electrode</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber_reinforced_concrete" title="Glass fiber reinforced concrete">Glass fiber reinforced concrete</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ionomer_cement" title="Glass ionomer cement">Glass ionomer cement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_microsphere" title="Glass microsphere">Glass microspheres</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiberglass" title="Fiberglass">Glass-reinforced plastic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_cloth" title="Glass cloth">Glass cloth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass-to-metal_seal" title="Glass-to-metal seal">Glass-to-metal seal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Porous_glass" title="Porous glass">Porous glass</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pre-preg" title="Pre-preg">Pre-preg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rupert%27s_drop" title="Prince Rupert's drop">Prince Rupert's drops</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Vitrification" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste vitrification</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Windshield" title="Windshield">Windshield</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glass_fiber" title="Glass fiber">Glass fiber</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
' |
Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node) | false |
Unix timestamp of change (timestamp) | 1632035635 |
