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'@@ -1,118 +1,404 @@ -{{Short description|1925–27 uprising against French rule in Mandatory Syria and Lebanon}} -{{About|the Syrian revolt against French colonial authorities in the 1920s|the current conflict in Syria|Syrian Civil War}} {{Infobox military conflict -|conflict=Great Syrian Revolt -|partof=[[Interwar period]] -|image=Sultan al-Atrash.jpg -|image_size=300px -|caption=Shaykh Hilal al-Atrash, rebel celebration in the [[Hauran]], 14 August 1925 -|date=19 July 1925&nbsp;– June 1927 -|place=[[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] -|casus= -|territory= -|result=French victory -|combatant1={{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} [[French Third Republic|France]] +| conflict = Great Syrian Revolt +| place = Syria +| image = The Great Syrian Revolution.jpg +| date = 1925-1927 +| caption = Statue of the Great Syrian Revolution in Majdal Shams +| result = Defeat the Syrian resistance militarily and achieve political gains. +| combatant1 = {{flagicon|France}} [[French Third Republic|France]] *{{flagicon image|Flag of Syria French mandate.svg}} [[State of Syria (1924–30)|Syria]] *{{flagicon image|Lebanese French flag.svg}} [[Greater Lebanon|Lebanon]] -|combatant2=Syrian rebels -|commander1={{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} [[Maurice Sarrail]]<br />{{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} Roger Michaud <br />{{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} [[Maurice Gamelin]] <br />{{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} [[Henry de Jouvenel]] <br />{{flagdeco|French Third Republic}} Charles Andréa -|commander2=[[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] <br /> [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]] <br /> [[Hasan al-Kharrat]]{{KIA}} <br /> [[Said al-As]] <br /> Izz al-Din al-Halabi <br /> [[Nasib al-Bakri]] <br /> [[Muhammad al-Ashmar]] <br /> [[Ramadan al-Shallash]] (defected to France) -|strength1=20,299 (1925)<br />50,000 (1926) -|strength2=Thousands of rebels -|casualties1=6,000 killed, missing, and died of disease<ref>http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coursdhistoiremilitaire.com%2F2015%2F06%2Fcours-d-histoire-militaire-emia-1-3.html</ref> -*~2,500 French dead<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lesclesdumoyenorient.com/Revolte-druze-de-1925.html|title=Révolte druze de 1925}}</ref> -|casualties2=Unknown -|casualties3=10,000 Syrians killed overall<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lesclesdumoyenorient.com/Revolte-druze-de-1925.html|title=Révolte druze de 1925}}</ref> +| combatant2 = Syrian rebels +| commander1 = {{flagicon|France}} [[Maurice Sarrail]]<br/>{{flagicon|France}} Roger Michaud <br/>{{flagicon|France}} [[Maurice Gamelin]] <br/>{{flagicon|France}} [[Henry de Jouvenel]] <br/>{{flagicon|France}} Charles Andréa +| commander2 = [[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] <br/> [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar]] <br/> [[Ayyash Al-Haj]]<br /> [[Hasan al-Kharrat]] <br/> [[Ibrahim Hananu]] <br /> [[Nasib al-Bakri]] <br /> [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]] }} -{{Campaignbox Great Syrian Revolt}} -The '''Great Syrian Revolt''' ({{lang-ar|الثورة السورية الكبرى}}) or '''Great Druze Revolt''' (1925–1927) was a general uprising across [[Mandatory Syria]] and [[Mandatory Lebanon|Lebanon]] aimed at getting rid of the [[French Third Republic|French]], who had been in control of the region since the end of [[World War I]].<ref name=Miller47>Miller, 1977, p. 547.</ref> The uprising was not centrally coordinated; rather, it was attempted by multiple factions – among them [[Sunni]], [[Druze]], [[Alawite]], [[Christians|Christian]], and [[Shia]] – with the common goal of ending French rule.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} The revolt was ultimately put down by French forces. +'''The Great Syrian Revolt''' (Arabic: الثورة السورية الكبرى‎) or Revolt 1925 was a general uprising across mandatory [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], led by the rebels of [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]] in southern [[Syria]], and other multiple factions that Joined them from [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]], [[Druze]], [[Alawites|Alawite]], [[Christians]] with the common goal of ending [[French colonial empire|French]] rule. -== Background == -In 1918, towards the end of World War I, the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s forces withdrew from Syria after being defeated by the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]] and [[French Third Republic|France]]) and their [[Sharifian Army|Hashemite Arab]] allies from the [[Hejaz]]. The British had promised the Hashemites control over a united Arab state consisting of the bulk of Arabic-speaking lands from which the Ottomans withdrew, even as the Allies made other plans for the region in the 1916 [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]]. +This revolution came in response to the military dictatorship policies pursued by the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French authorities]] in tearing [[Syria]] into several states, abolishing freedoms, pursuing patriots, and provoking sectarian tendencies. And fighting the culture and the [[Arab world|Arab]] character of the country and trying to replace it with [[French colonial empire|French]] culture, in addition to the refusal of the Mandate authorities to agree with the Syrian national forces to set a timetable for the [[independence]] of [[Syria]]. -The idea of Syrian and Arab independence were not entirely new concepts.<ref name="Khoury814">Khoury, 1981, pp. 442-444.</ref> French forces entering Syria faced resistance from local factions in the north in 1919, with the prominent [[Alawite]] sheikh [[Saleh al-Ali]] launching a [[Alawite Revolt of 1919|revolt]] in the [[Syrian Coastal Mountain Range|coastal mountain range]] and [[Ibrahim Hananu]] leading a [[Hananu Revolt|revolt in Aleppo]] and the surrounding countryside. The leaders of both uprisings were supportive of the creation of a united Syrian state presided over by [[Faisal I of Iraq|Emir Faisal]], the son of Sharif Husayn.<ref>Moosa, p. 282.</ref> In March 1920 the Hashemites officially established the [[Kingdom of Syria]] with Faisal as king and the capital in [[Damascus]]. +This revolution was an extension of the Syrian [[Revolution|revolutions]] that began when the French colonial forces stepped on the Syrian coast in early 1920 and continued until late June 1927. One of the most prominent results of the [[victory]] of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate]] authorities militarily, but the Syrian resistance was able to destabilize the [[French colonial empire|French]] policy in [[Syria]], and convinced them that the Syrian people will not yield and must establish a national [[Council of Ministers (Syria)|government of Syria]], and force them to reunite [[Syria]] and hold parliamentary [[Election|elections]] as this [[revolution]] paved the final exit of the French From [[Syria]] in 1946.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mod.gov.sy/index.php?node=554&cat=1154|title=The results of the Syrian revolutions|last=|first=|date=|website=Ministry of Defense of the Syrian Arab Republic|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-13}}</ref> -In the April 1920 [[San Remo Conference]], the Allies were granted control over the Ottoman Empire's former Arab territories by the newly formed [[League of Nations]], with Britain taking control of [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]] and [[Mandatory Iraq|Iraq]], while France took control of [[Mandatory Syria|Syria]]. This transfer of authority from the Ottomans to the French was generally unwelcome to [[Greater Syria]]'s inhabitants, with the exception of some of the local Christian communities, particularly the [[Maronites]] of [[Mount Lebanon]].<ref name="Betts94-5">Betts, pp. 84-85.</ref> The brief [[Franco-Syrian War]] saw the Hashemites' pan-Arab forces defeated by the French in the [[Battle of Maysalun]] on 23 July, and the kingdom dissolved. France then divided the country into several autonomous entities: [[State of Damascus]], [[State of Aleppo]], [[Greater Lebanon]], [[Alawite State]] and [[Jabal Druze State]].<ref>Betts, p. 86.</ref> But many nationalists remained in Syria, advocating for independence. There was disquiet, even in Britain, when France claimed Lebanon and Syria as "colonies".<ref name="Khoury814" /> +== The Arab region after the First World War == +[[File:MPK1-426 Sykes Picot Agreement Map signed 8 May 1916.jpg|thumb|180x180px|Map signed by Sykes and Picot.]] +[[World War I]] led to the collapse of four great powers: the [[Russian Empire|Empire of Russia]], the [[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]] and [[Hungary]], [[Germany]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]], of which [[Syria]] as part of its legacy. The collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]] encouraged the victorious colonial powers of [[England]] and [[France]] to share its legacy by creating a new colonial concept known as the "[[Mandate (politics)|Mandate]]," conceived and put into practice by the allied and victorious powers of that time, namely [[France]], [[England]], [[the United States|the United States]], and [[Italy]]. -[[File:Druze warriors.jpg|thumb|left|Druze in Suwayda welcoming Sultan al-Atrash and other rebels back from exile in 1937]] +The main idea is that the former geographic possessions of the collapsed states that disappeared at the end of the [[World War I|First World War]] ([[Germany]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]) would be placed under the supervision of the [[League of Nations]] (the former global organization of the current [[United Nations|UN]]), since [[Germany]] had lost its colonies in [[Africa]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] should also cede all its [[Arab world|Arab states]].<ref name=":0" /> -== Causes == +Based on this reality, [[France]] is taking over [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], while [[England]] is taking [[Iraq]] and [[Palestine]], and these countries are placed under the direct guardianship of these two countries with an official [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] from the [[League of Nations]], with the task of insuring to these new countries the necessary means to enable them to reach a sufficient degree of Political awareness and [[economic development]] qualifies them for [[independence]] and [[sovereignty]]. In the implementation of these plans, negotiations were held between [[France]] and [[England]] in October 1915 on the determination of the spheres of influence of both countries in the event of the partition of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The secret agreement on the subject was called the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement|Sykes-Picot]] agreement as names of the two negotiators, Britain's [[Mark Sykes|Marc Sykes]] and [[French people|Frenchman]] [[François Georges-Picot|Francois Georges-Picot.]] -=== Alienation of the elite === -One major reason behind the outbreak of the Great Syrian Revolt was the French relationship with the local elites.<ref name="Miller47" /> The Ottoman Empire, especially in its final centuries, had allowed much authority to devolve to the local level with many day-to-day administrative functions carried out by local notables. The Ottoman [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]] system allowed local peoples of different religious affiliations to uphold their own legal standards (for example, [[sharia]] law applying to Muslims, but not [[Jews]], [[Catholics]], or [[Orthodoxy#Christianity|Orthodox Christians]]). +Meanwhile, correspondence has been held since 1915 between Sir [[Henry McMahon]] and [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Sherif Hussein]] in the [[Hejaz|Hijaz]], and as a result of the negotiations between the two parties, The [[British Empire|British]] presented a written commitment, includes the recognition of the [[independence]] of the [[Arabs]] and support them, and in exchange for this initial promise, [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Sharif Hussein]] is committed to launching the call of the [[Arab Revolt|Arab revolution]] against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.france24.com/ar/20160603-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7-%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B4-%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%AB%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86-%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7|title=The Great Arab Revolt: When France wanted to protect the Islamic holy places|last=|first=|date=2016-06-04|website=France 24|language=ar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-13}}</ref> -The European powers, however, had little grasp of the intricacies of Ottoman government, and failed to recognize that the disappearance of national authority did not mean that administration ceased to exist on a local level.<ref name="Miller47" /> In the Mandate of Syria, the French assumed that the Syrians were incapable of practicing self-government, and so instituted a system which ostensibly served to train Syrians in that responsibility. French administrators were assigned to all levels of government, and their role was, officially, to train Syrian counterparts in that particular function. +=== The Great Arab Revolution === +{{Further|Arab Revolt}} +[[File:Ahmet djemal.jpg|thumb|180px|right|[[Jemal Pasha]].]] +[[File:May 6, 1916 Public executions of Syrian nationalists in Marjeh Square.jpg|alt=|thumb|180x180px|[[Jemal Pasha]], the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] minister of the navy, publicly executed [[Syrians|Syrian]] nationalists who espoused and disseminated  anti-Ottoman viewpoints and agitated against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] military presence in [[Syria]].]] +On 6 May 1916, [[Djemal Pasha|Jamal Pasha]] executed fourteen [[Syrians|Syrian]] notables in [[Beirut]] and [[Damascus]] and this was the catalyst for [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Sharif Hussein]] to start the [[Arab Revolt|Arab revolt]] against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], and the aim of the revolution (as stated in the [[Damascus]] charter and in the correspondence of [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence|Hussein McMahon]], which was based on the Charter), was removing the obedience of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and establishment of an [[Arab world|Arab state]], or union of [[Arab world|Arab states]] includes [[Arabian Peninsula|the Arabian Peninsula]], [[Najd]], [[Hejaz|Hijaz]] in particular and [[Greater Syria]] except [[Adana]], which was considered within [[Syria]] in the [[Damascus]] Charter, With respect for Britain's interests in southern [[Iraq]], a geographical area that begins in [[Baghdad]] and ends in the Gulf Coast. -The reality of the situation was very different. Instead of teaching, the advisors performed the functions of that office.<ref>Gouraud, Henri. La France En Syrie. [Corbeil]: [Imp. Crété], 1922: 15</ref> The effect was local rulers who resented being treated as if they did not know how to perform the functions they had been performing for centuries and who opposed this usurpation of their power. Further, authority had traditionally resided in the hands of a few families, while European administrators abandoned the systems of caste and class, undermining this elite by opening up offices to the general public. +On 10 June 1916, the [[Arab Revolt|Arab revolution]] began in [[Mecca]] and in November 1916, [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Sharif Hussein]] declared himself "King of the Arabs,"  While the superpowers only recognized him as [[king]] of the [[Hejaz|Hijaz]]. He had 1,500 [[Soldier|soldiers]] and some of armed [[Tribe|tribesmen]], [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein]]'s army had no [[Gun|guns]] and Britain provided him with two [[Cannon|cannons]] that accelerated the fall of [[Jeddah]] and [[Ta'if|Taif]]. -=== Loyalty of tribes === -Outside of cities, the French were not entirely successful in winning over nomadic populations, many of whom raised the [[War flag|standard]] of revolt in 1925.<ref>Khoury, Philip S. "The Tribal Shaykh, French Tribal Policy, and the Nationalist Movement in Syria between Two World Wars." [[Middle East]]ern Studies 18.2 (1982): 184</ref> The Ottoman Empire had initiated the process of tribal sedentarization, but it was not until the French Mandate of Syria that tribes began to lose their nomadic lifestyle. +Then he went to [[Aqaba]], where the second phase of the revolution officially began in late 1917 supported by the [[British Army|British army]] that occupied [[Jerusalem]] on 9 September 1917 and before the end of the year all of the [[Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem|Sanjak Jerusalem]] was under [[British Empire|British]] rule. -After World War I, the territory that tribes wandered was divided between Turkey, the Mandate of Syria, and the [[Mandate of Mesopotamia]], each controlled by different powers, thereby limiting their freedom of movement. In Syria, the process of [[industrialization]] was swift; roads were quickly built, cars and buses became commonplace. The situation for nomads was exacerbated by an influx of [[Armenians]] and [[Kurds]] from the new country of Turkey, who settled in the Mandate's northern regions. +In the meantime, the army of [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein]] was increasing, were joined by two thousand [[Soldier|soldiers]] with their [[Weapon|weapons]] led by [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni|Abdul Qadir al-Husseini]] from [[Jerusalem]]. Most of those areas [[Tribe|tribesmen]] joined the revolution. -To pacify, or at least control, the tribes, the French instituted several restrictive measures; for example, tribes could not carry arms in settled areas, and had to pay lump taxes on livestock.<ref>Khoury, Philip S. "The Tribal Shaykh, French Tribal Policy, and the Nationalist Movement in Syria between Two World Wars." Middle Eastern Studies 18.2 (1982): 185</ref> Additionally, the French attempted to bribe tribal leaders; but while this worked in some cases, it caused resentment in others. When the Great Syrian Revolt broke out in 1925, thousands of tribesmen were eager to fight against the French. +The [[Sharifian Army|Arab Army]] or known as the Arab Forces, was formed under the leadership of [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Sharif Hussein]] and his son [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] and indirectly commanded by the [[British Empire|British]] officer [[T. E. Lawrence|Lawrence of Arabia]]. It headed to [[Syria]] and clashed with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces in a decisive battle near [[Ma'an]]. The war resulted in almost destruction of the seventh army and the second [[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Ottoman army]], [[Ma'an]] was liberated on 23 September 1918, followed by [[Amman]] on 25 September and the day before 26 September, the [[Ottoman Governor of Damascus|Ottoman governor]] and his [[soldier]] had left [[Damascus]] to announcing the end of the [[Ottoman Syria|Ottoman]] rule. -=== Nationalist sentiment === -Syrian nationalism was fostered in Faisal's short-lived kingdom, but after its dissolution many nationalists affiliated with his government fled the country to avoid death sentences, arrest and harassment by the French. Some went to [[Amman]], where they found [[Amir Abdullah]] sympathetic to their cause; but under increasing pressure from the British, the young Abdullah drove them from [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]]. These rejoined other Syrian nationalists at [[Cairo]] In 1921, when the Syrian-Palestinian Congress was founded.<ref name="Khoury814" /> +The [[Sharifian Army|Arab army]] entered [[Damascus]] on 30 September 1918 and on 8 October the [[English Army|English army]] entered [[Beirut]] then [[British Empire|British]] [[General officer|General]] [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Edmund Allenby]] entered [[Syria]] and met with the [[Sharifian Army|Arab army]] in [[Damascus]]. -In 1925, in preparation for upcoming elections, high commissioner General [[Maurice Sarrail]] allowed the organization of political parties. The Syrian-Palestinian Congress had proved itself an ineffectual body, and its Syrian factions returned to Syria. They founded the People's Party in [[Damascus]], which was characterized by an intelligentsia leadership antagonistic toward local elites, with no social or economic programs, with support organized around individuals. Though unprepared for and not expecting an uprising, the nationalist elements in Damascus were eager to participate when one arose.<ref name="k815d" /> +On 18 October, the [[Ottoman Syria|Ottomans]] left [[Tripoli]] and [[Homs]] and on 26 October 1918, [[British Empire|British]] and [[Sharifian Army|Arab army]] headed north until they met the last [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces under the command of [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[commander]] [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Ataturk]], and a fierce [[battle]] was happend near to [[Aleppo]] in an area later renamed "the English Tomb". On 30 October 1918, A [[Armistice of Mudros|Mudros]] armistice was concluded that all [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] forces surrendered and the [[Ottoman Empire]] accepted its abandonment of the [[Levant]], [[Iraq]], [[Hejaz]], [['Asir Region|Asir]] and [[Yemen]]. -=== Mistreatment of the Druze population === -The spark that ignited the Great Syrian Revolt was French treatment of the Druze population.<ref name="Miller">{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Joyce Laverty|title=International Journal of Middle East Studies|year=1977|pages=550–555|chapter=The Syrian Revolt of 1925}}</ref> In 1923, the leaders of [[Jabal al-Druze]], a region in the southeast of the Mandate of Syria, had come to an agreement with French authorities, hoping for the same degree of autonomy they had enjoyed under the Ottoman Empire. +=== Arab Kingdom of Syria === +{{Further|Arab Kingdom of Syria}} +[[File:FeisalPartyAtVersaillesCopy.jpg|thumb|180x180px|Faisal with [[T. E. Lawrence]] and the [[Kingdom of Hejaz|Hejazi]] delegation at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919]].]] +After the demise of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule, Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] announced the establishment of an Arab government in [[Damascus]] and assigned the former [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] officer in [[Damascus]], [[Rida Pasha al-Rikabi|Ali reza Al-Rikabi]] to form and preside it as a military governor. -Druze society was governed by a council of notables, the majlis, who selected one of their number to a limited executive position. Traditionally, this role had been dominated by the [[al-Atrash]] family since the defeat of the Lebanese Druze in 1860.<ref name="Miller" /> But in 1923, shortly after the agreement made with the French, Selim al-Atrash resigned. Seizing upon the disunity of the al-Atrash family in selecting a successor, the majlis struck at their power by choosing a French officer of the Service des Renseignements, Captain Cabrillet. Though he was initially only appointed for three months, later his term was extended indefinitely. +It included three ministers from [[mount Lebanon]], one from [[Beirut]], one from [[Damascus]] and [[Sati' al-Husri|Sate al-Husari]] from [[Aleppo]] and the defense minister from [[Iraq]]. Trying to imply that this government represents [[Greater Syria]] and not a government of local [[Syria]]. And appointed Major General Shukri al-Ayyubi military governor of [[Beirut]] and [[Jamil al-Midfai|Jamil al-Madfai]] governor of [[Amman]] and Abdulhamid al-Shalaji as commander of [[Damascus]] and Ali Jawdat al-Ayyubi as governor of [[Aleppo]]. -Captain Cabrillet embarked upon a series of successful modernization reforms, but in the process, he collected Druze taxes in full, disarmed the population, and used the forced labor of prisoners and peasants, upsetting a significant part of the population.<ref name="Miller" /> In the meantime, [[Sultan al-Atrash]], the most ambitious member of the al-Atrash family, sent a delegation to Beirut to inform the French High Commissioner, General Maurice Sarrail, that Captain Cabrillet's actions were antagonizing most of the Druze population. Instead of hearing the delegates, Sarrail imprisoned them. Upon hearing of this, the Druze returned their support to the al-Atrash family, which by this point was backing Sultan al-Atrash, and rebelled against the French (and indirectly against the majlis, who had elevated them to power). +Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] sought to build a [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]] capable of establishing security and stability and preserving the state entity to be declared. And asked the [[British Empire|British]] to arm this army. Still, they refused; in late 1918, Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] was invited to participate in the peace conference that was held after the [[World War I|World War]] in [[Versailles, Yvelines|Versailles]], where he visited [[France]] and Britain who assured him of their good intentions towards [[Syria]] while they were behind his back sharing the rest of it and amending the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement|Sykes-Picot Agreement]]. -== Revolution == -On August 23, 1925 [[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] officially declared revolution against France. Calling upon Syria's various ethnic and religious communities to oppose the foreign domination of their land, al-Atrash managed to enlist the aid of large sections of the population in a revolt that now spread throughout Syria, led by such notable figures as [[Hassan al-Kharrat]], [[Nasib al-Bakri]], [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar]] and [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]]. +[[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] proposed at the conference to establishing three [[Arabs|Arab]] governments in [[Hejaz|Hijaz]], [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]], but the [[Americans]] proposed the [[Mandate (politics)|Mandate]] system, and sending a referendum committee to know [[Politics|political]] wishes of people, is known as the [[King–Crane Commission]] and the [[French]] and the [[English people|English]] reluctantly agreed. -Fighting began with the [[Battle of al-Kafr]] on July 22, 1925, the [[Battle of al-Mazra'a]] on August 2–3, 1925, and the subsequent battles of Salkhad, [[al-Musayfirah#Battle of al-Musayfirah|al-Musayfirah]] and [[Suwayda]]. After initial rebel victories against the French, France sent thousands of troops to Syria and Lebanon from Morocco and Senegal, equipped with modern weapons, compared to the meager supplies of the rebels. This dramatically altered the results and allowed the French to regain many cities, although fierce resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash and other national leaders to death, but al-Atrash escaped with the rebels to [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]] and was eventually pardoned. In 1937, after the signing of the [[Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)|Franco-Syrian Treaty]], he returned to Syria where he was met with a huge public reception. +Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] returned to [[Syria]] on 23 April 1919 in preparation for the visit of the [[King–Crane Commission|American Commission]], after he was authorized [[Awni Abd al-Hadi|Awni Abdel Hadi]] for membership of the peace conference. A sizeable famous meeting was held under Mohammad Fawzi Al-Azm at the Arab Club Hall in [[Damascus]]. -== Course of the war == -Initially, the French were ill-equipped to respond to the outbreak of violence. In 1925, the number of French troops in the Mandate of Syria was at its lowest ever, numbering only 14,397 men and officers, with an additional 5,902 [[Army of the Levant|Syrian auxiliaries]], down from 70,000 in 1920.<ref name="Miller" /> In 1924, the French representative reporting to the [[Permanent Mandates Commission]] in 1924 wrote that “the little state of Djebel-Druze [is] of small importance and [has] only about 50,000 inhabitants.”<ref>League of Nations, Permanent Mandates Commission, Minutes of the Fourth Session (Geneva, 1924), p. 31</ref> Consequently, the Druze, when they revolted in September 1925 met with great success, and after a series of victories, including the annihilation of a French relief column, captured the fort at [[al-Suwayda]].<ref name="Miller" /> +Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] gave the opening speech in which he explained the purpose of the [[King–Crane Commission|American Commission]] that will arrive and the nature of its mission, The [[King–Crane Commission|Commission]], which lasted for 42 days, visited 36 [[Arabs|Arab]] cities and listened to 1520 delegations from different [[Village|villages]] all of them demanded [[independence]] and unity. On 3 July 1919, the delegation of the Syrian Conference met with the [[King–Crane Commission|American Commission]]. It informed them of their request for the [[independence]] of [[Greater Syria]] and the establishment of a monarchy. -Instead of engaging the Druze in the winter, the French decided to temporarily withdraw, a decision noted by the new high commissioner, [[Henry de Jouvenel]], to be a tactical error, as it underrepresented French military strength and encouraged a regional rebellion to achieve national dimensions.<ref name="Miller" /> Indeed, the weak immediate response of the French invited the intervention of disaffected local elite, tribesmen, and loosely connected nationalists based in Damascus. +[[File:1919 Photo of the King Crane Commission.jpg|thumb|180px|right|1919 Photo of the [[King–Crane Commission|King Crane Commission]].]] +After the [[King–Crane Commission|American Commission]] King-Crane concluded its work, its recommendations stated that "the Levant rejects foreign control, and it is proposed to impose the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] system under the tutelage of the League of [[United Nations|the United Nations]], as the [[Arabs]] are unanimously agreed that Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] should be a king on the [[Arabs|Arab]] lands without fragmentation." -First to seize upon the opportunity presented by the revolt were the nomadic tribes, who used the absence of French authority – troops had been drawn away to concentrate on the rebelling region – to prey upon farmers and merchants, thereby creating an atmosphere of sympathy for the rebellious Druze.<ref name="Miller" /> +The [[King–Crane Commission|Commission]] delivered its report to [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] on 28 August 1919, who was ill. The report was ignored after [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilson]] changed his position because of opposition from senior US politicians in the Senate (Congress), for violating the isolationist policy followed by [[United States|America]] since 1833, which requires non-intervention in the affairs of [[Europe]] and the non-interference of [[Europe]] with the affairs of [[United States|America]]. -The nationalists seized upon the Druze revolt in relatively short order, forging an alliance with Sultan al-Atrash within six weeks of the uprising's commencement, and establishing a National Provisional Government in Jabal-Druze with al-Atrash as President and Dr. Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar, leader of the People's Party, as Vice President.<ref name="k815d">Khoury, 1981, pp. 453-455.</ref> +Under pressure, [[Faisal I of Iraq|Prince Faisal]] accepted an agreement with [[France]] represented by its [[Prime minister|Prime Minister]] [[Georges Clemenceau|George Clemenceau]], known as the Faisal Clemenceau Agreement. among the most prominent of its items: -[[File:Fakhri Kharrat execution, 1925.jpg|thumb|Rebel commander Fakhri al-Kharrat, son of [[Hasan al-Kharrat]], hanged by the French in January 1926.]] -In response to the outbreak of violence, Jouvenal declared free and popular elections for every area that had not been affected by the rebellion in the beginning of 1926.<ref name="Miller60">Miller, 1977, pp. 560-562.</ref> Most elections were held peacefully. However, in two cities, [[Homs]] and [[Hama]], the local elites refused to allow elections to be held. A [[1925 Hama uprising|two-day uprising]] led by [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]] and largely supported by the local population occurred in Hama on 4–5 October 1925. This was followed in September 1926 by a full-fledged insurrection. French forces rushed to put down the new threat, which gave the rebellion added life elsewhere. At the time, the lack of troops meant that for the French to focus on Homs and Hama, they had to neglect other regions, allowing the revolt to spread.<ref name="Bou-Nacklie, N.E 1998">Bou-Nacklie, N.E. "Tumult in Syria's Hama in 1925: The Failure of a Revolt." Journal of Contemporary History 33.2 (1998): 274</ref> Within two months the Homs-Hama region fell, but the conflict there bought rebels elsewhere much-needed breathing room, and taught the rebels in Damascus a valuable lesson about troop placement.<ref name="Bou-Nacklie, N.E 1998" /> +* The [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate]] for [[Syria]], while the country retains its internal [[independence]], and Syria's cooperation with [[France]] about foreign and financial relations, and that Syrian [[Ambassador|ambassadors]] abroad reside within the French embassies. +* Recognition of [[Lebanon]]'s [[independence]] under full French tutelage, and the [[Border|borders]] to be set by allies without [[Beirut]]. +* Organization of the [[Druze]] of [[Hauran|Houran]] and [[Golan]] in a federation within the [[Syrians|Syrian]] state. +[[File:Feisal I of Iraq.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[King Faisal I|King Faisal]] in 1920.]] +[[File:Flag of Kingdom of Syria (1920-03-08 to 1920-07-24).svg|180px|thumb|right|Flag of [[Arab Kingdom of Syria]].]] -Despite the revolts in Homs and Hama, the turn-out for the elections suggested to the French that the Syrian people had a desire for peace; in the rural areas around Homs and Hama, where no violence was reported, voter turn-out was 95%.<ref name="Miller60" /> Further, it revealed that many of the belligerents were local elites, and when full amnesty was again offered in February 1926, the entire country, with the exception of Jebal-Druze and Damascus, was pacified.<ref name="Miller60" /> +In late June 1919, Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] convened the [[Syrian National Congress]], That was considered as a parliament of the [[Levant]] and was composed of 85 members, but [[France]] prevented some deputies from coming to [[Damascus]]. The conference opened with the presence of 69 deputies and among the most prominent of its member: -The lessons the rebels learned from Homs and Hama were many, and that sustained the rebellion for a further year and a half.<ref>Bou-Nacklie, N.E. "Tumult in Syria's Hama in 1925: The Failure of a Revolt." Journal of Contemporary History 33.2 (1998): 288-289</ref> Homs and Hama were lost because the rebels concentrated their forces in the face of overwhelming French firepower, because they fortified their position and waited for the French to arrive, and because they made no attempt to sever French lines of communication.<ref name="ReferenceA">Bou-Nacklie, N.E. "Tumult in Syria's Hama in 1925: The Failure of a Revolt." Journal of Contemporary History 33.2 (1998): 289</ref> In Damascus, the rebels were dispersed, so that no random artillery fire would defeat them. Further, when the Druze attacked Damascus, they did so from several directions. Both groups repeatedly cut French lines of communication, and while the French suffered few difficulties in restoring them, the psychological effect the destruction had on them was significant.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> +# [[Taj al-Din al-Hasani]] and Fawzi al-Azm are representatives of [[Damascus]]. +# [[Ibrahim Hananu|Ibrahim Hanano]] representing [[Harem District|Harem district]]. +# [[Saadallah al-Jabiri|Saadallah Al-Jabri]], Reza Al-Rifai, [[Mar'i Pasha al-Mallah|Mari Pasha Al-Mallah]] and Dr. Abdul Rahman Kayali are representatives of [[Aleppo]]. +# [[Fadel Al-Aboud]] representing [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] and the [[Euphrates]] Valley area. +# [[Hikmat al-Hiraki|Hikmat al-Haraki]] representing [[Maarrat al-Nu'man|al-Maarra]]. +# Abdul Qader Kilani and Khalid Barazi represent [[Hama]]. +# Amin Husseini and [[Aref al-Dajani|Arif Dajani]] representatives of [[Jerusalem]]. +# [[Salim Ali Salam]], Aref Al Nomani, and Jamil Beyhoum are representatives of [[Beirut]]. +# [[Rashid Rida|Rachid Rida]] and Tawfiq El Bissar Representatives of [[Tripoli]]. +# Said Taliea and Ibrahim Khatib are representatives of Mount Lebanon. -Despite the breadth of the rebellion and the initial rebel successes, the persistence of the French made its defeat inevitable. By early 1926, they had increased their troop numbers to 50,000, roughly the size of the total Druze population.<ref>Khoury, Philip S. "Factionalism Among Syrian Nationalists During the French Mandate." International Journal of Middle East Studies 13.04 (1981): 461</ref> By spring, much of Damascus had been destroyed by artillery fire, and the nationalist leadership had been forced into exile.<ref name="Khoury816">{{cite book|last=Khoury|first=Philip S.|title=Factionalism Among Syrian Nationalists During the French Mandate|year=1981|pages=460–461}}</ref> In the spring of the following year, the Druze were decisively defeated, and Sultan al-Atrash went into exile in Transjordan to escape the death penalty. +[[Hashim al-Atassi|Hashem al-Atassi]] was elected president of the [[Syrian National Congress|National Congress]], and [[Mar'i Pasha al-Mallah|Mari Pasha Al-Mallah]] and Yusuf al-Hakim were vice-presidents and the [[Syrian National Congress|National Congress]] decided to reject the [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] [[Georges Clemenceau|Clemenceau]] agreement, demanding the unity and [[independence]] of [[Syria]], accepting the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] of [[United States|America]] and [[British Empire|Britain]] and rejecting the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French mandate]], but that the concept of the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] is limited on technical assistance only. -== Aftermath == -[[File:Damas en flamme.jpg|thumb|Damascus in flames after High Commissioner Sarrail gave orders to shell the city]] -The Great Syrian Revolt, while a loss for the rebels, did result in changes in the French attitude toward [[imperialism]] in the [[Levant]]. Direct rule was believed to be too costly, and in Syria, the threat of military intervention was replaced with diplomatic negotiation. A softer approach to Syrian rule was taken, and in March 1928, just a year after the rebellion was put down, a general amnesty was announced for Syrian rebels. A small addendum was attached, decreeing that the rebellion's leadership, including Sultan al-Atrash and Dr. Shahbandar, would not be allowed to return. +The relationship between [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] and [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Guru]] was strained, following [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]]'s retreat from his agreement with the French and his bias to the people. The Syrian government has requested 30,000 [[military]] suits to organize the [[army]]. On the other hand, the [[Georges Clemenceau|Clemenceau]] government fell in [[France]] and was replaced by the extreme right-wing government of [[Alexandre Millerand]]. Later, [[France]] disputed the agreement, and In mid-November 1919, [[British Armed Forces|British forces]] began withdrawing from [[Syria]] after a one-year presence. -The impact on Syria itself was profoundly negative. An estimated 10,000 Syrians were killed, mostly civilians, and over 100,000 people were left homeless, a fifth of whom made their way to Damascus.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lesclesdumoyenorient.com/Revolte-druze-de-1925.html|title=Révolte druze de 1925}}</ref> The Army of the Levant suffered some 6,000 dead, including roughly 2,500 French soldiers.<ref>http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.coursdhistoiremilitaire.com%2F2015%2F06%2Fcours-d-histoire-militaire-emia-1-3.html</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lesclesdumoyenorient.com/Revolte-druze-de-1925.html|title=Révolte druze de 1925}}</ref> After two years of war, the city was ill-equipped to deal with the influx of displaced Syrians, and Hama was similarly devastated. Across Syria, towns and farms had suffered significant damage, and agriculture and commerce temporarily ceased. +On 8 March 1920, the [[Syrian National Congress]] was held in [[Damascus]] under the Head of [[Hashim al-Atassi|Hashem al-Atassi]] and in the presence of Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] and members of the government. The [[Syrian National Congress|congress]] for two days with the participation of 120 members. The congress came up with the following decisions: +[[File:FEisalKingdom.png|thumb|right|180px|The [[Arab Kingdom of Syria]] in 1918.]] +# The [[independence]] of the [[Greater Syria|Syrian]] country with its natural borders. +# His Royal Highness Prince [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal bin Al Hussein]] was unanimously elected constitutional monarch over the country. +# The political system of the state is a [[Civil rights movement|civil]], [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]], royal. +# Appointment of a civil property government, where Ali Reza Al-Rikabi was appointed as the commander-in-Chief of the Government and [[Yusuf al-'Azma|Yusuf al-Azma]] as a Syrian [[Defence minister|Minister of Defense]], and the conversion of the official language from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] to [[Arabic]] in all government institutions and civil and military official departments and schools, and the abolition of dealing in the [[Turkish lira|Turkish currency]] and replaced with the [[Egyptian pound]] and then became dealing in the Syrian [[dinar]]. +# Rejecting the [[Zionism|Zionist]] [[Balfour Declaration]] to make [[Palestine]] a national home for [[Jews]]. +# Reject [[British Empire|British]] and [[France|French]] tutelage over [[Arabs]]. -== Legacy == -The Great Syrian Revolt is a widely remembered and commemorated event in Syria, and its leaders are remembered and respected by Syrians. +The Allies refused to recognize the new state and decided in April 1920 at the [[San Remo conference]] in [[Italy]] to divide the country into four areas under which [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]] would be subject to the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate]], [[Jordan]] and [[Palestine]] to the [[Mandatory Palestine|British Mandate]]. Although [[Lebanon]] and Syrian [[coast]] as well as [[Palestine]] was not under the military rule of [[Arab Kingdom of Syria]], Since the Allied armies had been there since the end of [[World War I]]. +[[File:Proclamation of King Faisal I as King of Syria.jpg|thumb|180x180px|Proclamation of [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal I]] as King of [[Syria]] in 1920.]] +The government and [[Syrian National Congress]] rejected the decisions of the [[San Remo conference]] and informed the Allied States of its decision between 13 -21 May 1920. The voices were rising in [[Syria]] for an alliance with [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Kemal Ataturk]] in [[Turkey]] or the [[October Revolution|Bolshevik Revolution]] in [[Russia]], meetings were held in [[Aleppo]] between the [[Defence minister|Minister of War]] [[Yusuf al-'Azma|Yusuf al-Azmeh]] and [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Kamal Ataturk]] for supporting the Syrians in their struggle against [[France]]. -[[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]], the leader of the revolt, is a national hero in [[Syria]], and a widely respected symbol of patriotism and nationalism among many Syrians, most notably the [[Druze]]. +However, these meetings did not lead to a result because [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Ataturk]] was using the Syrians to improve the terms of his negotiations with the [[France|French]], he turned his back to the Syrians. He concluded an agreement with [[France]] known as the [[Treaty of Ankara (1921)|Treaty of Ankara]] in 1921, which included a waiver of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French occupation]] authority from the northern Syrian territories and withdrawal of the [[French Army|French army]] of them, and hand them over to the power of [[Turkey|Turkish]]. -During the period of Syrian-Egyptian unity, on a visit to Suwayda province President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] honored Sultan Pasha al-Atrash by awarding him the highest medal of the United Arab Republic, similarly, in 1970, Syrian President [[Hafez al-Assad]] honored Sultan Pasha al-Atrash for his historic role in the Syrian Revolution. His funeral, in 1982, was attended by over one million people and the president of Syria, Hafez al-Assad, who issued an individual letter mourning al-Atrash.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} +=== Syria under the French Mandate === +{{Further|Yusuf al-'Azma|Battle of Maysalun|Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon}} +[[File:Yusuf Al Azma.jpg|180px|thumb|right|Minister of War [[Yusuf al-'Azma]].]] +The proclamation of the establishment of the [[Arab Kingdom of Syria]] had internal implications, where tensions were running high in [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]] through occurring some clashes, where some [[Muslims]] attacked [[Christian]] villages in the [[Beqaa Valley|Bekaa]], In reply to the insistence of the [[List of Maronite Patriarchs of Antioch|Maronite Patriarch]] Elias Al-Howeik and the Board of Directors of [[Mount Lebanon]] on the [[independence]] of [[Lebanon]]. + +On 5 July 1920, [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] dispatched his advisor [[Nuri al-Said|Nouri al-Said]] to meet with French General [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Henri Gouraud]] in [[Beirut]]. [[Nuri al-Said|Al-Said]] returned to [[Damascus]] on 14 July 1920 with an ultimatum known as the "[[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]] ultimatum " and was set four days to accept it. ultimatum included five points: + +# Acceptance of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate]]. +# Dealing with [[Banknote|paper money]] issued by the [[Bank]] of [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]] in [[Paris]]. +# Approval of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French occupation]] of [[Train station|railway stations]] in [[Riyaq|Rayak]], [[Homs]], [[Aleppo]] and [[Hama]]. +# Dissolve the [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]] and stop forced recruitment and attempts to arm. +# Punish all who involved in hostilities against [[France]]. + +King [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] gathered his ministers to discuss the matter among them, many of them were tended to undergo to [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]] terms and accept the ultimatum, Here, the manly position of the [[Defence minister|Minister of War]] [[Yusuf al-'Azma|Yusuf al-Azma]] emerged strongly opposed to accepting the ultimatum, and tried, by all means, to discourage King [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] from responding to the French threat to dissolve the [[Syrian Army|Syrian Arab Army]]. + +Despite the [[Council of Ministers (Syria)|Syrian government]]'s acceptance of the ultimatum and abandon the idea of resistance and accepting the demands of [[General officer|General]] [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]], and the demobilization of the [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]] and the withdrawal of [[Soldier|soldiers]] from the mounds of the [[village]] of [[Majdal Anjar]], in violation of the decision of the [[Syrian National Congress|Syrian national congress]] and the opinion of the people represented by the loud demonstrations condemning the ultimatum and whoever accepts it, and sending King [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] a letter to [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]] to accept the terms and dissolve the army. +[[File:Henri Gouraud Maroc.jpg|thumb|430x430px|General [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Henri Gouraud]]]] +[[French Armed Forces|French troops]] began to march led by General Goabiah (by order of General [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]]) towards [[Damascus]] on 24 July 1920, while the [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]] stationed on the border was retreating and dissolving, and when General [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]] was asked about this, replied that [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]]'s letter for approving the ultimatum terms reached him after the deadline. + +There was only one choice for patriots, is resistance until death, and this opinion was headed by Minister of War [[Yusuf al-'Azma]], who worked to bring together the rest of the army with hundreds of [[Volunteering|volunteers]] who chose this resolution and headed to resist the invading [[French Armed Forces|French forces]] that marching towards [[Damascus]]. + +[[Yusuf al-'Azma|Al - Azma]] wanted to preserve the prestige and dignity of Syria's military history, was afraid to record in the history books that the [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]] stayed away from fighting and the [[Military occupation|occupier]] entered his capital without resistance, he also wanted to inform [[Syrians|Syrian people]] that their army carried the banner of resistance against the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French occupation]] from the first moment, and that would be a beacon for the [[Syrians|Syrian people]] in their resistance against the [[Military occupation|occupier]]. + +General Goabiah forces consisted of the following: + +# Infantry [[brigade]] (415). +# The Second [[Algeria|Algerian]] Shooters [[brigade]]. +# [[Senegal|Senegalese]] [[brigade]] of African archers. +# [[Brigade]] of Sabahi [[Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan]] . + +The [[French Armed Forces|French forces]] totaled nine thousand [[Soldier|soldiers]], supported by many ِ[[aircraft]]<nowiki/>s, [[Tank|tanks]] and [[Machine gun|machine guns]], while the [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]] has not exceeded 3,000 soldiers most of them [[Volunteering|volunteers]]. + +On 24 July 1920, the [[Battle of Maysalun|battle]] began, when the French [[artillery]] began to overcome the Syrian [[artillery]], French [[Tank|tanks]] began advancing towards the front line of the defending forces, and then French [[Senegal|Senegalese]] [[Soldier|soldiers]] began attacking the left side of the [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]], which is composed mainly of [[Volunteering|volunteers]], and some of [[Treason|traitors]] attacked the [[Syrian Army|Syrian army]] from behind and killed many soldiers and robbed their weapons. Despite all, [[Yusuf al-'Azma|Al-'Azma]] did not care about the greatness of these calamities and remained steadfast and determined. + +[[Yusuf al-'Azma|Al-'Azma]] had planted [[Land mine|mines]] on the heads of the valley of "Alqarn," a corridor of the [[French Army|French army]] in the hope that when the [[Tank|tanks]] attack into, the [[Land mine|mines]] explode. However, the [[Treason|traitors]] had already cut off the [[Land mine|mine]] wires, and some of them were caught carrying out their [[betrayal]], but it was too late. When the [[Tank|tanks]] approached, ِ[[Yusuf al-'Azma|Al-'Azma]] ordered to explode of the [[Land mine|mines]] but they did not explode, he examined and saw most of them wholly disabled and their wires cut off. Then he heard an uproar from behind and when he turned, saw many of his armies and [[Volunteering|volunteers]] had fled after a [[bomb]] fell from one of the [[aircraft]]. So he grabbed his rifle and fired at the enemy until he was killed on Wednesday, 24 July 1920. +<br /><gallery> +File:Maysaloun2.jpg|Syrian soldiers in the battle of Maysaloun +File:General Gouraud marching in Aleppo.jpg|The convoy of General [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Henry Gouraud]] in [[Aleppo]], shortly after the occupation in September 1920. +File:Maysalun3.jpg|[[Henri Gouraud (general)|Henri Gouraud]] reviews his troops before the [[Battle of Maysalun]]. +File:Yusuf al-'Azma 3.jpg|[[Yusuf al-'Azma]] after [[World War I]]. +File:Yousef aladma5.jpg|[[Yusuf al-'Azma]]. +File:Yusuf al-'Azma.jpg|Minister of War [[Yusuf al-'Azma]]. +</gallery> + +== Policy of the French Mandate in Syria == +[[File:French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon map en.svg|180px|thumb|right|Map showing the states of the [[French mandate of Syria|French Mandate]] from 1921 to 1922.]] +After its control over the entire [[Syrian]] territory, [[French mandate of Syria|France]] resorted to the fragmentation of [[Syria]] into several independent states or entities: + +* [[State of Damascus]] (1920). +* [[State of Aleppo]] (1920). +* [[Alawite State]] (1920). +* [[Greater Lebanon|The State of Greater Lebanon]] (1920). +* [[Jabal Druze State]] (1921). +* [[Sanjak of Alexandretta]] (1921). + +The northern [[Syria]] territory were given to [[Turkey]] during the [[Treaty of Ankara (1921)|treaty of Ankara]] on 20 October 1921, and the boundary of the [[border]] between the colonial power and [[Turkey]]. + +To tear the national unity of the country and weaken the national resistance of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate]], General [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]] resorted to the policy pursued by General [[Hubert Lyautey]] in [[Morocco]]. It is a policy of isolating cohesive [[Religion|religious]] and [[Minority group|ethnic minorities]] from the mainstream in the country, under the pretext of defending their rights and equity, and incite the [[Rural area|rural]] and [[Bedouin]] against [[Urban area|urban]]. + +== The causes of the revolution == +[[File:Syriancorpse.jpg|180px|thumb|right|Dead bodies of the Syrian rebels, killed by the [[French Army]] in 1925, placed in [[Marjeh Square]].]] +The outbreak of the [[revolution]] had many reasons, the most important of which are: + +* The Syrians rejected the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French occupation]] of their country, and they seek for full [[independence]]. +* Tearing [[Syria]] into several small states ([[State of Aleppo|Aleppo]], [[Jabal Druze State|Druze]], [[Alawite State|Alawites]], [[State of Damascus|Damascus]]). +* The great [[Economy|economic]] damage caused to the Syrian merchants as a result of the policy adopted by the French in [[Syria]], where the French dominated the economic aspects and linked [[Syrian pound|Syrian]] and [[Lebanese pound|Lebanese]] [[currency]] to the [[French franc]]. +* The military [[dictatorship]] practiced by the French generals during their [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]]. Fighting the [[Arabic culture|Arab culture]] of the country and trying to replace it with the [[Culture of France|French culture]] and appointed French in the top positions. +* The abolition of [[Political freedom|freedoms]] in [[Syria]] and the pursuit of nationalists and provoke [[sectarianism]], which led to the discontent of the Syrians. The meeting between the leaders of [[Jabal al-Druze|Mount Druze]] and the French [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] in [[Syria]] failed, where the [[Druze]] leaders expressed their displeasure with the policy of French General Gabriel Carbillet and demanded that another governor, However, replace him, the [[High commissioner|High Commissioner]] insulted them and threatened them with harsh punishment if they stick to their position. As a result, [[Sultan al-Atrash]] declared that a [[revolution]] was necessary to achieve [[independence]]. + +In the opinion of Dr. [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abdul Rahman Shahbandar]], the above reasons are the distant causes of the [[revolution]]. The primary reasons are anti-French General Carbillet to [[Al-Atrash|Atrash family]] and attempt to crush their influence, where he became [[Prison|jail]] everyone who deals with them, so this prompted [[Sultan al-Atrash]] to declare a revolution. + +== The demands of the revolution == +The most prominent demands of the revolution: + +# Unity of the [[Syrians|Syrian]] country with its [[coast]] and inside, and the recognition of one Syrian [[Arabs|Arab]] state fully [[independent]]. +# The establishment of a popular [[government]] that gathers [[Syrian National Congress|Syrian National congress]] to draw up a fundamental [[law]] on the principle of absolute [[sovereignty]] of the nation. +# Withdrawal of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|occupying forces]] from the Syrian country, and the formation of a national army to maintain security. +# Upholding the principles of the [[French Revolution]] and [[human rights]] in [[freedom]], [[equality]] and [[fraternity]]. + +== The course and events of the revolution == +[[File:Syria 2004 CIA map Jabal al-Druze.jpg|180px|thumb|Map of [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]].]] +Colonel Catro, who was dispatched by General[[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]] to [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]], sought to isolate the [[Druze]] from the Syrian national movement, he signed on 4 March 1921 a [[treaty]] with the [[Druze]] tribes, which stipulated that [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]] would form a particular administrative unit independent of the [[State of Damascus]] with a local governor and an elected representative council. In exchange for the [[Druze]]'s recognition of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French mandate]], the result of the treaty appointed Salim al-Atrash as the first ruler of the [[Jabal al-Druze|Druze mountain]]. + +The [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]] inhabitants were not comfortable with the new [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French]] administration and the first clash with it occurred in July 1922 with the arrest of Mujahid [[Adham Khanjar]], who was coming to [[Sultan al-Atrash]] carrying a letter to him, the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French]] arrested him for his involvement in the attack on General [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Gouraud]] in [[Hauran|Huran]], [[Sultan al-Atrash]] asked the French commander in [[As-Suwayda]] to hand him over [[Adham Khanjar]] and he replied him that [[Adham Khanjar|Khanjar]] was on his way to [[Damascus]]. So [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] commissioned a group of his supporters to attack the armed convoy accompanying the detainee, but the French managed to transfer him to [[Lebanon]] and on 30 May 1923, executed him in [[Beirut]]. + +The French destroyed the house of [[Sultan al-Atrash|Sultan Al-Atrash]] in [[Al-Qurayya]] in late August 1922 in response to his attack on their forces, then [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] led the [[Druze]] rebels for a year in a [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] against the [[French Armed Forces|French forces]], [[France]] brought a large force to crush the rebels, that forced [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] to seek [[Refugee|refuge]] in [[Jordan]] in the late summer of 1922. Under [[British Empire|British]] pressure, [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] gave himself up to the French in April 1923 after agreeing to a [[truce]]. +[[File:Adham Khanjar.jpg|180px|thumb|[[Adham Khanjar]] (left) with Sadiq Hamza.]] + +Salim Al-Atrash died poisoned in [[Damascus]] in 1924; the French appointed captain Carbillet as governor of the [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]], contrary to the agreement with the [[Druze]], Where he abused the people and exposed them to [[Prison|prisons]], [[Unfree labor |forced labor]] and [[persecution]], he also worked on the implementation of a policy of divide and conquered through incite farmers against [[Feudalism|feudal lords]], especially [[Al-Atrash]] family, this led the people of [[As-Suwayda]] to go out in a mass protest against the practices of the French authorities, which accelerated the date of the outbreak of the [[revolution]]. + +The [[Druze]] were fed up with the practices of captain Carbillet, which led them to send a delegation to [[Beirut]] on 6 June 1925 to submit a document requesting the High Commissioner [[Maurice Sarrail]] to appoint a [[Druze]] governor on the [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]] instead of captain Carbillet because of his bad practices against the people of the [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]], and some of these practices according to memoirs of Dr. [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abdul Rahman Shahbandar]] are: + +# Allocate several [[Gendarmerie|gendarmes]] to beat and [[Humiliation|humiliate]] people in fulfillment of the wishes of captain Carpier and his entourage. +# Hamed Karkout (from the village of Thebeen) was detained for five months without cause or [[trial]]; he was insulted and beaten in the morning and evening. +# Husayn Kabul (from the village of Kafr al-Lehaf) was [[Flagellation|whipped]] until his skin was torn because he neglected to greet General Diocheil when he passed the highway. +# Wahba al-Ashmoush was arrested in [[As-Suwayda]] and severely beaten because he refused to rent his house. +# General Diocheil fired several shots from his [[pistol]] at Mohammed Bey al-Halabi, the director of the [[Justice]] Department, and he was not punished for his criminal work. +# Hussein Saddiq was [[Arrest|arrested]] for 15 days for not receiving captain Carbillet, with a fine of 25 golden pounds for the village because it did not receive him luxuriously, and this fine was imposed on the village of Arman for the same reason. +# Fahd Bey Al-Atrash was [[Arrest|arrested]] and severely beaten without investigation, based on a simple tale from a [[Espionage|spy]]. +# Imposing ten golden pounds as a [[fine]] on [[As-Suwayda]] people for the loss of a [[cat]] of the wife of a French [[garrison]] officer. +[[File:Great Syrian Revolt Map.gif|180px|thumb|Map showing the spread of the Great Syrian Revolution among the Syrian cities.]] + +High Commissioner [[Maurice Sarrail|Sarai]] expelled the [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]] delegation and refused to meet them and notified them that they must leave [[Beirut]] quickly and return to their country or he will [[exile]] them to [[Palmyra]], and this was the direct cause of the outbreak of the Syrian revolution, where [[Sultan al-Atrash]] called for a meeting in [[As-Suwayda]]. Demonstrations roamed the [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]]. + +Contacts were made with some political leaders in [[Damascus]], headed by Dr. [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abdul Rahman Shahbandar]] president of the people's party, to consult and coordinate positions, although the people's party has declared that it seeks to achieve its principles and program by lawful means, however, some of its members personally have pledged with a [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]] delegation to ignite the revolution in [[Syria]], and cooperate in expelling the French from [[Syria]] and achieve [[independence]] and unity. + +At that time, it was clear to Dr. [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abdul Rahman Shahbandar]] that [[Syria]] is living in the throes of the revolution and that the [[Syrians|Syrian people]] will gain their [[freedom]] and [[independence]]. So, he started communicating with the leaders and notables of the Syrian cities to urge them to revolt against [[French colonial empire|French colonialism]] and motivates their national feeling and asked them to start an armed struggle for [[independence]], [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Shahbandar]]'s goal was to disperse the [[French Armed Forces|French forces]] geographically to weaken their strength and to relieve pressure from the capital [[Damascus]] and [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]]. + +To achieve this goal, [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Shahbandar]] communicated with the leader [[Ibrahim Hananu|Ibrahim Hanano]] in the northern region. Who was one of the first stragglers against the [[French Colonial|French colonial]] forces since 1920, where rebel operations in the northern region lasted until 15 April 1926, one of the most important [[Battle|battles]] that took place during this period was the battle of "Tel Ammar," which was the last battles of the revolution in that region. +[[File:Hassan abed Alsalama.jpg|thumb|214x214px|The moment of the [[Capital punishment|execution]] of the French occupation one of the revolutionaries of [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] in 1925.<ref>{{Citation|title=The epic of Ain Albu Gomaa|date=2019-10-16|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_epic_of_Ain_Albu_Gomaa&oldid=921556577|work=Wikipedia|language=en|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref>]] +[[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Shahbandar]] also met with leader [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed%20Al-Ayyash|Mohammed ِBey Al-Ayyash]] in [[Damascus]] and agreed with him to extend the revolution to the eastern region, [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed%20Al-Ayyash|Al-Ayyash]] was able to form revolutionary groups to strike the [[French Armed Forces|French forces]] in [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]], and the rebels succeeded in carrying out painful strikes against the [[French Armed Forces|French forces]], the latest of which was killing of French officers in the [[The epic of Ain Albu Gomaa|Ain Albu Gomaa]] area on the road between [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] and [[Raqqa]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sabbagh|first=Rand|date=2017|title=Deir Ezzor a city on the banks of paradise|url=https://ia800606.us.archive.org/25/items/malayyash_yahoo_All/all.pdf|journal=Al-Quds Al-Arabi Newspaper|volume=8789|pages=34–35}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009|title=Memoirs of Lawyer Fathallah Al-Saqqal|url=https://ia803002.us.archive.org/14/items/malayyash_yahoo_Idam/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%20%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9%20-%20%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA.pdf|journal=Al-Furat Magazine|pages=28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deirez-zor.com/2018/09/05/متحف-عياش/|title=Abdelkader Ayyash in his folk museum|last=Sheikh Khafaji|first=Ghassan|date=2018|website=The Culture and Heritage of Deir Ezzor|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/AbdulqaderAyash_20190612|archive-date=2018|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref> + +As a result of the operation, French planes bombed the [[Village|villages]] of the city; it was a horrific and devastating bombardment where the houses were destroyed on the heads of children and women and killed the [[livestock]] and burned [[Farm|farms]] and [[Crop|crops]], some civilians were killed. Many were wounded by [[Bullet|bullets]] and shrapnel from planes bombs. + +[[Revolutionaries]] were tried in [[Aleppo]] and in August 1925, the French High Commissioner in [[Beirut]], [[Maurice Sarrail]], issued Decision No. 49S / 5, which ordered the [[exile]] of all members of the [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] family to the city of [[Jableh]], [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mahmoud%20Al-Ayyash%20(Abu%20Stita)|Mahmoud ِAl-Ayyash]] and 12 of his companions were sentenced to [[death]]. The [[execution]] was carried out by firing squad on 15 September 1925 in the city of [[Aleppo]]. [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed%20Al-Ayyash|Mohammed ِAl-Ayyash]] was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment on the [[island]] of [[Arwad]] in [[Tartous]] city.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Deir Ezzor in the Syrian National Social Party|url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719|journal=Al-Benaa newspaper}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fattouh|first=Issa|date=2017|title=Abdul Qader Al-Ayyash Researcher and historian|url=https://archive.org/stream/AbedAlqaderAyyash/AbedAlqader%20Ayyash#page/n1/mode/2up|journal=Almarifa Magazine|volume=646|pages=153–159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sasapost.com/opinion/druze-and-syrian-revolution/|title=Druze Unitarians and the Syrian Revolution|last=Morshed|first=Faisal|date=2016|website=Sasapost|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719_0559|archive-date=2019|access-date=}}</ref> + +Shortly after [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] family's living in [[Jableh]], The French authorities assassinated [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] in a café outside the city by [[poisoning]] his coffee, and prevented the transfer of his body to [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] city for reasons of public security, He was buried in [[Jableh]] in the cemetery of Sultan [[Ibrahim ibn Adham]] Mosque where the absent prayers held for the spirit of this martyr [[Mujahideen|mujahid]] in all the Syrian cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2015|title=Deir Ezzor in the Syrian National Social Party|url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719|journal=Al-Benaa newspaper}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fattouh|first=Issa|year=2017|title=Abdul Qader Al-Ayyash Researcher and historian|url=https://archive.org/stream/AbedAlqaderAyyash/AbedAlqader%20Ayyash#page/n1/mode/2up|journal=Almarifa Magazine|volume=646|pages=153–159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sasapost.com/opinion/druze-and-syrian-revolution/|title=Druze Unitarians and the Syrian Revolution|last=Morshed|first=Faisal|year=2016|website=Sasapost|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719_0559|archive-date=2019}}</ref> + +Dr. [[Abdul Rahman Shahbandar]] was in contact with Commander [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]], who was preparing to set up the revolution in the city of [[Hama]]. However, he was known for his intense loyalty to the [[French colonial empire|French]]. Despite this, he received In their [[army]] a high rank and a position (the National Army Command in [[Hama]]) rarely held by other [[Syrians]]. However, according to [[Abdul Rahman Shahbandar|Shahbandar]]'s memoirs, [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji|Al-Qawuqji]] was upset with the humiliation of the elders and scholars of [[Hama]], division of the country, appointing the varmints in high positions, raising of [[taxes]] on people, and stirring [[sectarian]] strife among the [[Syrian]] people. +[[File:Syria 2004 CIA map Jabal al-Druze.jpg|180px|thumb|Map of [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]].]] + +On 4 October 1925, [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji|Al-Qawuqji]] declared the revolution in [[Hama]] and its environs. It would have almost taken over the city had it not been for the heavy bombing of popular neighborhoods. He went to the [[desert]] to provoke [[tribes]] against the French and relieve pressure on the rebels in other regions, and achieved significant victories over the [[French troops]], garrisons and barracks and inflicted heavy losses on them; even the National Revolutionary Council entrusted him with leading the revolution in the [[Ghouta]] region and granting him broad powers. + +On 11 July 1925, French High Commissioner [[Maurice Sarrail|Maurice Paul Sarai]] sent a secret letter to his delegate in [[Damascus]] asking him to summon some of the leaders of the [[Jabal al-Druze|mountain]] under the pretext of discussing with them their demands, to arrest them and send them exiled to [[Palmyra]] and [[Hasakah]], the delegate carried out this despicable trick, among the exiled leaders to [[Palmyra]] (Uqlat al-Qatami, Prince Hamad al-Atrash, Abdul Ghaffar al-Atrash, Naseeb al-Atrash), and (Barjas al-Homoud, Hosni Abbas, Ali al-Atrash, Yusuf al-Atrash, Ali Obaid) exiled to [[Al-Hasakah]]. + +As a result of French policies and practices, [[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] declared the revolution on 21 July 1925 by broadcasting a political and military statement calling on the [[Syrian people]] to revolt against the [[French Mandate|French mandate]]. + +[[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash|Al-atrash]] started military attacks on [[French forces]] and burned the French Commission's house in [[Salkhad]], the second-largest city in the mountain after [[Sweida]] and occupied it. In early September 1925, Atrash attacked a [[French Forces|French force]] in the town of [[Al-Kafr]] under the command of Captain "Norman" and killed most of the [[soldiers]], where the number of rebels did not exceed two hundred while the number of soldiers exceeded two hundred and sixty, including a large number of French officers, and killed 40 rebels, including Mustafa Atrash brother of [[Sultan Pasha Atrash]]. +[[File:Sultan al-Atrash.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] on his horse in the revolution of 1925.]] + +[[Maurice Sarrail|Sarai]] went mad to defeat his troops and ordered an extensive campaign to discipline rebels, including more than 5,000 soldiers, led by General Michaud, equipped with the best and latest [[tanks]] and military [[aircraft]]. On the first day of August 1925, the campaign clashed with rebel forces in the town of [[Izra]]; the number of [[revolutionaries]] was about three thousand. The rebels were defeated in the [[battle]], as soon as evening came, the rebels attacked the rear of the [[French forces]], where ammunition and supplies were seized and killed many French soldiers. + +The following morning, one hundred and seventeen rebels came from [[Suwayda]] and joined them four hundred rebels from [[Majdal Shams|Majdal]], [[Najran, Syria|Najran]], [[Salim, Syria|Salim]] and other nearby [[villages]]. They clashed with the [[French forces]] in the village of [[Al-Mazraa]], where the [[French forces]] were annihilated. Only about 1,200 [[soldiers]] fled to the railway in the village of [[Izra]] to board the [[train]] that going to [[Damascus]], in the [[battle]], Hamad al-Barbour was killed, who is the [[Sultan al-Atrash]]`s right hand. + +On 20 August 1925, the People's Party sent a delegation to meet with [[Sultan al-Atrash]] and discuss the accession of [[Damascus]] to the revolution; the delegation included Tawfiq al-Halabi, Asaad al-Bakri, and Zaki al-Droubi. The presence of the delegation coincided with the presence of captain Reno, who was negotiating the rebels on behalf of the [[French mandate of Syria|French authorities]] to conclude a peace treaty, and the People's Party delegation managed to convince the rebels not to sign the treaty. In late August 1925, the leaders of the People's Party, including Dr. [[Abdul Rahman Shahbandar]], met with [[Sultan al-Atrash]] in the village of Kafr al-Lehaf and agreed to mobilize five hundred rebels to attack [[Damascus]] from three axes, but [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] could not mobilize this number. The military forces that General Ghamlan began to mobilize along the railway in [[Horan]] led the rebel leaders to abandon the plan to attack [[Damascus]] and devote themselves to the French campaign. +[[File:Nasib al-Bakri7.jpg|180px|thumb|[[Nasib al-Bakri]]'s home after its destruction by the French during the Great Syrian Revolt 1925.]] + +The rebels agreed to march towards the [[village]] of [[Al-Musayfirah]] to confront the new [[French mandate of Syria|French campaign]]. On 17 September 1925, they launched a night attack on the [[French troops]] holed up in it, and [[victory]] would almost have been their ally if it had not been for the intervention of French planes that forced them to withdraw. The [[French mandate of Syria|French]] casualties were more than 900 [[soldiers]], In addition to destroying many equipment and vehicles, while the rebels lost less than 200 fighters. Then there were [[battles]] between the rebels and the creeping [[French forces]] towards [[Sweida]], and the [[French mandate of Syria|French]] were forced after a temporary occupation of the city to withdraw after the revolutionary command decided to extend its scope to the north to relieve the pressure on the [[Druze Mountain|mountain]]. + +On 4 October 1925, [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]] led the rebels and [[Bedouins]] of the Mawali [[tribe]] in and around [[Maarat al-Numan]]. He would have taken [[Hama]] city, if it had not been for the intervention of French planes and the commitment of [[notables]] of [[Hama]] neutrality and hiding in their homes to see what is the result of the revolution, if it the success they will be its founders, and if it fails they will be far from its consequences, and this does not mean that the [[Hama]] revolution did not bear fruit, on the contrary, it led to the withdrawal of [[French forces]] from the city of [[Sweida]] at the request of the French High commissioner [[Maurice Sarrail|Sarai]] to support the French garrison in the city of [[Hama]]. +[[File:Damas en flamme.jpg|180px|thumb|[[Damascus]] in flames after High Commissioner [[Maurice Sarrail|Sarai]] gave orders to shell the city.]] + +The revolution spread to the [[Ghouta]] of [[Damascus]] and there were fierce battles between the rebels led by Mujahid [[Hassan al-Kharrat]] and the French, the first battles were in the village of [[Al-Malihah]], or what the rebels called the first battle of Al-Zour, in which several French soldiers were killed and the rebels got 29 [[horses]]. On 18 October 1925, the rebels entered [[Damascus]], headed by [[Nasib al-Bakri]], they were joined by the [[Shaghour]] rebels and [[Bab al-Salam]] led by [[Hassan al-Kharrat]], The rebels remained for four days, crushing all the soldiers in the barricades of [[Al-Shaghour]] neighborhood and [[Al-Midan]], and the French soldiers were forced to take refuge in the [[Citadel of Damascus|castle]] with their families. + +[[Maurice Sarrail|Sarai]] ordered his troops to bomb [[Damascus]] with [[artillery]] from the [[Citadel of Damascus|castles]], the bombing destroyed more than 600 homes, and French soldiers looted warehouses and shops. The rebels decided to kidnap General [[Maurice Sarrail|Sarai]] after they learned that he came to [[Damascus]] to visit the [[Azem Palace]] in [[Bazouriyeh]], so they entered the city from the side of the [[Shaghour]] and arrived at the palace, but [[Maurice Sarrail|Sarai]] had left him quickly. The rebels clashed with the French soldiers and caught fire in the palace for the ferocity of the battle. Fighting continued between the [[Ghouta]] rebels and the French forces, the Second Battle of Al-Zour took place on 17 November 1925, the Battle of [[Yalda, Syria|Yalda]] and [[Babbila]] on 19 November 1925, the Battle of Hamura on 17 December 1925, and the Battle of [[Al-Nabek]] on 14 and 15 March 1926. +[[File:Druze warriors.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Druze]] in [[Suwayda]] welcoming [[Sultan al-Atrash]] and other rebels back from [[exile]] in 1937.]] + +In late October 1925, the rebels of the [[Druze Mountain|mountain]] gathered in the northern Almeqren and then marched west, occupying the region of Alblan and then the town of [[Hasbaya]] without any resistance from the French garrison, whose leader preferred to withdraw when he learned the arrival of the rebels. The rebels then went to the town of [[Rashaya]] after learning that a decisive battle had taken place between the town's [[Druze]] and its French garrison, and after heavy fighting, they managed to enter its castle and occupy it. + +The [[Syrian]] rebels entered the stage of attrition as the revolution extended and suffered from a lack of [[ammunition]] and supplies, which helped the [[French forces]] to [[besiege]] and tight the screws on them by bringing more supportive troops, [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] refused to surrender his weapon to the colonizer and was sentenced to death. Which forced him with a group of rebels to flee to [[Azraq, Jordan|Azraq]] in the emirate of eastern [[Jordan]], and the English did not allow them to stay for long, so they fled to Wadi al-Sarhan and al-Nabek in northern [[Saudi Arabia]], then to [[Al-Karak]] in [[Jordan]]. + +[[Sultan al-Atrash]] and his comrades returned home after France issued a comprehensive [[amnesty]] for all the rebels following the signing of the [[Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)|Franco-Syrian Treaty]] in 1936, where [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] and his comrades were received in [[Damascus]] on 18 May 1937 with grand public celebrations. + +== Syrian cities participating in the revolution == + +=== Jabal al-Arab and Horan, (Sultan Pasha Al-Atrash) === +{{Further|Sultan Pasha Al-Atrash}} +[[File:Sultan Pasha al-Atrash.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] the commander of the Syrian Revolution of 1925-1927.]] + +[[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] is a prominent [[Syrian]] nationalist leader and commander general of the [[Great Syrian Revolt|Syrian Revolution]] (1925–27), He fought against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], [[France|French]], and even against the [[Syria]]n government in its days of [[dictatorship]], One of the most influential figures in [[Syrian]] and [[Druze]] history, he played a major role in deciding the destiny of [[Jabal al-Druze]] and of [[Syria]] in general.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://geiroon.net/archives/64015|title=Sultan Pasha al-Atrash: religion for God and the homeland for all|last=|first=|date=2016-09-06|website=Geron Media Network|language=ar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +[[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] was born in [[Al-Qurayya|al-Qrayya]], a village south of [[As Suwayda|Suwayda]] known for the famous [[Druze]] family of [[Al-Atrash]], which had nominally governed the region since 1879, his father Zuqan led a [[Hauran Druze Rebellion|fierce battle]] against the Ottomans near [[Al-Kefr]] in 1910, where he faced the forces of Sami Pasha al-Farouqi, he was captured and later executed in 1911. His son, [[Mansur al-Atrash]] was an active member in the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Syrian Regional Branch]] of the [[Ba'ath Party]] until the [[1966 Syrian coup d'état]] led to the downfall of [[Michel Aflaq]], [[Salah al-Din al-Bitar]], [[Munif al-Razzaz]] and the classical Ba'athists in general. His granddaughter, [[Naila Al Atrash]], is a dramatist and activist against the [[Assad regime]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sultanalattrache.org/bio.php|title=Sultan Pasha Al Atrash - Biography|last=|first=|date=|website=sultanalattrache.org|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +In 1925 Sultan Pasha [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] led a revolt which broke out in the [[Arab Mountain]] and spread to engulf the whole of [[Syria]] and parts of [[Lebanon]], this is considered one of the most important revolutions against the [[French Mandate of Syria|French mandate]], as it encompassed the whole of [[Syria]] and witnessed fierce battles between rebel and French forces.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.swaidatoday.com/%D8%A3%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-%D9%88-%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1/20-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89-%D9%88%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%82%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84|title=The Great Syrian Revolution and Independence Day|last=Alshoufy|first=Minhal|date=|website=Swaida to day|language=ar-aa|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/arabic/middleeast-45042995|title=Get to know the Druze Arab Unitarian community|last=|first=|date=2018-08-03|work=|access-date=2019-10-24|language=en-GB}}</ref> + +On 23 August 1925 [[Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]] officially declared revolution against France, and soon fighting erupted in [[Damascus]], [[Homs]] and [[Hama]]. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French at the beginning of the revolution, notably the [[Battle of al-Kafr]] on 21 July 1925, the [[Battle of al-Mazraa]] on 2 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, [[Battle of al-Musayfirah|Msfirah]] and [[as-Suwayda]]. The Druze were defeated in the last two battles. After rebel victories against France, it sent thousands of troops to [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]] from [[Morocco]] and [[Senegal]], equipped with modern weapons, compared to the few supplies of the rebels. This dramatically altered the results and allowed the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced [[Sultan al-Atrash]] to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]] and was eventually pardoned, He returned to [[Syria]] in 1937 after the signing of the [[Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)|Franco-Syrian Treaty]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alriyadh.com/221561|title=Sheets of memory history "1-2"|last=|first=|date=|website=Al-riyadh newspaper|language=ar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +[[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] participated actively in the [[Levant Crisis]], that led to Syrian independence. In 1948 he called for the establishment of a unified [[Arab Liberation Army]] of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], for which hundreds of young people had already volunteered and sent to participate in during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aljumhuriya.net/ar/656|title=Sultan Al Atrash and the Syrian Revolution|last=|first=|date=2013-01-31|website=Aljumhuriya net|language=ar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +During the reign of [[Adib Shishakli]], [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] was often harassed because of his opposition to government policy, he left the [[Arab Mountain]] for [[Jordan]] in December 1954 and came back when [[Adib Shishakli|Al-Shishakli's]] regime fell, [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] supported the [[United Arab Republic|political union]] of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] in 1958, and firmly opposed the process of separation in 1961, he is also known for his contributions to social life and development in the [[Arab Mountain]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://alalamsyria.com/news/2933|title=The leader of the Great Syrian Revolution Sultan Pasha al-Atrash|last=|first=|date=|website=Alalam Syria|language=ar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +[[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] died on 26 March 1982 from a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]], His [[funeral]] was attended by more than a million people, and the President of [[Syrian Arab Republic]] [[Hafez al-Assad]] issued an individual letter mourning [[Sultan al-Atrash|Al-Atrash]] as the General Commander of the Great Syrian Revolt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marefa.org/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%B4|title=Sultan Al Atrash|last=|first=|date=|website=Marefa|language=ar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +=== Damascus, (Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar) === +{{Further|Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar}} +[[File:Shahbandar11.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar]].]] + +Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar was a prominent [[Syrian people|Syrian]] nationalist during the [[French Mandate of Syria]] and a leading opponent of compromise with French authority. His devotion to [[Arab nationalism]] dated to the days of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and its "Turkification" policies. He supported the [[Arab Revolt]] during [[World War I]] and briefly headed the foreign ministry under Emir [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]]. + +When France occupied Syria in July 1920, he fled the country. Shahbandar returned in 1921 and organized the [[Iron Hand Society]] to agitate against French rule. This was the first Syrian nationalist group to emerge in [[Damascus]] during the Mandate and Shahbandar organized its spread to [[Homs]] and [[Hama]].<ref>In [[Aleppo]] a similar organization called the Red Hand Society also agitated against French rule.</ref> In April 1922, the French arrested him and other Iron Hand leaders for incitement against their rule. The arrests triggered several demonstrations and bloody confrontations between protesters and French forces in Damascus. Nonetheless, the French tried Shahbandar for subversive activities and sentenced him to 20 years of imprisonment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.alwehda.gov.sy/index.php/%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%A7-%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A/15943-%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B6%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%82%D9%8A|title=Abdul Rahman Shahbandar. The Damascus fighter|last=|first=|date=|website=www.alwehda.gov.sy|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +After serving 1½ years of his sentence, the French sent him into exile, where he joined the activities of the Syrian-Palestine Congress based in [[Cairo]]. The French allowed him to return to Syria in 1924. The following year Shahbandar guided the formation of Syria's first nationalist party, the [[People's Party (Syria)|People's Party]]. He then helped organize the spread of the [[Great Syrian Revolt|Syrian Revolution]] from [[Jabal ad-Druze (state)|Jabal Druze]] to the rest of Syria. He eluded the French authorities and moved to Jabal Druze for the duration of the revolt. There he and [[Sultan al-Atrash]] formed a provisional government. When the revolution collapsed in 1927, Shahbandar fled to [[Emirate of Transjordan|Transjordan]] and from there to [[Egypt]]. + +In 1937 a French amnesty allowed him to return from exile, and he directed his supporters to oppose the [[Franco–Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)|Franco-Syrian Treaty]] because it granted France privileges that detracted from Syrian sovereignty. He was joined by powerful Syrian politicians such as [[Munir al-Ajlani]]. He also directed a political campaign to discredit the [[National Bloc (Syria)|National Bloc]] government of Prime Minister [[Jamil Mardam Bey]]. During [[World War II]], the French considered cooperating with Shahbandar because of his opposition to the National Bloc and because of support for him from Britain and the [[Hashemites]]. In June 1940, he was assassinated in [[Damascus]]. The French accused several prominent National Bloc figures, including Jamil Mardam and [[Saadallah al-Jabiri]], of plotting the murder, and they fled to [[Iraq]]. While Shahbandar was one of Syria's most popular leaders, he never built up an organization that would perpetuate his political legacy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://alarab.co.uk/%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%86-%D8%B9%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85|title=Abdul Rahman Shahbandar. The first secular defenders of Arabism and Islam|last=Aljbain|first=Ibrahim|date=|website=Al Arab Newspaper|language=ar|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +===Ghouta of Damascus, (Hassan Kharrat)=== +{{Further|Hasan al-Kharrat}} +[[File:Hasan Kharrat cropped 1925.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Hasan al-Kharrat]].]] +Abu Muhammad Hasan al-Kharrat was one of the principals [[Syrian people|Syrian]] rebel commanders of the [[Great Syrian Revolt]] against the [[French Mandate of Syria|French Mandate]]. His main area of operations was in [[Damascus]] and its [[Ghouta]] countryside. He was killed in the struggle and is considered a hero by Syrians. {{sfn|Provence|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yGwMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA119 119]}} + +As the ''qabaday'' (local youths boss) of the [[al-Shaghour]] quarter of Damascus, al-Kharrat was connected with [[Nasib al-Bakri]], a nationalist from the quarter's most influential family. At al-Bakri's invitation, al-Kharrat joined the revolt in August 1925 and formed a group of fighters from al-Shaghour and other neighborhoods in the vicinity. He led the rebel assault against Damascus, briefly capturing the residence of French [[High Commissioner of the Levant]] [[Maurice Sarrail]] before withdrawing amid heavy French bombardment. + +Towards the end of 1925, relations grew tense between al-Kharrat and other rebel leaders, particularly [[Sa'id al-'As]] and [[Ramadan al-Shallash]], as they traded accusations of plundering villages or extorting local inhabitants. Al-Kharrat continued to lead operations in the Ghouta, ultimately killed in a French ambush. The revolt dissipated by 1927, but he gained a lasting reputation as a martyr of the Syrian resistance to French rule. + +=== Deir Ezzor, (Ayash Al-Haj family) === +{{Further|Ayyash Al-Haj|The epic of Ain Albu Gomaa}} +[[File:Ayash Alhaj 1.jpg|link=https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%D9%81:Ayash_Alhaj_1.jpg|alt=|thumb|254x254px|Leader [[Ayyash Al-Haj]]]] +[[File:Mohammed Alayyash 22.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Mohammed Bey ِAl-Ayyash]]]] +[[Ayyash Al-Haj]] family was subjected to the brutality of the French military authorities after accusing them of preparing for the [[revolution]] of the [[Euphrates]] Valley in conjunction with the outbreak of the Great Syrian Revolution. The struggle of the family began with the meeting of [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Mohammed ِAl-Ayyash]], the eldest son of leader [[Ayyash Al-Haj]], with Dr. [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abdul Rahman Shahbandar]], leader of the People's Party in [[Damascus]] and they agreed to extend the revolution to the [[Euphrates]] region and open a new front against the French to disperse their forces and ease the pressure on the rebels of [[Ghouta]] and [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|year=2009|title=Memoirs of Lawyer Fathallah Al-Saqqal|url=https://ia803002.us.archive.org/14/items/malayyash_yahoo_Idam/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%20%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9%20-%20%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA.pdf|journal=Al-Furat Magazine|pages=28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://saidagate.com/Home/BlogDetails/11594|title=The assassination of the Syrian politician Dr. Abdul Rahman Shahbandar, the planned mind of the great Syrian revolution against the French occupation.|last=|first=|date=|website=Saida Gate|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref> + +After returned [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Al-Ayyash]] from [[Damascus]] he started to arouse the enthusiasm of the people of [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] and invite them to fight, and agreed with his brother [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mahmoud Al-Ayyash (Abu Stita)|Mahmoud]] to go to the [[Village|villages]] of the Albu Saraya [[clan]] that living west of [[Deir ez-Zor]] and which have a strong friendship with his father [[Ayyash Al-Haj]], to form revolutionary groups with them to strike the [[French Armed Forces|French forces]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2009|title=Memoirs of Lawyer Fathallah Al-Saqqal|url=https://ia803002.us.archive.org/14/items/malayyash_yahoo_Idam/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%20%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9%20-%20%D8%B5%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%A9%20%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA.pdf|journal=Al-Furat Magazine|pages=28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deirez-zor.com/2018/09/05/متحف-عياش/|title=Abdelkader Ayyash in his folk museum|last=Sheikh Khafaji|first=Ghassan|date=2018|website=The Culture and Heritage of Deir Ezzor|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/AbdulqaderAyash_20190612|archive-date=2018|access-date=}}</ref> + +[[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Al-Ayyash]] managed to form a revolutionary group of thirteen armed men who were ready to take any military action against the [[French Armed Forces|French forces]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref> and some people was working with the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French]] at translation centers and others, but they were at the service of the [[revolutionaries]] which They were bringing news to [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Mohammed ِAl-Ayyash]] about the situation and movements of the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French]] and their activities and the timing of their military operations and [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Al-Ayyash]] guides the [[revolutionaries]] to strike the [[French forces]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref> + +The [[Revolutionary|revolutionaries]] managed to carry out painful strikes to the [[French Armed Forces|French forces]], the last attack was on a car carrying French officers and their driver in Ain Albu Gomaa area on the road between [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] and Raqqa, where the [[revolutionaries]] attacked and arrested the [[Officer of arms|officers]] and took them with their car after they took their weapons to a [[desert]] called "Al-Aksiyya", and threw them with their driver in one of the abandoned wells where they died.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Deir Ezzor in the Syrian National Social Party|url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719|journal=Al-Benaa newspaper}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fattouh|first=Issa|date=2017|title=Abdul Qader Al-Ayyash Researcher and historian|url=https://archive.org/stream/AbedAlqaderAyyash/AbedAlqader%20Ayyash#page/n1/mode/2up|journal=Almarifa Magazine|volume=646|pages=153–159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sasapost.com/opinion/druze-and-syrian-revolution/|title=Druze Unitarians and the Syrian Revolution|last=Morshed|first=Faisal|date=2016|website=Sasapost|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719_0559|archive-date=2019|access-date=}}</ref> + +The French were mad for losing contact with their [[Officer of arms|officers]] and began a big campaign included [[Airplane|planes]] to search for them, and when they found their bodies and inquired from the informants about the names of the [[revolutionaries]], the sent a large military force equipped with [[Heavy gun|Heavy guns]] and planes to attack Albu Saraya [[clan]] and [[blockade]] it.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref> + +[[French mandate of Syria|French]] planes began bombing the [[villages]] of the [[clan]], it was a horrific and devastating bombardment where the houses destroyed on the heads of children and women and killed the livestock and burned farms and [[crops]], Some civilians were killed and among them were "Hanash Al-Mousa Al-Ani", "Ali Al-Najras", and a woman who was pregnant, and many were wounded by [[bullets]] and shrapnel from [[Airplane|planes]] [[bombs]], All of this was to pressure on the people to surrender the [[revolutionaries]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deirez-zor.com/2018/09/05/متحف-عياش/|title=Abdelkader Ayyash in his folk museum|last=Sheikh Khafaji|first=Ghassan|date=2018|website=The Culture and Heritage of Deir Ezzor|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/AbdulqaderAyash_20190612|archive-date=2018|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref> + +When the [[French mandate of Syria|French]] convinced that the [[bombing]] did not work, they resorted to a despicable means where they threatened to arrest the women of the [[revolutionaries]], their mothers and sisters until the [[revolutionaries]] surrender themselves to the [[French mandate of Syria|French]], when the news arrived at the [[revolutionaries]], they emerged from their hideouts and surrendered themselves to avoid arresting their women.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref> + +[[Revolutionaries]] were tried in [[Aleppo]], where The family of [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] appointed [[lawyer]] Fathallah Al-Saqqal to defend her, The court heard (officer Bono) head of the [[French intelligence]] in [[Deir Ezzor]], who said: If each of the criminals, who committed this terrible offense deserve [[dying]] once, the [[gang]] leader [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Mohammed ِAl-Ayyash]] deserves [[hanging]] twice.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/DeirEzzor_201906|title=History of Deir Ezzor Governorate|last=Al-Shaheen|first=Mazen Mohammad Fayez|publisher=Dar Alturath|year=2009|isbn=|location=Syria - Deir ezzor|pages=753}}</ref> + +The French High Commissioner in [[Beirut]], [[Maurice Sarrail]], issued Decision No. 49S / 5 in August 1925, which ordered the [[exile]] of all members of the [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] family to the city of [[Jableh]], [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mahmoud Al-Ayyash (Abu Stita)|Mahmoud ِAl-Ayyash]] and 12 of his companions were sentenced to death. The execution was carried out by firing squad on 15 September 1925 in [[Aleppo]]. [[Ayyash Al-Haj#Mohammed Al-Ayyash|Mohammed ِAl-Ayyash]] was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment on the island of [[Arwad]] in [[Tartous]] city.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://ia803007.us.archive.org/25/items/TheGoldenBiography/Untitled.pdf|title=Golden Biography – Deir Ez-Zor Bride of the Euphrates and the Syrian island|last=Sheikh Khafaji|first=Ghassan|publisher=House of the Raslan Foundation for Printing|year=2019|isbn=9789933005962|location=Syria - Damascus|pages=320 -321}}</ref> + +Shortly after [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] family's living in [[Jableh]], The French authorities assassinated [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] in a café outside the city by [[poisoning]] his coffee, and prevented the transfer of his body to [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] city for reasons of public security, He was buried in [[Jableh]] in the cemetery of Sultan [[Ibrahim ibn Adham]] Mosque where the absent prayers held for the spirit of this martyr [[Mujahideen|mujahid]] in all the Syrian cities.<ref>{{Cite journal|year=2015|title=Deir Ezzor in the Syrian National Social Party|url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719|journal=Al-Benaa newspaper}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fattouh|first=Issa|year=2017|title=Abdul Qader Al-Ayyash Researcher and historian|url=https://archive.org/stream/AbedAlqaderAyyash/AbedAlqader%20Ayyash#page/n1/mode/2up|journal=Almarifa Magazine|volume=646|pages=153–159}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sasapost.com/opinion/druze-and-syrian-revolution/|title=Druze Unitarians and the Syrian Revolution|last=Morshed|first=Faisal|year=2016|website=Sasapost|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.org/details/malayyash_yahoo_20170719_0559|archive-date=2019}}</ref> + +=== Idlib, (Ibrahim Hanano) === +{{Further|Ibrahim Hananu|Hananu Revolt}} +[[File:Hananu, 1932.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Ibrahim Hananu]].]] +Hananu was born to a wealthy family in [[Kafr Takharim]] and raised in Aleppo. There is dispute on his birth date: one source<ref>{{cite book |title=Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class |last=Watenpaugh |first=Keith David |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-691-12169-7 |location=New Jersey |pages=175}}</ref> mentions he was born in 1879, while another<ref>{{cite book |title=Steel & Silk: Men and Women who Shaped Syria 1900–2000 |last=Moubayed |first=Sami |publisher=Cune Press |year=2006 |isbn=1-885942-41-9 |pages=376}}</ref> mentions he was born in 1869. He studied at the Imperial High School in Aleppo, and continued his studies at the Ottoman Law Academy of the prestigious Mülkiye school in Constantinople. As a student, he joined the [[Committee of Union and Progress]], the political organ that later took stage following the [[Young Turk Revolution]] of 1908.<ref>{{cite book |first=Keith David |last=Watenpaugh |title=Being Modern in the Middle East |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton and Oxford |date=2006 |pages=174–184}}</ref> + +Breaking out in the autumn of 1919 in the countryside surrounding Aleppo, when the French army had landed on the Syrian coast and was preparing to occupy all of Syria, Hananu launched his revolt, bringing [[Aleppo]], [[Idlib]] and [[Antioch]] into a coordinated campaign against French forces. Hananu was responsible for the disarmament of many French troops, the destruction of railroads and telegraph lines, the sabotage of tanks, and the foiling of French attacks on Aleppo. On July 23, 1920, when the French army successfully attacked Aleppo, Hananu was forced to retreat to his village of [[Kafr Takharim Nahiyah]] and began to reorganize the revolt with [[:ar:نجيب عويد|Najeeb Oweid]]. The rebels decided to form a [[civilian government]] based in [[Armanaz Nahiyah|Armanaz]], and sent Hananu to Turkey as a representative of the new civilian government to request for aid in fighting against the French.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.discover-syria.com/news/13629#|title="Ibrahim Hananu"|last=Kaddour|first=Mohammad|date=1 April 2012|website="Discover Syria"|access-date=20 July 2016}}</ref> He received aid from the Turkish nationalist movement of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], which was battling the French army of the [[Levant]] for control of [[Cilicia]] and southern [[Anatolia]]. With the withdrawal of Turkish military assistance following the signing of the [[Franklin-Bouillon Agreement]] in October 1921, Hananu and his men could no longer sustain a revolt, and their struggle collapsed. However, the revolt's failure, the organization of the northern areas of Syria with Turkish help, has been interpreted as a prototype for self-government that Hananu and other Syrians built upon in later years.<ref>James Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of the Empire, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA, 1998, pp. 133-134.</ref> + +In 1922 Ibrahim Hananu was arrested and presented to the French military criminal court on criminal acts. The first session of the court was on 15 March 1922. One of the best lawyers at that time, [[Fathallah Saqqal]] defended Hananu, advocated for Hananu's innocence, and argued that Hananu was a political opponent, not a criminal. + +On 25 March 1922, the French Attorney General requested the execution of Hananu, and he said, "if Hananu has seven heads, I will cut them all," the French judge ultimately released Hananu following an agreement between Hananu and the French government.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.esyria.sy/eidleb/index.php?p=stories&category=characters&filename=2008082000150427|title=Ibrahim Hananu|last=Kanafani|first=Adnan|date=20 August 2008|website=Idleb website|access-date=18 July 2016}}</ref> + +=== Hama, (Fawzi al-Qawuqji) === +{{Further|Fawzi al-Qawuqji}} +[[File:B10114201429.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]].]] +An officer in the Syrian army and the leader of the Salvation Army during the 1948 war, was born in the city of Tripoli in the Ottoman Empire, studied at the Military School in Astana, and graduated as an officer in the Ottoman Cavalry Corps in 1912, worked in the service of King Faisal in Damascus.<ref>Matthew Hughes, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1N-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA422 Britain's Pacification of Palestine: The British Army, the Colonial State, and the Arab Revolt, 1936–1939] [[Cambridge University Press]], 2019 pp.20,98.</ref> + +Fawzi al-Qawuqji lived in Damascus and was distinguished by his rare courage and Arabism that prompted him to fight battles against European colonialism in all Arab regions.<ref> Ruhmloses Zwischenspiel: Fawzi al-Qawuqji in Deutschland, 1941–1947," by Gerhard Höpp in Peter Heine, ed., Al-Rafidayn: Jahrbuch zu Geschichte und Kultur des modernen Iraq (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 1995), (http://www.zmo.de/biblio/nachlass/hoepp/01_30_064.pdf) p.1.</ref><ref>Matthew Hughes, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1N-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA422 Britain's Pacification of Palestine: The British Army, the Colonial State, and the Arab Revolt, 1936–1939] [[Cambridge University Press]], 2019 p.100</ref> + +During the French Mandate, he became commander of a cavalry company in Hama, later defected from the Syrian Legion set up by the French in Syria to participate in the Great Syrian Revolution against the French colonizer, and on October 4, 1925, he led a revolution in Hama against the French occupation, which he planned jointly with Saeed Al-Termanini and Munir Al-Rayes. The Syrian revolutionaries took control of the city, the third-largest city in Syria, with about 80,000. The revolutionaries cut off the telephone lines and attacked and burned the Government House, where they captured some French officers and then besieged the French military positions.<ref>Laila Parsons,''The Commander: Fawzi al-Qawuqji and the Fight for Arab Independence, 1914–1948'' 2017 pp.27-31.</ref> + +The next day, France bombarded the city with aircraft and artillery for three days. After negotiations, some of the city's notables persuaded al-Qawuqji to withdraw to save the population's blood, and the battles continued in its vicinity. The bombing of Hama resulted in 344 deaths, the vast majority of them civilians, although France claimed that the death toll did not exceed 76, all of whom were revolutionaries. Some sources estimate the number of civilian casualties at about 500, the losses of the French as 400 dead and wounded, and the losses of the rebels 35; the material losses were also great, as 115 shops were destroyed. He was later assigned to lead the revolution in the Ghouta area of ​​Damascus.<ref>Shay Hazkani,[https://www.google.com/books/edition/Dear_Palestine/sAMcEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Hazkani%2BDear+Palestine%2BAbdullah+Dawud&pg=PT11 ''Dear Palestine:A Social History of the 1948,''] [[Stanford University Press]] 2021 {{isbn|978-1-503-61465-9}}.</ref><ref>Josh Ruebner, [https://mondoweiss.net/2021/06/unsettling-1948-a-review-of-shay-hazkanis-dear-palestine/ 'Unsettling 1948: A Review of Shay Hazkani’s ‘Dear Palestine’,'] [[Mondoweiss]] 24 June 2021 </ref> + +== The results of the revolution == +[[File:Fakhri Kharrat execution, 1925.jpg|180px|thumb|right|Rebel commander Fakhri al-Kharrat, son of [[Hasan al-Kharrat]], hanged by the French in January 1926.]] + +The revolution achieved great results in the national struggle and the quest for complete independence from [[France]]. The most prominent of these results are:<ref>[[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon، Wikipedia، 9/12/2015.]]</ref><ref>[http://sultanalatrash.awardspace.biz/results.htm The official website of the Mujahid Sultan Pasha al-Atrash] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806105109/http://sultanalatrash.awardspace.biz/results.htm |date=06 August 2016}}</ref> + +# These big moves greatly destabilized the policy of the [[French Mandate|French]] in [[Syria]], and they became fully convinced that the people of Syria would not succumb and that a Syrian national government must be established and yielding to the will of the people and their great revolution. They also became fully convinced of the need to leave Syria and grant it complete independence. Representative (Sixt Quantin) proposed to return [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]] to the custody of the League of Nations to get rid of the blood spilled in them and the expenses. His proposal won two hundred votes out of four hundred and eighty votes. +# The revolution led to the resurrection of the movement calling for the establishment of a royal government in [[Syria]], as supporters of this project see it as the only guarantee for the establishment of sincere and continuous cooperation to implement the Mandate. Ali bin Al Hussein was the candidate for this throne, but the project failed due to the Syrians’ rejection. +# The revolution forced France to reunify Syria after dividing it into four states ([[Damascus]], [[Aleppo]], Jabal Alawites, and [[Jabal al-Druze]]). +# It was forced to agree to hold [[Election|elections]] in which the national opposition, led by [[Ibrahim Hananu|Ibrahim Hanano]] and [[Hashim al-Atassi|Hashem al-Atassi]], won. +# France was forced to carry out administrative reforms by removing its High Commissioner and its military officers in Syria and appointing replacements for them, as happened, for example, with High Commissioner Sarai after the revolutionaries attacked Qasr al-Azm in Damascus, so it set a new civilian delegate, de Jouvenel. +# France was forced to send its most prominent leaders in the First World War, such as General (Gamelan), after the increasing strength of the revolutionaries and their victories. +# It paved the way for the final exit of the French from Syria in 1946, as the struggle continued in its political form. +# [[Damascus]] was bombed by air for 24 continuous hours, and some villages in [[Jabal al-Druze|Jabal al-Arab]] were emptied of their residents as a result of their destruction and burning. +# The revolution was a victory for national and patriotic awareness over regionalism and sectarianism, as the most important slogans launched by its leader were a religion for God and the homeland for all. + +== Martyrs of the Great Syrian Revolution == +The death toll of the Great Syrian Revolution reached 4213 persons distributed in the following Syrian governorates:<ref>[http://sdusyria.org/?p=20706 Who is Sultan Pasha al-Atrash, an article published on the website of the Union of Syrian Democrats, 14/10/2015.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425123359/http://sdusyria.org/?p=20706 |date=25 أبريل 2016}}</ref> + +* 315 Dead in [[Aleppo]] and [[Idlib]]. +* 331 Dead in [[Latakia|Lattakia]], [[Tartus|Tartous]] and the coast. +* 731 Dead in [[Damascus]] and [[Ghouta]]. +* 150 Dead in [[Hama]]. +* 250 Dead in [[Homs]], [[Al-Nabek|Nabek]] and [[An-Nabek District|Qalamoun]]. +* 71 Dead in [[Deir ez-Zor|Deir Ezzor]] and [[Al-Jazeera SC (Syria)|Al Jazeera]]. +* 34 Dead in [[Daraa]]. +* 2064 Dead in [[Jabal al-Druze]]. +* 267 Dead in the Al-Balan region, [[Rashaya]], [[Majdal Shams]] and the villages around. + +== Memorial of the Great Syrian Revolution == + +The edifice of the Great Syrian Revolution is located in the town of [[Al-Qurayya|Al-Quraya]], 15 km south of the city of [[As-Suwayda]], which is the birthplace of the leader of the revolution, [[Sultan al-Atrash|Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]]. The edifice's construction began in 1987 and was opened in 2010 with an area of ​​6,200 sq m. and includes the construction of the edifice and its annexes on a site of ​​2,800 sq m. The building of the edifice consists of in its ground section the General [[Museum]] of the Great Syrian Revolution edifice, which is considered a living witness to the revolutionaries’ exploits and heroism in the face of French colonialism.<ref>[http://www.sana.sy/?p=213399 10 Hatoum Suhil، ten mosaic paintings in the middle of the Great Syrian Revolution edifice in Al-Qurayyat, An article published on the SANA website, 18/5/2015.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917102341/http://www.sana.sy/?p=213399 |date=17 سبتمبر 2016}}</ref><ref>[http://www.ortas.online/index.php?p=20&id=59104 Monument of the Great Syrian Revolution, An article published on the website of the Syrian Ministry of Culture، 15/4/2010.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512163015/http://www.rtv.gov.sy/index.php?p=20&id=59104 |date=12 مايو 2016}}</ref> + +Next to the museum is located in the center of the edifice a central hall that houses the remains of the commander in chief of the Great Syrian Revolution, the [[Mujahideen|Mujahid]] [[Sultan al-Atrash|Sultan Pasha al-Atrash]], in addition to a mosaic panorama embodying the battles of the revolution and paintings documenting the names of the battles and the martyrs who were killed in them, in addition to an administration room, a library, and a special museum for the commander in chief containing the Arab dress. His complete cloak, dress, waistcoat, jacket, hat, [[Weapon|weapons]] and military equipment, including a military rifle, a machine gun that he used, a hunting rifle, four machine guns, a French rifle, a leather belt to store [[Bullet|bullets]], a wooden stick in the form of a pin and some bullets, in addition to [[National Order of the Cedar]] that he was awarded, as well as two French swords, one of which belongs to a campaign leader. Blasphemy General Norman, a third sword sheath, two field phones, a signal pistol, three bullets, a detonator, a machine gun, and aircraft counters.<ref>[http://tishreen.news.sy/tishreen/public/print/285129 The Museum of the Monument of the Great Syrian Revolution in As-Suwayda, an article published on the website of the Syrian Tishreen newspaper, 16/04/2013.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110152352/http://archive.tishreen.news.sy/tishreen/public/print/285129 |date=10 يناير 2020}}</ref><ref>[http://www.discover-syria.com/print/12266 The Great Syrian Revolution Monument Museum in As-Suwayda tells the revolutionaries’ exploits and heroisms, an article published on the Discover Syria website.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617062755/http://www.discover-syria.com/print/12266 |date=17 يونيو 2016}}</ref> == See also == -{{div col|colwidth=22em}} -* Great Syrian Revolt +{{Col-begin}} +{{Col-4}} +* [[Sultan al-Atrash]] * [[Ayyash Al-Haj]] +* [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abd Al-Rahman Shahbandar]] +{{Col-4}} +* [[Ibrahim Hananu]] +* [[Hasan al-Kharrat]] +* [[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]] +{{Col-4}} +* [[Syria]] * [[Yusuf al-'Azma]] -* [[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abd Al-Rahman Shahbandar]] +* [[Adham Khanjar]] +{{Col-4}} * [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] * [[Henri Gouraud (general)|Henri Gouraud]] -* [[Adham Khanjar]] -* [[Ibrahim Hananu]] -* [[Sirocco (film)]] -{{div col end}} -<gallery> +* [[Saleh al-Ali]] +{{Col-end}}<gallery> B10114201429.jpg|[[Fawzi al-Qawuqji]] Shahbandar11.jpg|[[Abd al-Rahman Shahbandar|Abd Al-Rahman Shahbandar]] @@ -124,40 +410,48 @@ == References == -{{Reflist}} - -=== Bibliography === -{{Refbegin}} -* {{cite book|first=Robert Brenton|last=Betts|title=The Druze|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z9nnPg1EDOEC|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-300-04810-0}} -* {{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Joyce Laverty|date=October 1977 |title=The Syrian Revolt of 1925 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=545–563|doi=10.1017/S0020743800026118 }} -* {{cite journal |last1=Khoury|first1=Philip S.|date=November 1981|title=Factionalism Among Syrian Nationalists During the French Mandate|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=441–469|doi=10.1017/S0020743800055859}} -* {{cite journal |last1=Khoury|first1=Philip S.|year=1982|title=The tribal shaykh, French tribal policy, and the nationalist movement in Syria between two world wars|journal=Middle Eastern Studies|volume=18|issue=2 |pages=180–193|doi=10.1080/00263208208700504}} -* {{cite journal |last1=Bou-Nacklie|first1=N.E.|date=January 1998 |title=Tumult in Syria's Hama in 1925: The Failure of a Revolt|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=33|issue=2 |pages= 273–289|doi=10.1177/002200949803300206|s2cid=159788188}} -{{Refend}} +<div class="reflist4" style="height: 220px; overflow: auto; padding: 3px"> +{{reflist|21em}} +</div> -== Further reading == -* Daniel Neep, '' Occupying Syria under the French mandate: insurgency, space and state formation'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012), pp 101–130. -* Michael Provence, ''The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism'' (University of Texas Press, 2005). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7560/706354 online] -* Anne-Marie Bianquis et Elizabeth Picard, ''Damas, miroir brisé d'un orient arabe'', édition Autrement, Paris 1993. -* Lenka Bokova, ''La confrontation franco-syrienne à l'époque du mandat – 1925–1927'', éditions l'Harmattan, Paris, 1990 -* Général Andréa, ''La Révolte druze et l'insurrection de Damas, 1925–1926'', éditions Payot, 1937 -* ''Le Livre d'or des troupes du Levant : 1918–1936. <Avant-propos du général Huntziger.>'', Préfacier Huntziger, Charles Léon Clément, Gal. (S. l.), Imprimerie du Bureau typographique des troupes du Levant, 1937. +== External links == +{{col-begin}} +{{col-4}} +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BN5CjQm6DDE The Great Syrian Revolution, Al Jazeera، P 1.] +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YNl_pyQx8xY The Great Syrian Revolution, Al Jazeera، P 2.] +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=23k-WMUpeyw The Great Syrian Revolution, Al Jazeera، P 3.] +{{col-4}} +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RMnm_5WspjU High honor, the story of the hero Yusuf al-'Azma, Al Jazeera، P 1.] +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-Sm3iqiIRI High honor, the story of the hero Yusuf al-'Azma, Al Jazeera، P 2.] +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwlKhNLYIG4 High honor, the story of the hero Yusuf al-'Azma, Al Jazeera، P 3.] +{{col-4}} +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=35gFLCV_ykU High honor, the story of the hero Yusuf al-'Azma, Al Jazeera، P 4.] +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djBJpNHF0ec High honor, the story of the hero Yusuf al-'Azma, Al Jazeera، P 5.] +* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2P5JtwnlOyY High honor, the story of the hero Yusuf al-'Azma, Al Jazeera، P 6.] +{{Col-end}} {{French Mandate of Syria}} {{Middle East conflicts}} -{{Authority control}} +{{Syria topics}} +{{DEFAULTSORT:French Mandate of Syria}} -[[Category:Great Syrian Revolt| ]] -[[Category:1925 in Mandatory Syria]] -[[Category:1926 in Mandatory Syria]] -[[Category:1927 in Mandatory Syria]] -[[Category:Conflicts in 1925]] -[[Category:Conflicts in 1926]] -[[Category:Conflicts in 1927]] -[[Category:Rebellions in Asia|Mandatory Syria]] -[[Category:Military history of Syria]] -[[Category:Military history of France]] -[[Category:1920s in France]] -[[Category:France–Syria relations]] -[[Category:Resistance to the French colonial empire]] -[[Category:Wars involving Syria]] -[[Category:Wars involving Lebanon]] +[[:Category:Great Syrian Revolt]] +[[:Category:1925 in Mandatory Syria]] +[[:Category:1926 in Mandatory Syria]] +[[:Category:1927 in Mandatory Syria]] +[[:Category:Conflicts in 1925]] +[[:Category:Conflicts in 1926]] +[[:Category:Conflicts in 1927]] +[[:Category:Rebellions in Asia|Mandatory Syria]] +[[:Category:Military history of Syria]] +[[:Category:Military history of France]] +[[:Category:1920s in France]] +[[:Category:France–Syria relations]] +[[:Category:France–Lebanon relations]] +[[:Category:French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] +[[:Category:League of Nations mandates]] +[[:Category:20th century in Lebanon]] +[[:Category:20th century in Syria]] +[[:Category:History of the Levant]] +[[:Category:Former French colonies|Mandate for Syria]] +[[:Category:French colonisation in Asia|Mandate for Syria]] +[[:Category:Sykes–Picot Agreement]] '