Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Proto-Indo-European language sound law}}
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'''Weise's law''' is a term used to describe the loss of palatalization some consonants undergo in specific contexts in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. In short, when the consonants represented by ''{{PIE|*ḱ}}'' ''{{PIE|*ǵ}}'' ''{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}'', called palatovelar consonants, are followed by ''{{PIE|*r}}'', they lose their palatalized quality and thereby merge with the [[Velar consonants|plain velar consonants]] ''{{PIE|*k}} {{PIE|*g}} {{PIE|*gʰ}}'', respectively. Some exceptions exist, such as when the ''{{PIE|*r}}'' is followed by ''{{PIE|*i}}'' or when the palatalized form is restored [[Analogical change|by analogy]] with related words. Although this sound change is most prominent in the satem languages, it is believed that the change must have occurred prior to the [[Centum and satem languages|centum–satem division]], based on an earlier sound change which affected the distribution of Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*u}}'' and ''{{PIE|*r}}''. The law is named after the German linguist [[Oskar Weise]], who first postulated it in 1881 as the solution to reconciling cognates in [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]].
==Terminology==
The [[Proto-Indo-European language]] is the hypothetical parent language of the [[Indo-European languages]]. The language is believed to have been spoken around the 4th millennium BC,{{sfn|Trask|2000|p=267}} though some linguists argue that the 6th or 7th millennia BC are more likely.{{sfn|Kleiner|2024}} No record of the language has been found, but its forms have been [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] through the [[comparative method]].<ref>{{multiref|For the lack of record of Proto-Indo-European, see {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=267}}.|For its reconstruction by comparative linguistics, see {{harvnb|Clackson|2007|p=1}} and {{harvnb|Beekes|2011|p=xv}}.}}</ref>
Weise's law is a sound change that affects a series of sounds in the Proto-Indo-European language called palatovelar consonants, sometimes called dorso-palatal or simply palatal consonants.<ref>{{multiref|For palatovelar nomenclature and those consonants' relationship to Weise's law, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}}.|For dorso-palatal, see {{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvii}}.|For palatal, see {{harvnb|Clackson|2007|p=49}} and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=53}}.}}</ref> The precise pronunciation of these sounds is not known, though they are described as being articulated both with the back part of the tongue and the [[hard palate]] of the mouth, represented with ''{{PIE|*ḱ}}'', ''{{PIE|*ǵ}}'', and ''{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}''.{{sfn|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvii}} They are contrasted with plain velar consonants, also referred to as dorso-velar or simply velar consonants, which are described as being articulated with the back part of the tongue and the [[soft palate]], represented by ''{{PIE|*k}}'', ''{{PIE|*g}}'', and ''{{PIE|*gʰ}}''.{{sfn|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvii}} Both of these sets were further contrasted with the [[Labialized velar consonant|labiovelar consonants]], likely pronounced with a simultaneous articulation with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate and the [[Labialization|rounding of the lips]], represented by ''{{PIE|*kʷ}}'', ''{{PIE|*gʷ}}'', and ''{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}''.<ref>{{multiref|For the precise description of how the sound is articulated, see {{harvnb|Vine|Untermann|1998}}.|For the term in Indo-Europeanist literature and the associated graphemes, see {{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xx}}, {{harvnb|Clackson|2007|p=49}}, {{harvnb|Swiggers|2011|p=184}}, and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=181}}.}}</ref> These three contrastive sets are often known collectively as [[Guttural|guttural consonants]].{{sfn|Swiggers|2011|p=184}}
Although almost no attested language in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]] distinguishes between these three sets of consonants,{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}} [[Historical linguistics|historical linguists]] divide the Indo-European [[daughter language]]s into two categories based on how these sounds developed over time, either into centum or satem languages. The terms centum and satem are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word ''{{PIE|*dḱm̥tóm}}'', later shortened into ''{{PIE|*ḱm̥tóm}}'', meaning 'one hundred'.{{sfn|Beekes|2011|pp=30, 303}}{{sfn|Trask|2000|p=53}} Centum languages, named after the [[Latin]] word for 'one hundred', are those languages in which the palatovelar sounds underwent depalatalization – that is, lost their palatal quality – thereby merging with the plain velars, creating only a two-way contrast between plain velars and labiovelar sounds.<ref>{{multiref|For the definition of depalatalization, see {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=86}}.|For its derivation from the Latin term, see {{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvi}} and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=53}}.|For the centum example of depalatalization, see {{harvnb|Beekes|2003|p=30}}.|For the process of merging, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}} and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=53}}.}}</ref> By contrast, satem languages, named after the [[Avestan]] word for 'one hundred' ({{lang|ae|𐬯𐬀𐬙𐬆𐬨}} {{translit|ae|satəm}}), are those in which the labiovelar sounds merged with the plain velar sounds, while the palatovelar sounds underwent [[assibilation]] – also called satemization in this particular context – whereby these palatovelars became [[Sibilant|sibilant consonants]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xxiii}}.|{{harvnb|Beekes|2011|p=302}}.|{{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=297}}.}}</ref> Sibilant consonants comprise [[affricate]]s, such as [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|[t͡ʃ]]] (as in '''''ch'''at''), and [[fricative]]s, such as [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|[s]]] (as in '''''s'''unk'').{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=302}}<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|sibilant|accessdate=12 July 2024}}</ref>
==History==
[[File:Eisenberg Wohnhaus Oskar Weise Tafel.jpg|Weise's epitaph in [[Eisenberg, Thuringia|Eisenberg, Germany]], which reads in part: 'Here lived the researcher and teacher of our mother tongue, {{lang|de|[[Geheimrat]]}} Prof. Dr. Oskar Weise [...]'|thumb|alt=A black sign with gold Gothic lettering on the side of a concrete building]]
[[Oskar Weise]] first described a problem in correspondences between [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]] cognates in an 1881 article for the [[Indo-European studies|Indo-Europeanist]] periodical ''[[Historische Sprachforschung|Articles on the Science of the Indo-European Languages]]'' ({{lang-de|Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen}}) entitled "Is initial γ dropped before λ?" ({{lang|de|Ist anlautendes γ vor λ abgefallen?|italics=yes}}).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Weise|1881|p=115}}.|{{harvnb|Blanc|de Lamberterie|2015}}.|{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}}.|{{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=238}}.}}</ref> In it, he notes an imbalance in the relationship between Ancient Greek and Sanskrit cognates, writing:
{{blockquote|
If we examine the Indic words beginning with guttural + ''r'' or ''l'' and compare them with their Greek reflexes, we will notice that all those which have retained the guttural in Indic intact show guttural + ''[[Rho|ρ]]'', whereas Greek guttural + ''[[Lambda|λ]]'' only occurs regularly when the palatal sibilants [''ś''], ''j'', ''h'' appear in Indic. The absence of exceptions in this rule automatically prohibits the assumption that coincidence prevailed here. Of course, this excludes cases where ''r'' (or ''l'') is not immediately after the guttural, but there is a vowel in between, although the rule stated above often applies here too.{{sfn|Weise|1881|p=115}}
}}
According to [[Alwin Kloekhorst]] in 2011, Weise's original article has "been largely forgotten by the scholarly world", but its findings have appeared sporadically in linguistic literature with some of it needing revision in light of other research.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}} In 1894, [[Antoine Meillet]] described the law and defended it as established fact in a dissertation for the [[Société de Linguistique de Paris]] on the difficulty of determining gutturals in Proto-Indo-European, citing Weise as its progenitor.<ref>{{harvnb|Meillet|1894|p=278}}: "{{lang|fr|Or on a constaté depuis longtemps que les cas de correspondance α′β sont particulièrement fréquents dans le voisinage de certains phonèmes: après ''u'' (de Saussure, dans ces Mémoires, 6, 161) et devant ''r'' (Weise, dans Bezz. Beit., 6, 115).|italic=unset}}" ({{translation|'Now we have long noted that cases of α′β correspondence are particularly frequent in the vicinity of certain phonemes: after ''u'' [de Saussure, in those Mémoires, 6, 161] and before ''r'' [Weise, in Bezz. Beit., 6, 115].'}})</ref> In 1978, [[Frederik Kortlandt]] similarly considered Weise's findings strong but limited in scope, citing both Weise's and Meillet's works on the law in his own research on the [[Balto-Slavic languages]].{{sfn|Kortlandt|1978|pp=238–240}} In 1995, [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] also described the process derived from the law, but did not reference its origins with Weise.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}}{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=126}} Kloekhorst presented a defense of the law at a conference in 2008,{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2008a}} followed by a more complete account – ''Weise's Law: Depalatalization of Palatovelars before ''*r'' in Sanskrit'' – published in 2011.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011}} The 2011 defense conglomerates several different sources on the topic, some referencing Weise and some not, and summarizes its general characteristics, its relative chronology, and possible violations; its contents are a revision of his work done in 1999.<ref>{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}}: "This article is a revision of my {{lang|nl|Kleine Scriptie}} (~ BA thesis) [...] written in 1999 [...]"</ref> Kloekhorst has been credited with reviving interest in the law.<ref>{{harvnb|Blanc|de Lamberterie|2015}}: "{{lang|fr|italic=no|Selon ce auteur, d'après une loi établie par O. Weise et remise en honneur par A. Kloekhorst [...]}}" ({{trans|'According to this author, following a law established by O. Weise and brought to new appreciation by A. Kloekhorst [...]'}})</ref>
==Overview==
{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 450
| align = left
| image1 = Voiceless palatal plosive.svg
| width1 = 150
| alt1 = An illustrated view of the inside of the mouth with the middle of the tongue pressed against the roof of the mouth
| image2 = Voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate.gif
| width2 = 150
| alt2 = An illustrated gif of the inside of the mouth where the tip of the tongue alternates between the pressing against the alveolar ridge and constricting airflow just behind the teeth
| image3 = Voiceless alveolar fricative articulation.svg
| width3 = 150
| alt3 = An illustrated view of the inside of the mouth with the tip of the tongue constricting airflow just behind the teeth
| footer = These three images show one example of assibilation from inside the mouth; from left to right: [[Voiceless palatal plosive|palatal stop]] ({{IPA|und|c}}), [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|alveolar sibilant affricate]] ({{IPA|und|t͡s}}), and [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|alveolar fricative]] ({{IPA|und|s}}). The [[Place of articulation|tongue's point of contact or constriction]] moves increasingly forward, from the [[Palatal consonants|palate]] to [[Alveolar consonants|just behind the teeth]].
| footer_align = left
}}
Weise's law describes a depalatalization which affects the palatovelar consonants of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]: ''{{PIE|*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ}}''. In the satem languages, as well as in [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]],{{efn|Albanian and Armenian have a controversial placement in centum–satem taxonomy. See {{slink|Centum and satem languages|Satem languages}} for further discussion.}} these sounds became fricatives, such as {{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|[s]]]}} or {{IPA|[[Voiced alveolar fricative|[z]]]}}, rather than remaining [[Plosive|stops]]. Weise's law, however, demonstrates that these sounds depalatalize before ''{{PIE|*r}}'', thereby merging with the plain velar stops ''{{PIE|*k}} {{PIE|*g}} {{PIE|*gʰ}}''.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}} Because the palatovelar sounds underwent [[assibilation]] – that is, underwent the process of becoming [[sibilant]]s – in the satem languages while the plain velars did not, the merging of palatovelars with plain velars explains why these words have plain velar [[Reflex (linguistics)|reflexes]] in words that share a common Indo-European root containing a palatovelar. In other words, while the palatovelar stops were made into alveolar sibilants in most cases, Weise's law explains many exceptions, though not all.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}}
Sanskrit words contain many potential violations of the rule, particularly in circumstances where the surface representation of the word contains {{transliteration|sa|śr-}} or {{transliteration|sa|hr-}}, implying a derivation from an unmodified ''{{PIE|*ḱr-}}'' or ''{{PIE|*ǵʰr-}}'' source. However, these are often the result of later sound changes particular to a language or [[language family]]. Examples can be found in Sanskrit, where /l/ became /r/ in many circumstances, such as in {{lang-sa|श्रवस्}} {{transliteration|sa|śravas}} 'fame', which is derived from Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*ḱleu-es-}}'', and {{lang|sa|ह्राद्}} {{transliteration|sa|hrād}} 'to resound, to make a noise', which is derived from ''{{PIE|*ǵʰleh₃d-}}''.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|pp=265–266}} The effects of the law are commonly found in [[Indo-European ablaut#Ablaut grades|zero-grade]] stems – that is, stems without vowels – which often receive [[Epenthesis|inserted]] vowels in [[daughter language]]s to ease pronounceability, such as in {{lang|sa|हिरण्य}} {{transliteration|sa|híraṇya}} 'gold', which is derived from ''{{PIE|*ǵʰlh₃-en-}}''. Thus, these apparent counterexamples do not actually represent exceptions to the rule.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}
Other apparent violations occur in contexts in which the palatovelar consonant and ''{{PIE|*r}}'' cross a morphemic boundary, such as between an [[affix]] and the word it modifies, or share a clear derivational relationship with another word that would not have been subjected to the sound law, leading to an [[analogical change]].<ref>{{multiref|For apparent violations that cross a morpheme boundary, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}.|For apparent violations that occur as a result of a clear derivational relationship, see {{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=238}} and {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}.}}.</ref> In other words, if several words are derived from the same original root word, but only one is derived from a context in which Weise's law would apply, the one originally affected may appear to violate the law later on since the two words may be so closely associated with one another that the form is restored by analogy to the others. One such example of this is Sanskrit {{lang|sa|अज्र}} {{transliteration|sa|ájra}} 'field, plain', which is derived from ''{{PIE|[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂éǵros|h₂éǵ-ro-]]}}'' 'field, pasturage'; in this example, the expected outcome is {{lang|sa|*अग्र}} {{translit|sa|*ágra}},{{efn|The Sanskrit term {{lang|sa|अग्र}} {{translit|sa|agra}} 'first, summit' is an attested form in the language, but it is derived from a completely distinct form and has no semantic or taxonomic relationship with {{lang|sa|अज्र}} {{transliteration|sa|ájra}}.}} but the reflex of the palatalized consonant has been restored due to an obvious connection with {{lang|sa|अजति}} {{transliteration|sa|ájati}} 'to drive', derived from the same root (''{{PIE|*h₂eǵ-}}'' 'to drive') but in a context which would not subject it to the sound change.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}
All other violations of the rule appear in the particular sequence ''{{PIE|*Ḱri}}'', where ''Ḱ'' represents any palatovelar sound. Kloekhorst suggests that the [[Close front unrounded vowel|high front vowel]] ''{{PIE|*i}}'' may have palatalized the preceding ''{{PIE|*r}}'', giving no motivation to depalatalize the initial palatovelar sound.<ref>{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=268}}: "It is therefore attractive to assume that in the sequence ''{{PIE|*Ḱri-}}'' the palatovelar was not depalatalized because the ''{{PIE|*r}}'' itself was phonetically somewhat palatalized due to the following ''{{PIE|*i}}''."</ref>
==Relative chronology==
[[File:Centum Satem 2000BC.png|thumb|right|[[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] (orange) and [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] (red) are satem language families, whereas [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Hellenic languages|Greek]], and [[Italic languages|Italic]] (blue) are centum language families.{{sfn|Kapović|2017|loc=Map 1.1}}|alt=A map of Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia showing the dispersal of some Indo-European languages across Europe and Central Asia]]
The chronology of Weise's law is the subject of some debate. The depalatalization described by the law must have occurred by at least the time the [[Indo-Iranian languages]] diverged from the rest of Proto-Indo-European ({{circa|3000 BC}}).<ref>{{multiref2|{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}: "This means that the depalatalization before ''{{PIE|*r}}'' must be at least an Indo-Iranian development."|{{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=238}}.|{{harvnb|Kulikov|2017|p=205}}: "All Indo-Iranian languages derive from a common ancestor, the reconstructed Proto-Indo-Iranian language that was spoken around the end of the 3rd millennium BCE."}}</ref> Kloekhorst argues that it probably occurred much earlier, after the divergence of the [[Anatolian languages]] ({{circa|4500 BC}}),<ref>{{multiref|For the law's relationship to the Anatolian split, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}.|For the approximate time the Anatolian languages diverged from Proto-Indo-European, see {{harvnb|Goedegebuure|2020}}.}}</ref> since the distribution of late Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*u}}'' and ''{{PIE|*r}}'' underwent an exchange in placement, or [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]], which only occurred after both the Anatolian language family had diverged from Proto-Indo-European and palatovelars had undergone the depalatalization described by Weise's law. This explains exceptions such as Sanskrit {{lang|sa|श्मश्रु}} {{transliteration|sa|śmáśru}} 'beard', which derives from the form ''{{PIE|*smóḱ-ru-}}'' rather than from the earlier ''{{PIE|*smóḱ-ur}}'', attested in [[Hittite language|Hittite]] {{lang|hit|𒍝𒈠𒀭𒆳}} {{transliteration|hit|zama(n)kur}} 'beard'. The Sanskrit form does not show depalatalization because the depalatalization occurred only in environments where the palatovelar was followed by ''{{PIE|*r}}'' prior to this metathesis.{{efn|{{lang-sq|mjekër}} 'chin, beard' and {{lang-lt|smãkras}} 'chin' also derive from ''{{PIE|*smóḱ-ru-}}'', however the presence of plain velars suggests a later depalatalization in Albanian and Balto-Slavic.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}}}<ref>{{multiref|For the role of the metathesis on the law, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}} and {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2008a|loc=§11}}.|For the metathesis itself and the Hittite and Sanskrit examples, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2008b|p=1029}} and {{harvnb|Lubotsky|1994|loc=5–6§6}}.}}</ref>
In 1978, [[Frederik Kortlandt]] noted that, while it is tempting to assert that Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian depalatalizations derive from a common innovation, the scope of depalatalization is much larger in the Balto-Slavic languages and there is positive evidence that this kind of depalatalization never occurred in Armenian, pointing to examples like {{lang|hy|սրունք}} {{transliteration|hy|srunkʿ}} 'leg' from Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*ḱrūs-ni-}}'' and {{lang|hy|մերձ}} {{transliteration|hy|merj}} 'near, close to' from ''{{PIE|*méǵʰsri}}''.<ref>{{multiref|For Proto-Indo-European derivation of {{translit|hy|merj}}, see {{harvnb|Beekes|2003|p=204}}.|For the Proto-Indo-European derivation of {{translit|hy|srunkʿ}}, see {{harvnb|Martirosyan|2010|p=586}}.|For the rest, see {{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=239}}.}}</ref> Instead, Kortlandt suggested that Weise's law applies only to Indo-Iranian languages and, although Indo-Iranian languages and Balto-Slavic languages restored palatal features in a similar fashion, these restorations occurred independent of one another.{{sfn|Kortlandt|1978|p=242}} Based on Albanian and Balto-Slavic agreement in depalatalization, he considers Albanian to have been a [[Dialect continuum|transitional dialect]] of Balto-Slavic and Armenian during the same period.{{sfn|Kortlandt|1978|p=242}} [[Robert S. P. Beekes]], disputing some of Kortlandt's etymologies,{{sfn|Beekes|2003|pp=175, 196}} wrote that depalatalization is assumed to have taken place before ''{{PIE|*r}}'' in Armenian as well.{{sfn|Beekes|2003|p=176}}
Although the effects of the law are most clearly demonstrated in satem languages, Kloekhorst suggests that this sound change occurred before the centum–satem split, arguing that it almost certainly occurred in late Proto-Indo-European after the departure of the [[Anatolian languages]].{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}} While the law does not affect most of the generally accepted centum languages, Kloekhorst considers [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] to be satem languages because their reflexes appear to be in accordance with the law.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|pp=261, 269}}{{efn|This opinion is not unique to Kloekhorst; many linguists also categorize Albanian and Armenian as satem languages.{{sfn|Kapović|2017|loc=Map 1.1}}{{sfn|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xxiii}}{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=30}} [[Larry Trask]] also categorizes both as satem languages, but cautions that Albanian can only be categorized as such "with qualifications".{{sfn|Trask|2000|p=297}}}} Kloekhorst notes that it is likely that a secondary wave of depalatalization took place at a later date in each of those language families, because the results of Weise's law seem more extensive outside the [[Indo-Iranian languages]].{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}
==See also==
* [[boukólos rule|''Boukólos'' rule]] – a similar rule affecting labiovelar consonants in Proto-Indo-European, which affected the centum languages
==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* {{cite book | last=Beekes | first=Robert S. P. | author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes | editor-last=de Vaan | editor-first=Michiel | editor-link=Michiel de Vaan | title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics | publisher=John Benjamins Publishing | publication-place=Amsterdam | date=18 October 2011 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-90-272-8500-3 | oclc=730054595}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Beekes |first1=Robert S. P. |author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes |date=2003 |title=Historical phonology of Classical Armenian |url=http://www.robertbeekes.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/b109.pdf |journal=Armeniaca: Comparative Notes |pages=133–211 |access-date=18 February 2024 |location=[[Ann Arbor]]}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blanc |first1=Alain |last2=de Lamberterie |first2=Charles |author-link2=:fr:Charles de Lamberterie |date=February 2015 |title=Chronique d'étymologie grecque n°15 |trans-title=Chronicle of Greek Etymology, Number 15 |url= |language=fr |journal=Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=117–172 |doi=10.3917/phil.892.0117 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book | last=Clackson | first=James | author-link=James Clackson | title=Indo-European Linguistics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | publication-place=Cambridge | date=18 October 2007 | isbn=978-0-511-36609-3 | oclc=123113761}}
* {{cite book | last=de Vaan | first=Michiel | author-link=Michiel de Vaan | title=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages | publisher=Brill | publication-place=Leiden | date=2018 | isbn=978-90-04-16797-1 | oclc=225873936}}
* {{cite web |last=Goedegebuure |first=Petra |date=5 February 2020 |title=Anatolians on the Move: From Kurgans to Kanesh |type=Presentation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pe4jnBdVxjw |access-date=5 June 2024 |time=37:53–46:09 |publisher=[[Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures]]}}
* {{cite book | last=Kapović | first=Mate |author-link=Mate Kapović| title=The Indo-European Languages | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Language Family Series | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-317-39152-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Av0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 | location=Oxford | access-date=9 June 2024 }}
* {{cite web | last=Kleiner | first=Kurt | title=New Linguistics Technique Could Reveal Who Spoke the First Indo-European Languages | website=Scientific American | date=19 February 2024 | url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-linguistics-technique-could-reveal-who-spoke-the-first-indo-european-languages/ | access-date=1 August 2024}}
* {{cite conference |url=https://www.academia.edu/9796021 |url-access=registration |title=Weise's Law: depalatalization of palatovelars in Sanskrit|last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |author-link=Alwin Kloekhorst |date=September 2008a|location=Salzburg|conference=XIIIth International Conference of the Society of Indo-European Studies}}
* {{cite book |last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |author-link=Alwin Kloekhorst |date=2008b |editor-last=Lubotsky |editor-first=Alexander |editor-link=Alexander Lubotsky |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon |url=https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-the-hittite-inherited-lexicon/page/1029/mode/1up?view=theater |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=9789004160927 |issn=1574-3586}}
* {{cite web |url=https://kloekhorst.nl/KloekhorstWeisesLaw.pdf |title=Weise's Law: Depalatalization of Palatovelars before ''*r'' in Sanskrit|last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |author-link=Alwin Kloekhorst |year=2011|orig-date=2008 |place=Salzburg|publication-place=[[Wiesbaden]], [[Germany]]|publisher=Indo-European Studies and Linguistics in Dialog: Acts of the XIIIth Conference of the Society of Indo-European Studies}}
* {{cite book |chapter-url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2732652/download |title=Recent Developments in Historical Phonology |chapter=I.-E. palatovelars before resonants in Balto-Slavic |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |author-link=Frederik Kortlandt |editor-last=Fisiak |editor-first=Jacek|doi=10.1515/9783110810929.237 |date=1978 |pages=237–243 |location=[[The Hague]] |publisher=Mouton |isbn=978-90-279-7706-9 |access-date=17 February 2024}}
* {{cite book |last=Kulikov |first=Leonid |editor-last=Kapović |editor-first=Mate |editor-link=Mate Kapović |date=2017 |title=The Indo-European Languages |chapter=Indo-Iranian |edition=2 |series=Routledge Language Family Series |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322264812 |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-67855-9}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lubotsky |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Lubotsky |date=1994 |title=Avestan {{translit|ae|θβōrәštar-}} and the Indo-European root √''{{PIE|*turḱ-}}'' |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=94–102 |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2889204/view |location=Vienna |publisher=Vienna Language Society |journal=Die Sprache}}
* {{cite book | last=Martirosyan | first=Hrach K. | author-link=Hrach Martirosyan | title=Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon | publisher=Brill Publishers | publication-place=Leiden | date=2010 | isbn=978-90-04-17337-8 | oclc=262430532}}
* {{cite book | last=Mayrhofer | first=Manfred | author-link=Manfred Mayrhofer | title=Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen | trans-title=An Etymological Dictionary of Old Indo-Aryan | publisher=[[:de:Universitätsverlag Winter|Universitätsverlag Winter]] | publication-place=[[Heidelberg]] | date=1986 | isbn=3-533-03826-2 | language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Meillet |first=Antoine|author-link=Antoine Meillet |editor-last1=Bouillon|editor-first1=Émile |date=1894 |title=Mémoires de la Société de la Linguistique de Paris|trans-title=Dissertations from the [[Société de Linguistique de Paris|Linguistics Society of Paris]]|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822025038910&seq=9 |chapter=De quelques difficultés de la théorie des gutturales indo-européennes|trans-chapter=On some difficulties of the theory of Indo-European gutturals |volume=8 |location=Paris|publisher=Société Linguistique de Paris|pages=277–304 |language=fr}} {{open access}}
* {{cite book | last=Swiggers |first=Pierre| editor-last=Vennemann | editor-first=Theo |editor-link=Theo Vennemann |chapter=Towards a characterization of the Proto-Indo-European sound system |pages=177–208 | title=The New Sound of Indo-European | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | date=1 June 2011 |location=Berlin | isbn=978-3-11-085734-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Trask | first=R. L. |author-link=Larry Trask | title=Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics | publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] | location=Edinburgh | date=2000 | jstor=10.3366/j.ctvxcrt50 | isbn=978-1-4744-7331-6 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctvxcrt50 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web | last1=Vine | first1=Brent | last2=Untermann | first2=Jürgen | author-link2=Jürgen Untermann | title=Latin, Oscan, Umbrian & Faliscan | website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] | date=19 October 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italic-languages | access-date=12 July 2024}}
* {{cite journal |last=Weise |first=Oskar |date=1881 |title=Ist anlautendes γ vor λ abgefallen?|trans-title=Is initial γ dropped before λ? |url=https://archive.org/details/beitrgezurkunde14prelgoog/page/n115/mode/1up |journal=Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen|trans-journal=Contributions to the Science of Indo-European Languages|volume=6 |pages=105–118 |language=de |access-date=16 February 2024}}
{{refend}}
{{Proto-Indo-European language}}
{{authority control}}
[[Category:Sound laws]]
[[Category:Indo-Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
[[Category:Proto-Indo-European language]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Proto-Indo-European language sound law}}
{{good article}}
{{use American English|date=July 2024}}
{{Contains special characters|PIE}}
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'''Weise's law''' is a term used to describe the loss of palatalization some consonants undergo in specific contexts in the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]. In short, when the consonants represented by ''{{PIE|*ḱ}}'' ''{{PIE|*ǵ}}'' ''{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}'', called palatovelar consonants, are followed by ''{{PIE|*r}}'', they lose their palatalized quality and thereby merge with the [[Velar consonants|plain velar consonants]] ''{{PIE|*k}} {{PIE|*g}} {{PIE|*gʰ}}'', respectively. Some exceptions exist, such as when the ''{{PIE|*r}}'' is followed by ''{{PIE|*i}}'' or when the palatalized form is restored [[Analogical change|by analogy]] with related words. Although this sound change is most prominent in the satem languages, it is believed that the change must have occurred prior to the [[Centum and satem languages|centum–satem division]], based on an earlier sound change which affected the distribution of Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*u}}'' and ''{{PIE|*r}}''. The law is named after the German linguist [[Oskar Weise]], who first postulated it in 1881 as the solution to reconciling cognates in [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]].
==Terminology==
The [[Proto-Indo-European language]] is the hypothetical parent language of the [[Indo-European languages]]. The language is believed to have been spoken around the 4th millennium BC,{{sfn|Trask|2000|p=267}} though some linguists argue that the 6th or 7th millennia BC are more likely.{{sfn|Kleiner|2024}} No record of the language has been found, but its forms have been [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] through the [[comparative method]].<ref>{{multiref|For the lack of record of Proto-Indo-European, see {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=267}}.|For its reconstruction by comparative linguistics, see {{harvnb|Clackson|2007|p=1}} and {{harvnb|Beekes|2011|p=xv}}.}}</ref>
Weise's law is a sound change that affects a series of sounds in the Proto-Indo-European language called palatovelar consonants, sometimes called dorso-palatal or simply palatal consonants.<ref>{{multiref|For palatovelar nomenclature and those consonants' relationship to Weise's law, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}}.|For dorso-palatal, see {{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvii}}.|For palatal, see {{harvnb|Clackson|2007|p=49}} and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=53}}.}}</ref> The precise pronunciation of these sounds is not known, though they are described as being articulated both with the back part of the tongue and the [[hard palate]] of the mouth, represented with ''{{PIE|*ḱ}}'', ''{{PIE|*ǵ}}'', and ''{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}''.{{sfn|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvii}} They are contrasted with plain velar consonants, also referred to as dorso-velar or simply velar consonants, which are described as being articulated with the back part of the tongue and the [[soft palate]], represented by ''{{PIE|*k}}'', ''{{PIE|*g}}'', and ''{{PIE|*gʰ}}''.{{sfn|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvii}} Both of these sets were further contrasted with the [[Labialized velar consonant|labiovelar consonants]], likely pronounced with a simultaneous articulation with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate and the [[Labialization|rounding of the lips]], represented by ''{{PIE|*kʷ}}'', ''{{PIE|*gʷ}}'', and ''{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}''.<ref>{{multiref|For the precise description of how the sound is articulated, see {{harvnb|Vine|Untermann|1998}}.|For the term in Indo-Europeanist literature and the associated graphemes, see {{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xx}}, {{harvnb|Clackson|2007|p=49}}, {{harvnb|Swiggers|2011|p=184}}, and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=181}}.}}</ref> These three contrastive sets are often known collectively as [[Guttural|guttural consonants]].{{sfn|Swiggers|2011|p=184}}
Although almost no attested language in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]] distinguishes between these three sets of consonants,{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}} [[Historical linguistics|historical linguists]] divide the Indo-European [[daughter language]]s into two categories based on how these sounds developed over time, either into centum or satem languages. The terms centum and satem are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word ''{{PIE|*dḱm̥tóm}}'', later shortened into ''{{PIE|*ḱm̥tóm}}'', meaning 'one hundred'.{{sfn|Beekes|2011|pp=30, 303}}{{sfn|Trask|2000|p=53}} Centum languages, named after the [[Latin]] word for 'one hundred', are those languages in which the palatovelar sounds underwent depalatalization – that is, lost their palatal quality – thereby merging with the plain velars, creating only a two-way contrast between plain velars and labiovelar sounds.<ref>{{multiref|For the definition of depalatalization, see {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=86}}.|For its derivation from the Latin term, see {{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xvi}} and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=53}}.|For the centum example of depalatalization, see {{harvnb|Beekes|2003|p=30}}.|For the process of merging, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}} and {{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=53}}.}}</ref> By contrast, satem languages, named after the [[Avestan]] word for 'one hundred' ({{lang|ae|𐬯𐬀𐬙𐬆𐬨}} {{translit|ae|satəm}}), are those in which the labiovelar sounds merged with the plain velar sounds, while the palatovelar sounds underwent [[assibilation]] – also called satemization in this particular context – whereby these palatovelars became [[Sibilant|sibilant consonants]].<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xxiii}}.|{{harvnb|Beekes|2011|p=302}}.|{{harvnb|Trask|2000|p=297}}.}}</ref> Sibilant consonants comprise [[affricate]]s, such as [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|[t͡ʃ]]] (as in '''''ch'''at''), and [[fricative]]s, such as [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|[s]]] (as in '''''s'''unk'').{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=302}}<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|sibilant|accessdate=12 July 2024}}</ref>
==History==
[[File:Eisenberg Wohnhaus Oskar Weise Tafel.jpg|Weise's epitaph in [[Eisenberg, Thuringia|Eisenberg, Germany]], which reads in part: 'Here lived the researcher and teacher of our mother tongue, {{lang|de|[[Geheimrat]]}} Prof. Dr. Oskar Weise [...]'|thumb|alt=A black sign with gold Gothic lettering on the side of a concrete building]]
[[Oskar Weise]] first described a problem in correspondences between [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]] cognates in an 1881 article for the [[Indo-European studies|Indo-Europeanist]] periodical ''[[Historische Sprachforschung|Articles on the Science of the Indo-European Languages]]'' ({{lang-de|Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen}}) entitled "Is initial γ dropped before λ?" ({{lang|de|Ist anlautendes γ vor λ abgefallen?|italics=yes}}).<ref>{{multiref|{{harvnb|Weise|1881|p=115}}.|{{harvnb|Blanc|de Lamberterie|2015}}.|{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}}.|{{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=238}}.}}</ref> In it, he notes an imbalance in the relationship between Ancient Greek and Sanskrit cognates, writing:
{{blockquote|
If we examine the Indic words beginning with guttural + ''r'' or ''l'' and compare them with their Greek reflexes, we will notice that all those which have retained the guttural in Indic intact show guttural + ''[[Rho|ρ]]'', whereas Greek guttural + ''[[Lambda|λ]]'' only occurs regularly when the palatal sibilants [''ś''], ''j'', ''h'' appear in Indic. The absence of exceptions in this rule automatically prohibits the assumption that coincidence prevailed here. Of course, this excludes cases where ''r'' (or ''l'') is not immediately after the guttural, but there is a vowel in between, although the rule stated above often applies here too.{{sfn|Weise|1881|p=115}}
}}
According to [[Alwin Kloekhorst]] in 2011, Weise's original article has "been largely forgotten by the scholarly world", but its findings have appeared sporadically in linguistic literature with some of it needing revision in light of other research.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}} In 1894, [[Antoine Meillet]] described the law and defended it as established fact in a dissertation for the [[Société de Linguistique de Paris]] on the difficulty of determining gutturals in Proto-Indo-European, citing Weise as its progenitor.<ref>{{harvnb|Meillet|1894|p=278}}: "{{lang|fr|Or on a constaté depuis longtemps que les cas de correspondance α′β sont particulièrement fréquents dans le voisinage de certains phonèmes: après ''u'' (de Saussure, dans ces Mémoires, 6, 161) et devant ''r'' (Weise, dans Bezz. Beit., 6, 115).|italic=unset}}" ({{translation|'Now we have long noted that cases of α′β correspondence are particularly frequent in the vicinity of certain phonemes: after ''u'' [de Saussure, in those Mémoires, 6, 161] and before ''r'' [Weise, in Bezz. Beit., 6, 115].'}})</ref> In 1978, [[Frederik Kortlandt]] similarly considered Weise's findings strong but limited in scope, citing both Weise's and Meillet's works on the law in his own research on the [[Balto-Slavic languages]].{{sfn|Kortlandt|1978|pp=238–240}} In 1995, [[Robert S. P. Beekes]] also described the process derived from the law, but did not reference its origins with Weise.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}}{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=126}} Kloekhorst presented a defense of the law at a conference in 2008,{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2008a}} followed by a more complete account – ''Weise's Law: Depalatalization of Palatovelars before ''*r'' in Sanskrit'' – published in 2011.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011}} The 2011 defense conglomerates several different sources on the topic, some referencing Weise and some not, and summarizes its general characteristics, its relative chronology, and possible violations; its contents are a revision of his work done in 1999.<ref>{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=261}}: "This article is a revision of my {{lang|nl|Kleine Scriptie}} (~ BA thesis) [...] written in 1999 [...]"</ref> Kloekhorst has been credited with reviving interest in the law.<ref>{{harvnb|Blanc|de Lamberterie|2015}}: "{{lang|fr|italic=no|Selon ce auteur, d'après une loi établie par O. Weise et remise en honneur par A. Kloekhorst [...]}}" ({{trans|'According to this author, following a law established by O. Weise and brought to new appreciation by A. Kloekhorst [...]'}})</ref>
==Overview==
{{multiple image
| perrow = 3
| total_width = 450
| align = left
| image1 = Voiceless palatal plosive.svg
| width1 = 150
| alt1 = An illustrated view of the inside of the mouth with the middle of the tongue pressed against the roof of the mouth
| image2 = Voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate.gif
| width2 = 150
| alt2 = An illustrated gif of the inside of the mouth where the tip of the tongue alternates between the pressing against the alveolar ridge and constricting airflow just behind the teeth
| image3 = Voiceless alveolar fricative articulation.svg
| width3 = 150
| alt3 = An illustrated view of the inside of the mouth with the tip of the tongue constricting airflow just behind the teeth
| footer = These three images show one example of assibilation from inside the mouth; from left to right: [[Voiceless palatal plosive|palatal stop]] ({{IPA|und|c}}), [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|alveolar sibilant affricate]] ({{IPA|und|t͡s}}), and [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|alveolar fricative]] ({{IPA|und|s}}). The [[Place of articulation|tongue's point of contact or constriction]] moves increasingly forward, from the [[Palatal consonants|palate]] to [[Alveolar consonants|just behind the teeth]].
| footer_align = left
}}
Weise's law describes a depalatalization which affects the palatovelar consonants of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]: ''{{PIE|*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ}}''. In the satem languages, as well as in [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]],{{efn|Albanian and Armenian have a controversial placement in centum–satem taxonomy. See {{slink|Centum and satem languages|Satem languages}} for further discussion.}} these sounds became fricatives, such as {{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|[s]]]}} or {{IPA|[[Voiced alveolar fricative|[z]]]}}, rather than remaining [[Plosive|stops]]. Weise's law, however, demonstrates that these sounds depalatalize before ''{{PIE|*r}}'', thereby merging with the plain velar stops ''{{PIE|*k}} {{PIE|*g}} {{PIE|*gʰ}}''.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}} Because the palatovelar sounds underwent [[assibilation]] – that is, underwent the process of becoming [[sibilant]]s – in the satem languages while the plain velars did not, the merging of palatovelars with plain velars explains why these words have plain velar [[Reflex (linguistics)|reflexes]] in words that share a common Indo-European root containing a palatovelar. In other words, while the palatovelar stops were made into alveolar sibilants in most cases, Weise's law explains many exceptions, though not all.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=262}}
Sanskrit words contain many potential violations of the rule, particularly in circumstances where the surface representation of the word contains {{transliteration|sa|śr-}} or {{transliteration|sa|hr-}}, implying a derivation from an unmodified ''{{PIE|*ḱr-}}'' or ''{{PIE|*ǵʰr-}}'' source. However, these are often the result of later sound changes particular to a language or [[language family]]. Examples can be found in Sanskrit, where /l/ became /r/ in many circumstances, such as in {{lang-sa|श्रवस्}} {{transliteration|sa|śravas}} 'fame', which is derived from Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*ḱleu-es-}}'', and {{lang|sa|ह्राद्}} {{transliteration|sa|hrād}} 'to resound, to make a noise', which is derived from ''{{PIE|*ǵʰleh₃d-}}''.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|pp=265–266}} The effects of the law are commonly found in [[Indo-European ablaut#Ablaut grades|zero-grade]] stems – that is, stems without vowels – which often receive [[Epenthesis|inserted]] vowels in [[daughter language]]s to ease pronounceability, such as in {{lang|sa|हिरण्य}} {{transliteration|sa|híraṇya}} 'gold', which is derived from ''{{PIE|*ǵʰlh₃-en-}}''. Thus, these apparent counterexamples do not actually represent exceptions to the rule.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}
Other apparent violations occur in contexts in which the palatovelar consonant and ''{{PIE|*r}}'' cross a morphemic boundary, such as between an [[affix]] and the word it modifies, or share a clear derivational relationship with another word that would not have been subjected to the sound law, leading to an [[analogical change]].<ref>{{multiref|For apparent violations that cross a morpheme boundary, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}.|For apparent violations that occur as a result of a clear derivational relationship, see {{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=238}} and {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}.}}.</ref> In other words, if several words are derived from the same original root word, but only one is derived from a context in which Weise's law would apply, the one originally affected may appear to violate the law later on since the two words may be so closely associated with one another that the form is restored by analogy to the others. One such example of this is Sanskrit {{lang|sa|अज्र}} {{transliteration|sa|ájra}} 'field, plain', which is derived from ''{{PIE|[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂éǵros|h₂éǵ-ro-]]}}'' 'field, pasturage'; in this example, the expected outcome is {{lang|sa|*अग्र}} {{translit|sa|*ágra}},{{efn|The term {{lang|sa|अग्र}} {{translit|sa|agra}} 'the best of its kind, summit' is an attested form in the language,{{sfn|Mayrhofer|1986|p=45}} but it is derived from a completely distinct form and has no semantic or taxonomic relationship with {{lang|sa|अज्र}} {{transliteration|sa|ájra}}. It may be a derivative {{lang|sa|अङ्ग्}} {{translit|sa|aṅg}} 'to go'{{sfn|Monier-Williams|1899|p=6}} or related to [[Latvian language|Latvian]] {{lang|lv|agrs}} 'early'.{{sfn|Mayrhofer|1986|p=45}}}} but the reflex of the palatalized consonant has been restored due to an obvious connection with {{lang|sa|अजति}} {{transliteration|sa|ájati}} 'to drive', derived from the same root (''{{PIE|*h₂eǵ-}}'' 'to drive') but in a context which would not subject it to the sound change.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=266}}
All other violations of the rule appear in the particular sequence ''{{PIE|*Ḱri}}'', where ''Ḱ'' represents any palatovelar sound. Kloekhorst suggests that the [[Close front unrounded vowel|high front vowel]] ''{{PIE|*i}}'' may have palatalized the preceding ''{{PIE|*r}}'', giving no motivation to depalatalize the initial palatovelar sound.<ref>{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=268}}: "It is therefore attractive to assume that in the sequence ''{{PIE|*Ḱri-}}'' the palatovelar was not depalatalized because the ''{{PIE|*r}}'' itself was phonetically somewhat palatalized due to the following ''{{PIE|*i}}''."</ref>
==Relative chronology==
[[File:Centum Satem 2000BC.png|thumb|right|[[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] (orange) and [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] (red) are satem language families, whereas [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Hellenic languages|Greek]], and [[Italic languages|Italic]] (blue) are centum language families.{{sfn|Kapović|2017|loc=Map 1.1}}|alt=A map of Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia showing the dispersal of some Indo-European languages across Europe and Central Asia]]
The chronology of Weise's law is the subject of some debate. The depalatalization described by the law must have occurred by at least the time the [[Indo-Iranian languages]] diverged from the rest of Proto-Indo-European ({{circa|3000 BC}}).<ref>{{multiref2|{{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}: "This means that the depalatalization before ''{{PIE|*r}}'' must be at least an Indo-Iranian development."|{{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=238}}.|{{harvnb|Kulikov|2017|p=205}}: "All Indo-Iranian languages derive from a common ancestor, the reconstructed Proto-Indo-Iranian language that was spoken around the end of the 3rd millennium BCE."}}</ref> Kloekhorst argues that it probably occurred much earlier, after the divergence of the [[Anatolian languages]] ({{circa|4500 BC}}),<ref>{{multiref|For the law's relationship to the Anatolian split, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}.|For the approximate time the Anatolian languages diverged from Proto-Indo-European, see {{harvnb|Goedegebuure|2020}}.}}</ref> since the distribution of late Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*u}}'' and ''{{PIE|*r}}'' underwent an exchange in placement, or [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]], which only occurred after both the Anatolian language family had diverged from Proto-Indo-European and palatovelars had undergone the depalatalization described by Weise's law. This explains exceptions such as Sanskrit {{lang|sa|श्मश्रु}} {{transliteration|sa|śmáśru}} 'beard', which derives from the form ''{{PIE|*smóḱ-ru-}}'' rather than from the earlier ''{{PIE|*smóḱ-ur}}'', attested in [[Hittite language|Hittite]] {{lang|hit|𒍝𒈠𒀭𒆳}} {{transliteration|hit|zama(n)kur}} 'beard'. The Sanskrit form does not show depalatalization because the depalatalization occurred only in environments where the palatovelar was followed by ''{{PIE|*r}}'' prior to this metathesis.{{efn|{{lang-sq|mjekër}} 'chin, beard' and {{lang-lt|smãkras}} 'chin' also derive from ''{{PIE|*smóḱ-ru-}}'', however the presence of plain velars suggests a later depalatalization in Albanian and Balto-Slavic.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}}}<ref>{{multiref|For the role of the metathesis on the law, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}} and {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2008a|loc=§11}}.|For the metathesis itself and the Hittite and Sanskrit examples, see {{harvnb|Kloekhorst|2008b|p=1029}} and {{harvnb|Lubotsky|1994|loc=5–6§6}}.}}</ref>
In 1978, [[Frederik Kortlandt]] noted that, while it is tempting to assert that Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian depalatalizations derive from a common innovation, the scope of depalatalization is much larger in the Balto-Slavic languages and there is positive evidence that this kind of depalatalization never occurred in Armenian, pointing to examples like {{lang|hy|սրունք}} {{transliteration|hy|srunkʿ}} 'leg' from Proto-Indo-European ''{{PIE|*ḱrūs-ni-}}'' and {{lang|hy|մերձ}} {{transliteration|hy|merj}} 'near, close to' from ''{{PIE|*méǵʰsri}}''.<ref>{{multiref|For Proto-Indo-European derivation of {{translit|hy|merj}}, see {{harvnb|Beekes|2003|p=204}}.|For the Proto-Indo-European derivation of {{translit|hy|srunkʿ}}, see {{harvnb|Martirosyan|2010|p=586}}.|For the rest, see {{harvnb|Kortlandt|1978|p=239}}.}}</ref> Instead, Kortlandt suggested that Weise's law applies only to Indo-Iranian languages and, although Indo-Iranian languages and Balto-Slavic languages restored palatal features in a similar fashion, these restorations occurred independent of one another.{{sfn|Kortlandt|1978|p=242}} Based on Albanian and Balto-Slavic agreement in depalatalization, he considers Albanian to have been a [[Dialect continuum|transitional dialect]] of Balto-Slavic and Armenian during the same period.{{sfn|Kortlandt|1978|p=242}} [[Robert S. P. Beekes]], disputing some of Kortlandt's etymologies,{{sfn|Beekes|2003|pp=175, 196}} wrote that depalatalization is assumed to have taken place before ''{{PIE|*r}}'' in Armenian as well.{{sfn|Beekes|2003|p=176}}
Although the effects of the law are most clearly demonstrated in satem languages, Kloekhorst suggests that this sound change occurred before the centum–satem split, arguing that it almost certainly occurred in late Proto-Indo-European after the departure of the [[Anatolian languages]].{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}} While the law does not affect most of the generally accepted centum languages, Kloekhorst considers [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] to be satem languages because their reflexes appear to be in accordance with the law.{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|pp=261, 269}}{{efn|This opinion is not unique to Kloekhorst; many linguists also categorize Albanian and Armenian as satem languages.{{sfn|Kapović|2017|loc=Map 1.1}}{{sfn|Adams|Baldi|Barber|Beekes|1997|p=xxiii}}{{sfn|Beekes|2011|p=30}} [[Larry Trask]] also categorizes both as satem languages, but cautions that Albanian can only be categorized as such "with qualifications".{{sfn|Trask|2000|p=297}}}} Kloekhorst notes that it is likely that a secondary wave of depalatalization took place at a later date in each of those language families, because the results of Weise's law seem more extensive outside the [[Indo-Iranian languages]].{{sfn|Kloekhorst|2011|p=269}}
==See also==
* [[boukólos rule|''Boukólos'' rule]] – a similar rule affecting labiovelar consonants in Proto-Indo-European, which affected the centum languages
==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book | editor-last=Mallory | editor-first=J. P. | editor-last2=Adams | editor-first2=Douglas Q. |last1=Adams |first1=Douglas Q. |author-link=Douglas Q. Adams |last2=Baldi |first2=Philip |author-link2=Philip Baldi |last3=Barber |first3=E. J. |author-link3=Elizabeth Wayland Barber |last4=Beekes |first4=Robert S. P. |author-link4=Robert S. P. Beekes |last5=Della Volpe |first5=Angela |last6=Robbins Dexter |first6=Miriam |last7=Friedrich |first7=Paul |author-link7=Paul Friedrich (linguist) |last8=Greppin |first8=John |author-link8=John A. C. Greppin |last9=Jellison Hansen |first9=Leigh |last10=Huld |first10=Martin |author-link10=Martin E. Huld |last11=Justus |first11=Carol |author-link11=Carol F. Justus|last12=Mallory |first12=J. P. |author-link12=J. P. Mallory |last13=Miller |first13=Dean |author-link13=Dean A. Miller |last14=Niepokuj |first14=Mary |last15=O'Brien |first15=Steven |last16=Polomé |first16=Edgar C. |author-link16=Edgar C. Polomé |last17=Salmons |first17=Joe |author-link17=Joe Salmons| title=[[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture]] | publisher=Taylor & Francis | publication-place=London | date=1997 | isbn=978-1-884964-98-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Beekes | first=Robert S. P. | author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes | editor-last=de Vaan | editor-first=Michiel | editor-link=Michiel de Vaan | title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics | publisher=John Benjamins Publishing | publication-place=Amsterdam | date=18 October 2011 | edition=2nd | isbn=978-90-272-8500-3 | oclc=730054595}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Beekes |first1=Robert S. P. |author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes |date=2003 |title=Historical phonology of Classical Armenian |url=http://www.robertbeekes.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/b109.pdf |journal=Armeniaca: Comparative Notes |pages=133–211 |access-date=18 February 2024 |location=[[Ann Arbor]]}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Blanc |first1=Alain |last2=de Lamberterie |first2=Charles |author-link2=:fr:Charles de Lamberterie |date=February 2015 |title=Chronique d'étymologie grecque n°15 |trans-title=Chronicle of Greek Etymology, Number 15 |url= |language=fr |journal=Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=117–172 |doi=10.3917/phil.892.0117 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book | last=Clackson | first=James | author-link=James Clackson | title=Indo-European Linguistics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | publication-place=Cambridge | date=18 October 2007 | isbn=978-0-511-36609-3 | oclc=123113761}}
* {{cite book | last=de Vaan | first=Michiel | author-link=Michiel de Vaan | title=Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages | publisher=Brill | publication-place=Leiden | date=2018 | isbn=978-90-04-16797-1 | oclc=225873936}}
* {{cite web |last=Goedegebuure |first=Petra |date=5 February 2020 |title=Anatolians on the Move: From Kurgans to Kanesh |type=Presentation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pe4jnBdVxjw |access-date=5 June 2024 |time=37:53–46:09 |publisher=[[Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures]]}}
* {{cite book | last=Kapović | first=Mate |author-link=Mate Kapović| title=The Indo-European Languages | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Language Family Series | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-317-39152-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Av0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 | location=Oxford | access-date=9 June 2024 }}
* {{cite web | last=Kleiner | first=Kurt | title=New Linguistics Technique Could Reveal Who Spoke the First Indo-European Languages | website=Scientific American | date=19 February 2024 | url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-linguistics-technique-could-reveal-who-spoke-the-first-indo-european-languages/ | access-date=1 August 2024}}
* {{cite conference |url=https://www.academia.edu/9796021 |url-access=registration |title=Weise's Law: depalatalization of palatovelars in Sanskrit|last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |author-link=Alwin Kloekhorst |date=September 2008a|location=Salzburg|conference=XIIIth International Conference of the Society of Indo-European Studies}}
* {{cite book |last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |author-link=Alwin Kloekhorst |date=2008b |editor-last=Lubotsky |editor-first=Alexander |editor-link=Alexander Lubotsky |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon |url=https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-the-hittite-inherited-lexicon/page/1029/mode/1up?view=theater |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=Brill Publishers |isbn=9789004160927 |issn=1574-3586}}
* {{cite web |url=https://kloekhorst.nl/KloekhorstWeisesLaw.pdf |title=Weise's Law: Depalatalization of Palatovelars before ''*r'' in Sanskrit|last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |author-link=Alwin Kloekhorst |year=2011|orig-date=2008 |place=Salzburg|publication-place=[[Wiesbaden]], [[Germany]]|publisher=Indo-European Studies and Linguistics in Dialog: Acts of the XIIIth Conference of the Society of Indo-European Studies}}
* {{cite book |chapter-url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2732652/download |title=Recent Developments in Historical Phonology |chapter=I.-E. palatovelars before resonants in Balto-Slavic |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |author-link=Frederik Kortlandt |editor-last=Fisiak |editor-first=Jacek|doi=10.1515/9783110810929.237 |date=1978 |pages=237–243 |location=[[The Hague]] |publisher=Mouton |isbn=978-90-279-7706-9 |access-date=17 February 2024}}
* {{cite book |last=Kulikov |first=Leonid |editor-last=Kapović |editor-first=Mate |editor-link=Mate Kapović |date=2017 |title=The Indo-European Languages |chapter=Indo-Iranian |edition=2 |series=Routledge Language Family Series |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322264812 |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-67855-9}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lubotsky |first=Alexander |author-link=Alexander Lubotsky |date=1994 |title=Avestan {{translit|ae|θβōrәštar-}} and the Indo-European root √''{{PIE|*turḱ-}}'' |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=94–102 |url=https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2889204/view |location=Vienna |publisher=Vienna Language Society |journal=Die Sprache}}
* {{cite book | last=Martirosyan | first=Hrach K. | author-link=Hrach Martirosyan | title=Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon | publisher=Brill Publishers | publication-place=Leiden | date=2010 | isbn=978-90-04-17337-8 | oclc=262430532}}
* {{cite book | last=Mayrhofer | first=Manfred | author-link=Manfred Mayrhofer | title=Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen | trans-title=An Etymological Dictionary of Old Indo-Aryan | publisher=[[:de:Universitätsverlag Winter|Universitätsverlag Winter]] | publication-place=[[Heidelberg]] | date=1986 | isbn=3-533-03826-2 | language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Meillet |first=Antoine|author-link=Antoine Meillet |editor-last1=Bouillon|editor-first1=Émile |date=1894 |title=Mémoires de la Société de la Linguistique de Paris|trans-title=Dissertations from the [[Société de Linguistique de Paris|Linguistics Society of Paris]]|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822025038910&seq=9 |chapter=De quelques difficultés de la théorie des gutturales indo-européennes|trans-chapter=On some difficulties of the theory of Indo-European gutturals |volume=8 |location=Paris|publisher=Société Linguistique de Paris|pages=277–304 |language=fr}} {{open access}}
* {{cite book | last=Swiggers |first=Pierre| editor-last=Vennemann | editor-first=Theo |editor-link=Theo Vennemann |chapter=Towards a characterization of the Proto-Indo-European sound system |pages=177–208 | title=The New Sound of Indo-European | publisher=Walter de Gruyter | date=1 June 2011 |location=Berlin | isbn=978-3-11-085734-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Trask | first=R. L. |author-link=Larry Trask | title=Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics | publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] | location=Edinburgh | date=2000 | jstor=10.3366/j.ctvxcrt50 | isbn=978-1-4744-7331-6 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctvxcrt50 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite web | last1=Vine | first1=Brent | last2=Untermann | first2=Jürgen | author-link2=Jürgen Untermann | title=Latin, Oscan, Umbrian & Faliscan | website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] | date=19 October 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italic-languages | access-date=12 July 2024}}
* {{cite journal |last=Weise |first=Oskar |date=1881 |title=Ist anlautendes γ vor λ abgefallen?|trans-title=Is initial γ dropped before λ? |url=https://archive.org/details/beitrgezurkunde14prelgoog/page/n115/mode/1up |journal=Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen|trans-journal=Contributions to the Science of Indo-European Languages|volume=6 |pages=105–118 |language=de |access-date=16 February 2024}}
{{refend}}
{{Proto-Indo-European language}}
{{authority control}}
[[Category:Sound laws]]
[[Category:Indo-Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
[[Category:Proto-Indo-European language]]
[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Proto-Indo-European language sound law</div>
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<p><b>Weise's law</b> is a term used to describe the loss of palatalization some consonants undergo in specific contexts in the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a>. In short, when the consonants represented by <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ḱ</span></span></i> <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ǵ</span></span></i> <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ǵʰ</span></span></i>, called palatovelar consonants, are followed by <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i>, they lose their palatalized quality and thereby merge with the <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar consonants">plain velar consonants</a> <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*k</span></span> <span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*g</span></span> <span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*gʰ</span></span></i>, respectively. Some exceptions exist, such as when the <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i> is followed by <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*i</span></span></i> or when the palatalized form is restored <a href="/wiki/Analogical_change" title="Analogical change">by analogy</a> with related words. Although this sound change is most prominent in the satem languages, it is believed that the change must have occurred prior to the <a href="/wiki/Centum_and_satem_languages" title="Centum and satem languages">centum–satem division</a>, based on an earlier sound change which affected the distribution of Proto-Indo-European <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*u</span></span></i> and <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i>. The law is named after the German linguist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oskar_Weise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oskar Weise (page does not exist)">Oskar Weise</a>, who first postulated it in 1881 as the solution to reconciling cognates in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>.
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<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Terminology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Terminology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Relative_chronology"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Relative chronology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">6.2</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">6.3</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> is the hypothetical parent language of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>. The language is believed to have been spoken around the 4th millennium BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrask2000267_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrask2000267-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though some linguists argue that the 6th or 7th millennia BC are more likely.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKleiner2024_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKleiner2024-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No record of the language has been found, but its forms have been <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Weise's law is a sound change that affects a series of sounds in the Proto-Indo-European language called palatovelar consonants, sometimes called dorso-palatal or simply palatal consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The precise pronunciation of these sounds is not known, though they are described as being articulated both with the back part of the tongue and the <a href="/wiki/Hard_palate" title="Hard palate">hard palate</a> of the mouth, represented with <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ḱ</span></span></i>, <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ǵ</span></span></i>, and <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ǵʰ</span></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xvii_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xvii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are contrasted with plain velar consonants, also referred to as dorso-velar or simply velar consonants, which are described as being articulated with the back part of the tongue and the <a href="/wiki/Soft_palate" title="Soft palate">soft palate</a>, represented by <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*k</span></span></i>, <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*g</span></span></i>, and <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*gʰ</span></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xvii_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xvii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these sets were further contrasted with the <a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labiovelar consonants</a>, likely pronounced with a simultaneous articulation with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate and the <a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">rounding of the lips</a>, represented by <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*kʷ</span></span></i>, <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*gʷ</span></span></i>, and <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*gʷʰ</span></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These three contrastive sets are often known collectively as <a href="/wiki/Guttural" title="Guttural">guttural consonants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwiggers2011184_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwiggers2011184-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Although almost no attested language in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European language family</a> distinguishes between these three sets of consonants,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">historical linguists</a> divide the Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Daughter_language" title="Daughter language">daughter languages</a> into two categories based on how these sounds developed over time, either into centum or satem languages. The terms centum and satem are derived from the Proto-Indo-European word <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*dḱm̥tóm</span></span></i>, later shortened into <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ḱm̥tóm</span></span></i>, meaning 'one hundred'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130,_303_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130,_303-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrask200053_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrask200053-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Centum languages, named after the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word for 'one hundred', are those languages in which the palatovelar sounds underwent depalatalization – that is, lost their palatal quality – thereby merging with the plain velars, creating only a two-way contrast between plain velars and labiovelar sounds.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, satem languages, named after the <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> word for 'one hundred' (<span title="Avestan-language text"><span lang="ae" dir="rtl">𐬯𐬀𐬙𐬆𐬨</span></span> <span title="Avestan-language romanization"><i lang="ae-Latn">satəm</i></span>), are those in which the labiovelar sounds merged with the plain velar sounds, while the palatovelar sounds underwent <a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">assibilation</a> – also called satemization in this particular context – whereby these palatovelars became <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilant consonants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sibilant consonants comprise <a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">affricates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">[t͡ʃ]</a> (as in <i><b>ch</b>at</i>), and <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">[s]</a> (as in <i><b>s</b>unk</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011302_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011302-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenberg_Wohnhaus_Oskar_Weise_Tafel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black sign with gold Gothic lettering on the side of a concrete building" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Eisenberg_Wohnhaus_Oskar_Weise_Tafel.jpg/220px-Eisenberg_Wohnhaus_Oskar_Weise_Tafel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Eisenberg_Wohnhaus_Oskar_Weise_Tafel.jpg/330px-Eisenberg_Wohnhaus_Oskar_Weise_Tafel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Eisenberg_Wohnhaus_Oskar_Weise_Tafel.jpg/440px-Eisenberg_Wohnhaus_Oskar_Weise_Tafel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3210" data-file-height="2370" /></a><figcaption>Weise's epitaph in <a href="/wiki/Eisenberg,_Thuringia" title="Eisenberg, Thuringia">Eisenberg, Germany</a>, which reads in part: 'Here lived the researcher and teacher of our mother tongue, <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geheimrat" title="Geheimrat">Geheimrat</a></i></span> Prof. Dr. Oskar Weise [...]'</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oskar_Weise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oskar Weise (page does not exist)">Oskar Weise</a> first described a problem in correspondences between <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> cognates in an 1881 article for the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-Europeanist</a> periodical <i><a href="/wiki/Historische_Sprachforschung" title="Historische Sprachforschung">Articles on the Science of the Indo-European Languages</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen</i>) entitled "Is initial γ dropped before λ?" (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Ist anlautendes γ vor λ abgefallen?</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, he notes an imbalance in the relationship between Ancient Greek and Sanskrit cognates, writing:
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<p>If we examine the Indic words beginning with guttural + <i>r</i> or <i>l</i> and compare them with their Greek reflexes, we will notice that all those which have retained the guttural in Indic intact show guttural + <i><a href="/wiki/Rho" title="Rho">ρ</a></i>, whereas Greek guttural + <i><a href="/wiki/Lambda" title="Lambda">λ</a></i> only occurs regularly when the palatal sibilants [<i>ś</i>], <i>j</i>, <i>h</i> appear in Indic. The absence of exceptions in this rule automatically prohibits the assumption that coincidence prevailed here. Of course, this excludes cases where <i>r</i> (or <i>l</i>) is not immediately after the guttural, but there is a vowel in between, although the rule stated above often applies here too.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeise1881115_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeise1881115-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<p>According to <a href="/wiki/Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Alwin Kloekhorst</a> in 2011, Weise's original article has "been largely forgotten by the scholarly world", but its findings have appeared sporadically in linguistic literature with some of it needing revision in light of other research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1894, <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Meillet" title="Antoine Meillet">Antoine Meillet</a> described the law and defended it as established fact in a dissertation for the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_de_Linguistique_de_Paris" title="Société de Linguistique de Paris">Société de Linguistique de Paris</a> on the difficulty of determining gutturals in Proto-Indo-European, citing Weise as its progenitor.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1978, <a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a> similarly considered Weise's findings strong but limited in scope, citing both Weise's and Meillet's works on the law in his own research on the <a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978238–240_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978238–240-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1995, <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Robert S. P. Beekes</a> also described the process derived from the law, but did not reference its origins with Weise.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011126_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011126-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kloekhorst presented a defense of the law at a conference in 2008,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2008a_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2008a-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by a more complete account – <i>Weise's Law: Depalatalization of Palatovelars before </i>*r<i> in Sanskrit</i> – published in 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2011 defense conglomerates several different sources on the topic, some referencing Weise and some not, and summarizes its general characteristics, its relative chronology, and possible violations; its contents are a revision of his work done in 1999.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kloekhorst has been credited with reviving interest in the law.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:441px;max-width:441px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Voiceless_palatal_plosive.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An illustrated view of the inside of the mouth with the middle of the tongue pressed against the roof of the mouth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Voiceless_palatal_plosive.svg/143px-Voiceless_palatal_plosive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="143" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Voiceless_palatal_plosive.svg/215px-Voiceless_palatal_plosive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Voiceless_palatal_plosive.svg/286px-Voiceless_palatal_plosive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant_affricate.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An illustrated gif of the inside of the mouth where the tip of the tongue alternates between the pressing against the alveolar ridge and constricting airflow just behind the teeth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant_affricate.gif/143px-Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant_affricate.gif" decoding="async" width="143" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant_affricate.gif/215px-Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant_affricate.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant_affricate.gif/286px-Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant_affricate.gif 2x" data-file-width="1814" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:151px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Voiceless_alveolar_fricative_articulation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An illustrated view of the inside of the mouth with the tip of the tongue constricting airflow just behind the teeth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative_articulation.svg/143px-Voiceless_alveolar_fricative_articulation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="143" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative_articulation.svg/215px-Voiceless_alveolar_fricative_articulation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative_articulation.svg/286px-Voiceless_alveolar_fricative_articulation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="378" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:left">These three images show one example of assibilation from inside the mouth; from left to right: <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">palatal stop</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[c]</a></span>), <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">alveolar sibilant affricate</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[t͡s]</a></span>), and <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">alveolar fricative</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[s]</a></span>). The <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">tongue's point of contact or constriction</a> moves increasingly forward, from the <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal consonants">palate</a> to <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonants" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar consonants">just behind the teeth</a>.</div></div></div></div>
<p>Weise's law describes a depalatalization which affects the palatovelar consonants of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a>: <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ</span></span></i>. In the satem languages, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> these sounds became fricatives, such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">[s]</a></span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">[z]</a></span>, rather than remaining <a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">stops</a>. Weise's law, however, demonstrates that these sounds depalatalize before <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i>, thereby merging with the plain velar stops <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*k</span></span> <span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*g</span></span> <span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*gʰ</span></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the palatovelar sounds underwent <a href="/wiki/Assibilation" title="Assibilation">assibilation</a> – that is, underwent the process of becoming <a href="/wiki/Sibilant" title="Sibilant">sibilants</a> – in the satem languages while the plain velars did not, the merging of palatovelars with plain velars explains why these words have plain velar <a href="/wiki/Reflex_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflex (linguistics)">reflexes</a> in words that share a common Indo-European root containing a palatovelar. In other words, while the palatovelar stops were made into alveolar sibilants in most cases, Weise's law explains many exceptions, though not all.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Sanskrit words contain many potential violations of the rule, particularly in circumstances where the surface representation of the word contains <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">śr-</i></span> or <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">hr-</i></span>, implying a derivation from an unmodified <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ḱr-</span></span></i> or <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ǵʰr-</span></span></i> source. However, these are often the result of later sound changes particular to a language or <a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">language family</a>. Examples can be found in Sanskrit, where /l/ became /r/ in many circumstances, such as in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">श्रवस्</span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">śravas</i></span> 'fame', which is derived from Proto-Indo-European <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ḱleu-es-</span></span></i>, and <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">ह्राद्</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">hrād</i></span> 'to resound, to make a noise', which is derived from <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ǵʰleh₃d-</span></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011265–266_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011265–266-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of the law are commonly found in <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut#Ablaut_grades" title="Indo-European ablaut">zero-grade</a> stems – that is, stems without vowels – which often receive <a href="/wiki/Epenthesis" title="Epenthesis">inserted</a> vowels in <a href="/wiki/Daughter_language" title="Daughter language">daughter languages</a> to ease pronounceability, such as in <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">हिरण्य</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">híraṇya</i></span> 'gold', which is derived from <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ǵʰlh₃-en-</span></span></i>. Thus, these apparent counterexamples do not actually represent exceptions to the rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011266_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011266-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Other apparent violations occur in contexts in which the palatovelar consonant and <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i> cross a morphemic boundary, such as between an <a href="/wiki/Affix" title="Affix">affix</a> and the word it modifies, or share a clear derivational relationship with another word that would not have been subjected to the sound law, leading to an <a href="/wiki/Analogical_change" title="Analogical change">analogical change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, if several words are derived from the same original root word, but only one is derived from a context in which Weise's law would apply, the one originally affected may appear to violate the law later on since the two words may be so closely associated with one another that the form is restored by analogy to the others. One such example of this is Sanskrit <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">अज्र</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">ájra</i></span> 'field, plain', which is derived from <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%82%C3%A9%C7%B5ros" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂éǵros">h₂éǵ-ro-</a></span></span></i> 'field, pasturage'; in this example, the expected outcome is <span title="Sanskrit-language text">*<span lang="sa">अग्र</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">*ágra</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the reflex of the palatalized consonant has been restored due to an obvious connection with <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">अजति</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">ájati</i></span> 'to drive', derived from the same root (<i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*h₂eǵ-</span></span></i> 'to drive') but in a context which would not subject it to the sound change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011266_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011266-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>All other violations of the rule appear in the particular sequence <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*Ḱri</span></span></i>, where <i>Ḱ</i> represents any palatovelar sound. Kloekhorst suggests that the <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">high front vowel</a> <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*i</span></span></i> may have palatalized the preceding <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i>, giving no motivation to depalatalize the initial palatovelar sound.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relative_chronology">Relative chronology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relative chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Centum_Satem_2000BC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map of Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia showing the dispersal of some Indo-European languages across Europe and Central Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Centum_Satem_2000BC.png/220px-Centum_Satem_2000BC.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Centum_Satem_2000BC.png/330px-Centum_Satem_2000BC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Centum_Satem_2000BC.png/440px-Centum_Satem_2000BC.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="209" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> (orange) and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> (red) are satem language families, whereas <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> (blue) are centum language families.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović2017Map_1.1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović2017Map_1.1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure>
<p>The chronology of Weise's law is the subject of some debate. The depalatalization described by the law must have occurred by at least the time the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a> diverged from the rest of Proto-Indo-European (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 3000 BC</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kloekhorst argues that it probably occurred much earlier, after the divergence of the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 4500 BC</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since the distribution of late Proto-Indo-European <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*u</span></span></i> and <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i> underwent an exchange in placement, or <a href="/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)" title="Metathesis (linguistics)">metathesis</a>, which only occurred after both the Anatolian language family had diverged from Proto-Indo-European and palatovelars had undergone the depalatalization described by Weise's law. This explains exceptions such as Sanskrit <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">श्मश्रु</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">śmáśru</i></span> 'beard', which derives from the form <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*smóḱ-ru-</span></span></i> rather than from the earlier <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*smóḱ-ur</span></span></i>, attested in <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> <span title="Hittite-language text"><span lang="hit">𒍝𒈠𒀭𒆳</span></span> <span title="Hittite-language romanization"><i lang="hit-Latn">zama(n)kur</i></span> 'beard'. The Sanskrit form does not show depalatalization because the depalatalization occurred only in environments where the palatovelar was followed by <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i> prior to this metathesis.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1978, <a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Frederik Kortlandt</a> noted that, while it is tempting to assert that Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian depalatalizations derive from a common innovation, the scope of depalatalization is much larger in the Balto-Slavic languages and there is positive evidence that this kind of depalatalization never occurred in Armenian, pointing to examples like <span title="Armenian-language text"><span lang="hy">սրունք</span></span> <span title="Armenian-language romanization"><i lang="hy-Latn">srunkʿ</i></span> 'leg' from Proto-Indo-European <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*ḱrūs-ni-</span></span></i> and <span title="Armenian-language text"><span lang="hy">մերձ</span></span> <span title="Armenian-language romanization"><i lang="hy-Latn">merj</i></span> 'near, close to' from <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*méǵʰsri</span></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, Kortlandt suggested that Weise's law applies only to Indo-Iranian languages and, although Indo-Iranian languages and Balto-Slavic languages restored palatal features in a similar fashion, these restorations occurred independent of one another.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978242_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978242-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on Albanian and Balto-Slavic agreement in depalatalization, he considers Albanian to have been a <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">transitional dialect</a> of Balto-Slavic and Armenian during the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978242_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978242-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Robert S. P. Beekes</a>, disputing some of Kortlandt's etymologies,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003175,_196_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003175,_196-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote that depalatalization is assumed to have taken place before <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i> in Armenian as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003176_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003176-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Although the effects of the law are most clearly demonstrated in satem languages, Kloekhorst suggests that this sound change occurred before the centum–satem split, arguing that it almost certainly occurred in late Proto-Indo-European after the departure of the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the law does not affect most of the generally accepted centum languages, Kloekhorst considers <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> to be satem languages because their reflexes appear to be in accordance with the law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261,_269_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261,_269-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kloekhorst notes that it is likely that a secondary wave of depalatalization took place at a later date in each of those language families, because the results of Weise's law seem more extensive outside the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouk%C3%B3los_rule" title="Boukólos rule"><i>Boukólos</i> rule</a> – a similar rule affecting labiovelar consonants in Proto-Indo-European, which affected the centum languages</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albanian and Armenian have a controversial placement in centum–satem taxonomy. See <a href="/wiki/Centum_and_satem_languages#Satem_languages" title="Centum and satem languages">Centum and satem languages § Satem languages</a> for further discussion.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">अग्र</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">agra</i></span> 'the best of its kind, summit' is an attested form in the language,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayrhofer198645_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayrhofer198645-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is derived from a completely distinct form and has no semantic or taxonomic relationship with <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">अज्र</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">ájra</i></span>. It may be a derivative <span title="Sanskrit-language text"><span lang="sa">अङ्ग्</span></span> <span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">aṅg</i></span> 'to go'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams18996_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams18996-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or related to <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a> <span title="Latvian-language text"><i lang="lv">agrs</i></span> 'early'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayrhofer198645_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayrhofer198645-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>: <i lang="sq">mjekër</i> 'chin, beard' and <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: <i lang="lt">smãkras</i> 'chin' also derive from <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*smóḱ-ru-</span></span></i>, however the presence of plain velars suggests a later depalatalization in Albanian and Balto-Slavic.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This opinion is not unique to Kloekhorst; many linguists also categorize Albanian and Armenian as satem languages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović2017Map_1.1_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović2017Map_1.1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xxiii_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xxiii-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Larry_Trask" title="Larry Trask">Larry Trask</a> also categorizes both as satem languages, but cautions that Albanian can only be categorized as such "with qualifications".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrask2000297_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrask2000297-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1217336898"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrask2000267-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrask2000267_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 267.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKleiner2024-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKleiner2024_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKleiner2024">Kleiner 2024</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For the lack of record of Proto-Indo-European, see <a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 267.</li><li>For its reconstruction by comparative linguistics, see <a href="#CITEREFClackson2007">Clackson 2007</a>, p. 1 and <a href="#CITEREFBeekes2011">Beekes 2011</a>, p. xv.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For palatovelar nomenclature and those consonants' relationship to Weise's law, see <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 261.</li><li>For dorso-palatal, see <a href="#CITEREFAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997">Adams et al. 1997</a>, p. xvii.</li><li>For palatal, see <a href="#CITEREFClackson2007">Clackson 2007</a>, p. 49 and <a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 53.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xvii-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xvii_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xvii_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997">Adams et al. 1997</a>, p. xvii.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For the precise description of how the sound is articulated, see <a href="#CITEREFVineUntermann1998">Vine & Untermann 1998</a>.</li><li>For the term in Indo-Europeanist literature and the associated graphemes, see <a href="#CITEREFAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997">Adams et al. 1997</a>, p. xx, <a href="#CITEREFClackson2007">Clackson 2007</a>, p. 49, <a href="#CITEREFSwiggers2011">Swiggers 2011</a>, p. 184, and <a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 181.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESwiggers2011184-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESwiggers2011184_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSwiggers2011">Swiggers 2011</a>, p. 184.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 261.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130,_303-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130,_303_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeekes2011">Beekes 2011</a>, pp. 30, 303.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrask200053-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrask200053_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 53.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For the definition of depalatalization, see <a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 86.</li><li>For its derivation from the Latin term, see <a href="#CITEREFAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997">Adams et al. 1997</a>, p. xvi and <a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 53.</li><li>For the centum example of depalatalization, see <a href="#CITEREFBeekes2003">Beekes 2003</a>, p. 30.</li><li>For the process of merging, see <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 261 and <a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 53.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997">Adams et al. 1997</a>, p. xxiii.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBeekes2011">Beekes 2011</a>, p. 302.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 297.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011302-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011302_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeekes2011">Beekes 2011</a>, p. 302.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sibilant">"sibilant"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=sibilant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fsibilant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWeise1881">Weise 1881</a>, p. 115.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlancde_Lamberterie2015">Blanc & de Lamberterie 2015</a>.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 261.</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1978">Kortlandt 1978</a>, p. 238.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeise1881115-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWeise1881115_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWeise1881">Weise 1881</a>, p. 115.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011262_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 262.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMeillet1894">Meillet 1894</a>, p. 278: "<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr">Or on a constaté depuis longtemps que les cas de correspondance α′β sont particulièrement fréquents dans le voisinage de certains phonèmes: après <i>u</i> (de Saussure, dans ces Mémoires, 6, 161) et devant <i>r</i> (Weise, dans Bezz. Beit., 6, 115).</span></span>" (<abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr><span> 'Now we have long noted that cases of α′β correspondence are particularly frequent in the vicinity of certain phonemes: after <i>u</i> [de Saussure, in those Mémoires, 6, 161] and before <i>r</i> [Weise, in Bezz. Beit., 6, 115].'</span>)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978238–240-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978238–240_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1978">Kortlandt 1978</a>, pp. 238–240.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011126-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2011126_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeekes2011">Beekes 2011</a>, p. 126.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2008a-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2008a_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2008a">Kloekhorst 2008a</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 261: "This article is a revision of my <span title="Dutch-language text"><i lang="nl">Kleine Scriptie</i></span> (~ BA thesis) [...] written in 1999 [...]"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlancde_Lamberterie2015">Blanc & de Lamberterie 2015</a>: "<span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Selon ce auteur, d'après une loi établie par O. Weise et remise en honneur par A. Kloekhorst [...]</span></span>" (<abbr title="translation">transl.</abbr><span> 'According to this author, following a law established by O. Weise and brought to new appreciation by A. Kloekhorst [...]'</span>)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011265–266-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011265–266_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, pp. 265–266.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011266-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011266_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011266_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 266.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For apparent violations that cross a morpheme boundary, see <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 266.</li><li>For apparent violations that occur as a result of a clear derivational relationship, see <a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1978">Kortlandt 1978</a>, p. 238 and <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 266.</li></ul></div>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayrhofer198645-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayrhofer198645_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMayrhofer198645_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMayrhofer1986">Mayrhofer 1986</a>, p. 45.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams18996-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMonier-Williams18996_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMonier-Williams1899">Monier-Williams 1899</a>, p. 6.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMonier-Williams1899 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 268: "It is therefore attractive to assume that in the sequence <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*Ḱri-</span></span></i> the palatovelar was not depalatalized because the <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i> itself was phonetically somewhat palatalized due to the following <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*i</span></span></i>."</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKapović2017Map_1.1-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović2017Map_1.1_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKapović2017Map_1.1_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKapović2017">Kapović 2017</a>, Map 1.1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 269: "This means that the depalatalization before <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*r</span></span></i> must be at least an Indo-Iranian development."</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1978">Kortlandt 1978</a>, p. 238.</li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;"><a href="#CITEREFKulikov2017">Kulikov 2017</a>, p. 205: "All Indo-Iranian languages derive from a common ancestor, the reconstructed Proto-Indo-Iranian language that was spoken around the end of the 3rd millennium BCE."</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For the law's relationship to the Anatolian split, see <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 269.</li><li>For the approximate time the Anatolian languages diverged from Proto-Indo-European, see <a href="#CITEREFGoedegebuure2020">Goedegebuure 2020</a>.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011269_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 269.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For the role of the metathesis on the law, see <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, p. 269 and <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2008a">Kloekhorst 2008a</a>, §11.</li><li>For the metathesis itself and the Hittite and Sanskrit examples, see <a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2008b">Kloekhorst 2008b</a>, p. 1029 and <a href="#CITEREFLubotsky1994">Lubotsky 1994</a>, 5–6§6.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li>For Proto-Indo-European derivation of <span title="Armenian-language romanization"><i lang="hy-Latn">merj</i></span>, see <a href="#CITEREFBeekes2003">Beekes 2003</a>, p. 204.</li><li>For the Proto-Indo-European derivation of <span title="Armenian-language romanization"><i lang="hy-Latn">srunkʿ</i></span>, see <a href="#CITEREFMartirosyan2010">Martirosyan 2010</a>, p. 586.</li><li>For the rest, see <a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1978">Kortlandt 1978</a>, p. 239.</li></ul></div></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978242-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978242_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKortlandt1978242_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKortlandt1978">Kortlandt 1978</a>, p. 242.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003175,_196-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003175,_196_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeekes2003">Beekes 2003</a>, pp. 175, 196.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003176-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes2003176_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeekes2003">Beekes 2003</a>, p. 176.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261,_269-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKloekhorst2011261,_269_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKloekhorst2011">Kloekhorst 2011</a>, pp. 261, 269.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xxiii-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997xxiii_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997">Adams et al. 1997</a>, p. xxiii.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeekes201130_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeekes2011">Beekes 2011</a>, p. 30.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETrask2000297-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETrask2000297_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTrask2000">Trask 2000</a>, p. 297.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weise%27s_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsBaldiBarberBeekes1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Q._Adams" title="Douglas Q. Adams">Adams, Douglas Q.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Philip_Baldi" title="Philip Baldi">Baldi, Philip</a>; <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Wayland_Barber" title="Elizabeth Wayland Barber">Barber, E. J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Beekes, Robert S. P.</a>; Della Volpe, Angela; Robbins Dexter, Miriam; <a href="/wiki/Paul_Friedrich_(linguist)" title="Paul Friedrich (linguist)">Friedrich, Paul</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_A._C._Greppin" title="John A. C. Greppin">Greppin, John</a>; Jellison Hansen, Leigh; <a href="/wiki/Martin_E._Huld" title="Martin E. Huld">Huld, Martin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Carol_F._Justus" title="Carol F. Justus">Justus, Carol</a>; <a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">Mallory, J. P.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dean_A._Miller" title="Dean A. Miller">Miller, Dean</a>; Niepokuj, Mary; O'Brien, Steven; <a href="/wiki/Edgar_C._Polom%C3%A9" title="Edgar C. Polomé">Polomé, Edgar C.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joe_Salmons" title="Joe Salmons">Salmons, Joe</a> (1997). Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></i>. London: Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-98-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-98-5"><bdi>978-1-884964-98-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+Culture&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-98-5&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Douglas+Q.&rft.au=Baldi%2C+Philip&rft.au=Barber%2C+E.+J.&rft.au=Beekes%2C+Robert+S.+P.&rft.au=Della+Volpe%2C+Angela&rft.au=Robbins+Dexter%2C+Miriam&rft.au=Friedrich%2C+Paul&rft.au=Greppin%2C+John&rft.au=Jellison+Hansen%2C+Leigh&rft.au=Huld%2C+Martin&rft.au=Justus%2C+Carol&rft.au=Mallory%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Miller%2C+Dean&rft.au=Niepokuj%2C+Mary&rft.au=O%27Brien%2C+Steven&rft.au=Polom%C3%A9%2C+Edgar+C.&rft.au=Salmons%2C+Joe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeekes2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Beekes, Robert S. P.</a> (18 October 2011). <a href="/wiki/Michiel_de_Vaan" title="Michiel de Vaan">de Vaan, Michiel</a> (ed.). <i>Comparative Indo-European Linguistics</i> (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8500-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8500-3"><bdi>978-90-272-8500-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/730054595">730054595</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2011-10-18&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F730054595&rft.isbn=978-90-272-8500-3&rft.aulast=Beekes&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeekes2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Beekes, Robert S. P.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.robertbeekes.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/b109.pdf">"Historical phonology of Classical Armenian"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Armeniaca: Comparative Notes</i>. <a href="/wiki/Ann_Arbor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ann Arbor">Ann Arbor</a>: 133–211<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Armeniaca%3A+Comparative+Notes&rft.atitle=Historical+phonology+of+Classical+Armenian&rft.pages=133-211&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Beekes&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.robertbeekes.nl%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F08%2Fb109.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlancde_Lamberterie2015" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Blanc, Alain; <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Lamberterie" class="extiw" title="fr:Charles de Lamberterie">de Lamberterie, Charles</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in French]</span> (February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fphil.892.0117">"Chronique d'étymologie grecque n°15"</a> [Chronicle of Greek Etymology, Number 15]. <i>Revue de philologie, de littérature et d'histoire anciennes</i> (in French). <b>89</b> (2): 117–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fphil.892.0117">10.3917/phil.892.0117</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+de+philologie%2C+de+litt%C3%A9rature+et+d%27histoire+anciennes&rft.atitle=Chronique+d%27%C3%A9tymologie+grecque+n%C2%B015&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-172&rft.date=2015-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fphil.892.0117&rft.aulast=Blanc&rft.aufirst=Alain&rft.au=de+Lamberterie%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3917%252Fphil.892.0117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClackson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Clackson" title="James Clackson">Clackson, James</a> (18 October 2007). <i>Indo-European Linguistics</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-36609-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-36609-3"><bdi>978-0-511-36609-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123113761">123113761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indo-European+Linguistics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007-10-18&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F123113761&rft.isbn=978-0-511-36609-3&rft.aulast=Clackson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Vaan2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michiel_de_Vaan" title="Michiel de Vaan">de Vaan, Michiel</a> (2018). <i>Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16797-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16797-1"><bdi>978-90-04-16797-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/225873936">225873936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+Latin+and+the+other+Italic+Languages&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F225873936&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16797-1&rft.aulast=de+Vaan&rft.aufirst=Michiel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoedegebuure2020" class="citation web cs1">Goedegebuure, Petra (5 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pe4jnBdVxjw">"Anatolians on the Move: From Kurgans to Kanesh"</a> (Presentation). <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Ancient_Cultures" title="Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures">Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures</a>. Event occurs at 37:53–46:09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anatolians+on+the+Move%3A+From+Kurgans+to+Kanesh&rft.pub=Institute+for+the+Study+of+Ancient+Cultures&rft.date=2020-02-05&rft.aulast=Goedegebuure&rft.aufirst=Petra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DPe4jnBdVxjw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKapović2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mate_Kapovi%C4%87" title="Mate Kapović">Kapović, Mate</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Av0DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT49"><i>The Indo-European Languages</i></a>. Routledge Language Family Series. Oxford: Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-39152-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-39152-4"><bdi>978-1-317-39152-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indo-European+Languages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Routledge+Language+Family+Series&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-317-39152-4&rft.aulast=Kapovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Mate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4Av0DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKleiner2024" class="citation web cs1">Kleiner, Kurt (19 February 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-linguistics-technique-could-reveal-who-spoke-the-first-indo-european-languages/">"New Linguistics Technique Could Reveal Who Spoke the First Indo-European Languages"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=New+Linguistics+Technique+Could+Reveal+Who+Spoke+the+First+Indo-European+Languages&rft.date=2024-02-19&rft.aulast=Kleiner&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fnew-linguistics-technique-could-reveal-who-spoke-the-first-indo-european-languages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKloekhorst2008a" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Kloekhorst, Alwin</a> (September 2008a). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9796021"><i>Weise's Law: depalatalization of palatovelars in Sanskrit</i></a></span>. XIIIth International Conference of the Society of Indo-European Studies. Salzburg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Weise%27s+Law%3A+depalatalization+of+palatovelars+in+Sanskrit&rft.place=Salzburg&rft.date=2008-09&rft.aulast=Kloekhorst&rft.aufirst=Alwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9796021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKloekhorst2008b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Kloekhorst, Alwin</a> (2008b). <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lubotsky" title="Alexander Lubotsky">Lubotsky, Alexander</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-the-hittite-inherited-lexicon/page/1029/mode/1up?view=theater"><i>Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: Brill Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004160927" title="Special:BookSources/9789004160927"><bdi>9789004160927</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1574-3586">1574-3586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+the+Hittite+Inherited+Lexicon&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=1574-3586&rft.isbn=9789004160927&rft.aulast=Kloekhorst&rft.aufirst=Alwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetymological-dictionary-of-the-hittite-inherited-lexicon%2Fpage%2F1029%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKloekhorst2011" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-location-test"><a href="/wiki/Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Kloekhorst, Alwin</a> (2011) [2008]. Written at Salzburg. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kloekhorst.nl/KloekhorstWeisesLaw.pdf">"Weise's Law: Depalatalization of Palatovelars before <i>*r</i> in Sanskrit"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Wiesbaden" title="Wiesbaden">Wiesbaden</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>: Indo-European Studies and Linguistics in Dialog: Acts of the XIIIth Conference of the Society of Indo-European Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Weise%27s+Law%3A+Depalatalization+of+Palatovelars+before+%2Ar+in+Sanskrit&rft.place=Wiesbaden%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Indo-European+Studies+and+Linguistics+in+Dialog%3A+Acts+of+the+XIIIth+Conference+of+the+Society+of+Indo-European+Studies&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kloekhorst&rft.aufirst=Alwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkloekhorst.nl%2FKloekhorstWeisesLaw.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKortlandt1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Kortlandt" title="Frederik Kortlandt">Kortlandt, Frederik</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2732652/download">"I.-E. palatovelars before resonants in Balto-Slavic"</a>. In Fisiak, Jacek (ed.). <i>Recent Developments in Historical Phonology</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>: Mouton. pp. 237–243. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110810929.237">10.1515/9783110810929.237</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7706-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-279-7706-9"><bdi>978-90-279-7706-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=I.-E.+palatovelars+before+resonants+in+Balto-Slavic&rft.btitle=Recent+Developments+in+Historical+Phonology&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pages=237-243&rft.pub=Mouton&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110810929.237&rft.isbn=978-90-279-7706-9&rft.aulast=Kortlandt&rft.aufirst=Frederik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl%2Faccess%2Fitem%253A2732652%2Fdownload&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulikov2017" class="citation book cs1">Kulikov, Leonid (2017). "Indo-Iranian". In <a href="/wiki/Mate_Kapovi%C4%87" title="Mate Kapović">Kapović, Mate</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322264812"><i>The Indo-European Languages</i></a>. Routledge Language Family Series (2 ed.). London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-67855-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-67855-9"><bdi>978-1-315-67855-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indo-Iranian&rft.btitle=The+Indo-European+Languages&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.series=Routledge+Language+Family+Series&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-315-67855-9&rft.aulast=Kulikov&rft.aufirst=Leonid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F322264812&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubotsky1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lubotsky" title="Alexander Lubotsky">Lubotsky, Alexander</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2889204/view">"Avestan <span title="Avestan-language romanization"><i lang="ae-Latn">θβōrәštar-</i></span> and the Indo-European root √<i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*turḱ-</span></span></i>"</a>. <i>Die Sprache</i>. <b>36</b> (1). Vienna: Vienna Language Society: 94–102.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Sprache&rft.atitle=Avestan+%3Cspan+title%3D%22Avestan-language+romanization%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22ae-Latn%22%3E%CE%B8%CE%B2%C5%8Dr%D3%99%C5%A1tar-%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E+and+the+Indo-European+root+%E2%88%9A%3Cspan+title%3D%22Proto-Indo-European+language%22+class%3D%22Unicode%22+style%3D%22white-space%3Anowrap%3B%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22ine%22%3E%2Atur%E1%B8%B1-%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=94-102&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Lubotsky&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl%2Faccess%2Fitem%253A2889204%2Fview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartirosyan2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hrach_Martirosyan" title="Hrach Martirosyan">Martirosyan, Hrach K.</a> (2010). <i>Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon</i>. Leiden: Brill Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17337-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17337-8"><bdi>978-90-04-17337-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/262430532">262430532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+the+Armenian+Inherited+Lexicon&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F262430532&rft.isbn=978-90-04-17337-8&rft.aulast=Martirosyan&rft.aufirst=Hrach+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayrhofer1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Mayrhofer" title="Manfred Mayrhofer">Mayrhofer, Manfred</a> (1986). <i>Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen</i> [<i>An Etymological Dictionary of Old Indo-Aryan</i>] (in German). <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>: <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A4tsverlag_Winter" class="extiw" title="de:Universitätsverlag Winter">Universitätsverlag Winter</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-533-03826-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-533-03826-2"><bdi>3-533-03826-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+des+Altindoarischen&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Universit%C3%A4tsverlag+Winter&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=3-533-03826-2&rft.aulast=Mayrhofer&rft.aufirst=Manfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeillet1894" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Meillet" title="Antoine Meillet">Meillet, Antoine</a> (1894). "De quelques difficultés de la théorie des gutturales indo-européennes" [On some difficulties of the theory of Indo-European gutturals]. In Bouillon, Émile (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.31822025038910&seq=9"><i>Mémoires de la Société de la Linguistique de Paris</i></a> [<i>Dissertations from the <a href="/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_de_Linguistique_de_Paris" title="Société de Linguistique de Paris">Linguistics Society of Paris</a></i>] (in French). Vol. 8. Paris: Société Linguistique de Paris. pp. 277–304.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=De+quelques+difficult%C3%A9s+de+la+th%C3%A9orie+des+gutturales+indo-europ%C3%A9ennes&rft.btitle=M%C3%A9moires+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+de+la+Linguistique+de+Paris&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=277-304&rft.pub=Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Linguistique+de+Paris&rft.date=1894&rft.aulast=Meillet&rft.aufirst=Antoine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.31822025038910%26seq%3D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwiggers2011" class="citation book cs1">Swiggers, Pierre (1 June 2011). "Towards a characterization of the Proto-Indo-European sound system". In <a href="/wiki/Theo_Vennemann" title="Theo Vennemann">Vennemann, Theo</a> (ed.). <i>The New Sound of Indo-European</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 177–208. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-085734-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-085734-4"><bdi>978-3-11-085734-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Towards+a+characterization+of+the+Proto-Indo-European+sound+system&rft.btitle=The+New+Sound+of+Indo-European&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=177-208&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011-06-01&rft.isbn=978-3-11-085734-4&rft.aulast=Swiggers&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrask2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larry_Trask" title="Larry Trask">Trask, R. L.</a> (2000). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctvxcrt50"><i>Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics</i></a></span>. Edinburgh: <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-7331-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-7331-6"><bdi>978-1-4744-7331-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctvxcrt50">10.3366/j.ctvxcrt50</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Historical+and+Comparative+Linguistics&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3366%2Fj.ctvxcrt50%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-4744-7331-6&rft.aulast=Trask&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.3366%2Fj.ctvxcrt50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVineUntermann1998" class="citation web cs1">Vine, Brent; <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Untermann" title="Jürgen Untermann">Untermann, Jürgen</a> (19 October 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Italic-languages">"Latin, Oscan, Umbrian & Faliscan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Latin%2C+Oscan%2C+Umbrian+%26+Faliscan&rft.date=1998-10-19&rft.aulast=Vine&rft.aufirst=Brent&rft.au=Untermann%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FItalic-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeise1881" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Weise, Oskar (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beitrgezurkunde14prelgoog/page/n115/mode/1up">"Ist anlautendes γ vor λ abgefallen?"</a> [Is initial γ dropped before λ?]. <i>Beiträge zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen</i> [<i>Contributions to the Science of Indo-European Languages</i>] (in German). <b>6</b>: 105–118<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Beitr%C3%A4ge+zur+Kunde+der+indogermanischen+Sprachen&rft.atitle=Ist+anlautendes+%CE%B3+vor+%CE%BB+abgefallen%3F&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=105-118&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Weise&rft.aufirst=Oskar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeitrgezurkunde14prelgoog%2Fpage%2Fn115%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWeise%27s+law" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Template talk:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Proto-Indo-European language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Proto-Indo-European_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Centum_and_satem_languages" title="Centum and satem languages">Centum and satem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glottalic_theory" title="Glottalic theory">Glottalic theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">Laryngeal theory</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_s-mobile" title="Indo-European s-mobile">s-mobile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bouk%C3%B3los_rule" title="Boukólos rule"><i>boukólos</i> rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/*k%CA%B7etw%C3%B3res_rule" title="*kʷetwóres rule"><i><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*kʷetwóres</span></span></i> rule</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages" title="Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages">Glossary of sound laws</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brugmann%27s_law" title="Brugmann's law">Brugmann's </a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bartholomae%27s_law" title="Bartholomae's law">Bartholomae's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fortunatov%27s_law" title="Fortunatov's law">Fortunatov's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grassmann%27s_law" title="Grassmann's law">Grassmann's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Osthoff%27s_law" title="Osthoff's law">Osthoff's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pinault%27s_law" title="Pinault's law">Pinault's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siebs%27s_law" title="Siebs's law">Siebs's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law#Edgerton" title="Sievers's law">Edgerton's converse</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stang%27s_law" title="Stang's law">Stang's</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Szemer%C3%A9nyi%27s_law" title="Szemerényi's law">Szemerényi's</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Weise's</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Caland_system" title="Caland system">Caland system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/H%E2%82%82e-conjugation_theory" title="H₂e-conjugation theory"><span title="Proto-Indo-European language" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">h₂e</span></span>-conjugation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Narten_present" title="Narten present">Narten present</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_infix" title="Nasal infix">Nasal infix</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_vowel" title="Thematic vowel">Thematic vowel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/V%E1%B9%9Bddhi" title="Vṛddhi">Vṛddhi</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Parts of speech</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nominals</a> (nouns and adjectives)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_copula" title="Indo-European copula">copula</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Main sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a> (IEW)</i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Verben" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben">Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben</a> (LIV)</i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexikon_der_indogermanischen_Partikeln_und_Pronominalst%C3%A4mme" title="Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme">Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme</a> (LIPP)</i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Nomina_im_Indogermanischen_Lexikon" title="Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon">Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon</a> (NIL)</i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a> (IEED)</i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Origins</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Proto-Indo-European homeland</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_problem" title="Salmon problem">Salmon problem</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Artificial compositions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher%27s_fable" title="Schleicher's fable">Schleicher's fable</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_king_and_the_god" title="The king and the god">The king and the god</a></i></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Schleicher_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Schleicher theories">Schleicher theories</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li>
<li>Outdated theories:
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/North_European_hypothesis" title="North European hypothesis">North European hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #c9ffd9">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Proto-Indo-European society</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a> (EIE)</i></li></ul>
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