Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Development of television}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Family watching television 1958.jpg|thumb|right|Family watching TV, 1958]]
The concept of [[television]] is the work of many individuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first practical transmissions of moving images over a radio system used mechanical rotating perforated disks to scan a scene into a time-varying signal that could be reconstructed at a receiver back into an approximation of the original image. Development of television was interrupted by the [[Second World War]]. After the end of the war, all-electronic methods of scanning and displaying images became standard. Several different standards for addition of color to transmitted images were developed with different regions using technically incompatible signal standards.
Television broadcasting expanded rapidly after World War II, becoming an important [[mass medium]] for advertising, [[propaganda]], and entertainment.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page.htm|title = History of Television|date = February 6, 2015|access-date = February 6, 2015|website = www.nyu.edu|publisher = New York University |last = Stephens|first = Mitchell}}</ref>
Television broadcasts can be distributed over the air by VHF and UHF radio signals from terrestrial transmitting stations, by [[microwave]] signals from Earth orbiting satellites, or by wired transmission to individual consumers by [[cable television]]. Many countries have moved away from the original analog radio transmission methods and now use [[digital television]] standards, providing additional operating features and conserving radio spectrum bandwidth for more profitable uses. Television programming can also be distributed over the [[Internet]].
Television broadcasting may be funded by advertising revenue, by private or governmental organizations prepared to underwrite the cost, or in some countries, by television license fees paid by owners of receivers. Some services, especially carried by cable or satellite, are paid by subscriptions.
Television broadcasting is supported by continuing technical developments such as long-haul microwave networks, which allow distribution of programming over a wide geographic area. Video recording methods allow programming to be edited and replayed for later use. Three-dimensional television has been used commercially but has not received wide consumer acceptance owing to the limitations of display methods.
==Mechanical television==
{{Main|Mechanical television}}
[[Facsimile transmission]] systems pioneered methods of mechanically scanning graphics in the early 19th century. The Scottish inventor [[Alexander Bain (inventor)|Alexander Bain]] introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. The English physicist [[Frederick Bakewell]] demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. The first practical facsimile system, working on telegraph lines, was developed and put into service by the Italian priest [[Giovanni Caselli]] from 1856 onward.<ref>{{harvp|Huurdeman|2003|p=149}} ''The first telefax machine to be used in practical operation was invented by an Italian priest and professor of physics, Giovanni Caselli (1815–1891).''</ref><ref>{{harvp|Beyer|2003|page=100}} ''The telegraph was the hot new ''technology'' of the moment, and Caselli wondered if it was possible to send pictures over telegraph wires. He went to work in 1855, and over the course of six years perfected what he called the "pantelegraph." It was the world's first practical fax machine.''</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.telephonecollecting.org/caselli.htm |title=Giovanni Caselli |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115141648/http://www.telephonecollecting.org/caselli.htm |archive-date=January 15, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>
[[Willoughby Smith]], an English electrical engineer, discovered the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] in 1873. This led, among other technologies, towards [[telephotography]], a way to send still images through [[phone lines]], as early as in 1895, as well as any kind of electronic [[image scanning]] devices, both still and in motion, and ultimately to [[TV camera]]s.
[[File:Nipkow disk.svg|right|200px|thumb|The [[Nipkow disk]]. This schematic shows the circular paths traced by the holes, which may also be square for greater precision. The area of the disk outlined in black shows the region scanned.]]
As a 23-year-old German university student, [[Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow]] proposed and patented the [[Nipkow disk]] in 1884 in [[Berlin]].<ref name=ShiersandShiers1322>{{harvp|Shiers|Shiers|1997|pages=13, 22}}</ref> This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "[[rasterizer|image rasterizer]]" became exceedingly common.<ref name=ShiersandShiers1322/> [[Constantin Perskyi]] had coined the word ''television'' in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|World's Fair]] in [[Paris]] on August 24, 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.histv.net/perskyi-1900 |conference=Congrès international d'électricité |location=Paris |date=18-25 August 1900 |first=Constantin |last=Perskyi |title=Télévision au moyen de l'électricité |language=fr}}</ref> However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology, by [[Lee de Forest]] and [[Arthur Korn]] among others, made the design practical.<ref name="Sending Photographs by Telegraph">[https://www.nytimes.com/1907/02/24/archives/sending-photographs-by-telegraph-professor-korn-has-triumphantly.html "Sending Photographs by Telegraph"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726172315/https://www.nytimes.com/1907/02/24/archives/sending-photographs-by-telegraph-professor-korn-has-triumphantly.html |date=July 26, 2018 }}, ''The New York Times'', Sunday Magazine, September 20, 1907, p. 7.</ref>
The first demonstration of transmission of images was by [[Augusto Bissiri]]: he transmitted, in 1906, a photograph image from one room to another. In 1917, after other successful attempts by several independent inventors, he transmitted an image from London to New York City. He patented his apparatus in Los Angeles in 1928.<ref>Veronica Gelakoska, "Pig 'n Whistle", Arcadia Publishing, 2010, page 24</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://linguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it/2012/01/augusto-bissiri-is-credited-as-inventor.html| title = Augusto Bissiri 'is credited as the inventor of television'| year = 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://it.paperblog.com/l-antenato-del-tubo-catodico-e-stato-inventato-da-un-sardo-augusto-bissiri-804313/
|title = L'antenato del tubo catodico è stato inventato da un sardo: Augusto Bissiri|language=Italian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://linguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it/2012/01/transmission-of-pictures-author-augusto.html| title = Transmission of pictures. Author: Augusto Bissiri. Patented: May 14, 1929.| year = 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ioobrcaDfdAC&q=augusto+bissiri+televisione&pg=PA34| title = Pig 'N Whistle, Veronica Gelakoska| isbn = 9780738581415| last1 = Gelakoska| first1 = Veronica| date = October 2010| publisher = Arcadia}}</ref>
The first demonstration of instantaneous transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 [[selenium]] cells, individually wired to a mechanical [[commutator (electric)|commutator]], served as an electronic [[retina]]. In the receiver, a type of [[Kerr cell]] modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8×8 [[pixel]] resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second.<ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=de Varigny |url=http://histv2.free.fr/rignoux/rignoux1909.htm |title=La vision à distance |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231305/http://histv2.free.fr/rignoux/rignoux1909.htm |archivedate=March 3, 2016 |publisher=L'Illustration |location=Paris |date=December 11, 1909 |page=451 |language=fr}}</ref>
In 1911, [[Boris Rosing]] and his student [[Vladimir Zworykin]] created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "[[Karl Ferdinand Braun|Braun]] tube" ([[cathode-ray tube]] or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner, "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy".<ref>{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=[{{GBurl|id=gZcwhVyiMqsC|p=119}} 119]}}</ref>
In May 1914, [[Archibald Low]] gave the first demonstration of his television system at the Institute of Automobile Engineers in London. He called his system 'Televista'. The events were widely reported worldwide and were generally entitled ''Seeing By Wireless''. The demonstrations had so impressed [[Harry Gordon Selfridge]] that he included Televista in his 1914 Scientific and Electrical Exhibition at his store.<ref>{{cite book |title=He Lit The Lamp: A Biography Of Professor A. M. Low |date=1958 |first=Ursula |last=Bloom |publisher=Burke |url={{GBurl|id=0CVrQgAACAAJ}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The World of Mr Selfridge: The Official Companion to the Hit ITV Series |first=Alison |last=Maloney |publisher=Simon & Schuster |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4711-3885-0}}</ref> It also interested Deputy Consul General Carl Raymond Loop who filled a US consular report from London containing considerable detail about Low's system.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Dawn of the Drone |first=Steve |last=Mills |date=2019 |publisher=Casemate Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VE_AQAAMAAJ |title=Daily Consular and Trade Reports |date=1914 |publisher=Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufactures |language=en}}</ref> Low's invention employed a matrix detector (camera) and a mosaic screen (receiver/viewer) with an electro-mechanical scanning mechanism that moved a rotating roller over the cell contacts providing a multiplex signal to the camera/viewer data link. The receiver employed a similar roller. The two rollers were synchronised. It was unlike any other TV system of the 20th Century and in some respects, Low had a digital TV system 80 years before modern digital TV. [[World War One]] began shortly after these demonstrations in London and Low became involved in [[British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I|sensitive military work]], and so he did not apply for a patent until 1917. His "Televista" Patent No. 191,405 titled "Improved Apparatus for the Electrical Transmission of Optical Images" was finally published in 1923; delayed possibly for security reasons. The patent states that the scanning roller had a row of conductive contacts corresponding to the cells in each row of the array and arranged to sample each cell in turn as the roller rotated. The receiver's roller was similarly constructed and each revolution addressed a row of cells as the rollers traversed over their array of cells. Loops report tells us that... "The receiver is made up of a series of cells operated by the passage of polarized light through thin slats of steel, and at the receiver the object before the transmitter is reproduced as a flickering image" and "The roller is driven by a motor of 3,000 revolutions per minute, and the resulting variations of light are transmitted along an ordinary conducting wire." and the patent states "into each... space I place a [[selenium]] cell". Low covered the cells with a liquid dielectric and the roller connected with each cell in turn through this medium as it rotated and travelled over the array. The receiver used bimetallic elements that acted as shutters "transmitting more or less light according to the current passing through them..." as stated in the patent. Low said the main deficiency of the system was the selenium cells used for converting [[light waves]] into electric impulses, which responded too slowly thus spoiling the effect. Loop reported that "The system has been tested through a resistance equivalent to a distance of four miles, but in the opinion of Doctor Low there is no reason why it should not be equally effective over far greater distances. The patent states that this connection could be either wired or wireless. The cost of the apparatus is considerable because the conductive sections of the roller are made of platinum..."
In 1914, the demonstrations certainly garnered a lot of media interest, with ''[[The Times]]'' reporting on 30 May:
{{cquote|An inventor, Dr. A. M. Low, has discovered a means of transmitting visual images by wire. If all goes well with this invention, we shall soon be able, it seems, to see people at a distance.}}
On 29 May, the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]'' reported:
{{cquote|Dr. Low gave a demonstration for the first time in public, with a new apparatus that he has invented, for seeing, he claims by electricity, by which it is possible for persons using a telephone to see each other at the same time}}
In 1927, Ronald Frank Tiltman asked Low to write the introduction to his book in which he acknowledged Low's work, referring to Low's related patents with an apology that they were of 'too technical a nature for inclusion'.<ref>{{cite book |title=Television for the Home |date=1927 |first=Ronald Frank |last=Tiltman |publisher=Hutchinson}}</ref> Later in his 1938 patent Low envisioned a much larger 'camera' cell density achieved by a deposition process of caesium alloy on an insulated substrate that was subsequently sectioned to divide it into cells, the essence of today's technology. Low's system failed for various reasons, mostly due to its inability to reproduce an image by reflected light and simultaneously depict gradations of light and shade. It can be added to the list of systems, like that of [[Boris Rosing]], that predominantly reproduced shadows. With subsequent technological advances, many such ideas could be made viable decades later, but at the time they were impractical.
[[File:John Logie Baird and Stooky Bill.png|thumb|left|200px|[[John Logie Baird|Baird]] in 1925 with his televisor equipment and dummies "James" and "Stooky Bill" ''(right)'']]
In 1923, Scottish inventor [[John Logie Baird]] envisaged a complete television system that employed the [[Nipkow disk]]. Nipkow's was an obscure, forgotten patent and not at all obvious at the time. He created his first prototypes in Hastings, where he was recovering from a serious illness. In late 1924, Baird returned to London to continue his experiments there. On March 25, 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised [[silhouette]] images in motion at [[Selfridges]] department store in London.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/115504a0|title=Current Topics and Events |journal=Nature |volume=115 |issue=2,892 |pages=504–508 |year=1925 |bibcode=1925Natur.115..504. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his system at this time, he televised cut-outs and by mid-1925 the head of a ventriloquist's dummy he later named "Stooky Bill", whose face was painted to highlight its contrast. "Stooky Bill" also did not complain about the long hours of staying still in front of the blinding level of light used in these experiments. On October 2, 1925, suddenly the dummy's head came through on the screen with incredible clarity. On January 26, 1926, he demonstrated the transmission of images of real human faces for 40 distinguished scientists of the [[Royal Institution]]. This is widely regarded as being the world's first public television demonstration. Baird's system used Nipkow disks for both scanning the image and displaying it. A brightly illuminated subject was placed in front of a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses that swept images across a static photocell. At this time, it is believed that it was a thallium sulphide (Thalofide) cell, developed by [[Theodore Case]] in the US, that detected the light reflected from the subject. This was transmitted by radio to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon bulb behind a similar Nipkow disk synchronised with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each lens in the disk passed by, one [[scan line]] of the image was reproduced. With this early apparatus, Baird's disks had 16 lenses, yet in conjunction with the other discs used produced moving images with 32 scan-lines, just enough to recognize a human face. He began with a frame-rate of five per second, which was soon increased to a rate of 12{{frac|1|2}} frames per second and 30 scan-lines.
In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over {{convert|438|mi|km}} of telephone line between London and [[Glasgow]]. In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and [[Bernard Natan]] of [[Pathé]] established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of the [[Epsom Derby|Derby]].<ref>{{cite book |first=J. L. |last=Baird |author-link=John Logie Baird |url=https://www.bairdtelevision.com/television-in-1932-bbc-annual-report-1933.html |chapter=Television in 1932 |title=BBC Annual Report 1933 |date=1933}}</ref> In 1932, he demonstrated [[ultra-short wave]] television. Baird Television Limited's mechanical systems reached a peak of 240 lines of resolution at the company's [[Crystal Palace, London|Crystal Palace]] studios, and later on [[BBC]] television broadcasts in 1936, though for action shots (as opposed to a seated presenter) the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead, a [[17.5mm film]] was shot, rapidly developed, and then scanned while the film was still wet.
The [[Scophony]] Company's success with their mechanical system in the 1930s enabled them to take their operations to the US when [[World War II]] curtailed their business in Britain.
An American inventor, [[Charles Francis Jenkins]], also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses. On June 13, 1925, Jenkins publicly demonstrated the synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925, Jenkins used a [[Nipkow disk]] and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of five miles (from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C.), using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution.<ref>{{cite news |title=Radio Shows Far Away Objects in Motion |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 14, 1925 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="glinsky">{{cite book| last = Glinsky| first = Albert| title = Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage| location = Urbana, Illinois| publisher = University of Illinois Press| year = 2000| pages = [https://archive.org/details/thereminethermus00glin/page/41 41]–45| isbn = 978-0-252-02582-2| url = https://archive.org/details/thereminethermus00glin| url-access = registration}}</ref> He was granted U.S. patent 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on June 30, 1925 (filed March 13, 1922).<ref>{{US patent|1544156}}</ref>
On December 25, 1926, [[Kenjiro Takayanagi]] demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and [[Cathode ray tube|CRT]] display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum at [[Shizuoka University]], Hamamatsu Campus.<ref name="nhk.or.jp">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160101180643/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/ ''Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television''], NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), 2002, retrieved 2009-05-23.</ref> By 1927, Takayanagi improved the resolution to 100 lines, which was not surpassed until 1931.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wQhlFaxDwrsC&pg=PA220 ''High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company'', page 220], [[Springer Science+Business Media]]</ref> He is the man who completed the first all-electronic television.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Popular Photography]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJsbJq2_djkC&pg=PA5 |date=November 1990 |page=5 |title=TV's Japanese Dad?}}</ref> His research toward creating a production model was halted by the US after Japan lost [[World War II]].<ref name="nhk.or.jp" />
In 1927, a team from [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] demonstrated television transmission from Washington to New York, using a prototype array of 50 lines containing 50 individual neon lights each against a gold-appearing background, as a display to make the images visible to an audience.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Television Demonstration in America |magazine=The Wireless World and Radio Review |date=June 1, 1927 |volume=20 |issue=22 |pages=680–686 |location=London |url=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Wireless-World/20s/Wireless-World-1927-06.pdf}}</ref> The display measured approximately two feet by three feet and had 2500 total pixels (50x50).
[[Herbert E. Ives]] and [[Frank Gray (researcher)|Frank Gray]] of [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on April 7, 1927. The reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a two-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen. The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high. Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets also received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a [[copper wire]] link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from [[Whippany, New Jersey]]. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included [[Secretary of Commerce]] [[Herbert Hoover]]. A [[flying-spot scanner]] beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 [[millisecond]]s. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality."<ref>{{harvp|Abramson|1987|page=101}}</ref>
In 1928, [[WRGB]] (then W2XCW) was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the [[General Electric]] facility in [[Schenectady, New York]]. It was popularly known as "[[WGY (AM)|WGY]] Television".
Meanwhile, in the [[Soviet Union]], [[Léon Theremin]] had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16-line resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using [[Interlaced video|interlacing]] in 1926. As part of his thesis on May 7, 1926, Theremin electrically transmitted and then projected near-simultaneous moving images on a five-foot square screen.<ref name="glinsky"/> By 1927 he achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until 1931 by RCA, with 120 lines.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}
Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution in mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to about 120. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald F. |last=McLean |title=Restoring Baird's Image |location=London |publisher=IEEE |date=2000 |page=184}}</ref> A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in [[Paris]] in 1935, and the 180-line system that [[Peck Television Corp.]] started in 1935 at station VE9AK in [[Montreal]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/ve9ak.html |title=VE9AK |publisher=Earlytelevision.org |access-date=2010-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Peck Television Corporation Console Receiver and Camera |url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/peck.html|publisher=Early Television Museum|access-date=18 February 2012}}</ref>
Anton Codelli (22 March 1875 – 28 April 1954), a [[Slovenia]]n nobleman, was a passionate inventor. Among other things, he had devised a miniature refrigerator for cars and a new rotary engine design. Intrigued by television, he decided to apply his technical skills to the new medium. At the time, the biggest challenge in television technology was to transmit images with sufficient resolution to reproduce recognizable figures. As recounted by media historian Melita Zajc, most inventors were determined to increase the number of lines used by their systems – some were approaching what was then the magic number of 100 lines. But Codelli had a different idea. In 1929, he developed a television device with a single line – but one that formed a continuous spiral on the screen. Codelli based his ingenious design on his understanding of the human eye. He knew that objects seen in peripheral vision don't need to be as sharp as those in the center. Codelli's mechanical television system, whose image was sharpest in the middle, worked well, and he was soon able to transmit images of his wife, Ilona von Drasche-Lazar, over the air.
Despite the backing of the German electronics giant Telefunken, however, Codelli's television system never became a commercial reality. Electronic television ultimately emerged as the dominant system, and Codelli moved on to other projects. His invention was largely forgotten.<ref>{{cite book |title=Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940 |page=192 |id=article 1,898 |first=Anton |last=Codelli}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Culture.si |url=http://www.culture.si/en/Radio-Television_Slovenia_(RTV_Slovenia) |title=Radio-Television Slovenia (RTV Slovenia) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912014709/http://www.culture.si/en/Radio-Television_Slovenia_(RTV_Slovenia) |archive-date=September 12, 2017}} The first known transmitted TV image on the territory of Slovenia</ref>
The advancement of all-electronic television (including [[image dissector]]s and other camera tubes and [[cathode ray tube]]s for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical TV usually only produced small images. It was the main type of TV until the 1930s. The last mechanical television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a handful of public universities in the United States.
==Electronic television==
{{Main|Video camera tube}}
{{See also|Professional video camera}}
[[File:Ferdinand_Braun.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Ferdinand Braun]]]]
In 1897, [[J. J. Thomson]], an English [[physicist]], in his three famous experiments was able to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern [[cathode-ray tube]] (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] in 1897 and is also known as the ''Braun tube''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ferdinand |last=Braun |date=1897 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89048352892;view=1up;seq=568 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20141217172841/http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89048352892;view=1up;seq=568 |archivedate=2014-12-17 |title=Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufs variabler Ströme |trans-title=On a process for the display and study of the course in time of variable currents |work=Annalen der Physik und Chemie 3rd series |volume=60 |pages=552–559}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/Bar-Cod/Cathode-Ray-Tube-CRT.html|title=Cathode Ray Tube|year=2007|publisher=Advameg, Inc.|work=Medical Discoveries|access-date=27 April 2008}}</ref> Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lehrer |first1=Norman, H. |title=Flat-Panel Displays and CRTS |chapter=The Challenge of the Cathode-Ray Tube|editor-first=Lawrence E. Jr. |editor-last=Tannas|doi=10.1007/978-94-011-7062-8_6|isbn=978-94-011-7062-8 |pages=138–176 |publisher=[[Van Nostrand Reinhold|Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.]]|location=New York|date=1985}}</ref> It was a [[cold-cathode]] [[diode]], a modification of the [[Crookes tube]] with a [[phosphor]]-coated screen. The ''Braun tube'' became the foundation of 20th century television.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/karl-ferdinand-braun | title=Karl Ferdinand Braun }}</ref> A cathode ray tube was successfully demonstrated as a displaying device by the [[Germans|German]] Professor Max Dieckmann in 1906, his experimental results were published by the journal ''[[Scientific American]]'' in 1909.<ref name="Dieckmann-CRT">
{{cite journal
| url = http://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v68/n1751supp/pdf/scientificamerican07241909-61supp.pdf
| author = Max Dieckmann
| title = The problem of television, a partial solution
| journal = Scientific American Supplement
| volume = 68
| pages = 61–62
| date = 1909-07-24
| doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican07241909-61supp}}
</ref> In 1908 [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]], fellow of the UK [[Royal Society]], published a letter in the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a [[cathode ray tube]] (or "Braun" tube) as both a transmitting and receiving device.<ref name="Swinton_DEV1">
{{cite journal
| last= Campbell-Swinton |first=A. A. |author-link=Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
| title = Distant Electric Vision (first paragraph)
| journal = Nature
| volume = 78
| issue = 2016
| page = 151
| date = 1908-06-18
| doi=10.1038/078151a0| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429503
| bibcode = 1908Natur..78..151S
| s2cid = 3956737
| doi-access = free
}}
</ref><ref name="Swinton_DEV2">
{{cite journal
| last= Campbell-Swinton |first=A. A. |author-link=Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
| title = Distant Electric Vision
| journal = Nature
| volume = 78
| page = 151
| date = 1908-06-18
| issue=2016
| doi=10.1038/078151a0| bibcode = 1908Natur..78..151S
| s2cid = 3956737
| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429503
| doi-access = free
}}
</ref> He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in ''[[The Times]]''<ref>"Distant Electric Vision", ''The Times'' (London), Nov. 15, 1911, p. 24b.</ref> and the ''Journal of the [[Röntgen Society]]''.<ref name="Swinton_Braid">
{{cite web
| url = http://www.bairdtelevision.com/swinton.html
| title = Alan Archivald Campbell-Swinton (1863–1930)
| author = Bairdtelevision
| work = Biography
| access-date = 2010-05-10}}
</ref><ref name="Swinton-Rontgen">{{harvp|Shiers|Shiers|1997|page=56}}</ref> In a letter to ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a [[cathode ray|cathode ray beam]].<ref name="Swinton_ET1">
{{cite journal
| last= Campbell-Swinton |first=A. A. |author-link=Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
| title = Electric Television (abstract)
| journal = Nature
| volume = 118
| issue = 2973
| page = 590
| date = 1926-10-23
| doi=10.1038/118590a0
| bibcode = 1926Natur.118..590S| s2cid = 4081053
| doi-access = free
}}
</ref><ref name="Burns-Swinton">{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=123}}</ref> These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died.<ref name="Minchin">
{{cite journal
| title = Prof. G. M. Minchin, F.R.S.
| journal = Nature
| volume = 93
| issue = 2318
| pages = 115–116
| date = 1914-04-02
| doi = 10.1038/093115a0| bibcode = 1914Natur..93..115R
| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429585
| doi-access = free
| last1 = G
| first1 = R. A.
}}
</ref> They were later repeated in 1937 by two different teams, H. Miller and J. W. Strange from [[EMI]],<ref name="Miller-Strange">
{{cite journal
| doi = 10.1088/0959-5309/50/3/307
| last1= Miller |first1=H. |last2=Strange |first2=J. W.
| title = The electrical reproduction of images by the photoconductive effect
| journal = Proceedings of the Physical Society
| volume = 50
| issue = 3
| pages = 374–384
| date = 1938-05-02| bibcode = 1938PPS....50..374M
}}
</ref> and H. Iams and A. Rose from [[RCA]].<ref name="Iams-Rose-1937">
{{cite journal
| doi = 10.1109/JRPROC.1937.228423
| last1 = Iams
| first1 = H.
| last2 = Rose
| first2 = A.
| title = Television Pickup Tubes with Cathode-Ray Beam Scanning
| journal = Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers
| volume = 25
| issue = 8
| pages = 1048–1070
| date = August 1937| s2cid = 51668505
}}
</ref> Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', p. 16.</ref> The first cathode ray tube to use a [[hot cathode]] was developed by [[John Bertrand Johnson|John B. Johnson]] (who gave his name to the term [[Johnson noise]]) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of [[Western Electric]], and became a commercial product in 1922.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
These early electronic camera tubes (like the [[image dissector]]) suffered from a very disappointing and fatal flaw: They scanned the subject and what was seen at each point was only the tiny piece of light viewed at the instant that the scanning system passed over it. A practical functional camera tube needed a different technological approach, which later became known as Charge - Storage camera tube. It based on a new physical phenomenon which was discovered and patented in Hungary in 1926, but it became widely understood and recognised only from around 1930.<ref>{{cite book|author=J.B Williams|title=The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|year=2017|page=29|isbn=9783319490885|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4QlDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>
The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by the Hungarian engineer [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] in the beginning of 1924.<ref name="IEC_Tihanyi">[http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml Kálmán Tihanyi (1897–1947)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033236/http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml |date=September 24, 2015 }}, ''IEC Techline'', International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 2009-07-15.</ref>
In 1926, Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube.<ref>{{cite web | title = Hungary – Kálmán Tihanyi's 1926 Patent Application 'Radioskop' | work = Memory of the World | publisher = [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]] | url = http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23240&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html| access-date =22 February 2008}}</ref><ref name=US2133123 /><ref name=US2158259 /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bairdtelevision.com/zworykin.html |title=Vladimir Kosma Zworykin, 1889–1982 |publisher=Bairdtelevision.com |access-date=17 April 2009}}</ref> His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in [[Hungary]] in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed "Radioskop".<ref name="Radioskop">[http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-4/kalman-tihanyis-1926-patent-application-radioskop/ "Kálmán Tihanyi's 1926 Patent Application 'Radioskop'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025055406/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-4/kalman-tihanyis-1926-patent-application-radioskop/ |date=October 25, 2012 }}, ''Memory of the World'', United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]), 2005, retrieved 2009-01-29.</ref> After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application,<ref name="IEC_Tihanyi"/> Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930,<ref name="abstract1928">[http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A Tihanyi, Koloman, ''Improvements in television apparatus''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204171044/https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A |date=December 4, 2022 }}. European Patent Office, Patent No. GB313456. Convention date UK application: 1928-06-11, declared void and published: 1930-11-11, retrieved: 2013-04-25.</ref> and so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of [[RCA]]'s "[[iconoscope]]" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval.<ref name=US2133123>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2133123|title=Patent US2133123 - Television apparatus|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref><ref name=US2158259>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2158259|title=Patent US2158259 - Television apparatus|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref> Tihanyi's charge storage idea remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.<ref name="Radioskop"/>
[[File:Philo Farnsworth 1924 yearbook.png|thumb|Philo Farnsworth in 1924]]
On December 25, 1926, [[Kenjiro Takayanagi]] demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan.<ref name="nhk.or.jp"/> Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development_of_Electronic_Television,_1924-1941|title=Milestones:Development of Electronic Television, 1924-1941|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref>
On September 7, 1927, [[Philo Farnsworth]]'s [[image dissector]] camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in [[San Francisco]].<ref name="Postman">[https://web.archive.org/web/20000531100005/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html Postman, Neil, "Philo Farnsworth"], ''The TIME 100: Scientists & Thinkers'', TIME.com, 1999-03-29, retrieved 2009-07-28.</ref><ref name="sfmuseum">[http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html "Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906–1971)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622033654/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html |date=June 22, 2011 }}, ''The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco'', retrieved 2009-07-15.</ref> By September 3, 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration.<ref name="sfmuseum"/> In 1929, the system was further improved by elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', p. 226.</ref> That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).<ref>[http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete The Philo T. and Elma G. Farnsworth Papers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422211543/http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete |date=April 22, 2008 }}</ref>
[[Image:Zworykin kinescope 1929.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir K. Zworykin|Vladimir Zworykin]] demonstrates electronic television (1929).]]
Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for [[Westinghouse Electric]] in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast and poor definition, and was stationary.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 51. {{ISBN|0-252-02104-5}}.</ref> Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a [[patent interference]] suit against Farnsworth. The [[U.S. Patent Office]] examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application,<ref name=US1691324>[https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131053220/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ |date=January 31, 2014 }}. Patent No. 1691324, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1925-07-13, issued 1928-11-13. Retrieved 2009-07-28</ref> he also divided his original application in 1931.<ref name="US2022450">[https://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518183522/http://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ |date=May 18, 2013 }}. Patent No. 2022450, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1923-12-29, issued 1935-11-26. Retrieved 2010-05-10.</ref> Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use Farnsworth's patents.<ref>Stashower, Daniel, ''[[iarchive:boygeniusmogulun00stas/page/243/mode/2up|The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television]]'', Broadway Books, 2002, p. 243–244. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0759-0}}.</ref><ref name="Everson">{{harvp|Everson|1949}}</ref>
In 1933 RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle.<ref name="NewYorkTimes">
{{cite news
| author=Lawrence, Williams L.
| title=Human-like eye made by engineers to televise images. 'Iconoscope' converts scenes into electrical energy for radio transmission. Fast as a movie camera. Three million tiny photo cells 'memorize', then pass out pictures. Step to home television. Developed in ten years' work by Dr. V. K. Zworykin, who describes it at Chicago.
| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/06/27/archives/humanlike-eye-made-by-engineers-to-televise-images-iconoscope.html
| date=June 27, 1933
| newspaper=The New York Times
| page=1 |url-access=subscription
}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Shiers|Shiers|1997|page=xii}}</ref> Dubbed the [[Iconoscope]] by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} However, Farnsworth had overcome his power problems with his Image Dissector through the invention of a unique [[multipactor effect|multipactor]] device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV1">{{harvp|Abramson|1987|page=148}}</ref><ref name="Everson1">{{harvp|Everson|1949|pages=137–141}}</ref> This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better<ref name="Everson2">{{harvp|Everson|1949|page=139}}</ref> and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. A problem with the multipactor, unfortunately, was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.<ref name="Everson3">{{harvp|Everson|1949|page=141}}</ref>
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-K0917-501, Prof. Manfred v. Ardenne.jpg|thumb|right|[[Manfred von Ardenne]] in 1933]]
At the [[Berlin Radio Show]] in August 1931 in [[Berlin]], [[Manfred von Ardenne]] gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception, the first completely electronic television transmission.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vonardenne.biz/ja/company/history/manfred-von-ardenne/ | title=Manfred von Ardenne }}</ref> However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a [[flying-spot scanner]] to scan slides and film.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''Zworykin: Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 111.</ref> Ardenne achieved his first transmission of television pictures on 24 December 1933, followed by test runs for a public television service in 1934. The world's first electronically scanned television service then started in Berlin in 1935, the [[Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow]], culminating in the live broadcast of the [[1936 Summer Olympic Games]] from Berlin to public places all over Germany.<ref name="dw">{{cite web|title=22.3.1935: Erstes Fernsehprogramm der Welt|url=http://www.kalenderblatt.de/index.php?what=thmanu&lang=de&manu_id=1737&sdt=20090322&maca=de-podcast_kalenderblatt-1086-xml-mrss|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|accessdate=27 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="computer">{{cite web|title=Es begann in der Fernsehstube: TV wird 80 Jahre alt|url=http://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html|publisher=Computer Bild|date=22 March 2015|accessdate=28 April 2017|archive-date=January 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121012410/https://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the [[Franklin Institute]] of [[Philadelphia]] on August 25, 1934, and for ten days afterwards.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA838 New Television System Uses 'Magnetic Lens'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204171031/https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA838 |date=December 4, 2022 }}", ''Popular Mechanics'', Dec. 1934, p. 838–839.</ref><ref name="Burns370">{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=370}}</ref>
In Britain the [[EMI]] engineering team led by [[Isaac Shoenberg]] applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they dubbed "the Emitron",<ref name="GB406353">
{{cite web
| last1 = Tedham
| first1 = William F.
| last2 = McGee
| first2 = James D.
| title = Improvements in or relating to cathode ray tubes and the like
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19340226&CC=GB&NR=406353A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 406,353 (filed May 1932, patented 1934)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-02-22
}}</ref><ref name="US2077442">
{{cite web
| last1=Tedham
| first1=William F.
| last2=McGee
| first2=James D.
| title=Cathode Ray Tube
| url=https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523212804/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=May 23, 2013
| work=Patent No. 2,077,422 (filed in Great Britain 1932, filed in USA 1933, patented 1937)
| publisher=United States Patent Office
| access-date=2010-01-10
}}</ref> which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. In November 1936, a [[405-line television system|405-line broadcasting]] service employing the Emitron began at studios in [[Alexandra Palace]] and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the [[Victorian building]]'s towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but it was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular high-definition television service.<ref name="Burns576">{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=576}}</ref>
The original American iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available.<ref name="Winstor-media">{{cite book
| title = Misunderstanding media
| author = Winston, Brian
| publisher = Harvard University Press
| year = 1986
| isbn = 978-0-674-57663-6
| pages = 60–61
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=K_RpAAAAIAAJ&q=%22american+iconoscope%22+noisy
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref><ref name="Winstor-history">{{cite book
| title = Media technology and society. A history: from the telegraph to the Internet
| author = Winston, Brian
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 1998
| isbn = 978-0-415-14230-4
| page = 105
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TZOF_1GZRmYC&q=american+iconoscope+noisy+
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref> The [[EMI]] team under the supervision of [[Isaac Shoenberg]] analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum.<ref name="Alexander">
{{cite book
| title=The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein
| last=Alexander |first=Robert Charles
| publisher=Focal Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-240-51628-8
| pages=217–219
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=super+emitron
| access-date=2010-01-10
}}</ref><ref name="Burns-Blumlein">
{{cite book
| title=The life and times of A D Blumlein
| last=Burns |first=R. W.
| publisher=IET
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-85296-773-7
| page=181
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2z2ONO7nBQC&q=blumlein+mcgee+cps+emitron+decelerating+zero
| access-date=2010-03-05
}}</ref> They solved this problem by developing and patenting in 1934 two new camera tubes dubbed [[Video camera tube#Super-Emitron and image iconoscope|super-Emitron]] and [[Video camera tube#Orthicon and CPS Emitron|CPS Emitron]].<ref name="GB442666">
{{cite web
| last1 = Lubszynski
| first1 = Hans Gerhard
| last2 = Rodda
| first2 = Sydney
| title = Improvements in or relating to television
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360212&CC=GB&NR=442666A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 442,666 (filed May 1934, patented 1936)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-01-15
}}</ref><ref name="GB446661">
{{cite web
| last1 = Blumlein
| first1 = Alan Dower
| last2 = McGee
| first2 = James Dwyer
| title = Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360504&CC=GB&NR=446661A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 446,661 (filed August 1934, patented 1936)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref><ref name="GB446664">
{{cite web
| last= McGee |first=James Dwyer
| title = Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360505&CC=GB&NR=446664A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 446,664 (filed September 1934, patented 1936)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref> The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater.<ref name="Alexander"/> It was used for an [[outside broadcasting]] by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set how the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph.<ref name="Alexander2">
{{cite book
| title=The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein
| last=Alexander |first=Robert Charles
| publisher=Focal Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-240-51628-8
| pages=216
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=emitron+cenotaph+armistice
| access-date=2010-01-10
}}</ref> This was the first time that anyone could broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighbouring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA could do the same before the [[1939 New York World's Fair]].
[[File:1939 RCA Television Advertisement.jpg|left|thumb|Ad for the beginning of experimental television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939]]
On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken.<ref name="Inglis">{{cite book
| title = Behind the tube: a history of broadcasting technology and business
| last= Inglis |first=Andrew F.
| publisher = Focal Press
| year = 1990
| isbn = 978-0-240-80043-1
| page = 172
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xiu4AAAAIAAJ&q=image-iconoscope+telefunken
| access-date = 2010-01-15
}}</ref> The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the [[patent war]] between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their ''Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher'' (''Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television'') in Germany in 1925,<ref name="DE450187">
{{cite web
| last1=Dieckmann |first1=Max |first2=Rudolf |last2=Hell
| title = Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröehre für Fernseher
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=DE&NR=450187C&KC=C&FT=D&date=19271003&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_V3
| work = Patent No. DE 450,187 (filed 1925, patented 1927)
| publisher = Deutsches Reich Reichspatentamt
| access-date = 2009-07-28
}}</ref> two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States.<ref name="US1773980">
{{cite web
| last= Farnsworth |first=Philo T.
| title = Television System
| url=https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523192021/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=May 23, 2013
| work = Patent No. 1,773,980 (filed 1927, patented 1930)
| publisher = United States Patent Office
| access-date = 2009-07-28
}}</ref> The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon.<ref name="Vries">{{cite book
| title = Design methodology and relationships with science, Número 71 de NATO ASI series
| last1 = de Vries
| first1 = M. J.
| last2 = de Vries
| first2 = Marc
| last3 = Cross
| first3 = Nigel
| last4 = Grant
| first4 = Donald P.
| publisher = Springer
| year = 1993
| isbn = 978-0-7923-2191-0
| page = 222
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4T8U_J1h7noC&q=image-iconoscope+image-orthicon+telefunken
| access-date = 2010-01-15
}}</ref><ref name="Multicon">
{{cite web
|last=Smith |first=Harry
|title = Multicon – A new TV camera tube
|url = http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html
|work = newspaper article
|date = July 1953
|publisher = Early Television Foundation and Museum
|access-date = 2010-01-15
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100318011743/http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html
|archive-date = March 18, 2010
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games,<ref name="Heimann1">
{{cite web
| last=Gittel |first=Joachim
| title=Spezialröhren
| url=http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Spezialroehren.htm
| work=photographic album
| date=2008-10-11
| publisher=Jogis Röhrenbude
| access-date=2010-01-15
}}</ref><ref name="ETM">
{{cite web
|title=TV Camera Tubes, German "Super Iconoscope" (1936)
|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html
|work=photographic album
|publisher=Early Television Foundation and Museum
|access-date=2010-01-15
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617080126/http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html
|archive-date=June 17, 2011
|df=mdy-all
}}</ref> later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955,<ref name="Heimann2">
{{cite web
| last=Gittel |first=Joachim
| title=FAR-Röhren der Firma Heimann
| url=http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/Heimann.htm
| work=photographic album
| date=2008-10-11
| publisher=Jogis Röhrenbude
| access-date=2010-01-15
}}</ref> finally the Dutch company [[Philips]] produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.<ref name="Multicon"/><ref name="Philips">
{{cite book
| chapter = 5854, Image Iconoscope, Philips
| url = http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf
| title = electronic tube handbook
| year = 1958
| publisher = Philips
| access-date = 2010-01-15
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060903223404/http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf
| archive-date = 2006-09-03
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
American television broadcasting at the time consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941.<ref name="Everson4">{{harvp|Everson|1949|page=248}}</ref> RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV2">{{harvp|Abramson|1987|page=254}}</ref> In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents.<ref name="Schatzkin187-8">Schatzkin, Paul (2002), ''The Boy Who Invented Television''. Silver Spring, Maryland: Teamcom Books, pp. 187–8. {{ISBN|1-928791-30-1}}.</ref> With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV2"/> In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television.<ref>"Go-Ahead Signal Due for Television", ''The New York Times'', April 25, 1941, p. 7.</ref><ref>"An Auspicious Beginning", ''The New York Times'', August 3, 1941, p. X10.</ref>
The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944, and became a national standard in 1946.<ref name="60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625">{{cite web |url=http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262 |title=On the beginning of broadcast in 625 lines 60 years ago |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131236/http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262 |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |work=625 magazine |language=Russian}}</ref> The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in 1948 in Moscow.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_255-portrait.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041230091501/http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_255-portrait.pdf |archivedate=2004-12-30 |title=M.I. Krivocheev – an engineer's engineer |work=EBU Technical Review |date=Spring 1993}}</ref> The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European [[Comité consultatif international pour la radio|CCIR]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf|date=February 21, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221210300/http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf |archive-date=February 21, 2007|title=In the Vanguard of Television Broadcasting}}</ref>
In 1936, [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] described the principle of [[plasma display]], the first [[flat panel display]] system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ewh.ieee.org/r2/johnstown/downloads/20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf |title=IEEE Johnstown – Analog to Digital Television Transition Trivia Challenge |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605125905/http://ewh.ieee.org/r2/johnstown/downloads/20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf |archive-date=June 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf |title=Kalman Tihanyi's plasma television, invented in the 1930s |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702200523/http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf |archivedate=July 2, 2007}}</ref>
{{Clear}}
In 1978, James P. Mitchell described, prototyped and demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel [[LED display]] targeted at replacing the CRT.
==Color television==
{{Main|Color television}}
The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning, although he gave no practical details.<ref>M. Le Blanc, "Etude sur la transmission électrique des impressions lumineuses", ''La Lumière Electrique'', vol. 11, December 1, 1880, pp. 477–481.</ref> Polish inventor [[Jan Szczepanik]] patented a color television system in 1897, using a [[selenium]] photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it.<ref>{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=98}}</ref> Another inventor, [[Hovannes Adamian]], also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him,<ref>Western technology and Soviet economic development: 1945 to 1965, by Antony C. Sutton, Business & Economics - 1973, p. 330</ref> and was patented in Germany on March 31, 1908, patent No. 197183, then in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], on April 1, 1908, patent No. 7219,<ref>The History of Television, 1880-1941, by Albert Abramson, 1987, p. 27</ref> in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912).<ref name="tvmuseum.ru">[http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=1018 A. Rokhlin, Tak rozhdalos' dal'novidenie (in Russian)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424162531/http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=1018 |date=April 24, 2013 }}</ref>
Scottish inventor [[John Logie Baird]] demonstrated the world's first color transmission on July 3, 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a [[commutator (electric)|commutator]] to alternate their illumination.<ref>John Logie Baird, [https://www.google.com/patents?id=JRVAAAAAEBAJ Television Apparatus and the Like] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518084511/https://www.google.com/patents?id=JRVAAAAAEBAJ |date=May 18, 2013 }}, US patent, filed in UK in 1928.</ref> Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on February 4, 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's [[The Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]] studios to a projection screen at London's [[Dominion Theatre]].<ref>Baird Television: [http://www.bairdtelevision.com/crystalpalace.html Crystal Palace Television Studios] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630084750/http://www.bairdtelevision.com/crystalpalace.html |date=June 30, 2017 }}. Previous color television demonstrations in the UK and US had been via closed circuit.</ref>
Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by [[Bell Laboratories]] in June 1929 using three complete systems of [[photoelectric cells]], amplifiers, glow-tubes and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green and blue images into one full color image.
The first practical, hybrid, electro-mechanical, [[Field-sequential color system]] was again pioneered by John Logie Baird, with the initial demonstration made in July 1939.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=R. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5y09hpR0UY0C&dq=baird+colour+television+July+27%2C+1939&pg=PR17 |title=John Logie Baird: Television Pioneer |date=2000-06-30 |publisher=IET |isbn=978-0-85296-797-3 |language=en}}</ref> His system incorporated synchronised, two colour, red and blue-green, rotating filters, placed in front of both the camera, and CRT, to add false colour to the monochromatic television broadcasts. By December 1940 he had publicly demonstrated a 600 line, hybrid, field-sequential, colour television system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The history of colour TV in the UK |url=https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/history-colour-tv-uk |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=National Science and Media Museum |date=March 17, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console.<ref name=BairdColor /> However, Baird was not happy with the design, and as early as 1944 had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.
In 1939, Hungarian engineer [[Peter Carl Goldmark]] introduced an electro-mechanical system while at [[CBS]], which contained an [[Iconoscope]] sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set.<ref>Peter C. Goldmark, assignor to Columbia Broadcasting System, "Color Television", [https://patents.google.com/patent/US2480571 U.S. Patent 2,480,571], filed Sept. 7, 1940.</ref> The system was first demonstrated to the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) on August 29, 1940, and shown to the press on September 4.<ref>Current Broadcasting 1940</ref><ref>"Color Television Success in Test", ''The New York Times'', August 30, 1940, p. 21.</ref><ref>"Color Television Achieves Realism", ''The New York Times'', Sept. 5, 1940, p. 18.</ref><ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=JScDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA120 New Television System Transmits Images in Full Color]", ''Popular Science'', December 1940, p. 120.</ref>
CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by November 12.<ref>"Color Television Success in Test," ''The New York Times'', Aug. 30, 1940, p. 21. "CBS Demonstrates Full Color Television," ''Wall Street Journal'', Sept. 5, 1940, p. 1. "Television Hearing Set," ''The New York Times'', Nov. 13, 1940, p. 26.</ref> [[NBC]] (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941.<ref>Ed Reitan, [http://colortelevision.info/rca-nbc_firsts.html RCA-NBC Color Firsts in Television (commented)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204092411/http://colortelevision.info/rca-nbc_firsts.html |date=February 4, 2015 }}.</ref> These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The [[War Production Board]] halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 22, 1942, to August 20, 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.<ref>"Making of Radios and Phonographs to End April 22," ''The New York Times'', March 8, 1942, p. 1. "Radio Production Curbs Cover All Combinations," ''Wall Street Journal'', June 3, 1942, p. 4. "WPB Cancels 210 Controls; Radios, Trucks in Full Output," ''The New York Times'', August 21, 1945, p. 1.</ref><ref>Bob Cooper, "[http://www.earlytelevision.org/color_tv_cooper.html Television: The Technology That Changed Our Lives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223155937/http://www.earlytelevision.org/color_tv_cooper.html |date=December 23, 2014 }}", Early Television Foundation.</ref>
Mexican inventor [[Guillermo González Camarena]] also experimented with hybrid field-sequential colour TV (known as telectroescopía at first). His efforts began in 1931 and led to a Mexican patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" [[color television]] being filed in August 1940.<ref>{{cite web |title=Patent US2296019 - Chromoscopic adapter for television equipment |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2296019 |access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref>
As early as 1940 Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "[[Telechrome]]". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). A demonstration on August 16, 1944, was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. This used a patterned version of the phosphor plate, with the guns aimed at ridges on one side of the plate. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland & Company, 2003, pp. 13–14. {{ISBN|0-7864-1220-8}}</ref><ref name="BairdColor">Baird Television: [http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html The World's First High Definition Colour Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511162325/http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html |date=May 11, 2017 }}.</ref>
Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The [[Geer tube]] was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The [[penetron]] used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The [[chromatron]] used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.
One of the great technical challenges of introducing color [[broadcast television]] was the desire to conserve [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]], potentially three times that of the existing [[black-and-white]] standards, and not use an excessive amount of [[radio spectrum]]. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee<ref name=name>National Television System Committee (1951–1953), [Report and Reports of Panel No. 11, 11-A, 12–19, with Some supplementary references cited in the Reports, and the Petition for adoption of transmission standards for color television before the Federal Communications Commission, n.p., 1953], 17 v. illus., diagrams., tables. 28 cm. LC Control No.:54021386 [http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&PAGE=First Library of Congress Online Catalog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318113401/http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&PAGE=First |date=March 18, 2011 }}</ref> approved an all-electronic [[Compatible color]] system developed by [[RCA]], which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The [[NTSC]] standard represented a major technical achievement.
[[File:SMPTE Color Bars.svg|thumb|left|Color bars used in a [[test pattern]], sometimes used when no program material is available]]
Although all-electronic color was introduced in the U.S. in 1953,<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Jeremy G.|title=Television: Critical Methods and Applications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rWFRLVyvY0C&q=color+television+December+17+1953&pg=PA290 |year=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9781410614742 |page=290}}</ref> high prices and the scarcity of color programming greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 [[Tournament of Roses Parade]]) occurred on January 1, 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.
Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of [[General Electric|GE's]] relatively compact and lightweight [[Porta-Color]] set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets.
Color broadcasting in Europe was also not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s.
By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets, such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and by the early 1980s, black-and-white sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or use as [[video monitor]] screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s, even these areas switched to color sets.
==Digital television==
{{Main|Digital television}}
{{See also|Digital television transition}}
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by [[analog television]]. Digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.disabled-world.com/artman/publish/digital-hdtv.shtml | title=HDTV Set Top Boxes and Digital TV Broadcast Information | access-date=28 June 2014 | archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191336/http://www.disabled%2Dworld.com/artman/publish/digital%2Dhdtv.shtml | archive-date=May 22, 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> It is an innovative service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s.<ref>Kruger, L. G. (2001). Digital Television: An Overview. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Publishers.</ref>
Digital TV's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It wasn't until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.benton.org/initiatives/obligations/charting_the_digital_broadcasting_future/sec1|title=The Origins and Future Prospects of Digital Television|access-date=December 11, 2015|date=December 23, 2008}}</ref>
In the mid-1980s Japanese consumer electronics firm [[Sony Corporation]] developed HDTV technology and the [[Sony HDVS|equipment to record at such resolution]], and the [[Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding|MUSE]] analog format proposed by [[NHK]], a Japanese broadcaster, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies. Sony's system produced images at 1125-line resolution (or in digital terms, 1875x1125, close to the resolution of Full HD video<ref>1125 divided by 3, and then multiplied by 5, due to the 5:3 aspect ratio, assuming square pixels</ref>) Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. Then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed.
In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.
The final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior. Interlaced scanning, which is used in televisions worldwide, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. Progressive scanning, which is the format used in computers, scans lines in sequences, from top to bottom. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offers a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then feasible, that is, 1080 lines per picture and 1920 pixels per line. William F. Schreiber, who was a director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cinemasource.com/articles/hist_politics_dtv.pdf|title=The history and politics of DTV|page=13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030322131735/http://www.cinemasource.com/articles/hist_politics_dtv.pdf|archive-date=March 22, 2003|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Digital television transition]] started in the late 2000s. All the governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by the 2010s. Initially the adoption rate was low. But soon, more and more households were converting to digital televisions. The transition was expected to be complete worldwide by the mid to late 2010s.
==Smart television==
{{Main|Smart TV}}
{{Distinguish|Streaming television|Internet Protocol television}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Samsung Smart TV 2012 (E-Series).jpg|thumb|An early Smart TV from 2012 running the discontinued Orsay platform]]
Advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart TVs. A smart television, sometimes referred to as ''connected TV'' or ''hybrid television'', is a television set with integrated Internet and [[Web 2.0]] features, and is an example of [[technological convergence]] between computers and television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional [[Broadcasting|broadcasting media]], these devices can also provide Internet TV, online [[interactive media]], [[over-the-top content]], as well as [[video on demand|on-demand]] [[streaming media]], and [[home network]]ing access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system, including [[Android OS|Android]] or a derivative of it, [[Tizen]], [[webOS]], [[Roku OS]], and [[SmartCast]].<ref name="businessinsider1">{{cite web|author=Steve Kovach | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/what-is-a-smart-tv-2010-12 |title=What Is A Smart TV? |publisher=Businessinsider.com |date=December 8, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Carmi Levy |url=https://www.thestar.com/business/media/article/876278--future-of-television-is-online-and-on-demand |title=Future of television is online and on-demand |work=Toronto Star |date=October 15, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Jeremy Toeman 41 |url=http://mashable.com/2010/10/20/connected-tv-content-not-apps/ |title=Why Connected TVs Will Be About the Content, Not the Apps |publisher=Mashable.com |date=October 20, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/10/24/internet-tv-and-the-death-of-cable-tv-really/ |title=Internet TV and The Death of Cable TV, really |publisher=Techcrunch.com |date=October 24, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref>
Smart TV is not to be confused with [[Internet TV]], [[IPTV]] or with [[Web TV]]. [[Internet television]] refers to the receiving television content over internet instead of traditional systems (terrestrial, cable and satellite) (although internet itself is received by these methods). [[Internet Protocol television]] (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. [[Web television]] (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
A first patent was filed in 1994<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?FT=D&date=19960510&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_EP&CC=FR&NR=2726670A1&KC=A1&ND=3 |title=espacenet – Original document |publisher=Worldwide.espacenet.com |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref> (and extended the following year)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=US&NR=5905521A&KC=A&FT=D&ND=7&date=19990518&DB=EPODOC |title=espacenet – Bibliographic data |publisher=Worldwide.espacenet.com |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref> for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs.
Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/1/5/7497383/sony-new-smart-tv-run-android-tv-ces-2015|title=All of Sony's new smart TVs run on Android TV|author=Dieter Bohn|date=January 6, 2015|publisher=Vox Media|work=The Verge|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.techtimes.com/articles/24117/20150103/ces-2015-new-samsung-smart-tvs-will-be-powered-by-tizen-os.htm|title=CES 2015: New Samsung Smart TVs Will Be Powered by Tizen OS|work=Tech Times|access-date=December 11, 2015|date=January 3, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/lg-to-show-off-webos-2-0-smart-tv-at-ces-2015/|title=LG to show off webOS 2.0 smart TV at CES 2015|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=CBS Interactive|work=CNET|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref>
==3D television==
{{Main|3D television}}
Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on August 10, 1928, by [[John Logie Baird]] in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bairdtelevision.com/stereo.html |title=How Stereoscopic Television is Shown |publisher=Baird Television website|access-date=18 September 2010<!--DASHBot-->}}</ref> Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electro-mechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D TVs.
Although 3D TV sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads among the public. Many 3D television channels that started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}
==Terrestrial television==<!-- This section is linked from [[Television]] -->
{{Main|Terrestrial television}}
{{See also|Timeline of the introduction of television in countries}}
=== Overview ===
Programming is [[broadcast]] by [[television station]]s, sometimes called "channels", as stations are [[Frequency allocation|licensed]] by their governments to broadcast only over assigned [[Channel (broadcasting)|channels]] in the television [[band (radio)|band]]. At first, [[Terrestrial television|terrestrial broadcasting]] was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because [[Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of [[Television channel|channels]] available, government regulation was the norm.
=== Canada ===
The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC) adopted the American NTSC 525-line B/W 60 field per second system as its broadcast standard. It began television broadcasting in Canada in September 1952. The first broadcast was on September 6, 1952, from its [[Montreal]] station [[CBFT]]. The premiere broadcast was bilingual, spoken in English and French. Two days later, on September 8, 1952, the [[Toronto]] station [[CBLT]] went on the air. This became the English-speaking flagship station for the country, while CBFT became the French-language flagship after a second English-language station was licensed to CBC in Montreal later in the decade. The CBC's first privately owned affiliate television station, [[CICI-TV|CKSO]] in [[Sudbury, Ontario]], launched in October 1953 (at the time, all private stations were expected to affiliate with the CBC, a condition that was relaxed in 1960–61 when CTV, Canada's second national English-language network, was formed).
=== Czechoslovakia ===
[[File:Höritz Museum - Fernseher Tesla 40001A.jpg|thumb|The first mass-produced Czechoslovak TV-set Tesla 4001A (1953–57)]]
In former [[Czechoslovakia]] (now the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]) the first experimental [[television set]]s were produced in 1948. In the same year the first test television transmission was performed. Regular television broadcasts in [[Prague]] area started on May 1, 1953. Television service expanded in the following years as new studios were built in [[Ostrava]], [[Bratislava]], [[Brno]] and [[Košice]]. By 1961 more than a million citizens owned a television set. The second channel of the state-owned [[Czechoslovak Television]] started broadcasting in 1970.
Preparations for color transmissions in the PAL color system started in the second half of the 1960s. However, due to the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]] and the following [[Normalization (Czechoslovakia)|normalization]] period, the broadcaster was ultimately forced to adopt the SECAM color system used by the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]]. Regular color transmissions eventually started in 1973, with television studios using PAL equipment and the output signal only being transcoded to SECAM at transmitter sites.
After the [[Velvet Revolution]], it was decided to switch to the PAL standard. The new [[OK3 (television)|OK3]] channel was launched by Czechoslovak Television in May 1990 and broadcast in the format from the very start. The remaining channels switched to PAL by July 1, 1992. Commercial television didn't start broadcasting until after the [[dissolution of Czechoslovakia]].
=== France ===
The first experiments in television broadcasting began in France in the 1930s, although the French did not immediately employ the new technology.
In November 1929, Bernard Natan established France's first television company, Télévision-[[John Logie Baird|Baird]]-Natan. On April 14, 1931, there took place the first transmission with a thirty-line standard by [[René Barthélemy]]. On December 6, 1931, [[Henri de France]] created the Compagnie Générale de Télévision (CGT). In December 1932, Barthélemy carried out an experimental program in black and white (definition: 60 lines) one hour per week, "''Paris Télévision''", which gradually became daily from early 1933.
The first official channel of French television appeared on February 13, 1935, the date of the official inauguration of television in France, which was broadcast in 60 lines from 8:15 to 8:30 pm. The program showed the actress Béatrice Bretty in the studio of Radio-PTT Vision at 103 rue de Grenelle in Paris. The broadcast had a range of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}}. On November 10, [[George Mandel]], Minister of Posts, inaugurated the first broadcast in 180 lines from the transmitter of the [[Eiffel Tower]]. On the 18th, Susy Wincker, the first announcer since the previous June, carried out a demonstration for the press from 5:30 to 7:30 pm. Broadcasts became regular from January 4, 1937, from 11:00 to 11:30 am and 8:00 to 8:30 pm during the week, and from 5:30 to 7:30 pm on Sundays. In July 1938, a decree defined for three years a standard of [[455-line television system|455 lines]] VHF (whereas three standards were used for the experiments: 441 lines for Gramont, 450 lines for the Compagnie des Compteurs and 455 for Thomson). In 1939, there were about only 200 to 300 individual television sets, some of which were also available in a few public places.
With the entry of France into World War II the same year, broadcasts ceased and the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was sabotaged. On September 3, 1940, French television was seized by the German occupation forces. A technical agreement was signed by the Compagnie des Compteurs and [[Telefunken]], and a financing agreement for the resuming of the service is signed by German Ministry of Post and Radiodiffusion Nationale ([[Vichy France|Vichy]]'s radio). On May 7, 1943, at 3:00 evening broadcasts. The first broadcast of [[Fernsehsender Paris]] (Paris Télévision) was transmitted from rue Cognac-Jay. These regular broadcasts (5{{fraction|1|4}} hours a day) lasted until August 16, 1944. One thousand 441-line sets, most of which were installed in soldiers' hospitals, picked up the broadcasts. These German-controlled television broadcasts from the Eiffel Tower in Paris were able to be received on the south coast of England by [[Royal Air Force]] and BBC engineers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/raf.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012204455/http://earlytelevision.org/raf.html |archive-date=October 12, 2011 |title=Early Electronic Television: R.A.F. Reception of German TV from Paris |website=earlytelevision.org |access-date=April 23, 2013}}</ref> who photographed the station identification image direct from the screen.
In 1944, René Barthélemy developed an [[819-line]] television standard. During the years of occupation, Barthélemy reached 1015 and even 1042 lines. On October 1, 1944, television service resumed after the [[liberation of Paris]]. The broadcasts were transmitted from the Cognacq-Jay studios. In October 1945, after repairs, the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was back in service. On November 20, 1948, [[François Mitterrand]] decreed a broadcast standard of 819 lines; broadcasting began at the end of 1949 in this definition. Besides France, this standard was later adopted by Algeria, Monaco, and Morocco. Belgium and Luxembourg used a modified version of this standard with bandwidth narrowed to 7 MHz.<ref name="britbroadcasttrans">{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jKjoU8bokw0C&q=819+lines+television+france+belgium+denmark&pg=PA227|title = British Broadcasting in Transition|author = Burton Paulu |isbn = 9781452909554|year = 1961| publisher=U of Minnesota Press }}</ref>
Development of color coding standard [[SECAM]] began in 1956, by a team led by [[Henri de France]] working at ''Compagnie Française de Télévision''; NTSC was considered undesirable in Europe because of its tint problem, requiring an additional [[tint control|control]], which SECAM, and later PAL, solved. Some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers.<ref>Crane, R. J. (1979). The Politics of International Standards: France and the Color TV War, Ablex Publishing Corporation.</ref> However, incompatibility had started with the earlier unusual decision to adopt positive [[video modulation]] for 819-line French broadcast signals (only the UK's [[405-line]] was similar; widely adopted [[525 lines|525-]] and [[625-line]] systems used negative video). Nonetheless, SECAM was partly developed for reasons of national pride. Henri de France's personal [[charisma]] and ambition may have been a contributing factor; PAL was developed by [[Telefunken]], a German company.
The first proposed system was called '''SECAM I''' and tested in December 1961, followed by other studies to improve compatibility and image quality,<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/history-of-technology-volume-20-volume-twenty-1998/the-pal-secam-colour-television-controversy?from=search|title=Bloomsbury Collections – History of Technology – Volume Twenty, 1998|website=bloomsburycollections.com}}</ref> but it was too soon for a wide introduction. A version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but never introduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.redsharknews.com/business/item/471-france-had-a-national-hd-tv-system-in-1949|title = France had a national HD TV system as far back as 1949}}</ref>
=== Germany ===
Electromechanical broadcasts began in Germany in 1929, but were without sound until 1934. Network electronic service started on March 22, 1935, on [[180 lines]] using [[telecine]] transmission of film, [[intermediate film system]], or cameras using the Nipkow Disk. Transmissions using cameras based on the [[iconoscope]] began on January 15, 1936. The Berlin [[1936 Summer Olympics|Summer Olympic Games]] were televised, using both all-electronic iconoscope-based cameras and intermediate film cameras, to Berlin and [[Hamburg]] in August 1936. Twenty-eight public television rooms were opened for anybody who did not own a television set. The Germans had a 441-line system on the air in February 1937, and during [[World War II]] brought it to France, where they broadcast from the Eiffel Tower.
After the end of World War II, the victorious Allies imposed a general ban on all radio and television broadcasting in Germany. Radio broadcasts for information purposes were soon permitted again, but television broadcasting was allowed to resume only in 1948.
In East Germany, the head of broadcasting in the Soviet occupation zone, Hans Mahler, predicted in 1948 that in the near future 'a new and important technical step forward in the field of broadcasting in Germany will begin its triumphant march: television.' In 1950, the plans for a nationwide television service got off the ground, and a Television Centre in Berlin was approved. Transmissions began on December 21, 1952, using the 625-line standard developed in the Soviet Union in 1944, although at that time there were probably no more than 75 television receivers capable of receiving the programming.<ref>[http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/socialsciences/screening-socialism/television-histories/tvinthegdr/ "TV in the GDR"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116014955/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/socialsciences/screening-socialism/television-histories/tvinthegdr/ |date=November 16, 2016 }}, ''Loughborough University''</ref><ref>[http://www.dra.de/online/hinweisdienste/kurzinformationen/70jahre-fs.pdf "Fernsehen aus Adlershof"], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629013619/http://www.dra.de/online/hinweisdienste/kurzinformationen/70jahre-fs.pdf |date=June 29, 2006}}, ''Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv Babelsberg''</ref>
In West Germany, the British occupation forces as well as [[NWDR]] (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), which had started work in the British zone straight after the war, agreed to the launch of a television station. Even before this, German television specialists had agreed on 625 lines as the future standard.<ref>[https://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/dossiers_1_04_eurovision50_ve_tcm6-13890.pdf "50 years of Eurovision"], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050129162217/https://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/dossiers_1_04_eurovision50_ve_tcm6-13890.pdf |date=January 29, 2005 }}, ''EBU'', January, 2004.</ref> This standard had narrower channel bandwidth (7 MHz) compared to the Soviet specification (8 MHz), allowing three television channels to fit into the [[VHF I]] band. In 1963 a second broadcaster ([[ZDF]]) started. Commercial stations began programming in the 1980s.
When color was introduced, West Germany (1967) chose a variant of the [[NTSC]] color system, modified by [[Walter Bruch]] and called [[PAL]]. East Germany (1969) accepted the French [[SECAM]] system, which was used in Eastern European countries. With the reunification of Germany, it was decided to switch to the PAL color system. The system was changed in December 1990.
=== Italy ===
In Italy, the first experimental tests on television broadcasts were made in [[Turin]] since 1934. The city already hosted the Center for Management of the [[EIAR]] (lately renamed as [[RAI]]) at the premises of the Theatre of Turin. Subsequently, the EAIR established offices in [[Rome]] and [[Milan]].
On July 22, 1939, comes into operation in Rome the first television transmitter at the EIAR station, which performed a regular broadcast for about a year using a 441-line system that was developed in Germany. In September of the same year, a second television transmitter was installed in Milan, making experimental broadcasts during major events in the city.
The broadcasts were suddenly ended on May 31, 1940, by order of the government, allegedly because of interferences encountered in the first air navigation systems. Also, the imminent participation in the war is believed to have played a role in this decision. EIAR transmitting equipment was relocated to Germany by the German troops. Lately, it was returned to Italy.
The first official television broadcast began on January 3, 1954, by the RAI.
=== Japan ===
[[File:TestBroadcast-NHK STRL-1939.png|thumb|First television test broadcast transmitted by the NHK Broadcasting Technology Research Institute in May 1939]]
Television broadcasting in Japan started on May 13, 1939,<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p07/column/index1.html |title="Can you see me clearly?" Public TV image reception experiment (1939) |publisher=NHK |date=1939-05-13 |access-date=2012-11-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101044401/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p07/column/index1.html |archive-date=January 1, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> making the country one of the first in the world with an experimental television service. The broadcasts were in [[441-line television system|441-lines]] with 25 frames/second and 4.5 MHz video bandwidth.<ref name=":0" /> The first television tests were conducted as early as 1926 using a combined mechanical [[Nipkow disk]] and electronic [[Braun tube]] system, later switching to an all-electronic system in 1935 using a domestically developed [[iconoscope]] system.<ref>[http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/index.html Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020604084708/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/index.html |date=June 4, 2002 }}. Retrieved 2012-11-01.</ref> In spite of that, because of the beginning of [[World War II in the Pacific]] region, this first full-fledged TV broadcast experimentation lasted only a few months. Regular television broadcasts would eventually start in 1953.
In 1979, NHK first developed a consumer high-definition television with a 5:3 display aspect ratio.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,132289-c,hdtv/article.html|title=Researchers Craft HDTV's Successor|date=May 28, 2007|access-date=July 31, 2011|archive-date=April 30, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430214045/http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,132289-c,hdtv/article.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The system, known as Hi-Vision or MUSE after its [[Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding]] for encoding the signal, required about twice the bandwidth of the existing NTSC system but provided about four times the resolution (1080i/1125 lines). Satellite test broadcasts started in 1989, with regular testing starting in 1991 and regular broadcasting of [[Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)|BS]]-9ch commenced on November 25, 1994, which featured commercial and NHK [[television program]]ming.
[[Sony]] first demonstrated a wideband [[analog high-definition television system]] [[HDTV]] capable video camera, monitor and [[video tape recorder]] (VTR) in April 1981 at an international meeting of television engineers in [[Algiers]]. The [[Sony HDVS]] range was launched in April 1984, with the HDC-100 camera, HDV-100 video recorder and HDS-100 [[video switcher]] all working in the 1125-line [[component video]] format with [[interlaced video]] and a 5:3 aspect ratio.
=== Mexico ===
The first testing television station in Mexico signed on in 1935. When [[KFMB-TV]] in [[San Diego]] signed on in 1949, [[Baja California]] became the first state to receive a commercial television station over the air. Within a year, the Mexican government would adopt the U.S. NTSC 525-line B/W 60-field-per-second system as the country's broadcast standard. In 1950, the first commercial television station within Mexico, [[XHTV]] in Mexico City, signed on the air, followed by [[XEW-TV]] in 1951 and [[XHGC]] in 1952. Those three were not only the first television stations in the country, but also the flagship stations of [[Telesistema Mexicano]], which was formed in 1955. That year, [[Emilio Azcárraga Vidaurreta]], who had signed on XEW-TV, entered into a partnership with [[Rómulo O'Farrill]] who had signed on XHTV, and [[Guillermo González Camarena]], who had signed on XHGC. The earliest [[3D television]] broadcasts in the world were broadcast over XHGC in 1954. Color television was introduced in 1962, also over XHGC-TV. One of Telesistema Mexicano's earliest broadcasts as a network, over XEW-TV, on June 25, 1955, was the first international North American broadcast in the medium's history, and was jointly aired with NBC in the United States, where it aired as the premiere episode of ''[[Wide Wide World]],'' and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Except for a brief period between 1969 and 1973, nearly every commercial television station in Mexico, with exceptions in the border cities, was expected to affiliate with a subnetwork of Telesistema Mexicano or its successor, [[Televisa]] (formed by the 1973 merger of Telesistema Mexicano and [[Television Independiente de Mexico]]). This condition would not be relaxed for good until 1993, when Imevision was privatized to become [[TV Azteca]].
=== Soviet Union (USSR) ===
{{Main|Television in the Soviet Union}}
The Soviet Union began offering 30-line electromechanical test broadcasts in Moscow on October 31, 1931, and a commercially manufactured television set in 1932.
First electronic television system on 180 lines at 25 fps was created in the beginning of 1935 in Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In September 1937 the experimental Leningrad TV Center (OLTC) was put in action. OLTC worked with 240 lines at 25 fps progressive scan.<ref name="Raspletin_100years_RussianTV">{{Cite web|url = http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=5850|title = Participation of A.Raspletin in developing and realization of black-and-white television standards|access-date = November 1, 2016|archive-date = November 3, 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161103220938/http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=5850|url-status = dead}}</ref>
In Moscow, experimental transmissions of electronic television took place on March 9, 1937, using equipment manufactured by [[RCA]]. Regular broadcasting began on December 31, 1938. It was quickly realized that 343 lines of resolution offered by this format would have become insufficient in the long run, thus a specification for 441-line format at 25 fps interlaced was developed in 1940.<ref name="Raspletin_100years_RussianTV"/>
Television broadcasts were suspended during [[Great Patriotic War]]. In 1944, while the war was still raging, a new standard, offering 625 lines of vertical resolution was prepared. This format was ultimately accepted as a national standard.<ref name="Raspletin_100years_RussianTV"/>
The transmissions in 625-line format started in Moscow on November 4, 1948. Regular broadcasting began on June 16, 1949. Details for this standard were formalized in 1955 specification called ''GOST 7845-55, basic parameters for black-and-white television broadcast''. In particular, frame size was set to 625 lines, frame rate to 25 frames/s interlaced, and video bandwidth to 6 MHz. These basic parameters were accepted by most countries having 50 Hz mains frequency and became the foundation of television systems presently known as PAL and SECAM.
Starting in 1951, broadcasting in the 625-line standard was introduced in other major cities of the Soviet Union.
Color television broadcast started in 1967, using SECAM color system.<ref name="60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625"/>
=== Turkey ===
The first Turkish [[television]] channel, [[ITU TV]], was launched in 1952. The first national television is [[TRT 1]] and was launched in 1964. [[Color television]] was introduced in 1981. Before 1989 there was the only channel, the state broadcasting company TRT, and it broadcast in several times of the dateline. [[Turkey]]'s first private television channel [[Star TV (Turkey)|Star]] started it broadcast on 26 May 1989. Until then there was only one television channel controlled by the state, but with the wave of liberalization, privately owned broadcasting began. Turkey's television market is defined by a handful of big channels, led by [[Kanal D]], [[ATV (Turkey)|ATV]] and [[Show TV|Show]], with 14%, 10% and 9.6% market share, respectively. The most important reception platforms are terrestrial and satellite, with almost 50% of homes using satellite (of these 15% were pay services) at the end of 2009. Three services dominate the multi-channel market: the satellite platforms [[Digitürk]] and [[D-Smart]] and the cable TV service [[Türksat (company)|Türksat]].
=== United Kingdom ===
The first British television broadcast was made by Baird Television's electromechanical system over the [[BBC]] radio transmitter in September 1929. Baird provided a limited amount of programming five days a week by 1930. During this time, Southampton earned the distinction of broadcasting the first-ever live television interview, which featured Peggy O'Neil, an actress and singer from [[Buffalo, New York]].<ref>[http://www.thehydraulics.com/the_hydraulics/2009/01/peggy-oneil-sang-her-way-from-the-hydraulics-to-stardom.html Hawley, Chris, "Peggy O'Neil sang her way from the Hydraulics to stardom"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212174623/http://www.thehydraulics.com/the_hydraulics/2009/01/peggy-oneil-sang-her-way-from-the-hydraulics-to-stardom.html |date=February 12, 2009 }}, ''The Hydraulics'' [blog], January 15, 2009.</ref> On August 22, 1932, BBC launched its own regular service using Baird's 30-line electromechanical system, continuing until September 11, 1935.
On November 2, 1936, [[First day of television programmes|the BBC began transmitting]] the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian [[Alexandra Palace]] in north London.{{sfn|Burns|1998|p=576}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newcomb |first=Horace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NUXIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA322 |title=Encyclopedia of Television |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-19472-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Television (or, How Did This Get So Big?) |url=https://www.cs.cornell.edu/~pjs54/Teaching/AutomaticLifestyle-S02/Projects/Vlku/history.html |access-date=2023-10-09 |website=www.cs.cornell.edu}}</ref> It therefore claims to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we know it today. It was a dual-system service, alternating between Marconi-EMI's [[405-line]] standard and Baird's improved 240-line standard, from [[Alexandra Palace]] in London. The [[BBC Television]] Service continues to this day.
The government, on advice from a special advisory committee, decided that Marconi-EMI's electronic system gave the superior picture, and the Baird system was dropped in February 1937. TV broadcasts in London were on the air an average of four hours daily from 1936 to 1939. There were 12,000 to 15,000 receivers. Some sets in restaurants or bars might have 100 viewers for sport events (Dunlap, p56). The outbreak of the Second World War caused the BBC service to be abruptly suspended on September 1, 1939, at 12:35 pm, after a Mickey Mouse cartoon and test signals were broadcast,<ref name=MickeyMouse>{{cite web|url=http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/baird/tvoff/index.htm |title=The edit that rewrote history – Baird |access-date=28 May 2007 |publisher=Transdiffusion Broadcasting System |date=31 October 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060125014953/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/baird/tvoff/index.htm |archive-date=January 25, 2006 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> so that transmissions could not be used as a beacon to guide enemy aircraft to London.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} It resumed, again from Alexandra Palace on June 7, 1946, after the end of the war, began with a live programme that opened with the line "Good afternoon everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh?" and was followed by the same Mickey Mouse cartoon broadcast on the last day before the war.<ref name=MickeyMouse /> At the end of 1947 there were 54,000 licensed television receivers, compared with 44,000 television sets in the United States at that time.<ref name=Shagawat/>
The first transatlantic television signal was sent in 1928 from London to New York<ref>{{cite news|title=Human Faces Sent By Radio 3000 Miles Across The Sea|newspaper=[[Evening Independent]]|agency=Associated Press|date=February 9, 1928|access-date=July 15, 2011|page=1|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ss5PAAAAIBAJ&pg=4703,3386956}}</ref> by the Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television, although this signal was not broadcast to the public. The first live satellite signal to Britain from the United States was broadcast via the [[Telstar]] satellite on July 23, 1962.
The first live broadcast from the European continent was made on August 27, 1950.
=== United States ===
<!-- "Paramount Television Network" links to History of television#United States -->
{{see also|Television in the United States}}
[[File:WNBT first TV schedule.jpg|thumb|WNBT (later [[WNBC]]) schedule for first week of commercial TV programming in the United States, July 1941]]
[[WRGB]] claims to be the world's oldest [[television station]], tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the [[General Electric]] factory in [[Schenectady, NY]], under the call letters '''W2XB'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuIDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA177|title=Popular Mechanics|first=Hearst|last=Magazines|date=August 19, 1930|publisher=Hearst Magazines|via=Google Books}}</ref> It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters [[W2XBS]] and which today is known as [[WNBC]]. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a [[Felix the Cat]] doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers.
The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States began on July 2, 1928, fifteen months before the United Kingdom. The [[Federal Radio Commission]] authorized [[Charles Francis Jenkins|C. F. Jenkins]] to broadcast from experimental station W3XK in Wheaton, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For at least the first eighteen months, 48-line silhouette images from motion picture film were broadcast, although beginning in the summer of 1929 he occasionally broadcast in halftones.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wd4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA820 |title=What Television Offers You |journal=[[Popular Mechanics]] |date=November 1928 |page=823}}</ref><ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=xt4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA472 The Latest in Television]", ''Popular Mechanics'', September 1929, p. 472.</ref>
[[Hugo Gernsback]]'s New York City radio station began a regular, if limited, schedule of [[live television]] broadcasts on August 14, 1928, using 48-line images. Working with only one transmitter, the station alternated radio broadcasts with silent television images of the station's [[call sign]], faces in motion, and wind-up toys in motion.<ref>"WRNY to Start Daily Television Broadcasts; Radio Audience Will See Studio Artist", ''The New York Times'', August 13, 1928, p. 13.</ref><ref>"WRNY Has Extended Television Schedule", ''The New York Times'', September 30, 1928, p. 155.</ref> Speaking later that month, Gernsback downplayed the broadcasts, intended for amateur experimenters. "In six months we may have television for the public, but so far we have not got it."<ref>"Television Drama Shown With Music", ''The New York Times'', August 22, 1928, p. 1.</ref> Gernsback also published ''Television'', the world's first magazine about the medium.
[[General Electric]]'s experimental station in [[Schenectady, New York]], on the air sporadically since January 13, 1928, was able to broadcast reflected-light, 48-line images via [[shortwave]] as far as [[Los Angeles]], and by September was making four television broadcasts weekly. It is considered to be the direct predecessor of current television station [[WRGB]]. ''The Queen's Messenger'', a one-act play broadcast on September 11, 1928, was the world's first live drama on television.<ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/queens_messenger.html The Queen's Messenger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529072130/http://www.earlytelevision.org/queens_messenger.html |date=May 29, 2009 }}, Early Television Museum.</ref>
Radio giant [[RCA]] began daily experimental television broadcasts in New York City in March 1929 over station [[W2XBS]], the predecessor of current television station [[WNBC]]. The 60-line transmissions consisted of pictures, signs, and views of persons and objects.<ref>"Television Placed on Daily Schedule", ''The New York Times'', March 22, 1929, p. 30.</ref> Experimental broadcasts continued to 1931.<ref>"Six Visual Stations on the New York Air", ''The New York Times'', July 19, 1931, p. XX13.</ref>
[[General Broadcasting System]]'s [[WINS (AM)|WGBS]] radio and [[W2XCR]] television aired their regular broadcasting debut in New York City on April 26, 1931, with a special demonstration set up in Aeolian Hall at Fifth Avenue and Fifty-fourth Street. Thousands waited to catch a glimpse of the Broadway stars who appeared on the six-inch (15 cm) square image, in an evening event to publicize a weekday programming schedule offering films and live entertainers during the four-hour daily broadcasts. Appearing were boxer [[Primo Carnera]], actors [[Gertrude Lawrence]], [[Louis Calhern]], [[Frances Upton]] and [[Lionel Atwill]], WHN announcer [[Nils Granlund]], the [[Forman Sisters]], and a host of others.<ref>"Radio Talkies Put On Program Basis", ''The New York Times'', April 27, 1931, p. 26.</ref>
[[CBS]]'s New York City station W2XAB began broadcasting their first regular seven-day-a-week television schedule on July 21, 1931, with a 60-line electromechanical system. The first broadcast included Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]], the [[Boswell Sisters]], [[Kate Smith]], and [[George Gershwin]]. The service ended in February 1933.{{efn|CBS considers it to be an ancestor of [[WCBS-TV]], which first went on the air on July 1, 1941 as one of the first two commercially licensed television stations in the country (the other being the National Broadcasting Company's WNBC).}} [[Don Lee (broadcaster)|Don Lee Broadcasting]]'s station W6XAO in Los Angeles went on the air in December 1931. Using the [[UHF]] spectrum, it broadcast a regular schedule of filmed images every day except Sundays and holidays for several years.{{efn|W6XAO later moved to VHF Channel 1 before World War II, and to Channel 2 in the post-war television realignment. It was commercially licensed in 1947 as KTSL and is the direct ancestor of current station [[KCBS-TV]].}}
By 1935, low-definition electromechanical television broadcasting had ceased in the United States except for a handful of stations run by public universities that continued to 1939. The [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) saw television in the continual flux of development with no consistent technical standards, hence all such stations in the U.S. were granted only experimental and [[non-commercial]] licenses, hampering television's economic development. Just as importantly, Philo Farnsworth's August 1934 demonstration of an all-electronic system at the [[Franklin Institute]] in Philadelphia pointed out the direction of television's future.
On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a one-month-long demonstration of high definition (240+ line) television in Los Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL, now [[KCBS-TV]]) with a 300-line image from motion picture film. By October, W6XAO was making daily television broadcasts of films. By 1934 [[RCA]] increased the definition to 343 interlaced lines and the frame rate to 30 per second.<ref name="Magoun_65">Alexander B. Magoun, ''Television: The Life Story of a Technology''. Greenwood, p. 65. {{ISBN|978-0313331282}}.</ref> On July 7, 1936, RCA and its subsidiary [[NBC]] demonstrated in New York City a [[343-line television system|343-line]] electronic television broadcast with live and film segments to its licensees, and made its first public demonstration to the press on November 6. Irregularly scheduled broadcasts continued through 1937 and 1938.<ref>"[http://www.earlytelevision.org/where_is_television.html Where Is Television Now?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913065455/http://www.earlytelevision.org/where_is_television.html |date=September 13, 2008 }}", ''Popular Mechanics'', August 1938, p. 178.</ref> Regularly scheduled electronic broadcasts began in April 1938 in New York (to the second week of June, and resuming in August) and Los Angeles.<ref>"Telecasts Here and Abroad", ''The New York Times'', Drama-Screen-Radio section, April 24, 1938, p.10.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070901194251/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,849042,00.html "Early Birds"], ''Time'', June 13, 1938.</ref><ref>"Telecasts to Be Resumed", ''The New York Times'', Drama-Screen-Radio section, Aug. 21, 1938, p. 10.</ref><ref>Robert L. Pickering, [http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/donlee.html "Eight Years of Television in California"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130415215134/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/donlee.html |date=April 15, 2013 }}, ''California — Magazine of the Pacific'', June 1939.</ref> NBC officially began regularly scheduled television broadcasts in New York on April 30, 1939, with a broadcast of the opening of the [[1939 New York World's Fair]].
In 1937 RCA raised the frame definition to 441 lines, and its executives petitioned the FCC for approval of the standard.<ref name="Magoun_65"/> By June 1939, regularly scheduled 441-line electronic television broadcasts were available in New York City and Los Angeles, and by November on General Electric's station in Schenectady. From May through December 1939, the New York City NBC station (W2XBS) of RCA broadcast twenty to fifty-eight hours of programming per month, Wednesday through Sunday of each week. The programming was 33% news, 29% drama, and 17% educational programming, with an estimated 2,000 receiving sets by the end of the year, and an estimated audience of five to eight thousand. A remote truck could cover outdoor events from up to {{convert|10|mi|km}} away from the transmitter, which was located atop the [[Empire State Building]]. Coaxial cable was used to cover events at [[Madison Square Garden]]. The coverage area for reliable reception was a radius of 40 to {{convert|50|mi|km}} from the Empire State Building, an area populated by more than 10,000,000 people.<ref>{{harvp|Lohr|1940}}</ref>
The FCC adopted [[NTSC]] television engineering standards on May 2, 1941, calling for 525 lines of vertical resolution, 30 frames per second with [[interlaced scanning]], 60 fields per second, and sound carried by [[frequency modulation]]. Sets sold since 1939 that were built for slightly lower resolution could still be adjusted to receive the new standard. (Dunlap, p31). The FCC saw television ready for commercial licensing, and the first such licenses were issued to NBC- and CBS-owned stations in New York on July 1, 1941, followed by [[Philco]]'s station [[KYW-TV|WPTZ]] in [[Philadelphia]].
In the U.S., the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a [[television license]] fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] (BBC), which had public service as part of its [[royal charter]].
The first official, paid advertising to appear on American commercial television occurred on the afternoon of July 1, 1941, over New York station WNBT (now [[WNBC]]) before a baseball game between the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] and [[Philadelphia Phillies]]. The announcement for [[Bulova]] watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute.<ref>"Imagery For Profit" R. W. Stewart, The New York Times, July 6, 1941.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg |title=WNBT/Bulova test pattern |access-date=August 7, 2011 |archive-date=October 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009135015/http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg |url-status=live }}</ref>
After the U.S. entry into World War II, the FCC reduced the required minimum air time for commercial television stations from 15 hours per week to 4 hours. Most TV stations suspended broadcasting; of the ten original television stations only six continued through the war.<ref name="ReferenceA">p.78 ''Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States'' Routledge, 1998</ref> On the few that remained, programs included entertainment such as boxing and plays, events at Madison Square Garden, and illustrated war news as well as training for air raid wardens and first aid providers. In 1942, there were 5,000 sets in operation, but production of new TVs, radios, and other broadcasting equipment for civilian purposes was suspended from April 1942 to August 1945 (Dunlap).
[[File:The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis - Philco Predicta television.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Philco]] [[Predicta]], 1958. In the collection of [[The Children's Museum of Indianapolis]]]]
By 1947, when there were 40 million radios in the U.S., there were about 44,000 television sets (with probably 30,000 in the New York area).<ref name=Shagawat>{{cite web|last=Shagawat|first=Robert|title=Television recording – The origins and earliest surviving live TV broadcast recordings|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_recordings_the_origins.html|work=Early Electronic Television|publisher=Early Television Museum|access-date=April 20, 2011}}</ref> Regular [[network television]] broadcasts began on [[NBC]] on a three-station network linking New York with the Capital District and Philadelphia in 1944; on the [[DuMont Television Network]] in 1946, and on [[CBS]] and [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] in 1948.
Following the rapid rise of television after the war, the Federal Communications Commission was flooded with applications for television station licenses. With more applications than available television channels, the FCC ordered a freeze on processing station applications in 1948 that remained in effect until April 14, 1952.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
By 1949, the networks stretched from New York to the [[Mississippi River]], and by 1951 to the West Coast. Commercial [[color television]] broadcasts began on CBS in 1951 with a [[field-sequential color system]] that was suspended four months later for technical and economic reasons. The television industry's [[National Television System Committee]] (NTSC) developed a color television system based on RCA technology that was compatible with existing black and white receivers, and commercial color broadcasts reappeared in 1953.
With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.<ref>[http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/cea-study-says-seven-percent-of-tv-households-use-antennas-/220585 "CEA Study Says Seven Percent of TV Households Use Antennas"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217104116/http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/cea-study-says-seven-percent-of-tv-households-use-antennas-/220585 |date=December 17, 2014 }}, ''TVTechnology'', 30 July 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/nielsen-broadcast-reliance-grew-in--/217217 |title=Nielsen: Broadcast Reliance Grew in 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218160139/http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/nielsen-broadcast-reliance-grew-in--/217217 |archivedate=December 18, 2014 |work=TVTechnology |date=14 January 2013}}</ref> A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to a switchover to [[digital terrestrial television]] broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for [[cord cutters]].
==Cable television==
{{Main|Cable television}} {{See also|Cable television by region}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2014}}
Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for "community access television" or "community antenna television", from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.
Early cable television was analog, but since the 2000s all cable operators have switched to, or are in the process of switching to, digital cable television.
==Satellite television==
{{Main|Satellite television}}
===Overview===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Satellite television system Ekran - a post stamp.jpg|thumb|right|The Ekran satellite television broadcast system (post stamp, 1981)]] -->
'''Satellite television''' is a system of supplying [[television programming]] using [[broadcast]] signals relayed from [[communication satellite]]s. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a [[satellite dish]] and a [[low-noise block downconverter]] (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired [[television programme]] for viewing on a [[television set]]. Receivers can be external [[set-top box]]es, or a built-in [[television tuner]]. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without [[terrestrial television]] or [[cable television]].
The most common method of reception is [[direct-broadcast satellite television]] (DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH).<ref name="tr101198">{{Cite report|author=Antipolis, Sophia|date=September 1997|title=Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Implementation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation in DVB satellite transmission systems|url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/101100_101199/101198/01.01.01_60/tr_101198v010101p.pdf|publisher=[[European Telecommunications Standards Institute]]|pages=1–7|docket=TR 101 198|access-date=20 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302190812/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/101100_101199/101198/01.01.01_60/tr_101198v010101p.pdf|archive-date=2 March 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a [[direct broadcast satellite]] on the [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub>]] wavelength and are completely digital.<ref name=m101>{{cite journal|title=Frequency letter bands|url=http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/letterbands.cfm|website=Microwaves101.com|date=25 April 2008|access-date=December 24, 2014|archive-date=July 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714171156/http://www.microwaves101.com/ENCYCLOPEDIA/letterbands.cfm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as [[television receive-only]]. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the [[C band (IEEE)|C-band]] spectrum from [[Fixed Service Satellite|FSS]] type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems, and were more expensive and less popular.<ref name=fcc>{{cite web|title=Installing Consumer-Owned Antennas and Satellite Dishes|url=http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/consumerdish.html|publisher=FCC|access-date=2008-11-21}}</ref>
The [[direct-broadcast satellite television]] signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. [[Digital signal (broadcasting)|Digital signals]] may include [[high-definition television]] (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are [[free-to-air]] or [[free-to-view]], while many other channels are [[pay television]] requiring a subscription.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell|first1=Dennis|last2=Cotter|first2=Susan|year=1998|title=Copyright Infringement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kRJCwqzE3iwC&q=satellite+tv+free+to+air+free+to+view+must+pay&pg=PA161|publisher=Kluwer Law International|isbn=978-90-247-3002-5|access-date=18 September 2014}}</ref>
In 1945 British [[science fiction]] writer [[Arthur C. Clarke]] proposed a worldwide communications system that would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarkefoundation.org/archives/1996.php |title=The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation |access-date=2014-12-23 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725175706/http://www.clarkefoundation.org/archives/1996.php |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Richard|last2=Martin|first2=Christopher R.|last3=Fabos|first3=Bettina|date=23 February 2011|title=Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuqjReIZ4TcC&q=satellite+tv+1945+arthur+c.+clarke&pg=PA152|location=London, UK|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]]|page=152|isbn=978-1457628313|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref> This was published in the October 1945 issue of the [[Wireless World]] magazine and won him the [[Franklin Institute]]'s [[Stuart Ballantine Medal]] in 1963.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakdiva.org/clarke/1945ww|title=The 1945 Proposal by Arthur C. Clarke for Geostationary Satellite Communications|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=September 1995|title=Wireless technologies and the national information infrastructure.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2f8q2c0R5cC&q=arthur+c.+clarke+october+1945+wireless+world&pg=PA138|publisher=DIANE Publishing|page=138|isbn=978-0160481802|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref>
The first satellite television signals from [[Europe]] to [[North America]] were relayed via the [[Telstar]] satellite over the [[Atlantic]] ocean on July 23, 1962.<ref name="histchannel">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/news/the-birth-of-satellite-tv-50-years-ago|title=The Birth of Satellite TV, 50 Years Ago|last1=Klein|first1=Christopher|date=23 July 2012|website=History.com|publisher=History Channel|access-date=5 June 2014}}</ref> The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million.<ref name="histchannel"/> Launched in 1962, the ''[[Relay program|Relay 1]]'' satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan.<ref name="relay1">{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1962-068A|title=Relay 1|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The first [[geosynchronous]] [[communication satellite]], [[Syncom 2]], was launched on July 26, 1963.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1963-031A|title=Syncom 2|last1=Darcey|first1=RJ|date=16 August 2013|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA|access-date=5 June 2014}}</ref>
The world's first commercial communications satellite, called [[Intelsat I]] and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intlsat1.htm|title=Encyclopedia Astronautica - Intelsat I|access-date=5 April 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116224556/http://astronautix.com/craft/intlsat1.htm|archive-date=January 16, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The first national [[television network|network]] of television satellites, called [[Orbita (TV system)|Orbita]], was created by the [[Soviet Union]] in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical [[Molniya (satellite)|Molniya]] satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television [[Signalling (telecommunication)|signal]]s to a network of twenty ground [[downlink]] stations each equipped with a parabolic antenna {{convert|12|m|order=flip}} in diameter.<ref>{{cite press release|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Soviet-bloc Research in Geophysics, Astronomy, and Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pyRx2ssMQ6MC|location=Springfield Virginia|publisher=U.S. Joint Publications Research Service|page=60|year=1970|issue=221–230|access-date=16 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="sovsathistory">{{cite web|url=http://statehistory.ru/3899/Istoriya-sozdaniya-sovetskogo-sputnikovogo-televeshchaniya/|title=История создания советского спутникового телевещания|access-date=3 January 2017}}</ref> The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was [[Canada]]'s geostationary [[Anik 1]], which was launched on 9 November 1972.<ref>{{cite news|last=Robertson|first=Lloyd|title=Anik A1 launching: bridging the gap | publisher = CBC English TV | date = 1972-11-09 | url = http://archives.cbc.ca/500f.asp?id=1-75-92-594 | access-date = 2007-01-25 }}</ref> [[ATS-6]], the world's first experimental educational and [[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] (DBS), was launched on May 30, 1974.<ref name="ats">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/missions/ats_prt.htm|title=NASA - ATS|last1=Ezell|first1=Linda N.|date=22 January 2010|website=Nasa.gov|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 July 2014|archive-date=April 6, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406164505/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/missions/ats_prt.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.<ref name="tvdx">Long Distance Television Reception (TV-DX) For the Enthusiast, Roger W. Bunney, {{ISBN|0900162716}}</ref>
In the Soviet Union, the Moskva (or [[Moscow]]) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites was launched in 1979. Stationary and mobile downlink stations with parabolic antennas {{convert|4|and|2.5|m|order=flip}}<ref name="gorizont">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/gorizont.htm|title=Gorizont|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|first=Mark|last=Wade|access-date=2008-06-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617211454/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/gorizont.htm|archive-date=June 17, 2008|df=mdy-all}}</ref> in diameter were receiving signal from [[Gorizont]] communication satellites deployed to [[geostationary orbit]]s.<ref name="sovsathistory"/> The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry [[Direct-To-Home]] television, [[Ekran]] 1, was launched on October 26, 1976.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/ekran.htm|title=Ekran|year=2007|website=Astronautix.com|publisher=Astronautix|access-date=1 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112153322/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/ekran.htm|archive-date=November 12, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing [[UHF television broadcasting|UHF television technology]] rather than microwave technology.<ref name="Ekran">{{Cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/ekran.htm|title=Ekran (11F647)|website=space.skyrocket.de}}</ref>
===Beginning of the satellite TV industry===
In the United States, the satellite television industry developed from the [[cable television]] industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote [[cable television headend]]s. [[Home Box Office]] (HBO), [[Turner Broadcasting System]] (TBS), and [[Christian Broadcasting Network]] (CBN, later [[The Family Channel (US TV network)|The Family Channel]]) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. [[Taylor Howard]] of [[San Andreas, California|San Andreas]], [[California]] became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.<ref name="tayhoward">{{cite news|last=Feder|first=Barnaby J.|date=15 November 2002|title=Taylor Howard, 70, Pioneer In Satellite TV for the Home|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/15/business/taylor-howard-70-pioneer-in-satellite-tv-for-the-home.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=19 July 2014}}</ref> [[PBS]], a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978.<ref name="pbs78">Public Service Broadcasting in the Age of Globalization, Editors: Indrajit Banerjee, Kalinga Seneviratne. {{ISBN|9789814136013}}</ref> On October 18, 1979, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government license.<ref name="dms">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dmsiusa.com/glory-days.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303133328/http://dmsiusa.com/glory-days.html|url-status=dead|title=The "Glory Days" of Satellite|archive-date=March 3, 2014}}</ref> The front cover of the 1979 [[Neiman-Marcus]] Christmas catalogue featured the first home satellite TV stations on sale for $36,500.<ref name="uspopcult">{{cite book|last=Browne|first=Ray|year=2001|title=The Guide to United States Popular Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U3rJxPYT32MC&q=neiman+marcus+satellite+dish+1977&pg=PA706|location=[[Madison, Wisconsin]]|publisher=Popular Press|page=706|isbn=9780879728212|access-date=1 July 2014}}</ref> The dishes were nearly {{convert|20|ft|m}} in diameter<ref name="lat">{{cite news|last=Giarrusso|first=Michael|date=28 July 1996|title=Tiny Satellite Dishes Sprout in Rural Areas|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-07-28-mn-28792-story.html|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|location=[[Los Angeles]]|access-date=1 July 2014}}</ref> and were remote-controlled.<ref name="denverpost">{{cite news|last=Keating|first=Stephen|year=1999|title=Stealing Free TV, Part 2|url=http://extras.denverpost.com/business/cutt1101.htm|newspaper=[[The Denver Post]]|location=[[Denver, CO]]|publisher=The Denver Post|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref> The price went down by half soon after that, but there were only eight more channels.<ref name=Stein>{{cite news|title=Whatta dish : Home satellite reception a TV turn-on|last=Stein|first=Joe|work=[[Evening Tribune]]|date=1989-01-24|page=C-8}}</ref> The Society for Private and Commercial Earth Stations (SPACE), an organisation that represented consumers and satellite TV system owners was established in 1980.<ref>{{cite news|date=21 December 1980|title=Earth Station Is Very Popular Dish|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19801221&id=v_UhAAAAIBAJ&pg=3196,441027|newspaper=[[Reading Eagle]]|location=[[Kansas City, Missouri]]|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref>
Early satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish size.<ref name="baltsun"/> The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were {{convert|10|to|16|ft|m}} in diameter,<ref name="deseret"/> made of [[fibreglass]] or solid [[aluminum]] or [[steel]],<ref name="baylin">Ku-Band Satellite TV: Theory, Installation and Repair. Frank Baylin et al. {{ISBN|9780917893148}}</ref> and in the United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000.<ref name=Stecklow/> Programming sent from ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in [[geostationary orbit]] located {{convert|22,300|mi|km}} above the Earth.<ref name=Reibstein>{{cite news|title=Watching TV Via Satellite Is Their Dish|last=Reibstein|first=Larry|work=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]|date=1981-09-27|page=E01}}</ref><ref name=Akron>{{cite news|title=Satellite TV Dishes Getting Good Reception|last=Dawidziak|first=Mark|work=[[Akron Beacon-Journal]]|date=1984-12-30|page=F-1}}</ref>
===TVRO/C-band satellite era===
{{Further|Television receive-only}}
By 1980, satellite television was well established in the [[Satellite television in the United States|US]] and Europe. On April 26, 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, [[Satellite Television Ltd]]. (later [[Sky1]]), was launched.<ref name=bbcable>{{cite web|url=http://tinypic.com/view.php?pic=2eedi1l&s=6 |title=Broadband Cable 10th Anniversary |publisher=TinyPic |access-date=5 May 2013}}</ref> Its signals were transmitted from the [[ESA]]'s [[Orbital Test Satellite]]s.<ref name=bbcable/> Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of Gallium Arsenide [[FET]] technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. 500,000 systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984.<ref name=Stecklow/><ref name="sbca"/> Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper.<ref name="wichita">{{cite news|title=Research Needed in Buying Dish: High Cost Is Important Consideration for Consumer|last=Stecklow|first=Steve|work=[[Wichita Eagle]]|agency=Knight-Ridder News Service|date=1984-10-25|page=6C}}</ref> People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees.<ref name=Stecklow>{{cite news|title=America's Favorite Dish|last=Stecklow|first=Steve|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|agency=[[Knight-Ridder News Service]]|date=1984-07-07|page=1C}}</ref><ref name=Akron/> The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them [[eyesore]]s, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal.<ref name="fcc"/> These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal.<ref name="baltsun">{{cite news|last=Brooks|first=Andree|date=10 October 1993|title=Old satellite dish restrictions under fire New laws urged for smaller models|url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-10-10/business/1993283244_1_community-association-satellite-dish-associations-institute|newspaper=[[The Baltimore Sun]]|location=[[Baltimore, MD]]|publisher=The Baltimore Sun|access-date=1 July 2014|archive-date=July 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714140527/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-10-10/business/1993283244_1_community-association-satellite-dish-associations-institute|url-status=dead}}</ref> A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use.<ref name="baltsun"/> The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.<ref name="baltsun"/>
Originally, all channels were broadcast in the clear (ITC) because the equipment necessary to receive the programming was too expensive for consumers. With the growing number of TVRO systems, the program providers and broadcasters had to [[television encryption|scramble]] their signal and develop subscription systems.
In October 1984, the [[U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984]], which gave those using TVRO systems the right to receive signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a reasonable fee.<ref name=Akron/><ref name=Chicago>{{cite news|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1987-05-22/entertainment/8702080056_1_satellite-dish-satellite-tv-week-dish-owners|title=Satellite TV Skies Brighten As War With Programmers Ends|last=Takiff|first=Jonathan|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]|agency=[[Knight-Ridder Newspapers]]|date=1987-05-22|access-date=2014-04-10}}</ref> Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition.<ref name=Turned>{{cite news|title=Direct-Broadcast TV Is Still Not Turned On|last=Wolf|first=Ron|work=The Philadelphia Inquirer|date=1985-01-20|page=C01}}</ref> In January 1986, [[HBO]] began using the now-obsolete [[VideoCipher]] II system to [[television encryption|encrypt their channels]].<ref name="deseret">{{cite news|last=Nye|first=Doug|date=14 January 1990|title=SATELLITE DISHES SURVIVE GREAT SCRAMBLE OF 1980S|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/81378/SATELLITE-DISHES-SURVIVE-GREAT-SCRAMBLE-OF-1980S.html?pg=all|newspaper=[[Deseret News]]|location=[[Salt Lake City]]|publisher=Deseret News|access-date=30 June 2014}}</ref> Other channels uses less secure [[television encryption]] systems. The scrambling of HBO was met with much protest from owners of big-dish systems, most of which had no other option at the time for receiving such channels, claiming that clear signals from cable channels would be difficult to receive.<ref name="philly"/> Eventually HBO allowed dish owners to subscribe directly to their service for $12.95 per month, a price equal to or higher than what cable subscribers were paying, and required a [[descrambler]] to be purchased for $395.<ref name="philly"/> This led to the [[broadcast signal intrusion|attack]] on HBO's transponder [[Galaxy 1]] by [[John R. MacDougall]] in April 1986.<ref name="philly">{{cite web|last1=Lyman|first1=Rick|last2=Borowski|first2=Neill|title=On The Trail Of 'Captain Midnight'|url=http://articles.philly.com/1986-04-29/news/26079191_1_satellite-transmissions-captain-midnight-satellite-industry-officials|publisher=Philly|date=April 29, 1986|access-date=May 20, 2014}}</ref> One by one, all commercial channels followed HBO's lead and began scrambling their channels.<ref name="prodpiracy"/> The [[Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association]] SBCA was founded on December 2, 1986, as the result of a merger between SPACE and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Association (DBSA).<ref name="sbca">{{cite web|url=http://www.sbca.com/receiver-network/history-satellite-providers.htm |title=Industry History |year=2014 |website=sbca.com |publisher=Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association |access-date=5 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219073604/http://www.sbca.com/receiver-network/history-satellite-providers.htm |archive-date=February 19, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
Videocipher II used analog scrambling on its video signal and [[Data Encryption Standard]] based encryption on its audio signal. VideoCipher II was defeated, and there was a [[black market]] for descrambler devices, which were initially sold as "test" devices.<ref name="prodpiracy">{{cite book|last=Paradise|first=Paul R.|date=1 January 1999|title=Trademark Counterfeiting, Product Piracy, and the Billion Dollar Threat to the U.S. Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ny0vvUpBzCYC&q=black+market+for+illegal+satellite+signal+descramblers&pg=PA147|location=[[Westport, Connecticut]]|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|page=147|isbn=978-1567202502|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref>
=== Late 1980s and 1990s to present ===
[[File:Dishing out the truth.JPG|thumbnail|right|DBS satellite dishes]]
By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air.<ref name=Chicago/> While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year.<ref name=Chicago/> Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result.<ref name=Chicago/> Scrambling also led to the development of [[pay-per-view]] events.<ref name=Chicago/> On November 1, 1988, [[NBC]] began scrambling its C-band signal but left its [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub> band]] signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising.<ref name=sfc/> Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band.<ref name=sfc/> [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and [[CBS]] were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local [[network affiliate]]s.<ref name=sfc>{{cite news|title=Scrambled NBC Bad News for Satellite Pirates|work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|agency=United Press International|date=1988-11-03|page=E3}}</ref> The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the [[Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992]]. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison.<ref name="cableact">{{cite act|title=Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992|number=1460|language=en|date=8 October 1992|article=STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf|url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-106/pdf/STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf|access-date=3 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420094541/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-106/pdf/STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf|archive-date=20 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years.<ref name="cableact"/>
Satellite television had also developed in [[Satellite television by region#Europe|Europe]] but it initially used low power communication satellites and it required dish sizes of over {{convert|1.7|m|abbr=on}}. On December 11, 1988 [[Luxembourg]] launched [[Astra 1A]], the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe.<ref name="n2yo">{{cite web|url=http://www.n2yo.com/satellite/?s=19688|title=ASTRA 1A Satellite details 1988-109B NORAD 19688|publisher=N2YO|date=9 July 2014|access-date=12 July 2014}}</ref> This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in K<sub>u</sub> band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm).<ref name="n2yo"/> The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, [[British Satellite Broadcasting]], to the market.
In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched [[PrimeStar]], a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellite. The relatively strong transmissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the [[Hughes Communications|Hughes]] [[DirecTV]] and [[Dish Network]] satellite television systems.
On March 4, 1996, EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar 1 satellite.<ref name="ctu10e">{{cite book|last=Grant|first=August E.|title=Communication Technology Update|edition=10th|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=87|isbn=978-0-240-81475-9|year=2010}}</ref> EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of channels available on Dish Network to 170.<ref name="ctu10e"/> These systems provided better pictures and stereo sound on 150-200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to [[digital television]] transmission using the [[DigiCipher]] [[conditional access]] system.<ref name="insead">{{cite journal|last1=Bell-Jones |first1=Robin |last2=Berbner |first2=Jochen |last3=Chai |first3=Jianfeng |last4=Farstad |first4=Thomas |last5=Pham |first5=Minh |date=June 2001 |title=High Technology Strategy and Entrepreneurship |url=http://faculty.insead.edu/adner/projects/Set%20Top%20Boxes.pdf |journal=INSEAD Journal |location=[[Fontainebleau]] |publisher=INSEAD |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724233622/http://faculty.insead.edu/adner/projects/Set%20Top%20Boxes.pdf |archive-date=July 24, 2014 }}</ref>
In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of [[Direct broadcast satellite|DBS]] services such as [[PrimeStar]] and [[DirecTV]] had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early 1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent K<sub>u</sub> band) are higher in both frequency and power (due to improvements in the [[solar panel]]s and [[energy conversion efficiency|energy efficiency]] of modern satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the [[digital modulation]] methods now used require less [[signal strength]] at the receiver than analog modulation methods.<ref name="nctfe">Mirabito, M.,& Morgenstern, B. (2004). Satellites: Operations and Applications. The New Communication Technologies (fifth edition). Burlington: Focal Press.</ref> Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the K<sub>u</sub> band, but only 24 in the C band, and several [[digital subchannel]]s can be [[Multiplex (TV)|multiplex]]ed (MCPC) or carried separately ([[SCPC]]) on a single transponder.<ref name=artcn>{{cite book|last1=Khaplil|first1=Vidya R.|last2=Bhalachandra|first2=Anjali R.|date=April 2008|title=Advances in Recent Trends in Communication and Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QchLipDixBUC&q=32+transponders+ku+band+24+c+band+multiplexed+satellite&pg=PA119|location=[[New Delhi]]|publisher=Allied Publishers|page=119|isbn=978-1466651708|access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref> Advances in [[noise reduction]] due to improved microwave technology and [[semiconductor]] materials have also had an effect.<ref name=artcn/> However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is [[rain fade]] where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.<ref name="dishcable">{{cite web|url=http://dish-cable.com/rain_fade.htm|title=Rain fade: satellite TV signal and adverse weather|year=2010|website=Dish-cable.com|access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref>
==Internet television==
{{Main|Internet television}}
{{Distinguish|Smart TV|Internet Protocol television}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2014}}
Internet television (Internet TV), (online television) or IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) is the [[digital distribution]] of [[television]] content via the [[Internet]] as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable and satellite, although internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters.
Internet television is not to be confused with [[Smart TV]], [[IPTV]] or with [[Web TV]]. [[Smart television]] refers to the TV set that has an inbuilt operating system. [[Internet Protocol television]] (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. [[Web television]] is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
==Television sets==
{{Main|Television set}}
A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing [[television]]. Introduced in the late 1920s in [[Mechanical television|mechanical]] form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using [[cathode ray tube]]s. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as [[VHS]] and later [[DVD]], as well as for early [[home computer]]s and [[videogame console]]s. At the beginning of the 2010s [[flat panel]] television incorporating liquid-crystal displays largely replaced [[cathode ray tube]]s. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of high-definition display (720p, 1080p or 2160p) and can also play content from a [[USB]] device.
[[File:RCA 630-TS Television.jpg|thumb|right|RCA 630-TS, the first mass-produced television set, which sold in 1946–1947]]
[[Mechanical television]]s were commercially sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom,<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/Baird%20TV-Early%20Years.htm Early British Television: Baird] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221033609/http://www.tvhistory.tv/Baird%20TV-Early%20Years.htm |date=December 21, 2007 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> United States, and Soviet Union.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/pre-1935.htm Pre-1935] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316063554/http://www.tvhistory.tv/pre-1935.htm |date=March 16, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years. The French model shown does not appear to have entered production.</ref> The earliest commercially made televisions sold by Baird called Televisors in the UK in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a [[neon]] tube behind a [[Nipkow disk|mechanically spinning disk]] (patented by German engineer [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884) with a spiral of apertures first mass-produced television set, selling about a thousand units.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/PRE-1935-BAIRD.htm Pre-1935 Baird Sets: UK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403234342/http://www.tvhistory.tv/PRE-1935-BAIRD.htm |date=April 3, 2008 }}, that produced a red postage-stamp size image, enlarged to twice that size by a magnifying glass. The Televisor sold in 1930–1933 is considered the Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref>
The first commercially made electronic televisions with [[cathode ray tube]]s were manufactured by [[Telefunken]] in Germany in 1934,<ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/telefunken.html Telefunken] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101235418/http://earlytelevision.org/telefunken.html |date=January 1, 2017 }}, Early Electronic TV Gallery, Early Television Foundation.</ref><ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1934-35-Telefunken-FEIII.JPG 1934–35 Telefunken] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529173916/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1934-35-Telefunken-FEIII.JPG |date=May 29, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> followed by other makers in France (1936),<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936%20French%20TV.htm 1936 French Television] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501112437/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936%20French%20TV.htm |date=May 1, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> Britain (1936),<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936-Baird-T5.JPG 1936 Baird T5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529173922/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936-Baird-T5.JPG |date=May 29, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> and the United States (1938).<ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/communicating_systems.html Communicating Systems, Inc.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413043016/http://www.earlytelevision.org/communicating_systems.html |date=April 13, 2008 }}, Early Electronic TV Gallery, Early Television Foundation.</ref><ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1939%20Du%20Mont%20Brochure.htm America's First Electronic Television Set] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417195650/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1939%20Du%20Mont%20Brochure.htm |date=April 17, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 ({{Inflation|US|445|1938|fmt=eq}}).<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/tv-prices.htm American TV Prices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123091422/http://www.tvhistory.tv/tv-prices.htm |date=November 23, 2016 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> An estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Sales_39-59.JPG Annual Television Sales in USA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327154908/http://tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Sales_39-59.JPG |date=March 27, 2016 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> before the [[War Production Board]] halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. Television usage in the western world skyrocketed after [[World War II]] with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the drop in television prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Households_50-78.JPG Number of TV Households in America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807030757/http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Households_50-78.JPG |date=August 7, 2011 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} By the late 1960s and early 1970s, [[color television]] had come into wide use. In Britain, [[BBC1]], [[BBC2]] and [[ITV (TV channel)|ITV]] were regularly broadcasting in color by 1969.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
In The Early 2010s, CRT display technology was largely supplanted worldwide by flat-panel displays such as [[LCD TV|LCD]]. Flat-panel television, especially LCD, has become the dominant form of television since the early 2010s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=iG Economia - Notícias sobre a Bolsa, Finanças e Investimentos |url=https://economia.ig.com.br/ |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=Brasil Econômico |language=pt-BR}}</ref>
== Technological innovations ==
The first national [[live television]] broadcast in the U.S. took place on September 4, 1951, when President [[Harry Truman]]'s speech at the [[Japanese Peace Treaty Conference]] in [[San Francisco]] was transmitted over [[AT&T]]'s transcontinental [[coaxial cable|cable]] and [[microwave radio relay]] system to broadcast stations in local markets.<ref>"Truman to Be Televised In First National Hook-Up", ''The New York Times'', September 4, 1951, p. 2.</ref><ref>"Television Highlights", ''The Washington Post'', September 4, 1951, p. B13.</ref><ref>"Coast to Coast Television" (CBS advertisement), ''The Wall Street Journal'', September 4, 1951, p. 9.</ref>
The first live coast-to-coast commercial television broadcast in the U.S. took place on November 18, 1951, during the premiere of [[CBS]]'s ''[[See It Now]]'', which showed a split-screen view of the [[Brooklyn Bridge]] in New York City and the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] in San Francisco.
The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] held yearly from 1956 by the [[European Broadcasting Union]] was launched, among other goals, with the aim to make technical improvements in the field of simultaneous sharing of TV signals across main national European broadcasters, a technical challenge by that time. It is the longest-running annual international televised music competition.
In 1958, the [[CBC Television|CBC]] completed the longest television network in the world, from [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]] to [[Victoria, British Columbia]].
Reportedly, the first continuous live broadcast of a "breaking" news story in the world was conducted by the CBC during the [[Springhill mining disaster]], which began on October 23, 1958.
The development of [[cable television]] and [[satellite television]] in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged companies to target programming toward specific audiences. It also enabled the rise of [[subscription television]] channels, such as HBO and [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]] in the U.S., and [[British Sky Broadcasting|Sky Television]] in the U.K.
== Television pioneers ==
Important people in the development and contributions of TV technology.
{{div col}}
* [[Manfred von Ardenne]]
* [[John Logie Baird]]
* [[Alan Blumlein]]
* [[Walter Bruch]] (PAL television)
* [[Guillermo González Camarena]]
* [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]]
* [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]]
* [[Allen B. DuMont]]
* [[Philo Farnsworth]]
* [[Boris Grabovsky]]
* [[Charles Francis Jenkins]]
* Siegmund and David Loewe, founders of [[Loewe AG]] in 1923
* [[Earl Muntz]]
* [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow]]
* [[Constantin Perskyi]]
* [[Boris Rosing]]
* [[Ulises Armand Sanabria]]
* [[David Sarnoff]]
* [[Isaac Shoenberg]]
* [[Kenjiro Takayanagi]]
* [[Leon Theremin]]
* [[Kálmán Tihanyi]]
* [[Vladimir K. Zworykin]]
{{div col end}}
== Television museums ==
Museums focused on or exhibiting television history.
* [[Paley Center for Media]] ([[New York City, New York]], United States)
* [[Central Illinois' On-Line Broadcast Museum]]
* [[Early Television Museum]] ([[Hilliard, Ohio]], United States)
* [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] ([[Chicago, Illinois]], United States)
* [[National Science and Media Museum]] ([[Bradford, West Yorkshire]], United Kingdom)
* [[National Museum of Australia]] ([[Acton, Australian Capital Territory]])
==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[The Interviews: An Oral History of Television]]
* [[BBC Archives]]
* [[Geographical usage of television]]
* [[Golden Age of Television]], c. 1949–1960 in the U.S.
* [[Golden Age of Television (2000s–present)]]
* [[History of broadcasting]]
* [[History of film]]
* [[History of journalism]]
* [[History of radio]]
* [[History of telecommunication]]
* [[History of theatre]]
* [[History of videotelephony]]
* [[History of YouTube]]
* [[List of experimental television stations]]
* [[List of years in television]]
** [[List of years in American television]]
* [[Muntzing]]
* [[Prewar television stations]]
* [[Television Hall of Fame]]
* [[Timeline of the introduction of color television in countries]]
* [[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Abramson |first=Albert |title=The History of Television, 1880 to 1941 |date=1987 |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=McFarland & Co. |isbn=0-89950-284-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Abramson |first=Albert |title=The History of Television, 1942 to 2000 |date=2003 |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=McFarland & Co. |isbn=0-7864-1220-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Beyer |first=Rick |title=The Greatest Stories Never Told: 100 tales from history to astonish, bewilder, & stupefy |publisher=A&E Television Networks |date=2003 |isbn=0-06-001401-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Burns |first=R. W. |title=Television: An International History of the Formative Years |url={{GBurl|id=gZcwhVyiMqsC}} |date=1998 |series=IEE History of Technology Series |volume=22 |location=London |publisher=[[Institution of Electrical Engineers]] |isbn=0-85296-914-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Inventors and Inventions |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-7763-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Dunlap |first=Orrin E. |title=The Future of Television. New York and London: Harper Brothers |date=1942}}
* {{cite book |last=Everson |first=George |date=1949 |title=The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co. |isbn=978-0-405-06042-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=David E. |first2=Marshall Jon |last2=Fisher |title=Tube: the Invention of Television |date=1996 |location=Washington |publisher=Counterpoint |isbn=1-887178-17-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Hart |first=Jeffrey A. |authorlink=Jeffrey A. Hart |url=http://inethub.olvi.net.ua/ftp/library/somelibrary/techno/hart%20j.a.%20-%20technology,%20television%20and%20competition%5Bc%5D%20the%20politics%20of%20digital%20tv%20(2004)(en).pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515012604/http://inethub.olvi.net.ua/ftp/library/somelibrary/techno/hart%20j.a.%20-%20technology,%20television%20and%20competition%5Bc%5D%20the%20politics%20of%20digital%20tv%20(2004)(en).pdf |archivedate=2012-05-15 |title=Television, technology, and competition: HDTV and digital TV in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=0-521-82624-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Huurdeman |first=Anton A. |title=The Worldwide History of Telecommunications |publisher=Wiley-IEEE |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-471-20505-0 |url={{GBurl|SnjGRDVIUL4C}}}}
* [[Charles Francis Jenkins|Jenkins, C. F.]] (1925). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73845 Vision by radio, radio photographs, radio photograms]''. Washington, D.C.: National Capitol Press.
* {{cite book |last=Lohr |first=Lenox |authorlink=Lenox R. Lohr |title=Television Broadcasting |location=New York |publisher=McGraw Hill |date=1940}}
* {{cite book |last=Meyrowitz |first=Joshua |date=1985 |title=No Sense of Place |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shiers |first1=George |last2=Shiers |first2=May |date=1997 |title=Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940 |publisher=Garland Publishing Inc. |series=Garland Reference Library of Social Science |isbn=978-0-8240-7782-2 |url={{GBurl|OlXsZdT8HUQC}}}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.broadcastbeat.com/index.php/nab-started/ NAB: How It All Got Started] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310212557/http://www.broadcastbeat.com/index.php/nab-started/ |date=March 10, 2014 }}
* [http://www.bairdtelevision.com Bairdtelevision.com]
* [http://www.hawestv.com Mechanical TV and Illusion Generators] including a [http://www.hawestv.com/mtv_exp/mtv_exp.htm description of what mechanical TV viewing was like]
* [http://euscreen.eu/exhibitions.html?id=history History of European Television] – online exhibition
* [http://journal.euscreen.eu Journal of European Television History and Culture]
* [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090315202555/http://inventors.about.com/od/tstartinventions/a/Television.htm Television history — inventors]
* [http://www.technologyreview.com/Biztech/12186/?a=f Technology Review – Who Really Invented Television?]
* [http://www.farnovision.com/chronicles/tfc-who_invented_what.html Who Invented Television – Reconciling The Historical Origins of Electronic Video]
* [http://www.tvhistory.tv Photos of early TV receivers]
* [http://www.earlytelevision.org Early television museum] (extensive online presence)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071113101332/http://www.novia.net/~ereitan/ Ed Reitan's Color Television History]
* [http://www.vintagetvsets.com/ Erics Vintage Television Sets]
* [http://www.terramedia.co.uk/media/television/index.htm Detailed timeline of communications media] (including the TV)
* [http://www.televisionau.com The History of Australian Television]
* [http://www.euscreen.eu EUscreen: Discover Europe's television heritage]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929091705/http://www.researchchannel.org/prog/displayevent.aspx?rID=3431&fID=345 A Visit to Our Studios: a television program exploring the studios at Johns Hopkins University in 1951]
* [http://tvinterviewsarchive.blogspot.com Archive of American Television (information and links to videotaped oral history interviews with TV legends and pioneers)]
* [http://archives.cbc.ca Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archives]
* [http://www.watvhistory.com History of West Australian Television]
* [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television & Archive]
* [http://www.patent-invent.com/tv_patents.html Television Early Patents and Inventions]
*Littleton, Cynthia. [https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118039380 "Happy 70th Birthday, TV Commercial broadcasts bow on July 1, 1941; Variety calls it 'corney'"], ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'', July 1, 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110704182158/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118039380 WebCitation archive].
*[https://www.c-span.org/video/?170335-1/boy-genius-mogul ''Booknotes'' interview with Daniel Stashower on ''The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television'', July 21, 2002.]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20141217032214/http://www.dishtvsignup.com/history-of-tv-infographic.pdf History of TV Infographic]
{{Video formats}}
{{Telecommunications}}
{{TV production}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Television}}
[[Category:History of television| ]]
[[Category:Television pioneers| ]]
[[Category:Experimental television stations]]
[[Category:History of technology|Television]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{Short description|Development of television}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Family watching television 1958.jpg|thumb|right|Family watching TV, 1958]]
The concept of [[television]] is the work of many individuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first practical transmissions of moving images over a radio system used mechanical rotating perforated disks to scan a scene into a time-varying signal that could be reconstructed at a receiver back into an approximation of the original image. Development of television was interrupted by the [[Second World War]]. After the end of the war, all-electronic methods of scanning and displaying images became standard. Several different standards for addition of color to transmitted images were developed with different regions using technically incompatible signal standards.
Television broadcasting expanded rapidly after World War II, becoming an important [[mass medium]] for advertising, [[propaganda]], and entertainment.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page.htm|title = History of Television|date = February 6, 2015|access-date = February 6, 2015|website = www.nyu.edu|publisher = New York University |last = Stephens|first = Mitchell}}</ref>
Television broadcasts can be distributed over the air by VHF and UHF radio signals from terrestrial transmitting stations, by [[microwave]] signals from Earth orbiting satellites, or by wired transmission to individual consumers by [[cable television]]. Many countries have moved away from the original analog radio transmission methods and now use [[digital television]] standards, providing additional operating features and conserving radio spectrum bandwidth for more profitable uses. Television programming can also be distributed over the [[Internet]].
Television broadcasting may be funded by advertising revenue, by private or governmental organizations prepared to underwrite the cost, or in some countries, by television license fees paid by owners of receivers. Some services, especially carried by cable or satellite, are paid by subscriptions.
Television broadcasting is supported by continuing technical developments such as long-haul microwave networks, which allow distribution of programming over a wide geographic area. Video recording methods allow programming to be edited and replayed for later use. Three-dimensional television has been used commercially but has not received wide consumer acceptance owing to the limitations of display methods.
==Mechanical television==
{{Main|Mechanical television}}
[[Facsimile transmission]] systems pioneered methods of mechanically scanning graphics in the early 19th century. The Scottish inventor [[Alexander Bain (inventor)|Alexander Bain]] introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. The English physicist [[Frederick Bakewell]] demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. The first practical facsimile system, working on telegraph lines, was developed and put into service by the Italian priest [[Giovanni Caselli]] from 1856 onward.<ref>{{harvp|Huurdeman|2003|p=149}} ''The first telefax machine to be used in practical operation was invented by an Italian priest and professor of physics, Giovanni Caselli (1815–1891).''</ref><ref>{{harvp|Beyer|2003|page=100}} ''The telegraph was the hot new ''technology'' of the moment, and Caselli wondered if it was possible to send pictures over telegraph wires. He went to work in 1855, and over the course of six years perfected what he called the "pantelegraph." It was the world's first practical fax machine.''</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.telephonecollecting.org/caselli.htm |title=Giovanni Caselli |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115141648/http://www.telephonecollecting.org/caselli.htm |archive-date=January 15, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>
[[Willoughby Smith]], an English electrical engineer, discovered the [[photoconductivity]] of the element [[selenium]] in 1873. This led, among other technologies, towards [[telephotography]], a way to send still images through [[phone lines]], as early as in 1895, as well as any kind of electronic [[image scanning]] devices, both still and in motion, and ultimately to [[TV camera]]s.
[[File:Nipkow disk.svg|right|200px|thumb|The [[Nipkow disk]]. This schematic shows the circular paths traced by the holes, which may also be square for greater precision. The area of the disk outlined in black shows the region scanned.]]
As a 23-year-old German university student, [[Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow]] proposed and patented the [[Nipkow disk]] in 1884 in [[Berlin]].<ref name=ShiersandShiers1322>{{harvp|Shiers|Shiers|1997|pages=13, 22}}</ref> This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "[[rasterizer|image rasterizer]]" became exceedingly common.<ref name=ShiersandShiers1322/> [[Constantin Perskyi]] had coined the word ''television'' in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|World's Fair]] in [[Paris]] on August 24, 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others.<ref>{{cite conference |url=https://www.histv.net/perskyi-1900 |conference=Congrès international d'électricité |location=Paris |date=18-25 August 1900 |first=Constantin |last=Perskyi |title=Télévision au moyen de l'électricité |language=fr}}</ref> However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology, by [[Lee de Forest]] and [[Arthur Korn]] among others, made the design practical.<ref name="Sending Photographs by Telegraph">[https://www.nytimes.com/1907/02/24/archives/sending-photographs-by-telegraph-professor-korn-has-triumphantly.html "Sending Photographs by Telegraph"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726172315/https://www.nytimes.com/1907/02/24/archives/sending-photographs-by-telegraph-professor-korn-has-triumphantly.html |date=July 26, 2018 }}, ''The New York Times'', Sunday Magazine, September 20, 1907, p. 7.</ref>
The first demonstration of transmission of images was by [[Augusto Bissiri]]: he transmitted, in 1906, a photograph image from one room to another. In 1917, after other successful attempts by several independent inventors, he transmitted an image from London to New York City. He patented his apparatus in Los Angeles in 1928.<ref>Veronica Gelakoska, "Pig 'n Whistle", Arcadia Publishing, 2010, page 24</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://linguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it/2012/01/augusto-bissiri-is-credited-as-inventor.html| title = Augusto Bissiri 'is credited as the inventor of television'| year = 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://it.paperblog.com/l-antenato-del-tubo-catodico-e-stato-inventato-da-un-sardo-augusto-bissiri-804313/
|title = L'antenato del tubo catodico è stato inventato da un sardo: Augusto Bissiri|language=Italian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://linguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it/2012/01/transmission-of-pictures-author-augusto.html| title = Transmission of pictures. Author: Augusto Bissiri. Patented: May 14, 1929.| year = 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ioobrcaDfdAC&q=augusto+bissiri+televisione&pg=PA34| title = Pig 'N Whistle, Veronica Gelakoska| isbn = 9780738581415| last1 = Gelakoska| first1 = Veronica| date = October 2010| publisher = Arcadia}}</ref>
The first demonstration of instantaneous transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 [[selenium]] cells, individually wired to a mechanical [[commutator (electric)|commutator]], served as an electronic [[retina]]. In the receiver, a type of [[Kerr cell]] modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8×8 [[pixel]] resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second.<ref>{{cite book |first=Henry |last=de Varigny |url=http://histv2.free.fr/rignoux/rignoux1909.htm |title=La vision à distance |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231305/http://histv2.free.fr/rignoux/rignoux1909.htm |archivedate=March 3, 2016 |publisher=L'Illustration |location=Paris |date=December 11, 1909 |page=451 |language=fr}}</ref>
In 1911, [[Boris Rosing]] and his student [[Vladimir Zworykin]] created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "[[Karl Ferdinand Braun|Braun]] tube" ([[cathode-ray tube]] or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner, "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy".<ref>{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=[{{GBurl|id=gZcwhVyiMqsC|p=119}} 119]}}</ref>
In May 1914, [[Archibald Low]] gave the first demonstration of his television system at the Institute of Automobile Engineers in London. He called his system 'Televista'. The events were widely reported worldwide and were generally entitled ''Seeing By Wireless''. The demonstrations had so impressed [[Harry Gordon Selfridge]] that he included Televista in his 1914 Scientific and Electrical Exhibition at his store.<ref>{{cite book |title=He Lit The Lamp: A Biography Of Professor A. M. Low |date=1958 |first=Ursula |last=Bloom |publisher=Burke |url={{GBurl|id=0CVrQgAACAAJ}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The World of Mr Selfridge: The Official Companion to the Hit ITV Series |first=Alison |last=Maloney |publisher=Simon & Schuster |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-4711-3885-0}}</ref> It also interested Deputy Consul General Carl Raymond Loop who filled a US consular report from London containing considerable detail about Low's system.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Dawn of the Drone |first=Steve |last=Mills |date=2019 |publisher=Casemate Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VE_AQAAMAAJ |title=Daily Consular and Trade Reports |date=1914 |publisher=Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufactures |language=en}}</ref> Low's invention employed a matrix detector (camera) and a mosaic screen (receiver/viewer) with an electro-mechanical scanning mechanism that moved a rotating roller over the cell contacts providing a multiplex signal to the camera/viewer data link. The receiver employed a similar roller. The two rollers were synchronised. It was unlike any other TV system of the 20th Century and in some respects, Low had a digital TV system 80 years before modern digital TV. [[World War One]] began shortly after these demonstrations in London and Low became involved in [[British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I|sensitive military work]], and so he did not apply for a patent until 1917. His "Televista" Patent No. 191,405 titled "Improved Apparatus for the Electrical Transmission of Optical Images" was finally published in 1923; delayed possibly for security reasons. The patent states that the scanning roller had a row of conductive contacts corresponding to the cells in each row of the array and arranged to sample each cell in turn as the roller rotated. The receiver's roller was similarly constructed and each revolution addressed a row of cells as the rollers traversed over their array of cells. Loops report tells us that... "The receiver is made up of a series of cells operated by the passage of polarized light through thin slats of steel, and at the receiver the object before the transmitter is reproduced as a flickering image" and "The roller is driven by a motor of 3,000 revolutions per minute, and the resulting variations of light are transmitted along an ordinary conducting wire." and the patent states "into each... space I place a [[selenium]] cell". Low covered the cells with a liquid dielectric and the roller connected with each cell in turn through this medium as it rotated and travelled over the array. The receiver used bimetallic elements that acted as shutters "transmitting more or less light according to the current passing through them..." as stated in the patent. Low said the main deficiency of the system was the selenium cells used for converting [[light waves]] into electric impulses, which responded too slowly thus spoiling the effect. Loop reported that "The system has been tested through a resistance equivalent to a distance of four miles, but in the opinion of Doctor Low there is no reason why it should not be equally effective over far greater distances. The patent states that this connection could be either wired or wireless. The cost of the apparatus is considerable because the conductive sections of the roller are made of platinum..."
In 1914, the demonstrations certainly garnered a lot of media interest, with ''[[The Times]]'' reporting on 30 May:
{{cquote|An inventor, Dr. A. M. Low, has discovered a means of transmitting visual images by wire. If all goes well with this invention, we shall soon be able, it seems, to see people at a distance.}}
On 29 May, the ''[[Daily Chronicle]]'' reported:
{{cquote|Dr. Low gave a demonstration for the first time in public, with a new apparatus that he has invented, for seeing, he claims by electricity, by which it is possible for persons using a telephone to see each other at the same time}}
In 1927, Ronald Frank Tiltman asked Low to write the introduction to his book in which he acknowledged Low's work, referring to Low's related patents with an apology that they were of 'too technical a nature for inclusion'.<ref>{{cite book |title=Television for the Home |date=1927 |first=Ronald Frank |last=Tiltman |publisher=Hutchinson}}</ref> Later in his 1938 patent Low envisioned a much larger 'camera' cell density achieved by a deposition process of caesium alloy on an insulated substrate that was subsequently sectioned to divide it into cells, the essence of today's technology. Low's system failed for various reasons, mostly due to its inability to reproduce an image by reflected light and simultaneously depict gradations of light and shade. It can be added to the list of systems, like that of [[Boris Rosing]], that predominantly reproduced shadows. With subsequent technological advances, many such ideas could be made viable decades later, but at the time they were impractical.
[[File:John Logie Baird and Stooky Bill.png|thumb|left|200px|[[John Logie Baird|Baird]] in 1925 with his televisor equipment and dummies "James" and "Stooky Bill" ''(right)'']]
In 1923, Scottish inventor [[John Logie Baird]] envisaged a complete television system that employed the [[Nipkow disk]]. Nipkow's was an obscure, forgotten patent and not at all obvious at the time. He created his first prototypes in Hastings, where he was recovering from a serious illness. In late 1924, Baird returned to London to continue his experiments there. On March 25, 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised [[silhouette]] images in motion at [[Selfridges]] department store in London.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/115504a0|title=Current Topics and Events |journal=Nature |volume=115 |issue=2,892 |pages=504–508 |year=1925 |bibcode=1925Natur.115..504. |doi-access=free}}</ref> Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his system at this time, he televised cut-outs and by mid-1925 the head of a ventriloquist's dummy he later named "Stooky Bill", whose face was painted to highlight its contrast. "Stooky Bill" also did not complain about the long hours of staying still in front of the blinding level of light used in these experiments. On October 2, 1925, suddenly the dummy's head came through on the screen with incredible clarity. On January 26, 1926, he demonstrated the transmission of images of real human faces for 40 distinguished scientists of the [[Royal Institution]]. This is widely regarded as being the world's first public television demonstration. Baird's system used Nipkow disks for both scanning the image and displaying it. A brightly illuminated subject was placed in front of a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses that swept images across a static photocell. At this time, it is believed that it was a thallium sulphide (Thalofide) cell, developed by [[Theodore Case]] in the US, that detected the light reflected from the subject. This was transmitted by radio to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon bulb behind a similar Nipkow disk synchronised with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each lens in the disk passed by, one [[scan line]] of the image was reproduced. With this early apparatus, Baird's disks had 16 lenses, yet in conjunction with the other discs used produced moving images with 32 scan-lines, just enough to recognize a human face. He began with a frame-rate of five per second, which was soon increased to a rate of 12{{frac|1|2}} frames per second and 30 scan-lines.
In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over {{convert|438|mi|km}} of telephone line between London and [[Glasgow]]. In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and [[Bernard Natan]] of [[Pathé]] established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of the [[Epsom Derby|Derby]].<ref>{{cite book |first=J. L. |last=Baird |author-link=John Logie Baird |url=https://www.bairdtelevision.com/television-in-1932-bbc-annual-report-1933.html |chapter=Television in 1932 |title=BBC Annual Report 1933 |date=1933}}</ref> In 1932, he demonstrated [[ultra-short wave]] television. Baird Television Limited's mechanical systems reached a peak of 240 lines of resolution at the company's [[Crystal Palace, London|Crystal Palace]] studios, and later on [[BBC]] television broadcasts in 1936, though for action shots (as opposed to a seated presenter) the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead, a [[17.5mm film]] was shot, rapidly developed, and then scanned while the film was still wet.
The [[Scophony]] Company's success with their mechanical system in the 1930s enabled them to take their operations to the US when [[World War II]] curtailed their business in Britain.
An American inventor, [[Charles Francis Jenkins]], also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses. On June 13, 1925, Jenkins publicly demonstrated the synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925, Jenkins used a [[Nipkow disk]] and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of five miles (from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C.), using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution.<ref>{{cite news |title=Radio Shows Far Away Objects in Motion |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 14, 1925 |page=1}}</ref><ref name="glinsky">{{cite book| last = Glinsky| first = Albert| title = Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage| location = Urbana, Illinois| publisher = University of Illinois Press| year = 2000| pages = [https://archive.org/details/thereminethermus00glin/page/41 41]–45| isbn = 978-0-252-02582-2| url = https://archive.org/details/thereminethermus00glin| url-access = registration}}</ref> He was granted U.S. patent 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on June 30, 1925 (filed March 13, 1922).<ref>{{US patent|1544156}}</ref>
On December 25, 1926, [[Kenjiro Takayanagi]] demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and [[Cathode ray tube|CRT]] display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum at [[Shizuoka University]], Hamamatsu Campus.<ref name="nhk.or.jp">[https://web.archive.org/web/20160101180643/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/ ''Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television''], NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), 2002, retrieved 2009-05-23.</ref> By 1927, Takayanagi improved the resolution to 100 lines, which was not surpassed until 1931.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wQhlFaxDwrsC&pg=PA220 ''High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company'', page 220], [[Springer Science+Business Media]]</ref> He is the man who completed the first all-electronic television.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Popular Photography]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJsbJq2_djkC&pg=PA5 |date=November 1990 |page=5 |title=TV's Japanese Dad?}}</ref> His research toward creating a production model was halted by the US after Japan lost [[World War II]].<ref name="nhk.or.jp" />
In 1927, a team from [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] demonstrated television transmission from Washington to New York, using a prototype array of 50 lines containing 50 individual neon lights each against a gold-appearing background, as a display to make the images visible to an audience.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Television Demonstration in America |magazine=The Wireless World and Radio Review |date=June 1, 1927 |volume=20 |issue=22 |pages=680–686 |location=London |url=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Wireless-World/20s/Wireless-World-1927-06.pdf}}</ref> The display measured approximately two feet by three feet and had 2500 total pixels (50x50).
[[Herbert E. Ives]] and [[Frank Gray (researcher)|Frank Gray]] of [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on April 7, 1927. The reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a two-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen. The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high. Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets also received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a [[copper wire]] link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from [[Whippany, New Jersey]]. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included [[Secretary of Commerce]] [[Herbert Hoover]]. A [[flying-spot scanner]] beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 [[millisecond]]s. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality."<ref>{{harvp|Abramson|1987|page=101}}</ref>
In 1928, [[WRGB]] (then W2XCW) was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the [[General Electric]] facility in [[Schenectady, New York]]. It was popularly known as "[[WGY (AM)|WGY]] Television".
Meanwhile, in the [[Soviet Union]], [[Léon Theremin]] had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16-line resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using [[Interlaced video|interlacing]] in 1926. As part of his thesis on May 7, 1926, Theremin electrically transmitted and then projected near-simultaneous moving images on a five-foot square screen.<ref name="glinsky"/> By 1927 he achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until 1931 by RCA, with 120 lines.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}
Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution in mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to about 120. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donald F. |last=McLean |title=Restoring Baird's Image |location=London |publisher=IEEE |date=2000 |page=184}}</ref> A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in [[Paris]] in 1935, and the 180-line system that [[Peck Television Corp.]] started in 1935 at station VE9AK in [[Montreal]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/ve9ak.html |title=VE9AK |publisher=Earlytelevision.org |access-date=2010-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Peck Television Corporation Console Receiver and Camera |url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/peck.html|publisher=Early Television Museum|access-date=18 February 2012}}</ref>
Anton Codelli (22 March 1875 – 28 April 1954), a [[Slovenia]]n nobleman, was a passionate inventor. Among other things, he had devised a miniature refrigerator for cars and a new rotary engine design. Intrigued by television, he decided to apply his technical skills to the new medium. At the time, the biggest challenge in television technology was to transmit images with sufficient resolution to reproduce recognizable figures. As recounted by media historian Melita Zajc, most inventors were determined to increase the number of lines used by their systems – some were approaching what was then the magic number of 100 lines. But Codelli had a different idea. In 1929, he developed a television device with a single line – but one that formed a continuous spiral on the screen. Codelli based his ingenious design on his understanding of the human eye. He knew that objects seen in peripheral vision don't need to be as sharp as those in the center. Codelli's mechanical television system, whose image was sharpest in the middle, worked well, and he was soon able to transmit images of his wife, Ilona von Drasche-Lazar, over the air.
Despite the backing of the German electronics giant Telefunken, however, Codelli's television system never became a commercial reality. Electronic television ultimately emerged as the dominant system, and Codelli moved on to other projects. His invention was largely forgotten.<ref>{{cite book |title=Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940 |page=192 |id=article 1,898 |first=Anton |last=Codelli}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=Culture.si |url=http://www.culture.si/en/Radio-Television_Slovenia_(RTV_Slovenia) |title=Radio-Television Slovenia (RTV Slovenia) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912014709/http://www.culture.si/en/Radio-Television_Slovenia_(RTV_Slovenia) |archive-date=September 12, 2017}} The first known transmitted TV image on the territory of Slovenia</ref>
The advancement of all-electronic television (including [[image dissector]]s and other camera tubes and [[cathode ray tube]]s for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical TV usually only produced small images. It was the main type of TV until the 1930s. The last mechanical television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a handful of public universities in the United States.
==Electronic television==
{{Main|Video camera tube}}
{{See also|Professional video camera}}
[[File:Ferdinand_Braun.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Ferdinand Braun]]]]
In 1897, [[J. J. Thomson]], an English [[physicist]], in his three famous experiments was able to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern [[cathode-ray tube]] (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]] in 1897 and is also known as the ''Braun tube''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ferdinand |last=Braun |date=1897 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89048352892;view=1up;seq=568 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20141217172841/http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89048352892;view=1up;seq=568 |archivedate=2014-12-17 |title=Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufs variabler Ströme |trans-title=On a process for the display and study of the course in time of variable currents |work=Annalen der Physik und Chemie 3rd series |volume=60 |pages=552–559}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/Bar-Cod/Cathode-Ray-Tube-CRT.html|title=Cathode Ray Tube|year=2007|publisher=Advameg, Inc.|work=Medical Discoveries|access-date=27 April 2008}}</ref> Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lehrer |first1=Norman, H. |title=Flat-Panel Displays and CRTS |chapter=The Challenge of the Cathode-Ray Tube|editor-first=Lawrence E. Jr. |editor-last=Tannas|doi=10.1007/978-94-011-7062-8_6|isbn=978-94-011-7062-8 |pages=138–176 |publisher=[[Van Nostrand Reinhold|Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.]]|location=New York|date=1985}}</ref> It was a [[cold-cathode]] [[diode]], a modification of the [[Crookes tube]] with a [[phosphor]]-coated screen. The ''Braun tube'' became the foundation of 20th century television.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/karl-ferdinand-braun | title=Karl Ferdinand Braun }}</ref> A cathode ray tube was successfully demonstrated as a displaying device by the [[Germans|German]] Professor Max Dieckmann in 1906, his experimental results were published by the journal ''[[Scientific American]]'' in 1909.<ref name="Dieckmann-CRT">
{{cite journal
| url = http://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v68/n1751supp/pdf/scientificamerican07241909-61supp.pdf
| author = Max Dieckmann
| title = The problem of television, a partial solution
| journal = Scientific American Supplement
| volume = 68
| pages = 61–62
| date = 1909-07-24
| doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican07241909-61supp}}
</ref> In 1908 [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]], fellow of the UK [[Royal Society]], published a letter in the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a [[cathode ray tube]] (or "Braun" tube) as both a transmitting and receiving device.<ref name="Swinton_DEV1">
{{cite journal
| last= Campbell-Swinton |first=A. A. |author-link=Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
| title = Distant Electric Vision (first paragraph)
| journal = Nature
| volume = 78
| issue = 2016
| page = 151
| date = 1908-06-18
| doi=10.1038/078151a0| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429503
| bibcode = 1908Natur..78..151S
| s2cid = 3956737
| doi-access = free
}}
</ref><ref name="Swinton_DEV2">
{{cite journal
| last= Campbell-Swinton |first=A. A. |author-link=Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
| title = Distant Electric Vision
| journal = Nature
| volume = 78
| page = 151
| date = 1908-06-18
| issue=2016
| doi=10.1038/078151a0| bibcode = 1908Natur..78..151S
| s2cid = 3956737
| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429503
| doi-access = free
}}
</ref> He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in ''[[The Times]]''<ref>"Distant Electric Vision", ''The Times'' (London), Nov. 15, 1911, p. 24b.</ref> and the ''Journal of the [[Röntgen Society]]''.<ref name="Swinton_Braid">
{{cite web
| url = http://www.bairdtelevision.com/swinton.html
| title = Alan Archivald Campbell-Swinton (1863–1930)
| author = Bairdtelevision
| work = Biography
| access-date = 2010-05-10}}
</ref><ref name="Swinton-Rontgen">{{harvp|Shiers|Shiers|1997|page=56}}</ref> In a letter to ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a [[cathode ray|cathode ray beam]].<ref name="Swinton_ET1">
{{cite journal
| last= Campbell-Swinton |first=A. A. |author-link=Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton
| title = Electric Television (abstract)
| journal = Nature
| volume = 118
| issue = 2973
| page = 590
| date = 1926-10-23
| doi=10.1038/118590a0
| bibcode = 1926Natur.118..590S| s2cid = 4081053
| doi-access = free
}}
</ref><ref name="Burns-Swinton">{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=123}}</ref> These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died.<ref name="Minchin">
{{cite journal
| title = Prof. G. M. Minchin, F.R.S.
| journal = Nature
| volume = 93
| issue = 2318
| pages = 115–116
| date = 1914-04-02
| doi = 10.1038/093115a0| bibcode = 1914Natur..93..115R
| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429585
| doi-access = free
| last1 = G
| first1 = R. A.
}}
</ref> They were later repeated in 1937 by two different teams, H. Miller and J. W. Strange from [[EMI]],<ref name="Miller-Strange">
{{cite journal
| doi = 10.1088/0959-5309/50/3/307
| last1= Miller |first1=H. |last2=Strange |first2=J. W.
| title = The electrical reproduction of images by the photoconductive effect
| journal = Proceedings of the Physical Society
| volume = 50
| issue = 3
| pages = 374–384
| date = 1938-05-02| bibcode = 1938PPS....50..374M
}}
</ref> and H. Iams and A. Rose from [[RCA]].<ref name="Iams-Rose-1937">
{{cite journal
| doi = 10.1109/JRPROC.1937.228423
| last1 = Iams
| first1 = H.
| last2 = Rose
| first2 = A.
| title = Television Pickup Tubes with Cathode-Ray Beam Scanning
| journal = Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers
| volume = 25
| issue = 8
| pages = 1048–1070
| date = August 1937| s2cid = 51668505
}}
</ref> Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', p. 16.</ref> The first cathode ray tube to use a [[hot cathode]] was developed by [[John Bertrand Johnson|John B. Johnson]] (who gave his name to the term [[Johnson noise]]) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of [[Western Electric]], and became a commercial product in 1922.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
These early electronic camera tubes (like the [[image dissector]]) suffered from a very disappointing and fatal flaw: They scanned the subject and what was seen at each point was only the tiny piece of light viewed at the instant that the scanning system passed over it. A practical functional camera tube needed a different technological approach, which later became known as Charge - Storage camera tube. It based on a new physical phenomenon which was discovered and patented in Hungary in 1926, but it became widely understood and recognised only from around 1930.<ref>{{cite book|author=J.B Williams|title=The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|year=2017|page=29|isbn=9783319490885|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v4QlDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>
The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by the Hungarian engineer [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] in the beginning of 1924.<ref name="IEC_Tihanyi">[http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml Kálmán Tihanyi (1897–1947)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033236/http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml |date=September 24, 2015 }}, ''IEC Techline'', International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 2009-07-15.</ref>
In 1926, Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube.<ref>{{cite web | title = Hungary – Kálmán Tihanyi's 1926 Patent Application 'Radioskop' | work = Memory of the World | publisher = [[UNESCO|United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]] | url = http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23240&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html| access-date =22 February 2008}}</ref><ref name=US2133123 /><ref name=US2158259 /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bairdtelevision.com/zworykin.html |title=Vladimir Kosma Zworykin, 1889–1982 |publisher=Bairdtelevision.com |access-date=17 April 2009}}</ref> His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in [[Hungary]] in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed "Radioskop".<ref name="Radioskop">[http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-4/kalman-tihanyis-1926-patent-application-radioskop/ "Kálmán Tihanyi's 1926 Patent Application 'Radioskop'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025055406/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-4/kalman-tihanyis-1926-patent-application-radioskop/ |date=October 25, 2012 }}, ''Memory of the World'', United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]), 2005, retrieved 2009-01-29.</ref> After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application,<ref name="IEC_Tihanyi"/> Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930,<ref name="abstract1928">[http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A Tihanyi, Koloman, ''Improvements in television apparatus''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204171044/https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A |date=December 4, 2022 }}. European Patent Office, Patent No. GB313456. Convention date UK application: 1928-06-11, declared void and published: 1930-11-11, retrieved: 2013-04-25.</ref> and so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of [[RCA]]'s "[[iconoscope]]" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval.<ref name=US2133123>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2133123|title=Patent US2133123 - Television apparatus|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref><ref name=US2158259>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2158259|title=Patent US2158259 - Television apparatus|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref> Tihanyi's charge storage idea remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.<ref name="Radioskop"/>
[[File:Philo Farnsworth 1924 yearbook.png|thumb|Philo Farnsworth in 1924]]
On December 25, 1926, [[Kenjiro Takayanagi]] demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan.<ref name="nhk.or.jp"/> Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development_of_Electronic_Television,_1924-1941|title=Milestones:Development of Electronic Television, 1924-1941|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref>
On September 7, 1927, [[Philo Farnsworth]]'s [[image dissector]] camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in [[San Francisco]].<ref name="Postman">[https://web.archive.org/web/20000531100005/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html Postman, Neil, "Philo Farnsworth"], ''The TIME 100: Scientists & Thinkers'', TIME.com, 1999-03-29, retrieved 2009-07-28.</ref><ref name="sfmuseum">[http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html "Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906–1971)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622033654/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html |date=June 22, 2011 }}, ''The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco'', retrieved 2009-07-15.</ref> By September 3, 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration.<ref name="sfmuseum"/> In 1929, the system was further improved by elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', p. 226.</ref> That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).<ref>[http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete The Philo T. and Elma G. Farnsworth Papers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422211543/http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete |date=April 22, 2008 }}</ref>
[[Image:Zworykin kinescope 1929.jpg|thumb|[[Vladimir K. Zworykin|Vladimir Zworykin]] demonstrates electronic television (1929).]]
Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for [[Westinghouse Electric]] in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast and poor definition, and was stationary.<ref>Abramson, Albert, ''Zworykin, Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 51. {{ISBN|0-252-02104-5}}.</ref> Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a [[patent interference]] suit against Farnsworth. The [[U.S. Patent Office]] examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application,<ref name=US1691324>[https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131053220/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ |date=January 31, 2014 }}. Patent No. 1691324, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1925-07-13, issued 1928-11-13. Retrieved 2009-07-28</ref> he also divided his original application in 1931.<ref name="US2022450">[https://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518183522/http://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ |date=May 18, 2013 }}. Patent No. 2022450, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1923-12-29, issued 1935-11-26. Retrieved 2010-05-10.</ref> Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use Farnsworth's patents.<ref>Stashower, Daniel, ''[[iarchive:boygeniusmogulun00stas/page/243/mode/2up|The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television]]'', Broadway Books, 2002, p. 243–244. {{ISBN|978-0-7679-0759-0}}.</ref><ref name="Everson">{{harvp|Everson|1949}}</ref>
In 1933 RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle.<ref name="NewYorkTimes">
{{cite news
| author=Lawrence, Williams L.
| title=Human-like eye made by engineers to televise images. 'Iconoscope' converts scenes into electrical energy for radio transmission. Fast as a movie camera. Three million tiny photo cells 'memorize', then pass out pictures. Step to home television. Developed in ten years' work by Dr. V. K. Zworykin, who describes it at Chicago.
| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1933/06/27/archives/humanlike-eye-made-by-engineers-to-televise-images-iconoscope.html
| date=June 27, 1933
| newspaper=The New York Times
| page=1 |url-access=subscription
}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Shiers|Shiers|1997|page=xii}}</ref> Dubbed the [[Iconoscope]] by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} However, Farnsworth had overcome his power problems with his Image Dissector through the invention of a unique [[multipactor effect|multipactor]] device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV1">{{harvp|Abramson|1987|page=148}}</ref><ref name="Everson1">{{harvp|Everson|1949|pages=137–141}}</ref> This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better<ref name="Everson2">{{harvp|Everson|1949|page=139}}</ref> and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. A problem with the multipactor, unfortunately, was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.<ref name="Everson3">{{harvp|Everson|1949|page=141}}</ref>
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-K0917-501, Prof. Manfred v. Ardenne.jpg|thumb|right|[[Manfred von Ardenne]] in 1933]]
At the [[Berlin Radio Show]] in August 1931 in [[Berlin]], [[Manfred von Ardenne]] gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception, the first completely electronic television transmission.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.vonardenne.biz/ja/company/history/manfred-von-ardenne/ | title=Manfred von Ardenne }}</ref> However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a [[flying-spot scanner]] to scan slides and film.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''Zworykin: Pioneer of Television'', University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 111.</ref> Ardenne achieved his first transmission of television pictures on 24 December 1933, followed by test runs for a public television service in 1934. The world's first electronically scanned television service then started in Berlin in 1935, the [[Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow]], culminating in the live broadcast of the [[1936 Summer Olympic Games]] from Berlin to public places all over Germany.<ref name="dw">{{cite web|title=22.3.1935: Erstes Fernsehprogramm der Welt|url=http://www.kalenderblatt.de/index.php?what=thmanu&lang=de&manu_id=1737&sdt=20090322&maca=de-podcast_kalenderblatt-1086-xml-mrss|publisher=[[Deutsche Welle]]|accessdate=27 July 2015}}</ref><ref name="computer">{{cite web|title=Es begann in der Fernsehstube: TV wird 80 Jahre alt|url=http://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html|publisher=Computer Bild|date=22 March 2015|accessdate=28 April 2017|archive-date=January 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121012410/https://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the [[Franklin Institute]] of [[Philadelphia]] on August 25, 1934, and for ten days afterwards.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA838 New Television System Uses 'Magnetic Lens'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204171031/https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA838 |date=December 4, 2022 }}", ''Popular Mechanics'', Dec. 1934, p. 838–839.</ref><ref name="Burns370">{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=370}}</ref>
In Britain the [[EMI]] engineering team led by [[Isaac Shoenberg]] applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they dubbed "the Emitron",<ref name="GB406353">
{{cite web
| last1 = Tedham
| first1 = William F.
| last2 = McGee
| first2 = James D.
| title = Improvements in or relating to cathode ray tubes and the like
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19340226&CC=GB&NR=406353A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 406,353 (filed May 1932, patented 1934)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-02-22
}}</ref><ref name="US2077442">
{{cite web
| last1=Tedham
| first1=William F.
| last2=McGee
| first2=James D.
| title=Cathode Ray Tube
| url=https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523212804/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=May 23, 2013
| work=Patent No. 2,077,422 (filed in Great Britain 1932, filed in USA 1933, patented 1937)
| publisher=United States Patent Office
| access-date=2010-01-10
}}</ref> which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. In November 1936, a [[405-line television system|405-line broadcasting]] service employing the Emitron began at studios in [[Alexandra Palace]] and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the [[Victorian building]]'s towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but it was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular high-definition television service.<ref name="Burns576">{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=576}}</ref>
The original American iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available.<ref name="Winstor-media">{{cite book
| title = Misunderstanding media
| author = Winston, Brian
| publisher = Harvard University Press
| year = 1986
| isbn = 978-0-674-57663-6
| pages = 60–61
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=K_RpAAAAIAAJ&q=%22american+iconoscope%22+noisy
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref><ref name="Winstor-history">{{cite book
| title = Media technology and society. A history: from the telegraph to the Internet
| author = Winston, Brian
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 1998
| isbn = 978-0-415-14230-4
| page = 105
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TZOF_1GZRmYC&q=american+iconoscope+noisy+
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref> The [[EMI]] team under the supervision of [[Isaac Shoenberg]] analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum.<ref name="Alexander">
{{cite book
| title=The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein
| last=Alexander |first=Robert Charles
| publisher=Focal Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-240-51628-8
| pages=217–219
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=super+emitron
| access-date=2010-01-10
}}</ref><ref name="Burns-Blumlein">
{{cite book
| title=The life and times of A D Blumlein
| last=Burns |first=R. W.
| publisher=IET
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-85296-773-7
| page=181
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B2z2ONO7nBQC&q=blumlein+mcgee+cps+emitron+decelerating+zero
| access-date=2010-03-05
}}</ref> They solved this problem by developing and patenting in 1934 two new camera tubes dubbed [[Video camera tube#Super-Emitron and image iconoscope|super-Emitron]] and [[Video camera tube#Orthicon and CPS Emitron|CPS Emitron]].<ref name="GB442666">
{{cite web
| last1 = Lubszynski
| first1 = Hans Gerhard
| last2 = Rodda
| first2 = Sydney
| title = Improvements in or relating to television
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360212&CC=GB&NR=442666A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 442,666 (filed May 1934, patented 1936)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-01-15
}}</ref><ref name="GB446661">
{{cite web
| last1 = Blumlein
| first1 = Alan Dower
| last2 = McGee
| first2 = James Dwyer
| title = Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360504&CC=GB&NR=446661A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 446,661 (filed August 1934, patented 1936)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref><ref name="GB446664">
{{cite web
| last= McGee |first=James Dwyer
| title = Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360505&CC=GB&NR=446664A&KC=A
| work = Patent No. GB 446,664 (filed September 1934, patented 1936)
| publisher = United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office
| access-date = 2010-03-09
}}</ref> The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater.<ref name="Alexander"/> It was used for an [[outside broadcasting]] by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set how the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph.<ref name="Alexander2">
{{cite book
| title=The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein
| last=Alexander |first=Robert Charles
| publisher=Focal Press
| year=2000
| isbn=978-0-240-51628-8
| pages=216
| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=emitron+cenotaph+armistice
| access-date=2010-01-10
}}</ref> This was the first time that anyone could broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighbouring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA could do the same before the [[1939 New York World's Fair]].
[[File:1939 RCA Television Advertisement.jpg|left|thumb|Ad for the beginning of experimental television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939]]
On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken.<ref name="Inglis">{{cite book
| title = Behind the tube: a history of broadcasting technology and business
| last= Inglis |first=Andrew F.
| publisher = Focal Press
| year = 1990
| isbn = 978-0-240-80043-1
| page = 172
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xiu4AAAAIAAJ&q=image-iconoscope+telefunken
| access-date = 2010-01-15
}}</ref> The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the [[patent war]] between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their ''Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher'' (''Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television'') in Germany in 1925,<ref name="DE450187">
{{cite web
| last1=Dieckmann |first1=Max |first2=Rudolf |last2=Hell
| title = Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröehre für Fernseher
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=DE&NR=450187C&KC=C&FT=D&date=19271003&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_V3
| work = Patent No. DE 450,187 (filed 1925, patented 1927)
| publisher = Deutsches Reich Reichspatentamt
| access-date = 2009-07-28
}}</ref> two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States.<ref name="US1773980">
{{cite web
| last= Farnsworth |first=Philo T.
| title = Television System
| url=https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523192021/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=May 23, 2013
| work = Patent No. 1,773,980 (filed 1927, patented 1930)
| publisher = United States Patent Office
| access-date = 2009-07-28
}}</ref> The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon.<ref name="Vries">{{cite book
| title = Design methodology and relationships with science, Número 71 de NATO ASI series
| last1 = de Vries
| first1 = M. J.
| last2 = de Vries
| first2 = Marc
| last3 = Cross
| first3 = Nigel
| last4 = Grant
| first4 = Donald P.
| publisher = Springer
| year = 1993
| isbn = 978-0-7923-2191-0
| page = 222
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4T8U_J1h7noC&q=image-iconoscope+image-orthicon+telefunken
| access-date = 2010-01-15
}}</ref><ref name="Multicon">
{{cite web
|last=Smith |first=Harry
|title = Multicon – A new TV camera tube
|url = http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html
|work = newspaper article
|date = July 1953
|publisher = Early Television Foundation and Museum
|access-date = 2010-01-15
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100318011743/http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html
|archive-date = March 18, 2010
|df = mdy-all
}}</ref> The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games,<ref name="Heimann1">
{{cite web
| last=Gittel |first=Joachim
| title=Spezialröhren
| url=http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Spezialroehren.htm
| work=photographic album
| date=2008-10-11
| publisher=Jogis Röhrenbude
| access-date=2010-01-15
}}</ref><ref name="ETM">
{{cite web
|title=TV Camera Tubes, German "Super Iconoscope" (1936)
|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html
|work=photographic album
|publisher=Early Television Foundation and Museum
|access-date=2010-01-15
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110617080126/http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html
|archive-date=June 17, 2011
|df=mdy-all
}}</ref> later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955,<ref name="Heimann2">
{{cite web
| last=Gittel |first=Joachim
| title=FAR-Röhren der Firma Heimann
| url=http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/Heimann.htm
| work=photographic album
| date=2008-10-11
| publisher=Jogis Röhrenbude
| access-date=2010-01-15
}}</ref> finally the Dutch company [[Philips]] produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.<ref name="Multicon"/><ref name="Philips">
{{cite book
| chapter = 5854, Image Iconoscope, Philips
| url = http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf
| title = electronic tube handbook
| year = 1958
| publisher = Philips
| access-date = 2010-01-15
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060903223404/http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf
| archive-date = 2006-09-03
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
American television broadcasting at the time consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941.<ref name="Everson4">{{harvp|Everson|1949|page=248}}</ref> RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV2">{{harvp|Abramson|1987|page=254}}</ref> In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents.<ref name="Schatzkin187-8">Schatzkin, Paul (2002), ''The Boy Who Invented Television''. Silver Spring, Maryland: Teamcom Books, pp. 187–8. {{ISBN|1-928791-30-1}}.</ref> With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems.<ref name="TheHistoryofTV2"/> In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television.<ref>"Go-Ahead Signal Due for Television", ''The New York Times'', April 25, 1941, p. 7.</ref><ref>"An Auspicious Beginning", ''The New York Times'', August 3, 1941, p. X10.</ref>
The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944, and became a national standard in 1946.<ref name="60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625">{{cite web |url=http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262 |title=On the beginning of broadcast in 625 lines 60 years ago |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131236/http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262 |archivedate=March 4, 2016 |work=625 magazine |language=Russian}}</ref> The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in 1948 in Moscow.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_255-portrait.pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041230091501/http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_255-portrait.pdf |archivedate=2004-12-30 |title=M.I. Krivocheev – an engineer's engineer |work=EBU Technical Review |date=Spring 1993}}</ref> The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European [[Comité consultatif international pour la radio|CCIR]] standard.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf|date=February 21, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221210300/http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf |archive-date=February 21, 2007|title=In the Vanguard of Television Broadcasting}}</ref>
In 1936, [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] described the principle of [[plasma display]], the first [[flat panel display]] system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ewh.ieee.org/r2/johnstown/downloads/20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf |title=IEEE Johnstown – Analog to Digital Television Transition Trivia Challenge |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605125905/http://ewh.ieee.org/r2/johnstown/downloads/20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf |archive-date=June 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf |title=Kalman Tihanyi's plasma television, invented in the 1930s |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702200523/http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf |archivedate=July 2, 2007}}</ref>
{{Clear}}
In 1978, James P. Mitchell described, prototyped and demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel [[LED display]] targeted at replacing the CRT.
==Color television==
{{Main|Color television}}
The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning, although he gave no practical details.<ref>M. Le Blanc, "Etude sur la transmission électrique des impressions lumineuses", ''La Lumière Electrique'', vol. 11, December 1, 1880, pp. 477–481.</ref> Polish inventor [[Jan Szczepanik]] patented a color television system in 1897, using a [[selenium]] photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it.<ref>{{harvp|Burns|1998|page=98}}</ref> Another inventor, [[Hovannes Adamian]], also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him,<ref>Western technology and Soviet economic development: 1945 to 1965, by Antony C. Sutton, Business & Economics - 1973, p. 330</ref> and was patented in Germany on March 31, 1908, patent No. 197183, then in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], on April 1, 1908, patent No. 7219,<ref>The History of Television, 1880-1941, by Albert Abramson, 1987, p. 27</ref> in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912).<ref name="tvmuseum.ru">[http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=1018 A. Rokhlin, Tak rozhdalos' dal'novidenie (in Russian)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424162531/http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=1018 |date=April 24, 2013 }}</ref>
Scottish inventor [[John Logie Baird]] demonstrated the world's first color transmission on July 3, 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a [[commutator (electric)|commutator]] to alternate their illumination.<ref>John Logie Baird, [https://www.google.com/patents?id=JRVAAAAAEBAJ Television Apparatus and the Like] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518084511/https://www.google.com/patents?id=JRVAAAAAEBAJ |date=May 18, 2013 }}, US patent, filed in UK in 1928.</ref> Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on February 4, 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's [[The Crystal Palace|Crystal Palace]] studios to a projection screen at London's [[Dominion Theatre]].<ref>Baird Television: [http://www.bairdtelevision.com/crystalpalace.html Crystal Palace Television Studios] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630084750/http://www.bairdtelevision.com/crystalpalace.html |date=June 30, 2017 }}. Previous color television demonstrations in the UK and US had been via closed circuit.</ref>
Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by [[Bell Laboratories]] in June 1929 using three complete systems of [[photoelectric cells]], amplifiers, glow-tubes and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green and blue images into one full color image.
The first practical, hybrid, electro-mechanical, [[Field-sequential color system]] was again pioneered by John Logie Baird, with the initial demonstration made in July 1939.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=R. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5y09hpR0UY0C&dq=baird+colour+television+July+27%2C+1939&pg=PR17 |title=John Logie Baird: Television Pioneer |date=2000-06-30 |publisher=IET |isbn=978-0-85296-797-3 |language=en}}</ref> His system incorporated synchronised, two colour, red and blue-green, rotating filters, placed in front of both the camera, and CRT, to add false colour to the monochromatic television broadcasts. By December 1940 he had publicly demonstrated a 600 line, hybrid, field-sequential, colour television system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The history of colour TV in the UK |url=https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/history-colour-tv-uk |access-date=2023-01-24 |website=National Science and Media Museum |date=March 17, 2022 |language=en}}</ref> This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console.<ref name=BairdColor /> However, Baird was not happy with the design, and as early as 1944 had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.
In 1939, Hungarian engineer [[Peter Carl Goldmark]] introduced an electro-mechanical system while at [[CBS]], which contained an [[Iconoscope]] sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set.<ref>Peter C. Goldmark, assignor to Columbia Broadcasting System, "Color Television", [https://patents.google.com/patent/US2480571 U.S. Patent 2,480,571], filed Sept. 7, 1940.</ref> The system was first demonstrated to the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) on August 29, 1940, and shown to the press on September 4.<ref>Current Broadcasting 1940</ref><ref>"Color Television Success in Test", ''The New York Times'', August 30, 1940, p. 21.</ref><ref>"Color Television Achieves Realism", ''The New York Times'', Sept. 5, 1940, p. 18.</ref><ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=JScDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA120 New Television System Transmits Images in Full Color]", ''Popular Science'', December 1940, p. 120.</ref>
CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by November 12.<ref>"Color Television Success in Test," ''The New York Times'', Aug. 30, 1940, p. 21. "CBS Demonstrates Full Color Television," ''Wall Street Journal'', Sept. 5, 1940, p. 1. "Television Hearing Set," ''The New York Times'', Nov. 13, 1940, p. 26.</ref> [[NBC]] (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941.<ref>Ed Reitan, [http://colortelevision.info/rca-nbc_firsts.html RCA-NBC Color Firsts in Television (commented)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150204092411/http://colortelevision.info/rca-nbc_firsts.html |date=February 4, 2015 }}.</ref> These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The [[War Production Board]] halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 22, 1942, to August 20, 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.<ref>"Making of Radios and Phonographs to End April 22," ''The New York Times'', March 8, 1942, p. 1. "Radio Production Curbs Cover All Combinations," ''Wall Street Journal'', June 3, 1942, p. 4. "WPB Cancels 210 Controls; Radios, Trucks in Full Output," ''The New York Times'', August 21, 1945, p. 1.</ref><ref>Bob Cooper, "[http://www.earlytelevision.org/color_tv_cooper.html Television: The Technology That Changed Our Lives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223155937/http://www.earlytelevision.org/color_tv_cooper.html |date=December 23, 2014 }}", Early Television Foundation.</ref>
Mexican inventor [[Guillermo González Camarena]] also experimented with hybrid field-sequential colour TV (known as telectroescopía at first). His efforts began in 1931 and led to a Mexican patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" [[color television]] being filed in August 1940.<ref>{{cite web |title=Patent US2296019 - Chromoscopic adapter for television equipment |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2296019 |access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref>
As early as 1940 Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "[[Telechrome]]". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). A demonstration on August 16, 1944, was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. This used a patterned version of the phosphor plate, with the guns aimed at ridges on one side of the plate. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system.<ref>Albert Abramson, ''The History of Television, 1942 to 2000'', McFarland & Company, 2003, pp. 13–14. {{ISBN|0-7864-1220-8}}</ref><ref name="BairdColor">Baird Television: [http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html The World's First High Definition Colour Television System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511162325/http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html |date=May 11, 2017 }}.</ref>
Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The [[Geer tube]] was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The [[penetron]] used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The [[chromatron]] used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.
One of the great technical challenges of introducing color [[broadcast television]] was the desire to conserve [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]], potentially three times that of the existing [[black-and-white]] standards, and not use an excessive amount of [[radio spectrum]]. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee<ref name=name>National Television System Committee (1951–1953), [Report and Reports of Panel No. 11, 11-A, 12–19, with Some supplementary references cited in the Reports, and the Petition for adoption of transmission standards for color television before the Federal Communications Commission, n.p., 1953], 17 v. illus., diagrams., tables. 28 cm. LC Control No.:54021386 [http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&PAGE=First Library of Congress Online Catalog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318113401/http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&PAGE=First |date=March 18, 2011 }}</ref> approved an all-electronic [[Compatible color]] system developed by [[RCA]], which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The [[NTSC]] standard represented a major technical achievement.
[[File:SMPTE Color Bars.svg|thumb|left|Color bars used in a [[test pattern]], sometimes used when no program material is available]]
Although all-electronic color was introduced in the U.S. in 1953,<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Jeremy G.|title=Television: Critical Methods and Applications |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rWFRLVyvY0C&q=color+television+December+17+1953&pg=PA290 |year=2006 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9781410614742 |page=290}}</ref> high prices and the scarcity of color programming greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 [[Tournament of Roses Parade]]) occurred on January 1, 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.
Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of [[General Electric|GE's]] relatively compact and lightweight [[Porta-Color]] set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets.
Color broadcasting in Europe was also not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s.
By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets, such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and by the early 1980s, black-and-white sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or use as [[video monitor]] screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s, even these areas switched to color sets.
==Digital television==
{{Main|Digital television}}
{{See also|Digital television transition}}
Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by [[analog television]]. Digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.disabled-world.com/artman/publish/digital-hdtv.shtml | title=HDTV Set Top Boxes and Digital TV Broadcast Information | access-date=28 June 2014 | archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191336/http://www.disabled%2Dworld.com/artman/publish/digital%2Dhdtv.shtml | archive-date=May 22, 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> It is an innovative service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s.<ref>Kruger, L. G. (2001). Digital Television: An Overview. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Publishers.</ref>
Digital TV's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It wasn't until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.benton.org/initiatives/obligations/charting_the_digital_broadcasting_future/sec1|title=The Origins and Future Prospects of Digital Television|access-date=December 11, 2015|date=December 23, 2008}}</ref>
In the mid-1980s Japanese consumer electronics firm [[Sony Corporation]] developed HDTV technology and the [[Sony HDVS|equipment to record at such resolution]], and the [[Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding|MUSE]] analog format proposed by [[NHK]], a Japanese broadcaster, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies. Sony's system produced images at 1125-line resolution (or in digital terms, 1875x1125, close to the resolution of Full HD video<ref>1125 divided by 3, and then multiplied by 5, due to the 5:3 aspect ratio, assuming square pixels</ref>) Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. Then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed.
In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.
The final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior. Interlaced scanning, which is used in televisions worldwide, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. Progressive scanning, which is the format used in computers, scans lines in sequences, from top to bottom. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offers a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then feasible, that is, 1080 lines per picture and 1920 pixels per line. William F. Schreiber, who was a director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cinemasource.com/articles/hist_politics_dtv.pdf|title=The history and politics of DTV|page=13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030322131735/http://www.cinemasource.com/articles/hist_politics_dtv.pdf|archive-date=March 22, 2003|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Digital television transition]] started in the late 2000s. All the governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by the 2010s. Initially the adoption rate was low. But soon, more and more households were converting to digital televisions. The transition was expected to be complete worldwide by the mid to late 2010s.
==Smart television==
{{Main|Smart TV}}
{{Distinguish|Streaming television|Internet Protocol television}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Samsung Smart TV 2012 (E-Series).jpg|thumb|An early Smart TV from 2012 running the discontinued Orsay platform]]
Advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart TVs. A smart television, sometimes referred to as ''connected TV'' or ''hybrid television'', is a television set with integrated Internet and [[Web 2.0]] features, and is an example of [[technological convergence]] between computers and television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional [[Broadcasting|broadcasting media]], these devices can also provide Internet TV, online [[interactive media]], [[over-the-top content]], as well as [[video on demand|on-demand]] [[streaming media]], and [[home network]]ing access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system, including [[Android OS|Android]] or a derivative of it, [[Tizen]], [[webOS]], [[Roku OS]], and [[SmartCast]].<ref name="businessinsider1">{{cite web|author=Steve Kovach | url=http://www.businessinsider.com/what-is-a-smart-tv-2010-12 |title=What Is A Smart TV? |publisher=Businessinsider.com |date=December 8, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Carmi Levy |url=https://www.thestar.com/business/media/article/876278--future-of-television-is-online-and-on-demand |title=Future of television is online and on-demand |work=Toronto Star |date=October 15, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Jeremy Toeman 41 |url=http://mashable.com/2010/10/20/connected-tv-content-not-apps/ |title=Why Connected TVs Will Be About the Content, Not the Apps |publisher=Mashable.com |date=October 20, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/10/24/internet-tv-and-the-death-of-cable-tv-really/ |title=Internet TV and The Death of Cable TV, really |publisher=Techcrunch.com |date=October 24, 2010 |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref>
Smart TV is not to be confused with [[Internet TV]], [[IPTV]] or with [[Web TV]]. [[Internet television]] refers to the receiving television content over internet instead of traditional systems (terrestrial, cable and satellite) (although internet itself is received by these methods). [[Internet Protocol television]] (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. [[Web television]] (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
A first patent was filed in 1994<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?FT=D&date=19960510&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_EP&CC=FR&NR=2726670A1&KC=A1&ND=3 |title=espacenet – Original document |publisher=Worldwide.espacenet.com |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref> (and extended the following year)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=US&NR=5905521A&KC=A&FT=D&ND=7&date=19990518&DB=EPODOC |title=espacenet – Bibliographic data |publisher=Worldwide.espacenet.com |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref> for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs.
Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/1/5/7497383/sony-new-smart-tv-run-android-tv-ces-2015|title=All of Sony's new smart TVs run on Android TV|author=Dieter Bohn|date=January 6, 2015|publisher=Vox Media|work=The Verge|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.techtimes.com/articles/24117/20150103/ces-2015-new-samsung-smart-tvs-will-be-powered-by-tizen-os.htm|title=CES 2015: New Samsung Smart TVs Will Be Powered by Tizen OS|work=Tech Times|access-date=December 11, 2015|date=January 3, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/lg-to-show-off-webos-2-0-smart-tv-at-ces-2015/|title=LG to show off webOS 2.0 smart TV at CES 2015|date=December 18, 2014|publisher=CBS Interactive|work=CNET|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref>
==3D television==
{{Main|3D television}}
Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on August 10, 1928, by [[John Logie Baird]] in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bairdtelevision.com/stereo.html |title=How Stereoscopic Television is Shown |publisher=Baird Television website|access-date=18 September 2010<!--DASHBot-->}}</ref> Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electro-mechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D TVs.
Although 3D TV sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads among the public. Many 3D television channels that started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s.{{citation needed|date=August 2016}}
==Terrestrial television==<!-- This section is linked from [[Television]] -->
{{Main|Terrestrial television}}
{{See also|Timeline of the introduction of television in countries}}
=== Overview ===
Programming is [[broadcast]] by [[television station]]s, sometimes called "channels", as stations are [[Frequency allocation|licensed]] by their governments to broadcast only over assigned [[Channel (broadcasting)|channels]] in the television [[band (radio)|band]]. At first, [[Terrestrial television|terrestrial broadcasting]] was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because [[Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of [[Television channel|channels]] available, government regulation was the norm.
=== Canada ===
The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC) adopted the American NTSC 525-line B/W 60 field per second system as its broadcast standard. It began television broadcasting in Canada in September 1952. The first broadcast was on September 6, 1952, from its [[Montreal]] station [[CBFT]]. The premiere broadcast was bilingual, spoken in English and French. Two days later, on September 8, 1952, the [[Toronto]] station [[CBLT]] went on the air. This became the English-speaking flagship station for the country, while CBFT became the French-language flagship after a second English-language station was licensed to CBC in Montreal later in the decade. The CBC's first privately owned affiliate television station, [[CICI-TV|CKSO]] in [[Sudbury, Ontario]], launched in October 1953 (at the time, all private stations were expected to affiliate with the CBC, a condition that was relaxed in 1960–61 when CTV, Canada's second national English-language network, was formed).
=== Czechoslovakia ===
[[File:Höritz Museum - Fernseher Tesla 40001A.jpg|thumb|The first mass-produced Czechoslovak TV-set Tesla 4001A (1953–57)]]
In former [[Czechoslovakia]] (now the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]) the first experimental [[television set]]s were produced in 1948. In the same year the first test television transmission was performed. Regular television broadcasts in [[Prague]] area started on May 1, 1953. Television service expanded in the following years as new studios were built in [[Ostrava]], [[Bratislava]], [[Brno]] and [[Košice]]. By 1961 more than a million citizens owned a television set. The second channel of the state-owned [[Czechoslovak Television]] started broadcasting in 1970.
Preparations for color transmissions in the PAL color system started in the second half of the 1960s. However, due to the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]] and the following [[Normalization (Czechoslovakia)|normalization]] period, the broadcaster was ultimately forced to adopt the SECAM color system used by the rest of the [[Eastern Bloc]]. Regular color transmissions eventually started in 1973, with television studios using PAL equipment and the output signal only being transcoded to SECAM at transmitter sites.
After the [[Velvet Revolution]], it was decided to switch to the PAL standard. The new [[OK3 (television)|OK3]] channel was launched by Czechoslovak Television in May 1990 and broadcast in the format from the very start. The remaining channels switched to PAL by July 1, 1992. Commercial television didn't start broadcasting until after the [[dissolution of Czechoslovakia]].
=== France ===
The first experiments in television broadcasting began in France in the 1930s, although the French did not immediately employ the new technology.
In November 1929, Bernard Natan established France's first television company, Télévision-[[John Logie Baird|Baird]]-Natan. On April 14, 1931, there took place the first transmission with a thirty-line standard by [[René Barthélemy]]. On December 6, 1931, [[Henri de France]] created the Compagnie Générale de Télévision (CGT). In December 1932, Barthélemy carried out an experimental program in black and white (definition: 60 lines) one hour per week, "''Paris Télévision''", which gradually became daily from early 1933.
The first official channel of French television appeared on February 13, 1935, the date of the official inauguration of television in France, which was broadcast in 60 lines from 8:15 to 8:30 pm. The program showed the actress Béatrice Bretty in the studio of Radio-PTT Vision at 103 rue de Grenelle in Paris. The broadcast had a range of {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}}. On November 10, [[George Mandel]], Minister of Posts, inaugurated the first broadcast in 180 lines from the transmitter of the [[Eiffel Tower]]. On the 18th, Susy Wincker, the first announcer since the previous June, carried out a demonstration for the press from 5:30 to 7:30 pm. Broadcasts became regular from January 4, 1937, from 11:00 to 11:30 am and 8:00 to 8:30 pm during the week, and from 5:30 to 7:30 pm on Sundays. In July 1938, a decree defined for three years a standard of [[455-line television system|455 lines]] VHF (whereas three standards were used for the experiments: 441 lines for Gramont, 450 lines for the Compagnie des Compteurs and 455 for Thomson). In 1939, there were about only 200 to 300 individual television sets, some of which were also available in a few public places.
With the entry of France into World War II the same year, broadcasts ceased and the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was sabotaged. On September 3, 1940, French television was seized by the German occupation forces. A technical agreement was signed by the Compagnie des Compteurs and [[Telefunken]], and a financing agreement for the resuming of the service is signed by German Ministry of Post and Radiodiffusion Nationale ([[Vichy France|Vichy]]'s radio). On May 7, 1943, at 3:00 evening broadcasts. The first broadcast of [[Fernsehsender Paris]] (Paris Télévision) was transmitted from rue Cognac-Jay. These regular broadcasts (5{{fraction|1|4}} hours a day) lasted until August 16, 1944. One thousand 441-line sets, most of which were installed in soldiers' hospitals, picked up the broadcasts. These German-controlled television broadcasts from the Eiffel Tower in Paris were able to be received on the south coast of England by [[Royal Air Force]] and BBC engineers,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/raf.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012204455/http://earlytelevision.org/raf.html |archive-date=October 12, 2011 |title=Early Electronic Television: R.A.F. Reception of German TV from Paris |website=earlytelevision.org |access-date=April 23, 2013}}</ref> who photographed the station identification image direct from the screen.
In 1944, René Barthélemy developed an [[819-line]] television standard. During the years of occupation, Barthélemy reached 1015 and even 1042 lines. On October 1, 1944, television service resumed after the [[liberation of Paris]]. The broadcasts were transmitted from the Cognacq-Jay studios. In October 1945, after repairs, the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was back in service. On November 20, 1948, [[François Mitterrand]] decreed a broadcast standard of 819 lines; broadcasting began at the end of 1949 in this definition. Besides France, this standard was later adopted by Algeria, Monaco, and Morocco. Belgium and Luxembourg used a modified version of this standard with bandwidth narrowed to 7 MHz.<ref name="britbroadcasttrans">{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jKjoU8bokw0C&q=819+lines+television+france+belgium+denmark&pg=PA227|title = British Broadcasting in Transition|author = Burton Paulu |isbn = 9781452909554|year = 1961| publisher=U of Minnesota Press }}</ref>
Development of color coding standard [[SECAM]] began in 1956, by a team led by [[Henri de France]] working at ''Compagnie Française de Télévision''; NTSC was considered undesirable in Europe because of its tint problem, requiring an additional [[tint control|control]], which SECAM, and later PAL, solved. Some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers.<ref>Crane, R. J. (1979). The Politics of International Standards: France and the Color TV War, Ablex Publishing Corporation.</ref> However, incompatibility had started with the earlier unusual decision to adopt positive [[video modulation]] for 819-line French broadcast signals (only the UK's [[405-line]] was similar; widely adopted [[525 lines|525-]] and [[625-line]] systems used negative video). Nonetheless, SECAM was partly developed for reasons of national pride. Henri de France's personal [[charisma]] and ambition may have been a contributing factor; PAL was developed by [[Telefunken]], a German company.
The first proposed system was called '''SECAM I''' and tested in December 1961, followed by other studies to improve compatibility and image quality,<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/history-of-technology-volume-20-volume-twenty-1998/the-pal-secam-colour-television-controversy?from=search|title=Bloomsbury Collections – History of Technology – Volume Twenty, 1998|website=bloomsburycollections.com}}</ref> but it was too soon for a wide introduction. A version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but never introduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.redsharknews.com/business/item/471-france-had-a-national-hd-tv-system-in-1949|title = France had a national HD TV system as far back as 1949}}</ref>
=== Germany ===
Electromechanical broadcasts began in Germany in 1929, but were without sound until 1934. Network electronic service started on March 22, 1935, on [[180 lines]] using [[telecine]] transmission of film, [[intermediate film system]], or cameras using the Nipkow Disk. Transmissions using cameras based on the [[iconoscope]] began on January 15, 1936. The Berlin [[1936 Summer Olympics|Summer Olympic Games]] were televised, using both all-electronic iconoscope-based cameras and intermediate film cameras, to Berlin and [[Hamburg]] in August 1936. Twenty-eight public television rooms were opened for anybody who did not own a television set. The Germans had a 441-line system on the air in February 1937, and during [[World War II]] brought it to France, where they broadcast from the Eiffel Tower.
After the end of World War II, the victorious Allies imposed a general ban on all radio and television broadcasting in Germany. Radio broadcasts for information purposes were soon permitted again, but television broadcasting was allowed to resume only in 1948.
In East Germany, the head of broadcasting in the Soviet occupation zone, Hans Mahler, predicted in 1948 that in the near future 'a new and important technical step forward in the field of broadcasting in Germany will begin its triumphant march: television.' In 1950, the plans for a nationwide television service got off the ground, and a Television Centre in Berlin was approved. Transmissions began on December 21, 1952, using the 625-line standard developed in the Soviet Union in 1944, although at that time there were probably no more than 75 television receivers capable of receiving the programming.<ref>[http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/socialsciences/screening-socialism/television-histories/tvinthegdr/ "TV in the GDR"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116014955/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/socialsciences/screening-socialism/television-histories/tvinthegdr/ |date=November 16, 2016 }}, ''Loughborough University''</ref><ref>[http://www.dra.de/online/hinweisdienste/kurzinformationen/70jahre-fs.pdf "Fernsehen aus Adlershof"], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060629013619/http://www.dra.de/online/hinweisdienste/kurzinformationen/70jahre-fs.pdf |date=June 29, 2006}}, ''Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv Babelsberg''</ref>
In West Germany, the British occupation forces as well as [[NWDR]] (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), which had started work in the British zone straight after the war, agreed to the launch of a television station. Even before this, German television specialists had agreed on 625 lines as the future standard.<ref>[https://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/dossiers_1_04_eurovision50_ve_tcm6-13890.pdf "50 years of Eurovision"], {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050129162217/https://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/dossiers_1_04_eurovision50_ve_tcm6-13890.pdf |date=January 29, 2005 }}, ''EBU'', January, 2004.</ref> This standard had narrower channel bandwidth (7 MHz) compared to the Soviet specification (8 MHz), allowing three television channels to fit into the [[VHF I]] band. In 1963 a second broadcaster ([[ZDF]]) started. Commercial stations began programming in the 1980s.
When color was introduced, West Germany (1967) chose a variant of the [[NTSC]] color system, modified by [[Walter Bruch]] and called [[PAL]]. East Germany (1969) accepted the French [[SECAM]] system, which was used in Eastern European countries. With the reunification of Germany, it was decided to switch to the PAL color system. The system was changed in December 1990.
=== Italy ===
In Italy, the first experimental tests on television broadcasts were made in [[Turin]] since 1934. The city already hosted the Center for Management of the [[EIAR]] (lately renamed as [[RAI]]) at the premises of the Theatre of Turin. Subsequently, the EAIR established offices in [[Rome]] and [[Milan]].
On July 22, 1939, comes into operation in Rome the first television transmitter at the EIAR station, which performed a regular broadcast for about a year using a 441-line system that was developed in Germany. In September of the same year, a second television transmitter was installed in Milan, making experimental broadcasts during major events in the city.
The broadcasts were suddenly ended on May 31, 1940, by order of the government, allegedly because of interferences encountered in the first air navigation systems. Also, the imminent participation in the war is believed to have played a role in this decision. EIAR transmitting equipment was relocated to Germany by the German troops. Lately, it was returned to Italy.
The first official television broadcast began on January 3, 1954, by the RAI.
=== Japan ===
[[File:TestBroadcast-NHK STRL-1939.png|thumb|First television test broadcast transmitted by the NHK Broadcasting Technology Research Institute in May 1939]]
Television broadcasting in Japan started on May 13, 1939,<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p07/column/index1.html |title="Can you see me clearly?" Public TV image reception experiment (1939) |publisher=NHK |date=1939-05-13 |access-date=2012-11-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130101044401/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p07/column/index1.html |archive-date=January 1, 2013 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> making the country one of the first in the world with an experimental television service. The broadcasts were in [[441-line television system|441-lines]] with 25 frames/second and 4.5 MHz video bandwidth.<ref name=":0" /> The first television tests were conducted as early as 1926 using a combined mechanical [[Nipkow disk]] and electronic [[Braun tube]] system, later switching to an all-electronic system in 1935 using a domestically developed [[iconoscope]] system.<ref>[http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/index.html Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020604084708/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/index.html |date=June 4, 2002 }}. Retrieved 2012-11-01.</ref> In spite of that, because of the beginning of [[World War II in the Pacific]] region, this first full-fledged TV broadcast experimentation lasted only a few months. Regular television broadcasts would eventually start in 1953.
In 1979, NHK first developed a consumer high-definition television with a 5:3 display aspect ratio.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,132289-c,hdtv/article.html|title=Researchers Craft HDTV's Successor|date=May 28, 2007|access-date=July 31, 2011|archive-date=April 30, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430214045/http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,132289-c,hdtv/article.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The system, known as Hi-Vision or MUSE after its [[Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding]] for encoding the signal, required about twice the bandwidth of the existing NTSC system but provided about four times the resolution (1080i/1125 lines). Satellite test broadcasts started in 1989, with regular testing starting in 1991 and regular broadcasting of [[Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)|BS]]-9ch commenced on November 25, 1994, which featured commercial and NHK [[television program]]ming.
[[Sony]] first demonstrated a wideband [[analog high-definition television system]] [[HDTV]] capable video camera, monitor and [[video tape recorder]] (VTR) in April 1981 at an international meeting of television engineers in [[Algiers]]. The [[Sony HDVS]] range was launched in April 1984, with the HDC-100 camera, HDV-100 video recorder and HDS-100 [[video switcher]] all working in the 1125-line [[component video]] format with [[interlaced video]] and a 5:3 aspect ratio.
=== Mexico ===
The first testing television station in Mexico signed on in 1935. When [[KFMB-TV]] in [[San Diego]] signed on in 1949, [[Baja California]] became the first state to receive a commercial television station over the air. Within a year, the Mexican government would adopt the U.S. NTSC 525-line B/W 60-field-per-second system as the country's broadcast standard. In 1950, the first commercial television station within Mexico, [[XHTV]] in Mexico City, signed on the air, followed by [[XEW-TV]] in 1951 and [[XHGC]] in 1952. Those three were not only the first television stations in the country, but also the flagship stations of [[Telesistema Mexicano]], which was formed in 1955. That year, [[Emilio Azcárraga Vidaurreta]], who had signed on XEW-TV, entered into a partnership with [[Rómulo O'Farrill]] who had signed on XHTV, and [[Guillermo González Camarena]], who had signed on XHGC. The earliest [[3D television]] broadcasts in the world were broadcast over XHGC in 1954. Color television was introduced in 1962, also over XHGC-TV. One of Telesistema Mexicano's earliest broadcasts as a network, over XEW-TV, on June 25, 1955, was the first international North American broadcast in the medium's history, and was jointly aired with NBC in the United States, where it aired as the premiere episode of ''[[Wide Wide World]],'' and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Except for a brief period between 1969 and 1973, nearly every commercial television station in Mexico, with exceptions in the border cities, was expected to affiliate with a subnetwork of Telesistema Mexicano or its successor, [[Televisa]] (formed by the 1973 merger of Telesistema Mexicano and [[Television Independiente de Mexico]]). This condition would not be relaxed for good until 1993, when Imevision was privatized to become [[TV Azteca]].
=== Soviet Union (USSR) ===
{{Main|Television in the Soviet Union}}
The Soviet Union began offering 30-line electromechanical test broadcasts in Moscow on October 31, 1931, and a commercially manufactured television set in 1932.
First electronic television system on 180 lines at 25 fps was created in the beginning of 1935 in Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In September 1937 the experimental Leningrad TV Center (OLTC) was put in action. OLTC worked with 240 lines at 25 fps progressive scan.<ref name="Raspletin_100years_RussianTV">{{Cite web|url = http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=5850|title = Participation of A.Raspletin in developing and realization of black-and-white television standards|access-date = November 1, 2016|archive-date = November 3, 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161103220938/http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=5850|url-status = dead}}</ref>
In Moscow, experimental transmissions of electronic television took place on March 9, 1937, using equipment manufactured by [[RCA]]. Regular broadcasting began on December 31, 1938. It was quickly realized that 343 lines of resolution offered by this format would have become insufficient in the long run, thus a specification for 441-line format at 25 fps interlaced was developed in 1940.<ref name="Raspletin_100years_RussianTV"/>
Television broadcasts were suspended during [[Great Patriotic War]]. In 1944, while the war was still raging, a new standard, offering 625 lines of vertical resolution was prepared. This format was ultimately accepted as a national standard.<ref name="Raspletin_100years_RussianTV"/>
The transmissions in 625-line format started in Moscow on November 4, 1948. Regular broadcasting began on June 16, 1949. Details for this standard were formalized in 1955 specification called ''GOST 7845-55, basic parameters for black-and-white television broadcast''. In particular, frame size was set to 625 lines, frame rate to 25 frames/s interlaced, and video bandwidth to 6 MHz. These basic parameters were accepted by most countries having 50 Hz mains frequency and became the foundation of television systems presently known as PAL and SECAM.
Starting in 1951, broadcasting in the 625-line standard was introduced in other major cities of the Soviet Union.
Color television broadcast started in 1967, using SECAM color system.<ref name="60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625"/>
=== Turkey ===
The first Turkish [[television]] channel, [[ITU TV]], was launched in 1952. The first national television is [[TRT 1]] and was launched in 1964. [[Color television]] was introduced in 1981. Before 1989 there was the only channel, the state broadcasting company TRT, and it broadcast in several times of the dateline. [[Turkey]]'s first private television channel [[Star TV (Turkey)|Star]] started it broadcast on 26 May 1989. Until then there was only one television channel controlled by the state, but with the wave of liberalization, privately owned broadcasting began. Turkey's television market is defined by a handful of big channels, led by [[Kanal D]], [[ATV (Turkey)|ATV]] and [[Show TV|Show]], with 14%, 10% and 9.6% market share, respectively. The most important reception platforms are terrestrial and satellite, with almost 50% of homes using satellite (of these 15% were pay services) at the end of 2009. Three services dominate the multi-channel market: the satellite platforms [[Digitürk]] and [[D-Smart]] and the cable TV service [[Türksat (company)|Türksat]].
=== United Kingdom ===
The first British television broadcast was made by Baird Television's electromechanical system over the [[BBC]] radio transmitter in September 1929. Baird provided a limited amount of programming five days a week by 1930. During this time, Southampton earned the distinction of broadcasting the first-ever live television interview, which featured Peggy O'Neil, an actress and singer from [[Buffalo, New York]].<ref>[http://www.thehydraulics.com/the_hydraulics/2009/01/peggy-oneil-sang-her-way-from-the-hydraulics-to-stardom.html Hawley, Chris, "Peggy O'Neil sang her way from the Hydraulics to stardom"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212174623/http://www.thehydraulics.com/the_hydraulics/2009/01/peggy-oneil-sang-her-way-from-the-hydraulics-to-stardom.html |date=February 12, 2009 }}, ''The Hydraulics'' [blog], January 15, 2009.</ref> On August 22, 1932, BBC launched its own regular service using Baird's 30-line electromechanical system, continuing until September 11, 1935.
On November 2, 1936, [[First day of television programmes|the BBC began transmitting]] the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian [[Alexandra Palace]] in north London.{{sfn|Burns|1998|p=576}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Newcomb |first=Horace |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NUXIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA322 |title=Encyclopedia of Television |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-19472-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Television (or, How Did This Get So Big?) |url=https://www.cs.cornell.edu/~pjs54/Teaching/AutomaticLifestyle-S02/Projects/Vlku/history.html |access-date=2023-10-09 |website=www.cs.cornell.edu}}</ref> It therefore claims to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we know it today. It was a dual-system service, alternating between Marconi-EMI's [[405-line]] standard and Baird's improved 240-line standard, from [[Alexandra Palace]] in London. The [[BBC Television]] Service continues to this day.
The government, on advice from a special advisory committee, decided that Marconi-EMI's electronic system gave the superior picture, and the Baird system was dropped in February 1937. TV broadcasts in London were on the air an average of four hours daily from 1936 to 1939. There were 12,000 to 15,000 receivers. Some sets in restaurants or bars might have 100 viewers for sport events (Dunlap, p56). The outbreak of the Second World War caused the BBC service to be abruptly suspended on September 1, 1939, at 12:35 pm, after a Mickey Mouse cartoon and test signals were broadcast,<ref name=MickeyMouse>{{cite web|url=http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/baird/tvoff/index.htm |title=The edit that rewrote history – Baird |access-date=28 May 2007 |publisher=Transdiffusion Broadcasting System |date=31 October 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060125014953/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/baird/tvoff/index.htm |archive-date=January 25, 2006 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> so that transmissions could not be used as a beacon to guide enemy aircraft to London.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} It resumed, again from Alexandra Palace on June 7, 1946, after the end of the war, began with a live programme that opened with the line "Good afternoon everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh?" and was followed by the same Mickey Mouse cartoon broadcast on the last day before the war.<ref name=MickeyMouse /> At the end of 1947 there were 54,000 licensed television receivers, compared with 44,000 television sets in the United States at that time.<ref name=Shagawat/>
The first transatlantic television signal was sent in 1928 from London to New York<ref>{{cite news|title=Human Faces Sent By Radio 3000 Miles Across The Sea|newspaper=[[Evening Independent]]|agency=Associated Press|date=February 9, 1928|access-date=July 15, 2011|page=1|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ss5PAAAAIBAJ&pg=4703,3386956}}</ref> by the Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television, although this signal was not broadcast to the public. The first live satellite signal to Britain from the United States was broadcast via the [[Telstar]] satellite on July 23, 1962.
The first live broadcast from the European continent was made on August 27, 1950.
=== United States ===
<!-- "Paramount Television Network" links to History of television#United States -->
{{see also|Television in the United States}}
[[File:WNBT first TV schedule.jpg|thumb|WNBT (later [[WNBC]]) schedule for first week of commercial TV programming in the United States, July 1941]]
[[WRGB]] claims to be the world's oldest [[television station]], tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the [[General Electric]] factory in [[Schenectady, NY]], under the call letters '''W2XB'''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iuIDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA177|title=Popular Mechanics|first=Hearst|last=Magazines|date=August 19, 1930|publisher=Hearst Magazines|via=Google Books}}</ref> It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters [[W2XBS]] and which today is known as [[WNBC]]. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a [[Felix the Cat]] doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers.
The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States began on July 2, 1928, fifteen months before the United Kingdom. The [[Federal Radio Commission]] authorized [[Charles Francis Jenkins|C. F. Jenkins]] to broadcast from experimental station W3XK in Wheaton, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} For at least the first eighteen months, 48-line silhouette images from motion picture film were broadcast, although beginning in the summer of 1929 he occasionally broadcast in halftones.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wd4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA820 |title=What Television Offers You |journal=[[Popular Mechanics]] |date=November 1928 |page=823}}</ref><ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=xt4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA472 The Latest in Television]", ''Popular Mechanics'', September 1929, p. 472.</ref>
[[Hugo Gernsback]]'s New York City radio station began a regular, if limited, schedule of [[live television]] broadcasts on August 14, 1928, using 48-line images. Working with only one transmitter, the station alternated radio broadcasts with silent television images of the station's [[call sign]], faces in motion, and wind-up toys in motion.<ref>"WRNY to Start Daily Television Broadcasts; Radio Audience Will See Studio Artist", ''The New York Times'', August 13, 1928, p. 13.</ref><ref>"WRNY Has Extended Television Schedule", ''The New York Times'', September 30, 1928, p. 155.</ref> Speaking later that month, Gernsback downplayed the broadcasts, intended for amateur experimenters. "In six months we may have television for the public, but so far we have not got it."<ref>"Television Drama Shown With Music", ''The New York Times'', August 22, 1928, p. 1.</ref> Gernsback also published ''Television'', the world's first magazine about the medium.
[[General Electric]]'s experimental station in [[Schenectady, New York]], on the air sporadically since January 13, 1928, was able to broadcast reflected-light, 48-line images via [[shortwave]] as far as [[Los Angeles]], and by September was making four television broadcasts weekly. It is considered to be the direct predecessor of current television station [[WRGB]]. ''The Queen's Messenger'', a one-act play broadcast on September 11, 1928, was the world's first live drama on television.<ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/queens_messenger.html The Queen's Messenger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529072130/http://www.earlytelevision.org/queens_messenger.html |date=May 29, 2009 }}, Early Television Museum.</ref>
Radio giant [[RCA]] began daily experimental television broadcasts in New York City in March 1929 over station [[W2XBS]], the predecessor of current television station [[WNBC]]. The 60-line transmissions consisted of pictures, signs, and views of persons and objects.<ref>"Television Placed on Daily Schedule", ''The New York Times'', March 22, 1929, p. 30.</ref> Experimental broadcasts continued to 1931.<ref>"Six Visual Stations on the New York Air", ''The New York Times'', July 19, 1931, p. XX13.</ref>
[[General Broadcasting System]]'s [[WINS (AM)|WGBS]] radio and [[W2XCR]] television aired their regular broadcasting debut in New York City on April 26, 1931, with a special demonstration set up in Aeolian Hall at Fifth Avenue and Fifty-fourth Street. Thousands waited to catch a glimpse of the Broadway stars who appeared on the six-inch (15 cm) square image, in an evening event to publicize a weekday programming schedule offering films and live entertainers during the four-hour daily broadcasts. Appearing were boxer [[Primo Carnera]], actors [[Gertrude Lawrence]], [[Louis Calhern]], [[Frances Upton]] and [[Lionel Atwill]], WHN announcer [[Nils Granlund]], the [[Forman Sisters]], and a host of others.<ref>"Radio Talkies Put On Program Basis", ''The New York Times'', April 27, 1931, p. 26.</ref>
[[CBS]]'s New York City station W2XAB began broadcasting their first regular seven-day-a-week television schedule on July 21, 1931, with a 60-line electromechanical system. The first broadcast included Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]], the [[Boswell Sisters]], [[Kate Smith]], and [[George Gershwin]]. The service ended in February 1933.{{efn|CBS considers it to be an ancestor of [[WCBS-TV]], which first went on the air on July 1, 1941 as one of the first two commercially licensed television stations in the country (the other being the National Broadcasting Company's WNBC).}} [[Don Lee (broadcaster)|Don Lee Broadcasting]]'s station W6XAO in Los Angeles went on the air in December 1931. Using the [[UHF]] spectrum, it broadcast a regular schedule of filmed images every day except Sundays and holidays for several years.{{efn|W6XAO later moved to VHF Channel 1 before World War II, and to Channel 2 in the post-war television realignment. It was commercially licensed in 1947 as KTSL and is the direct ancestor of current station [[KCBS-TV]].}}
By 1935, low-definition electromechanical television broadcasting had ceased in the United States except for a handful of stations run by public universities that continued to 1939. The [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) saw television in the continual flux of development with no consistent technical standards, hence all such stations in the U.S. were granted only experimental and [[non-commercial]] licenses, hampering television's economic development. Just as importantly, Philo Farnsworth's August 1934 demonstration of an all-electronic system at the [[Franklin Institute]] in Philadelphia pointed out the direction of television's future.
On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a one-month-long demonstration of high definition (240+ line) television in Los Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL, now [[KCBS-TV]]) with a 300-line image from motion picture film. By October, W6XAO was making daily television broadcasts of films. By 1934 [[RCA]] increased the definition to 343 interlaced lines and the frame rate to 30 per second.<ref name="Magoun_65">Alexander B. Magoun, ''Television: The Life Story of a Technology''. Greenwood, p. 65. {{ISBN|978-0313331282}}.</ref> On July 7, 1936, RCA and its subsidiary [[NBC]] demonstrated in New York City a [[343-line television system|343-line]] electronic television broadcast with live and film segments to its licensees, and made its first public demonstration to the press on November 6. Irregularly scheduled broadcasts continued through 1937 and 1938.<ref>"[http://www.earlytelevision.org/where_is_television.html Where Is Television Now?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913065455/http://www.earlytelevision.org/where_is_television.html |date=September 13, 2008 }}", ''Popular Mechanics'', August 1938, p. 178.</ref> Regularly scheduled electronic broadcasts began in April 1938 in New York (to the second week of June, and resuming in August) and Los Angeles.<ref>"Telecasts Here and Abroad", ''The New York Times'', Drama-Screen-Radio section, April 24, 1938, p.10.</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070901194251/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,849042,00.html "Early Birds"], ''Time'', June 13, 1938.</ref><ref>"Telecasts to Be Resumed", ''The New York Times'', Drama-Screen-Radio section, Aug. 21, 1938, p. 10.</ref><ref>Robert L. Pickering, [http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/donlee.html "Eight Years of Television in California"] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130415215134/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/donlee.html |date=April 15, 2013 }}, ''California — Magazine of the Pacific'', June 1939.</ref> NBC officially began regularly scheduled television broadcasts in New York on April 30, 1939, with a broadcast of the opening of the [[1939 New York World's Fair]].
In 1937 RCA raised the frame definition to 441 lines, and its executives petitioned the FCC for approval of the standard.<ref name="Magoun_65"/> By June 1939, regularly scheduled 441-line electronic television broadcasts were available in New York City and Los Angeles, and by November on General Electric's station in Schenectady. From May through December 1939, the New York City NBC station (W2XBS) of RCA broadcast twenty to fifty-eight hours of programming per month, Wednesday through Sunday of each week. The programming was 33% news, 29% drama, and 17% educational programming, with an estimated 2,000 receiving sets by the end of the year, and an estimated audience of five to eight thousand. A remote truck could cover outdoor events from up to {{convert|10|mi|km}} away from the transmitter, which was located atop the [[Empire State Building]]. Coaxial cable was used to cover events at [[Madison Square Garden]]. The coverage area for reliable reception was a radius of 40 to {{convert|50|mi|km}} from the Empire State Building, an area populated by more than 10,000,000 people.<ref>{{harvp|Lohr|1940}}</ref>
The FCC adopted [[NTSC]] television engineering standards on May 2, 1941, calling for 525 lines of vertical resolution, 30 frames per second with [[interlaced scanning]], 60 fields per second, and sound carried by [[frequency modulation]]. Sets sold since 1939 that were built for slightly lower resolution could still be adjusted to receive the new standard. (Dunlap, p31). The FCC saw television ready for commercial licensing, and the first such licenses were issued to NBC- and CBS-owned stations in New York on July 1, 1941, followed by [[Philco]]'s station [[KYW-TV|WPTZ]] in [[Philadelphia]].
In the U.S., the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a [[television license]] fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] (BBC), which had public service as part of its [[royal charter]].
The first official, paid advertising to appear on American commercial television occurred on the afternoon of July 1, 1941, over New York station WNBT (now [[WNBC]]) before a baseball game between the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] and [[Philadelphia Phillies]]. The announcement for [[Bulova]] watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute.<ref>"Imagery For Profit" R. W. Stewart, The New York Times, July 6, 1941.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg |title=WNBT/Bulova test pattern |access-date=August 7, 2011 |archive-date=October 9, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009135015/http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg |url-status=live }}</ref>
After the U.S. entry into World War II, the FCC reduced the required minimum air time for commercial television stations from 15 hours per week to 4 hours. Most TV stations suspended broadcasting; of the ten original television stations only six continued through the war.<ref name="ReferenceA">p.78 ''Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States'' Routledge, 1998</ref> On the few that remained, programs included entertainment such as boxing and plays, events at Madison Square Garden, and illustrated war news as well as training for air raid wardens and first aid providers. In 1942, there were 5,000 sets in operation, but production of new TVs, radios, and other broadcasting equipment for civilian purposes was suspended from April 1942 to August 1945 (Dunlap).
[[File:The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis - Philco Predicta television.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Philco]] [[Predicta]], 1958. In the collection of [[The Children's Museum of Indianapolis]]]]
By 1947, when there were 40 million radios in the U.S., there were about 44,000 television sets (with probably 30,000 in the New York area).<ref name=Shagawat>{{cite web|last=Shagawat|first=Robert|title=Television recording – The origins and earliest surviving live TV broadcast recordings|url=http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_recordings_the_origins.html|work=Early Electronic Television|publisher=Early Television Museum|access-date=April 20, 2011}}</ref> Regular [[network television]] broadcasts began on [[NBC]] on a three-station network linking New York with the Capital District and Philadelphia in 1944; on the [[DuMont Television Network]] in 1946, and on [[CBS]] and [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] in 1948.
Following the rapid rise of television after the war, the Federal Communications Commission was flooded with applications for television station licenses. With more applications than available television channels, the FCC ordered a freeze on processing station applications in 1948 that remained in effect until April 14, 1952.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
By 1949, the networks stretched from New York to the [[Mississippi River]], and by 1951 to the West Coast. Commercial [[color television]] broadcasts began on CBS in 1951 with a [[field-sequential color system]] that was suspended four months later for technical and economic reasons. The television industry's [[National Television System Committee]] (NTSC) developed a color television system based on RCA technology that was compatible with existing black and white receivers, and commercial color broadcasts reappeared in 1953.
With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.<ref>[http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/cea-study-says-seven-percent-of-tv-households-use-antennas-/220585 "CEA Study Says Seven Percent of TV Households Use Antennas"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217104116/http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/cea-study-says-seven-percent-of-tv-households-use-antennas-/220585 |date=December 17, 2014 }}, ''TVTechnology'', 30 July 2013</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/nielsen-broadcast-reliance-grew-in--/217217 |title=Nielsen: Broadcast Reliance Grew in 2012 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218160139/http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/nielsen-broadcast-reliance-grew-in--/217217 |archivedate=December 18, 2014 |work=TVTechnology |date=14 January 2013}}</ref> A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to a switchover to [[digital terrestrial television]] broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for [[cord cutters]].
==Cable television==
{{Main|Cable television}} {{See also|Cable television by region}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2014}}
Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for "community access television" or "community antenna television", from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.
Early cable television was analog, but since the 2000s all cable operators have switched to, or are in the process of switching to, digital cable television.
==Satellite television==
{{Main|Satellite television}}
===Overview===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Satellite television system Ekran - a post stamp.jpg|thumb|right|The Ekran satellite television broadcast system (post stamp, 1981)]] -->
'''Satellite television''' is a system of supplying [[television programming]] using [[broadcast]] signals relayed from [[communication satellite]]s. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a [[satellite dish]] and a [[low-noise block downconverter]] (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired [[television programme]] for viewing on a [[television set]]. Receivers can be external [[set-top box]]es, or a built-in [[television tuner]]. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without [[terrestrial television]] or [[cable television]].
The most common method of reception is [[direct-broadcast satellite television]] (DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH).<ref name="tr101198">{{Cite report|author=Antipolis, Sophia|date=September 1997|title=Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Implementation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation in DVB satellite transmission systems|url=http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/101100_101199/101198/01.01.01_60/tr_101198v010101p.pdf|publisher=[[European Telecommunications Standards Institute]]|pages=1–7|docket=TR 101 198|access-date=20 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302190812/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/101100_101199/101198/01.01.01_60/tr_101198v010101p.pdf|archive-date=2 March 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a [[direct broadcast satellite]] on the [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub>]] wavelength and are completely digital.<ref name=m101>{{cite journal|title=Frequency letter bands|url=http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/letterbands.cfm|website=Microwaves101.com|date=25 April 2008|access-date=December 24, 2014|archive-date=July 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714171156/http://www.microwaves101.com/ENCYCLOPEDIA/letterbands.cfm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as [[television receive-only]]. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the [[C band (IEEE)|C-band]] spectrum from [[Fixed Service Satellite|FSS]] type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems, and were more expensive and less popular.<ref name=fcc>{{cite web|title=Installing Consumer-Owned Antennas and Satellite Dishes|url=http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/consumerdish.html|publisher=FCC|access-date=2008-11-21}}</ref>
The [[direct-broadcast satellite television]] signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. [[Digital signal (broadcasting)|Digital signals]] may include [[high-definition television]] (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are [[free-to-air]] or [[free-to-view]], while many other channels are [[pay television]] requiring a subscription.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Campbell|first1=Dennis|last2=Cotter|first2=Susan|year=1998|title=Copyright Infringement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kRJCwqzE3iwC&q=satellite+tv+free+to+air+free+to+view+must+pay&pg=PA161|publisher=Kluwer Law International|isbn=978-90-247-3002-5|access-date=18 September 2014}}</ref>
In 1945 British [[science fiction]] writer [[Arthur C. Clarke]] proposed a worldwide communications system that would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.clarkefoundation.org/archives/1996.php |title=The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation |access-date=2014-12-23 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725175706/http://www.clarkefoundation.org/archives/1996.php |archive-date=July 25, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Richard|last2=Martin|first2=Christopher R.|last3=Fabos|first3=Bettina|date=23 February 2011|title=Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WuqjReIZ4TcC&q=satellite+tv+1945+arthur+c.+clarke&pg=PA152|location=London, UK|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers]]|page=152|isbn=978-1457628313|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref> This was published in the October 1945 issue of the [[Wireless World]] magazine and won him the [[Franklin Institute]]'s [[Stuart Ballantine Medal]] in 1963.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lakdiva.org/clarke/1945ww|title=The 1945 Proposal by Arthur C. Clarke for Geostationary Satellite Communications|access-date=December 11, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=September 1995|title=Wireless technologies and the national information infrastructure.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2f8q2c0R5cC&q=arthur+c.+clarke+october+1945+wireless+world&pg=PA138|publisher=DIANE Publishing|page=138|isbn=978-0160481802|access-date=15 August 2014}}</ref>
The first satellite television signals from [[Europe]] to [[North America]] were relayed via the [[Telstar]] satellite over the [[Atlantic]] ocean on July 23, 1962.<ref name="histchannel">{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/news/the-birth-of-satellite-tv-50-years-ago|title=The Birth of Satellite TV, 50 Years Ago|last1=Klein|first1=Christopher|date=23 July 2012|website=History.com|publisher=History Channel|access-date=5 June 2014}}</ref> The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million.<ref name="histchannel"/> Launched in 1962, the ''[[Relay program|Relay 1]]'' satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan.<ref name="relay1">{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1962-068A|title=Relay 1|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA}}</ref> The first [[geosynchronous]] [[communication satellite]], [[Syncom 2]], was launched on July 26, 1963.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1963-031A|title=Syncom 2|last1=Darcey|first1=RJ|date=16 August 2013|website=NASA.gov|publisher=NASA|access-date=5 June 2014}}</ref>
The world's first commercial communications satellite, called [[Intelsat I]] and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intlsat1.htm|title=Encyclopedia Astronautica - Intelsat I|access-date=5 April 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116224556/http://astronautix.com/craft/intlsat1.htm|archive-date=January 16, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The first national [[television network|network]] of television satellites, called [[Orbita (TV system)|Orbita]], was created by the [[Soviet Union]] in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical [[Molniya (satellite)|Molniya]] satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television [[Signalling (telecommunication)|signal]]s to a network of twenty ground [[downlink]] stations each equipped with a parabolic antenna {{convert|12|m|order=flip}} in diameter.<ref>{{cite press release|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title=Soviet-bloc Research in Geophysics, Astronomy, and Space|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pyRx2ssMQ6MC|location=Springfield Virginia|publisher=U.S. Joint Publications Research Service|page=60|year=1970|issue=221–230|access-date=16 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="sovsathistory">{{cite web|url=http://statehistory.ru/3899/Istoriya-sozdaniya-sovetskogo-sputnikovogo-televeshchaniya/|title=История создания советского спутникового телевещания|access-date=3 January 2017}}</ref> The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was [[Canada]]'s geostationary [[Anik 1]], which was launched on 9 November 1972.<ref>{{cite news|last=Robertson|first=Lloyd|title=Anik A1 launching: bridging the gap | publisher = CBC English TV | date = 1972-11-09 | url = http://archives.cbc.ca/500f.asp?id=1-75-92-594 | access-date = 2007-01-25 }}</ref> [[ATS-6]], the world's first experimental educational and [[Direct Broadcast Satellite]] (DBS), was launched on May 30, 1974.<ref name="ats">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/missions/ats_prt.htm|title=NASA - ATS|last1=Ezell|first1=Linda N.|date=22 January 2010|website=Nasa.gov|publisher=[[NASA]]|access-date=1 July 2014|archive-date=April 6, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406164505/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/missions/ats_prt.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.<ref name="tvdx">Long Distance Television Reception (TV-DX) For the Enthusiast, Roger W. Bunney, {{ISBN|0900162716}}</ref>
In the Soviet Union, the Moskva (or [[Moscow]]) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites was launched in 1979. Stationary and mobile downlink stations with parabolic antennas {{convert|4|and|2.5|m|order=flip}}<ref name="gorizont">{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/gorizont.htm|title=Gorizont|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|first=Mark|last=Wade|access-date=2008-06-29|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617211454/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/gorizont.htm|archive-date=June 17, 2008|df=mdy-all}}</ref> in diameter were receiving signal from [[Gorizont]] communication satellites deployed to [[geostationary orbit]]s.<ref name="sovsathistory"/> The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry [[Direct-To-Home]] television, [[Ekran]] 1, was launched on October 26, 1976.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/ekran.htm|title=Ekran|year=2007|website=Astronautix.com|publisher=Astronautix|access-date=1 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112153322/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/ekran.htm|archive-date=November 12, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref> It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing [[UHF television broadcasting|UHF television technology]] rather than microwave technology.<ref name="Ekran">{{Cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/ekran.htm|title=Ekran (11F647)|website=space.skyrocket.de}}</ref>
===Beginning of the satellite TV industry===
In the United States, the satellite television industry developed from the [[cable television]] industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote [[cable television headend]]s. [[Home Box Office]] (HBO), [[Turner Broadcasting System]] (TBS), and [[Christian Broadcasting Network]] (CBN, later [[The Family Channel (US TV network)|The Family Channel]]) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. [[Taylor Howard]] of [[San Andreas, California|San Andreas]], [[California]] became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.<ref name="tayhoward">{{cite news|last=Feder|first=Barnaby J.|date=15 November 2002|title=Taylor Howard, 70, Pioneer In Satellite TV for the Home|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/15/business/taylor-howard-70-pioneer-in-satellite-tv-for-the-home.html|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=19 July 2014}}</ref> [[PBS]], a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978.<ref name="pbs78">Public Service Broadcasting in the Age of Globalization, Editors: Indrajit Banerjee, Kalinga Seneviratne. {{ISBN|9789814136013}}</ref> On October 18, 1979, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government license.<ref name="dms">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dmsiusa.com/glory-days.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303133328/http://dmsiusa.com/glory-days.html|url-status=dead|title=The "Glory Days" of Satellite|archive-date=March 3, 2014}}</ref> The front cover of the 1979 [[Neiman-Marcus]] Christmas catalogue featured the first home satellite TV stations on sale for $36,500.<ref name="uspopcult">{{cite book|last=Browne|first=Ray|year=2001|title=The Guide to United States Popular Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U3rJxPYT32MC&q=neiman+marcus+satellite+dish+1977&pg=PA706|location=[[Madison, Wisconsin]]|publisher=Popular Press|page=706|isbn=9780879728212|access-date=1 July 2014}}</ref> The dishes were nearly {{convert|20|ft|m}} in diameter<ref name="lat">{{cite news|last=Giarrusso|first=Michael|date=28 July 1996|title=Tiny Satellite Dishes Sprout in Rural Areas|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-07-28-mn-28792-story.html|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|location=[[Los Angeles]]|access-date=1 July 2014}}</ref> and were remote-controlled.<ref name="denverpost">{{cite news|last=Keating|first=Stephen|year=1999|title=Stealing Free TV, Part 2|url=http://extras.denverpost.com/business/cutt1101.htm|newspaper=[[The Denver Post]]|location=[[Denver, CO]]|publisher=The Denver Post|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref> The price went down by half soon after that, but there were only eight more channels.<ref name=Stein>{{cite news|title=Whatta dish : Home satellite reception a TV turn-on|last=Stein|first=Joe|work=[[Evening Tribune]]|date=1989-01-24|page=C-8}}</ref> The Society for Private and Commercial Earth Stations (SPACE), an organisation that represented consumers and satellite TV system owners was established in 1980.<ref>{{cite news|date=21 December 1980|title=Earth Station Is Very Popular Dish|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19801221&id=v_UhAAAAIBAJ&pg=3196,441027|newspaper=[[Reading Eagle]]|location=[[Kansas City, Missouri]]|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref>
Early satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish size.<ref name="baltsun"/> The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were {{convert|10|to|16|ft|m}} in diameter,<ref name="deseret"/> made of [[fibreglass]] or solid [[aluminum]] or [[steel]],<ref name="baylin">Ku-Band Satellite TV: Theory, Installation and Repair. Frank Baylin et al. {{ISBN|9780917893148}}</ref> and in the United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000.<ref name=Stecklow/> Programming sent from ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in [[geostationary orbit]] located {{convert|22,300|mi|km}} above the Earth.<ref name=Reibstein>{{cite news|title=Watching TV Via Satellite Is Their Dish|last=Reibstein|first=Larry|work=[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]|date=1981-09-27|page=E01}}</ref><ref name=Akron>{{cite news|title=Satellite TV Dishes Getting Good Reception|last=Dawidziak|first=Mark|work=[[Akron Beacon-Journal]]|date=1984-12-30|page=F-1}}</ref>
===TVRO/C-band satellite era===
{{Further|Television receive-only}}
By 1980, satellite television was well established in the [[Satellite television in the United States|US]] and Europe. On April 26, 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, [[Satellite Television Ltd]]. (later [[Sky1]]), was launched.<ref name=bbcable>{{cite web|url=http://tinypic.com/view.php?pic=2eedi1l&s=6 |title=Broadband Cable 10th Anniversary |publisher=TinyPic |access-date=5 May 2013}}</ref> Its signals were transmitted from the [[ESA]]'s [[Orbital Test Satellite]]s.<ref name=bbcable/> Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of Gallium Arsenide [[FET]] technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. 500,000 systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984.<ref name=Stecklow/><ref name="sbca"/> Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper.<ref name="wichita">{{cite news|title=Research Needed in Buying Dish: High Cost Is Important Consideration for Consumer|last=Stecklow|first=Steve|work=[[Wichita Eagle]]|agency=Knight-Ridder News Service|date=1984-10-25|page=6C}}</ref> People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees.<ref name=Stecklow>{{cite news|title=America's Favorite Dish|last=Stecklow|first=Steve|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|agency=[[Knight-Ridder News Service]]|date=1984-07-07|page=1C}}</ref><ref name=Akron/> The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them [[eyesore]]s, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal.<ref name="fcc"/> These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal.<ref name="baltsun">{{cite news|last=Brooks|first=Andree|date=10 October 1993|title=Old satellite dish restrictions under fire New laws urged for smaller models|url=http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-10-10/business/1993283244_1_community-association-satellite-dish-associations-institute|newspaper=[[The Baltimore Sun]]|location=[[Baltimore, MD]]|publisher=The Baltimore Sun|access-date=1 July 2014|archive-date=July 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714140527/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-10-10/business/1993283244_1_community-association-satellite-dish-associations-institute|url-status=dead}}</ref> A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use.<ref name="baltsun"/> The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.<ref name="baltsun"/>
Originally, all channels were broadcast in the clear (ITC) because the equipment necessary to receive the programming was too expensive for consumers. With the growing number of TVRO systems, the program providers and broadcasters had to [[television encryption|scramble]] their signal and develop subscription systems.
In October 1984, the [[U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984]], which gave those using TVRO systems the right to receive signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a reasonable fee.<ref name=Akron/><ref name=Chicago>{{cite news|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1987-05-22/entertainment/8702080056_1_satellite-dish-satellite-tv-week-dish-owners|title=Satellite TV Skies Brighten As War With Programmers Ends|last=Takiff|first=Jonathan|work=[[Chicago Tribune]]|agency=[[Knight-Ridder Newspapers]]|date=1987-05-22|access-date=2014-04-10}}</ref> Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition.<ref name=Turned>{{cite news|title=Direct-Broadcast TV Is Still Not Turned On|last=Wolf|first=Ron|work=The Philadelphia Inquirer|date=1985-01-20|page=C01}}</ref> In January 1986, [[HBO]] began using the now-obsolete [[VideoCipher]] II system to [[television encryption|encrypt their channels]].<ref name="deseret">{{cite news|last=Nye|first=Doug|date=14 January 1990|title=SATELLITE DISHES SURVIVE GREAT SCRAMBLE OF 1980S|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/81378/SATELLITE-DISHES-SURVIVE-GREAT-SCRAMBLE-OF-1980S.html?pg=all|newspaper=[[Deseret News]]|location=[[Salt Lake City]]|publisher=Deseret News|access-date=30 June 2014}}</ref> Other channels uses less secure [[television encryption]] systems. The scrambling of HBO was met with much protest from owners of big-dish systems, most of which had no other option at the time for receiving such channels, claiming that clear signals from cable channels would be difficult to receive.<ref name="philly"/> Eventually HBO allowed dish owners to subscribe directly to their service for $12.95 per month, a price equal to or higher than what cable subscribers were paying, and required a [[descrambler]] to be purchased for $395.<ref name="philly"/> This led to the [[broadcast signal intrusion|attack]] on HBO's transponder [[Galaxy 1]] by [[John R. MacDougall]] in April 1986.<ref name="philly">{{cite web|last1=Lyman|first1=Rick|last2=Borowski|first2=Neill|title=On The Trail Of 'Captain Midnight'|url=http://articles.philly.com/1986-04-29/news/26079191_1_satellite-transmissions-captain-midnight-satellite-industry-officials|publisher=Philly|date=April 29, 1986|access-date=May 20, 2014}}</ref> One by one, all commercial channels followed HBO's lead and began scrambling their channels.<ref name="prodpiracy"/> The [[Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association]] SBCA was founded on December 2, 1986, as the result of a merger between SPACE and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Association (DBSA).<ref name="sbca">{{cite web|url=http://www.sbca.com/receiver-network/history-satellite-providers.htm |title=Industry History |year=2014 |website=sbca.com |publisher=Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association |access-date=5 June 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219073604/http://www.sbca.com/receiver-network/history-satellite-providers.htm |archive-date=February 19, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
Videocipher II used analog scrambling on its video signal and [[Data Encryption Standard]] based encryption on its audio signal. VideoCipher II was defeated, and there was a [[black market]] for descrambler devices, which were initially sold as "test" devices.<ref name="prodpiracy">{{cite book|last=Paradise|first=Paul R.|date=1 January 1999|title=Trademark Counterfeiting, Product Piracy, and the Billion Dollar Threat to the U.S. Economy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ny0vvUpBzCYC&q=black+market+for+illegal+satellite+signal+descramblers&pg=PA147|location=[[Westport, Connecticut]]|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|page=147|isbn=978-1567202502|access-date=3 July 2014}}</ref>
=== Late 1980s and 1990s to present ===
[[File:Dishing out the truth.JPG|thumbnail|right|DBS satellite dishes]]
By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air.<ref name=Chicago/> While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year.<ref name=Chicago/> Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result.<ref name=Chicago/> Scrambling also led to the development of [[pay-per-view]] events.<ref name=Chicago/> On November 1, 1988, [[NBC]] began scrambling its C-band signal but left its [[Ku band|K<sub>u</sub> band]] signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising.<ref name=sfc/> Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band.<ref name=sfc/> [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and [[CBS]] were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local [[network affiliate]]s.<ref name=sfc>{{cite news|title=Scrambled NBC Bad News for Satellite Pirates|work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|agency=United Press International|date=1988-11-03|page=E3}}</ref> The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the [[Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992]]. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison.<ref name="cableact">{{cite act|title=Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992|number=1460|language=en|date=8 October 1992|article=STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf|url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-106/pdf/STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf|access-date=3 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140420094541/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-106/pdf/STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf|archive-date=20 April 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years.<ref name="cableact"/>
Satellite television had also developed in [[Satellite television by region#Europe|Europe]] but it initially used low power communication satellites and it required dish sizes of over {{convert|1.7|m|abbr=on}}. On December 11, 1988 [[Luxembourg]] launched [[Astra 1A]], the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe.<ref name="n2yo">{{cite web|url=http://www.n2yo.com/satellite/?s=19688|title=ASTRA 1A Satellite details 1988-109B NORAD 19688|publisher=N2YO|date=9 July 2014|access-date=12 July 2014}}</ref> This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in K<sub>u</sub> band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm).<ref name="n2yo"/> The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, [[British Satellite Broadcasting]], to the market.
In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched [[PrimeStar]], a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellite. The relatively strong transmissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the [[Hughes Communications|Hughes]] [[DirecTV]] and [[Dish Network]] satellite television systems.
On March 4, 1996, EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar 1 satellite.<ref name="ctu10e">{{cite book|last=Grant|first=August E.|title=Communication Technology Update|edition=10th|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|page=87|isbn=978-0-240-81475-9|year=2010}}</ref> EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of channels available on Dish Network to 170.<ref name="ctu10e"/> These systems provided better pictures and stereo sound on 150-200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to [[digital television]] transmission using the [[DigiCipher]] [[conditional access]] system.<ref name="insead">{{cite journal|last1=Bell-Jones |first1=Robin |last2=Berbner |first2=Jochen |last3=Chai |first3=Jianfeng |last4=Farstad |first4=Thomas |last5=Pham |first5=Minh |date=June 2001 |title=High Technology Strategy and Entrepreneurship |url=http://faculty.insead.edu/adner/projects/Set%20Top%20Boxes.pdf |journal=INSEAD Journal |location=[[Fontainebleau]] |publisher=INSEAD |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724233622/http://faculty.insead.edu/adner/projects/Set%20Top%20Boxes.pdf |archive-date=July 24, 2014 }}</ref>
In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of [[Direct broadcast satellite|DBS]] services such as [[PrimeStar]] and [[DirecTV]] had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early 1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent K<sub>u</sub> band) are higher in both frequency and power (due to improvements in the [[solar panel]]s and [[energy conversion efficiency|energy efficiency]] of modern satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the [[digital modulation]] methods now used require less [[signal strength]] at the receiver than analog modulation methods.<ref name="nctfe">Mirabito, M.,& Morgenstern, B. (2004). Satellites: Operations and Applications. The New Communication Technologies (fifth edition). Burlington: Focal Press.</ref> Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the K<sub>u</sub> band, but only 24 in the C band, and several [[digital subchannel]]s can be [[Multiplex (TV)|multiplex]]ed (MCPC) or carried separately ([[SCPC]]) on a single transponder.<ref name=artcn>{{cite book|last1=Khaplil|first1=Vidya R.|last2=Bhalachandra|first2=Anjali R.|date=April 2008|title=Advances in Recent Trends in Communication and Networks|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QchLipDixBUC&q=32+transponders+ku+band+24+c+band+multiplexed+satellite&pg=PA119|location=[[New Delhi]]|publisher=Allied Publishers|page=119|isbn=978-1466651708|access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref> Advances in [[noise reduction]] due to improved microwave technology and [[semiconductor]] materials have also had an effect.<ref name=artcn/> However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is [[rain fade]] where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.<ref name="dishcable">{{cite web|url=http://dish-cable.com/rain_fade.htm|title=Rain fade: satellite TV signal and adverse weather|year=2010|website=Dish-cable.com|access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref>
==Internet television==
{{Main|Internet television}}
{{Distinguish|Smart TV|Internet Protocol television}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2014}}
Internet television (Internet TV), (online television) or IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) is the [[digital distribution]] of [[television]] content via the [[Internet]] as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable and satellite, although internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters.
Internet television is not to be confused with [[Smart TV]], [[IPTV]] or with [[Web TV]]. [[Smart television]] refers to the TV set that has an inbuilt operating system. [[Internet Protocol television]] (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. [[Web television]] is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
==Television sets==
{{Main|Television set}}
A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing [[television]]. Introduced in the late 1920s in [[Mechanical television|mechanical]] form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using [[cathode ray tube]]s. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as [[VHS]] and later [[DVD]], as well as for early [[home computer]]s and [[videogame console]]s. At the beginning of the 2010s [[flat panel]] television incorporating liquid-crystal displays largely replaced [[cathode ray tube]]s. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of high-definition display (720p, 1080p or 2160p) and can also play content from a [[USB]] device.
[[File:RCA 630-TS Television.jpg|thumb|right|RCA 630-TS, the first mass-produced television set, which sold in 1946–1947]]
[[Mechanical television]]s were commercially sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom,<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/Baird%20TV-Early%20Years.htm Early British Television: Baird] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071221033609/http://www.tvhistory.tv/Baird%20TV-Early%20Years.htm |date=December 21, 2007 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> United States, and Soviet Union.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/pre-1935.htm Pre-1935] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080316063554/http://www.tvhistory.tv/pre-1935.htm |date=March 16, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years. The French model shown does not appear to have entered production.</ref> The earliest commercially made televisions sold by Baird called Televisors in the UK in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a [[neon]] tube behind a [[Nipkow disk|mechanically spinning disk]] (patented by German engineer [[Paul Nipkow]] in 1884) with a spiral of apertures first mass-produced television set, selling about a thousand units.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/PRE-1935-BAIRD.htm Pre-1935 Baird Sets: UK] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080403234342/http://www.tvhistory.tv/PRE-1935-BAIRD.htm |date=April 3, 2008 }}, that produced a red postage-stamp size image, enlarged to twice that size by a magnifying glass. The Televisor sold in 1930–1933 is considered the Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref>
The first commercially made electronic televisions with [[cathode ray tube]]s were manufactured by [[Telefunken]] in Germany in 1934,<ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/telefunken.html Telefunken] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101235418/http://earlytelevision.org/telefunken.html |date=January 1, 2017 }}, Early Electronic TV Gallery, Early Television Foundation.</ref><ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1934-35-Telefunken-FEIII.JPG 1934–35 Telefunken] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529173916/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1934-35-Telefunken-FEIII.JPG |date=May 29, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> followed by other makers in France (1936),<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936%20French%20TV.htm 1936 French Television] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501112437/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936%20French%20TV.htm |date=May 1, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> Britain (1936),<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936-Baird-T5.JPG 1936 Baird T5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529173922/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936-Baird-T5.JPG |date=May 29, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> and the United States (1938).<ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/communicating_systems.html Communicating Systems, Inc.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413043016/http://www.earlytelevision.org/communicating_systems.html |date=April 13, 2008 }}, Early Electronic TV Gallery, Early Television Foundation.</ref><ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1939%20Du%20Mont%20Brochure.htm America's First Electronic Television Set] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417195650/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1939%20Du%20Mont%20Brochure.htm |date=April 17, 2008 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 ({{Inflation|US|445|1938|fmt=eq}}).<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/tv-prices.htm American TV Prices] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123091422/http://www.tvhistory.tv/tv-prices.htm |date=November 23, 2016 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> An estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Sales_39-59.JPG Annual Television Sales in USA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327154908/http://tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Sales_39-59.JPG |date=March 27, 2016 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> before the [[War Production Board]] halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. Television usage in the western world skyrocketed after [[World War II]] with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the drop in television prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962.<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Households_50-78.JPG Number of TV Households in America] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807030757/http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Households_50-78.JPG |date=August 7, 2011 }}, Television History: The First 75 Years.</ref> In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} By the late 1960s and early 1970s, [[color television]] had come into wide use. In Britain, [[BBC1]], [[BBC2]] and [[ITV (TV channel)|ITV]] were regularly broadcasting in color by 1969.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
In The Early 2010s, CRT display technology was largely supplanted worldwide by flat-panel displays such as [[LCD TV|LCD]]. Flat-panel television, especially LCD, has become the dominant form of television since the early 2010s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=iG Economia - Notícias sobre a Bolsa, Finanças e Investimentos |url=https://economia.ig.com.br/ |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=Brasil Econômico |language=pt-BR}}</ref>
== Technological innovations ==
The first national [[live television]] broadcast in the U.S. took place on September 4, 1951, when President [[Harry Truman]]'s speech at the [[Japanese Peace Treaty Conference]] in [[San Francisco]] was transmitted over [[AT&T]]'s transcontinental [[coaxial cable|cable]] and [[microwave radio relay]] system to broadcast stations in local markets.<ref>"Truman to Be Televised In First National Hook-Up", ''The New York Times'', September 4, 1951, p. 2.</ref><ref>"Television Highlights", ''The Washington Post'', September 4, 1951, p. B13.</ref><ref>"Coast to Coast Television" (CBS advertisement), ''The Wall Street Journal'', September 4, 1951, p. 9.</ref>
The first live coast-to-coast commercial television broadcast in the U.S. took place on November 18, 1951, during the premiere of [[CBS]]'s ''[[See It Now]]'', which showed a split-screen view of the [[Brooklyn Bridge]] in New York City and the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] in San Francisco.
The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] held yearly from 1956 by the [[European Broadcasting Union]] was launched, among other goals, with the aim to make technical improvements in the field of simultaneous sharing of TV signals across main national European broadcasters, a technical challenge by that time. It is the longest-running annual international televised music competition.
In 1958, the [[CBC Television|CBC]] completed the longest television network in the world, from [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]] to [[Victoria, British Columbia]].
Reportedly, the first continuous live broadcast of a "breaking" news story in the world was conducted by the CBC during the [[Springhill mining disaster]], which began on October 23, 1958.
The development of [[cable television]] and [[satellite television]] in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged companies to target programming toward specific audiences. It also enabled the rise of [[subscription television]] channels, such as HBO and [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]] in the U.S., and [[British Sky Broadcasting|Sky Television]] in the U.K like ur mother did in 1948.
== Television pioneers ==
Important people in the development and contributions of TV technology.
{{div col}}
* [[Manfred von Ardenne]]
* [[John Logie Baird]]
* [[Alan Blumlein]]
* [[Walter Bruch]] (PAL television)
* [[Guillermo González Camarena]]
* [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]]
* [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]]
* [[Allen B. DuMont]]
* [[Philo Farnsworth]]
* [[Boris Grabovsky]]
* [[Charles Francis Jenkins]]
* Siegmund and David Loewe, founders of [[Loewe AG]] in 1923
* [[Earl Muntz]]
* [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow]]
* [[Constantin Perskyi]]
* [[Boris Rosing]]
* [[Ulises Armand Sanabria]]
* [[David Sarnoff]]
* [[Isaac Shoenberg]]
* [[Kenjiro Takayanagi]]
* [[Leon Theremin]]
* [[Kálmán Tihanyi]]
* [[Vladimir K. Zworykin]]
{{div col end}}
== Television museums ==
Museums focused on or exhibiting television history.
* [[Paley Center for Media]] ([[New York City, New York]], United States)
* [[Central Illinois' On-Line Broadcast Museum]]
* [[Early Television Museum]] ([[Hilliard, Ohio]], United States)
* [[Museum of Broadcast Communications]] ([[Chicago, Illinois]], United States)
* [[National Science and Media Museum]] ([[Bradford, West Yorkshire]], United Kingdom)
* [[National Museum of Australia]] ([[Acton, Australian Capital Territory]])
==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[The Interviews: An Oral History of Television]]
* [[BBC Archives]]
* [[Geographical usage of television]]
* [[Golden Age of Television]], c. 1949–1960 in the U.S.
* [[Golden Age of Television (2000s–present)]]
* [[History of broadcasting]]
* [[History of film]]
* [[History of journalism]]
* [[History of radio]]
* [[History of telecommunication]]
* [[History of theatre]]
* [[History of videotelephony]]
* [[History of YouTube]]
* [[List of experimental television stations]]
* [[List of years in television]]
** [[List of years in American television]]
* [[Muntzing]]
* [[Prewar television stations]]
* [[Television Hall of Fame]]
* [[Timeline of the introduction of color television in countries]]
* [[Timeline of the introduction of television in countries]]
{{div col end}}
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Abramson |first=Albert |title=The History of Television, 1880 to 1941 |date=1987 |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=McFarland & Co. |isbn=0-89950-284-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Abramson |first=Albert |title=The History of Television, 1942 to 2000 |date=2003 |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=McFarland & Co. |isbn=0-7864-1220-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Beyer |first=Rick |title=The Greatest Stories Never Told: 100 tales from history to astonish, bewilder, & stupefy |publisher=A&E Television Networks |date=2003 |isbn=0-06-001401-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Burns |first=R. W. |title=Television: An International History of the Formative Years |url={{GBurl|id=gZcwhVyiMqsC}} |date=1998 |series=IEE History of Technology Series |volume=22 |location=London |publisher=[[Institution of Electrical Engineers]] |isbn=0-85296-914-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Inventors and Inventions |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-7763-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Dunlap |first=Orrin E. |title=The Future of Television. New York and London: Harper Brothers |date=1942}}
* {{cite book |last=Everson |first=George |date=1949 |title=The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth |location=New York |publisher=W. W. Norton & Co. |isbn=978-0-405-06042-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fisher |first1=David E. |first2=Marshall Jon |last2=Fisher |title=Tube: the Invention of Television |date=1996 |location=Washington |publisher=Counterpoint |isbn=1-887178-17-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Hart |first=Jeffrey A. |authorlink=Jeffrey A. Hart |url=http://inethub.olvi.net.ua/ftp/library/somelibrary/techno/hart%20j.a.%20-%20technology,%20television%20and%20competition%5Bc%5D%20the%20politics%20of%20digital%20tv%20(2004)(en).pdf |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120515012604/http://inethub.olvi.net.ua/ftp/library/somelibrary/techno/hart%20j.a.%20-%20technology,%20television%20and%20competition%5Bc%5D%20the%20politics%20of%20digital%20tv%20(2004)(en).pdf |archivedate=2012-05-15 |title=Television, technology, and competition: HDTV and digital TV in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |isbn=0-521-82624-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Huurdeman |first=Anton A. |title=The Worldwide History of Telecommunications |publisher=Wiley-IEEE |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-471-20505-0 |url={{GBurl|SnjGRDVIUL4C}}}}
* [[Charles Francis Jenkins|Jenkins, C. F.]] (1925). ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73845 Vision by radio, radio photographs, radio photograms]''. Washington, D.C.: National Capitol Press.
* {{cite book |last=Lohr |first=Lenox |authorlink=Lenox R. Lohr |title=Television Broadcasting |location=New York |publisher=McGraw Hill |date=1940}}
* {{cite book |last=Meyrowitz |first=Joshua |date=1985 |title=No Sense of Place |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shiers |first1=George |last2=Shiers |first2=May |date=1997 |title=Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940 |publisher=Garland Publishing Inc. |series=Garland Reference Library of Social Science |isbn=978-0-8240-7782-2 |url={{GBurl|OlXsZdT8HUQC}}}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.broadcastbeat.com/index.php/nab-started/ NAB: How It All Got Started] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310212557/http://www.broadcastbeat.com/index.php/nab-started/ |date=March 10, 2014 }}
* [http://www.bairdtelevision.com Bairdtelevision.com]
* [http://www.hawestv.com Mechanical TV and Illusion Generators] including a [http://www.hawestv.com/mtv_exp/mtv_exp.htm description of what mechanical TV viewing was like]
* [http://euscreen.eu/exhibitions.html?id=history History of European Television] – online exhibition
* [http://journal.euscreen.eu Journal of European Television History and Culture]
* [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090315202555/http://inventors.about.com/od/tstartinventions/a/Television.htm Television history — inventors]
* [http://www.technologyreview.com/Biztech/12186/?a=f Technology Review – Who Really Invented Television?]
* [http://www.farnovision.com/chronicles/tfc-who_invented_what.html Who Invented Television – Reconciling The Historical Origins of Electronic Video]
* [http://www.tvhistory.tv Photos of early TV receivers]
* [http://www.earlytelevision.org Early television museum] (extensive online presence)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071113101332/http://www.novia.net/~ereitan/ Ed Reitan's Color Television History]
* [http://www.vintagetvsets.com/ Erics Vintage Television Sets]
* [http://www.terramedia.co.uk/media/television/index.htm Detailed timeline of communications media] (including the TV)
* [http://www.televisionau.com The History of Australian Television]
* [http://www.euscreen.eu EUscreen: Discover Europe's television heritage]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929091705/http://www.researchchannel.org/prog/displayevent.aspx?rID=3431&fID=345 A Visit to Our Studios: a television program exploring the studios at Johns Hopkins University in 1951]
* [http://tvinterviewsarchive.blogspot.com Archive of American Television (information and links to videotaped oral history interviews with TV legends and pioneers)]
* [http://archives.cbc.ca Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archives]
* [http://www.watvhistory.com History of West Australian Television]
* [http://www.mztv.com MZTV Museum of Television & Archive]
* [http://www.patent-invent.com/tv_patents.html Television Early Patents and Inventions]
*Littleton, Cynthia. [https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118039380 "Happy 70th Birthday, TV Commercial broadcasts bow on July 1, 1941; Variety calls it 'corney'"], ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'', July 1, 2011. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110704182158/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118039380 WebCitation archive].
*[https://www.c-span.org/video/?170335-1/boy-genius-mogul ''Booknotes'' interview with Daniel Stashower on ''The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television'', July 21, 2002.]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20141217032214/http://www.dishtvsignup.com/history-of-tv-infographic.pdf History of TV Infographic]
{{Video formats}}
{{Telecommunications}}
{{TV production}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Television}}
[[Category:History of television| ]]
[[Category:Television pioneers| ]]
[[Category:Experimental television stations]]
[[Category:History of technology|Television]]' |
Parsed HTML source of the new revision (new_html) | '<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Development of television</div>
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Family_watching_television_1958.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Family_watching_television_1958.jpg/220px-Family_watching_television_1958.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Family_watching_television_1958.jpg/330px-Family_watching_television_1958.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Family_watching_television_1958.jpg/440px-Family_watching_television_1958.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="1071" /></a><figcaption>Family watching TV, 1958</figcaption></figure>
<p>The concept of <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> is the work of many individuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first practical transmissions of moving images over a radio system used mechanical rotating perforated disks to scan a scene into a time-varying signal that could be reconstructed at a receiver back into an approximation of the original image. Development of television was interrupted by the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>. After the end of the war, all-electronic methods of scanning and displaying images became standard. Several different standards for addition of color to transmitted images were developed with different regions using technically incompatible signal standards.
Television broadcasting expanded rapidly after World War II, becoming an important <a href="/wiki/Mass_medium" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass medium">mass medium</a> for advertising, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>, and entertainment.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Television broadcasts can be distributed over the air by VHF and UHF radio signals from terrestrial transmitting stations, by <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> signals from Earth orbiting satellites, or by wired transmission to individual consumers by <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a>. Many countries have moved away from the original analog radio transmission methods and now use <a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital television</a> standards, providing additional operating features and conserving radio spectrum bandwidth for more profitable uses. Television programming can also be distributed over the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>.
</p><p>Television broadcasting may be funded by advertising revenue, by private or governmental organizations prepared to underwrite the cost, or in some countries, by television license fees paid by owners of receivers. Some services, especially carried by cable or satellite, are paid by subscriptions.
</p><p>Television broadcasting is supported by continuing technical developments such as long-haul microwave networks, which allow distribution of programming over a wide geographic area. Video recording methods allow programming to be edited and replayed for later use. Three-dimensional television has been used commercially but has not received wide consumer acceptance owing to the limitations of display methods.
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Mechanical_television"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Mechanical television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Electronic_television"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Electronic television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Color_television"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Color television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Digital_television"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Digital television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Smart_television"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Smart television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#3D_television"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">3D television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Terrestrial_television"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Terrestrial television</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">7.1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Canada"><span class="tocnumber">7.2</span> <span class="toctext">Canada</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Czechoslovakia"><span class="tocnumber">7.3</span> <span class="toctext">Czechoslovakia</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#France"><span class="tocnumber">7.4</span> <span class="toctext">France</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Germany"><span class="tocnumber">7.5</span> <span class="toctext">Germany</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Italy"><span class="tocnumber">7.6</span> <span class="toctext">Italy</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Japan"><span class="tocnumber">7.7</span> <span class="toctext">Japan</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Mexico"><span class="tocnumber">7.8</span> <span class="toctext">Mexico</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Soviet_Union_(USSR)"><span class="tocnumber">7.9</span> <span class="toctext">Soviet Union (USSR)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Turkey"><span class="tocnumber">7.10</span> <span class="toctext">Turkey</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#United_Kingdom"><span class="tocnumber">7.11</span> <span class="toctext">United Kingdom</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#United_States"><span class="tocnumber">7.12</span> <span class="toctext">United States</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Cable_television"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Cable television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Satellite_television"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Satellite television</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Overview_2"><span class="tocnumber">9.1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#Beginning_of_the_satellite_TV_industry"><span class="tocnumber">9.2</span> <span class="toctext">Beginning of the satellite TV industry</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#TVRO/C-band_satellite_era"><span class="tocnumber">9.3</span> <span class="toctext">TVRO/C-band satellite era</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Late_1980s_and_1990s_to_present"><span class="tocnumber">9.4</span> <span class="toctext">Late 1980s and 1990s to present</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Internet_television"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Internet television</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Television_sets"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Television sets</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Technological_innovations"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Technological innovations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Television_pioneers"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Television pioneers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Television_museums"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Television museums</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#Bibliography"><span class="tocnumber">18</span> <span class="toctext">Bibliography</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">19</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanical_television">Mechanical television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Mechanical television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_television" title="Mechanical television">Mechanical television</a></div>
<p><a href="/wiki/Facsimile_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Facsimile transmission">Facsimile transmission</a> systems pioneered methods of mechanically scanning graphics in the early 19th century. The Scottish inventor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(inventor)" title="Alexander Bain (inventor)">Alexander Bain</a> introduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846. The English physicist <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Bakewell" title="Frederick Bakewell">Frederick Bakewell</a> demonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851. The first practical facsimile system, working on telegraph lines, was developed and put into service by the Italian priest <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Caselli" title="Giovanni Caselli">Giovanni Caselli</a> from 1856 onward.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Willoughby_Smith" title="Willoughby Smith">Willoughby Smith</a>, an English electrical engineer, discovered the <a href="/wiki/Photoconductivity" title="Photoconductivity">photoconductivity</a> of the element <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> in 1873. This led, among other technologies, towards <a href="/wiki/Telephotography" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephotography">telephotography</a>, a way to send still images through <a href="/wiki/Phone_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Phone lines">phone lines</a>, as early as in 1895, as well as any kind of electronic <a href="/wiki/Image_scanning" class="mw-redirect" title="Image scanning">image scanning</a> devices, both still and in motion, and ultimately to <a href="/wiki/TV_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="TV camera">TV cameras</a>.
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<figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nipkow_disk.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Nipkow_disk.svg/200px-Nipkow_disk.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Nipkow_disk.svg/300px-Nipkow_disk.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Nipkow_disk.svg/400px-Nipkow_disk.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="260" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">Nipkow disk</a>. This schematic shows the circular paths traced by the holes, which may also be square for greater precision. The area of the disk outlined in black shows the region scanned.</figcaption></figure>
<p>As a 23-year-old German university student, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Julius_Gottlieb_Nipkow" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow">Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkow</a> proposed and patented the <a href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">Nipkow disk</a> in 1884 in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ShiersandShiers1322_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShiersandShiers1322-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes in it, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "<a href="/wiki/Rasterizer" class="mw-redirect" title="Rasterizer">image rasterizer</a>" became exceedingly common.<sup id="cite_ref-ShiersandShiers1322_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShiersandShiers1322-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Constantin_Perskyi" title="Constantin Perskyi">Constantin Perskyi</a> had coined the word <i>television</i> in a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at the <a href="/wiki/Exposition_Universelle_(1900)" title="Exposition Universelle (1900)">World's Fair</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> on August 24, 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology, by <a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Korn" title="Arthur Korn">Arthur Korn</a> among others, made the design practical.<sup id="cite_ref-Sending_Photographs_by_Telegraph_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sending_Photographs_by_Telegraph-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The first demonstration of transmission of images was by <a href="/wiki/Augusto_Bissiri" title="Augusto Bissiri">Augusto Bissiri</a>: he transmitted, in 1906, a photograph image from one room to another. In 1917, after other successful attempts by several independent inventors, he transmitted an image from London to New York City. He patented his apparatus in Los Angeles in 1928.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The first demonstration of instantaneous transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64 <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> cells, individually wired to a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Commutator_(electric)" title="Commutator (electric)">commutator</a>, served as an electronic <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>. In the receiver, a type of <a href="/wiki/Kerr_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerr cell">Kerr cell</a> modulated the light and a series of variously angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8×8 <a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">pixel</a> resolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the alphabet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1911, <a href="/wiki/Boris_Rosing" title="Boris Rosing">Boris Rosing</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Zworykin" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir Zworykin">Vladimir Zworykin</a> created a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "<a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a> tube" (<a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> or "CRT") in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner, "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In May 1914, <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Low" title="Archibald Low">Archibald Low</a> gave the first demonstration of his television system at the Institute of Automobile Engineers in London. He called his system 'Televista'. The events were widely reported worldwide and were generally entitled <i>Seeing By Wireless</i>. The demonstrations had so impressed <a href="/wiki/Harry_Gordon_Selfridge" title="Harry Gordon Selfridge">Harry Gordon Selfridge</a> that he included Televista in his 1914 Scientific and Electrical Exhibition at his store.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also interested Deputy Consul General Carl Raymond Loop who filled a US consular report from London containing considerable detail about Low's system.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low's invention employed a matrix detector (camera) and a mosaic screen (receiver/viewer) with an electro-mechanical scanning mechanism that moved a rotating roller over the cell contacts providing a multiplex signal to the camera/viewer data link. The receiver employed a similar roller. The two rollers were synchronised. It was unlike any other TV system of the 20th Century and in some respects, Low had a digital TV system 80 years before modern digital TV. <a href="/wiki/World_War_One" class="mw-redirect" title="World War One">World War One</a> began shortly after these demonstrations in London and Low became involved in <a href="/wiki/British_unmanned_aerial_vehicles_of_World_War_I" title="British unmanned aerial vehicles of World War I">sensitive military work</a>, and so he did not apply for a patent until 1917. His "Televista" Patent No. 191,405 titled "Improved Apparatus for the Electrical Transmission of Optical Images" was finally published in 1923; delayed possibly for security reasons. The patent states that the scanning roller had a row of conductive contacts corresponding to the cells in each row of the array and arranged to sample each cell in turn as the roller rotated. The receiver's roller was similarly constructed and each revolution addressed a row of cells as the rollers traversed over their array of cells. Loops report tells us that... "The receiver is made up of a series of cells operated by the passage of polarized light through thin slats of steel, and at the receiver the object before the transmitter is reproduced as a flickering image" and "The roller is driven by a motor of 3,000 revolutions per minute, and the resulting variations of light are transmitted along an ordinary conducting wire." and the patent states "into each... space I place a <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> cell". Low covered the cells with a liquid dielectric and the roller connected with each cell in turn through this medium as it rotated and travelled over the array. The receiver used bimetallic elements that acted as shutters "transmitting more or less light according to the current passing through them..." as stated in the patent. Low said the main deficiency of the system was the selenium cells used for converting <a href="/wiki/Light_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Light waves">light waves</a> into electric impulses, which responded too slowly thus spoiling the effect. Loop reported that "The system has been tested through a resistance equivalent to a distance of four miles, but in the opinion of Doctor Low there is no reason why it should not be equally effective over far greater distances. The patent states that this connection could be either wired or wireless. The cost of the apparatus is considerable because the conductive sections of the roller are made of platinum..."
</p><p>In 1914, the demonstrations certainly garnered a lot of media interest, with <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i> reporting on 30 May:
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1211633275">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>An inventor, Dr. A. M. Low, has discovered a means of transmitting visual images by wire. If all goes well with this invention, we shall soon be able, it seems, to see people at a distance.</p></blockquote>
<p>On 29 May, the <i><a href="/wiki/Daily_Chronicle" title="Daily Chronicle">Daily Chronicle</a></i> reported:
</p>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1211633275"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Dr. Low gave a demonstration for the first time in public, with a new apparatus that he has invented, for seeing, he claims by electricity, by which it is possible for persons using a telephone to see each other at the same time</p></blockquote>
<p>In 1927, Ronald Frank Tiltman asked Low to write the introduction to his book in which he acknowledged Low's work, referring to Low's related patents with an apology that they were of 'too technical a nature for inclusion'.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later in his 1938 patent Low envisioned a much larger 'camera' cell density achieved by a deposition process of caesium alloy on an insulated substrate that was subsequently sectioned to divide it into cells, the essence of today's technology. Low's system failed for various reasons, mostly due to its inability to reproduce an image by reflected light and simultaneously depict gradations of light and shade. It can be added to the list of systems, like that of <a href="/wiki/Boris_Rosing" title="Boris Rosing">Boris Rosing</a>, that predominantly reproduced shadows. With subsequent technological advances, many such ideas could be made viable decades later, but at the time they were impractical.
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<figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Logie_Baird_and_Stooky_Bill.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/John_Logie_Baird_and_Stooky_Bill.png/200px-John_Logie_Baird_and_Stooky_Bill.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/John_Logie_Baird_and_Stooky_Bill.png/300px-John_Logie_Baird_and_Stooky_Bill.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/John_Logie_Baird_and_Stooky_Bill.png/400px-John_Logie_Baird_and_Stooky_Bill.png 2x" data-file-width="1071" data-file-height="811" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">Baird</a> in 1925 with his televisor equipment and dummies "James" and "Stooky Bill" <i>(right)</i></figcaption></figure>
<p>In 1923, Scottish inventor <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a> envisaged a complete television system that employed the <a href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">Nipkow disk</a>. Nipkow's was an obscure, forgotten patent and not at all obvious at the time. He created his first prototypes in Hastings, where he was recovering from a serious illness. In late 1924, Baird returned to London to continue his experiments there. On March 25, 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televised <a href="/wiki/Silhouette" title="Silhouette">silhouette</a> images in motion at <a href="/wiki/Selfridges" title="Selfridges">Selfridges</a> department store in London.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his system at this time, he televised cut-outs and by mid-1925 the head of a ventriloquist's dummy he later named "Stooky Bill", whose face was painted to highlight its contrast. "Stooky Bill" also did not complain about the long hours of staying still in front of the blinding level of light used in these experiments. On October 2, 1925, suddenly the dummy's head came through on the screen with incredible clarity. On January 26, 1926, he demonstrated the transmission of images of real human faces for 40 distinguished scientists of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution" title="Royal Institution">Royal Institution</a>. This is widely regarded as being the world's first public television demonstration. Baird's system used Nipkow disks for both scanning the image and displaying it. A brightly illuminated subject was placed in front of a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses that swept images across a static photocell. At this time, it is believed that it was a thallium sulphide (Thalofide) cell, developed by <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Case" title="Theodore Case">Theodore Case</a> in the US, that detected the light reflected from the subject. This was transmitted by radio to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon bulb behind a similar Nipkow disk synchronised with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each lens in the disk passed by, one <a href="/wiki/Scan_line" title="Scan line">scan line</a> of the image was reproduced. With this early apparatus, Baird's disks had 16 lenses, yet in conjunction with the other discs used produced moving images with 32 scan-lines, just enough to recognize a human face. He began with a frame-rate of five per second, which was soon increased to a rate of 12<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> frames per second and 30 scan-lines.
</p><p>In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over 438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between London and <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>. In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal, between London and New York, and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird and <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Natan" title="Bernard Natan">Bernard Natan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Path%C3%A9" title="Pathé">Pathé</a> established France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast, of the <a href="/wiki/Epsom_Derby" title="Epsom Derby">Derby</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1932, he demonstrated <a href="/wiki/Ultra-short_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultra-short wave">ultra-short wave</a> television. Baird Television Limited's mechanical systems reached a peak of 240 lines of resolution at the company's <a href="/wiki/Crystal_Palace,_London" title="Crystal Palace, London">Crystal Palace</a> studios, and later on <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> television broadcasts in 1936, though for action shots (as opposed to a seated presenter) the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead, a <a href="/wiki/17.5mm_film" class="mw-redirect" title="17.5mm film">17.5mm film</a> was shot, rapidly developed, and then scanned while the film was still wet.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Scophony" title="Scophony">Scophony</a> Company's success with their mechanical system in the 1930s enabled them to take their operations to the US when <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> curtailed their business in Britain.
</p><p>An American inventor, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Jenkins" title="Charles Francis Jenkins">Charles Francis Jenkins</a>, also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, but it was not until December 1923 that he transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses. On June 13, 1925, Jenkins publicly demonstrated the synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925, Jenkins used a <a href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">Nipkow disk</a> and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion, over a distance of five miles (from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C.), using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-glinsky_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glinsky-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was granted U.S. patent 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on June 30, 1925 (filed March 13, 1922).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On December 25, 1926, <a href="/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi" title="Kenjiro Takayanagi">Kenjiro Takayanagi</a> demonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">CRT</a> display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum at <a href="/wiki/Shizuoka_University" title="Shizuoka University">Shizuoka University</a>, Hamamatsu Campus.<sup id="cite_ref-nhk.or.jp_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nhk.or.jp-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1927, Takayanagi improved the resolution to 100 lines, which was not surpassed until 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is the man who completed the first all-electronic television.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His research toward creating a production model was halted by the US after Japan lost <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-nhk.or.jp_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nhk.or.jp-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1927, a team from <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> demonstrated television transmission from Washington to New York, using a prototype array of 50 lines containing 50 individual neon lights each against a gold-appearing background, as a display to make the images visible to an audience.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The display measured approximately two feet by three feet and had 2500 total pixels (50x50).
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Herbert_E._Ives" title="Herbert E. Ives">Herbert E. Ives</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Gray_(researcher)" title="Frank Gray (researcher)">Frank Gray</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a> gave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on April 7, 1927. The reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a two-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen. The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high. Both sets were capable of reproducing reasonably accurate, monochromatic moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets also received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, a <a href="/wiki/Copper_wire" class="mw-redirect" title="Copper wire">copper wire</a> link from Washington to New York City, then a radio link from <a href="/wiki/Whippany,_New_Jersey" title="Whippany, New Jersey">Whippany, New Jersey</a>. Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast included <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of Commerce">Secretary of Commerce</a> <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Flying-spot_scanner" title="Flying-spot scanner">flying-spot scanner</a> beam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56 <a href="/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond">milliseconds</a>. (Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was in fact the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1928, <a href="/wiki/WRGB" title="WRGB">WRGB</a> (then W2XCW) was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> facility in <a href="/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York" title="Schenectady, New York">Schenectady, New York</a>. It was popularly known as "<a href="/wiki/WGY_(AM)" title="WGY (AM)">WGY</a> Television".
</p><p>Meanwhile, in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Theremin" class="mw-redirect" title="Léon Theremin">Léon Theremin</a> had been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16-line resolution in 1925, then 32 lines and eventually 64 using <a href="/wiki/Interlaced_video" title="Interlaced video">interlacing</a> in 1926. As part of his thesis on May 7, 1926, Theremin electrically transmitted and then projected near-simultaneous moving images on a five-foot square screen.<sup id="cite_ref-glinsky_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-glinsky-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1927 he achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until 1931 by RCA, with 120 lines.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution in mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to about 120. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1935, and the 180-line system that <a href="/wiki/Peck_Television_Corp." title="Peck Television Corp.">Peck Television Corp.</a> started in 1935 at station VE9AK in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Anton Codelli (22 March 1875 – 28 April 1954), a <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenian</a> nobleman, was a passionate inventor. Among other things, he had devised a miniature refrigerator for cars and a new rotary engine design. Intrigued by television, he decided to apply his technical skills to the new medium. At the time, the biggest challenge in television technology was to transmit images with sufficient resolution to reproduce recognizable figures. As recounted by media historian Melita Zajc, most inventors were determined to increase the number of lines used by their systems – some were approaching what was then the magic number of 100 lines. But Codelli had a different idea. In 1929, he developed a television device with a single line – but one that formed a continuous spiral on the screen. Codelli based his ingenious design on his understanding of the human eye. He knew that objects seen in peripheral vision don't need to be as sharp as those in the center. Codelli's mechanical television system, whose image was sharpest in the middle, worked well, and he was soon able to transmit images of his wife, Ilona von Drasche-Lazar, over the air.
Despite the backing of the German electronics giant Telefunken, however, Codelli's television system never became a commercial reality. Electronic television ultimately emerged as the dominant system, and Codelli moved on to other projects. His invention was largely forgotten.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The advancement of all-electronic television (including <a href="/wiki/Image_dissector" title="Image dissector">image dissectors</a> and other camera tubes and <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tubes</a> for the reproducer) marked the beginning of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical TV usually only produced small images. It was the main type of TV until the 1930s. The last mechanical television broadcasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a handful of public universities in the United States.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electronic_television">Electronic television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Electronic television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Professional_video_camera" title="Professional video camera">Professional video camera</a></div>
<figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_Braun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg/100px-Ferdinand_Braun.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg/150px-Ferdinand_Braun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg/200px-Ferdinand_Braun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="747" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Braun" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand Braun">Ferdinand Braun</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>In 1897, <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>, an English <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, in his three famous experiments was able to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the modern <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tube</a> (CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a> in 1897 and is also known as the <i>Braun tube</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a <a href="/wiki/Cold-cathode" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold-cathode">cold-cathode</a> <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a>, a modification of the <a href="/wiki/Crookes_tube" title="Crookes tube">Crookes tube</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Phosphor" title="Phosphor">phosphor</a>-coated screen. The <i>Braun tube</i> became the foundation of 20th century television.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A cathode ray tube was successfully demonstrated as a displaying device by the <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> Professor Max Dieckmann in 1906, his experimental results were published by the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i> in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-Dieckmann-CRT_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dieckmann-CRT-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1908 <a href="/wiki/Alan_Archibald_Campbell-Swinton" title="Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton">Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton</a>, fellow of the UK <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a>, published a letter in the scientific journal <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> in which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tube</a> (or "Braun" tube) as both a transmitting and receiving device.<sup id="cite_ref-Swinton_DEV1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swinton_DEV1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Swinton_DEV2_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swinton_DEV2-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i>Journal of the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6ntgen_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Röntgen Society">Röntgen Society</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Swinton_Braid_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swinton_Braid-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Swinton-Rontgen_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swinton-Rontgen-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a letter to <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i> published in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by a <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode ray beam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Swinton_ET1_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swinton_ET1-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burns-Swinton_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns-Swinton-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died.<sup id="cite_ref-Minchin_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Minchin-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were later repeated in 1937 by two different teams, H. Miller and J. W. Strange from <a href="/wiki/EMI" title="EMI">EMI</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Miller-Strange_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-Strange-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and H. Iams and A. Rose from <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iams-Rose-1937_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iams-Rose-1937-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both teams succeeded in transmitting "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first cathode ray tube to use a <a href="/wiki/Hot_cathode" title="Hot cathode">hot cathode</a> was developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Bertrand_Johnson" title="John Bertrand Johnson">John B. Johnson</a> (who gave his name to the term <a href="/wiki/Johnson_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Johnson noise">Johnson noise</a>) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of <a href="/wiki/Western_Electric" title="Western Electric">Western Electric</a>, and became a commercial product in 1922.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>These early electronic camera tubes (like the <a href="/wiki/Image_dissector" title="Image dissector">image dissector</a>) suffered from a very disappointing and fatal flaw: They scanned the subject and what was seen at each point was only the tiny piece of light viewed at the instant that the scanning system passed over it. A practical functional camera tube needed a different technological approach, which later became known as Charge - Storage camera tube. It based on a new physical phenomenon which was discovered and patented in Hungary in 1926, but it became widely understood and recognised only from around 1930.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by the Hungarian engineer <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n_Tihanyi" title="Kálmán Tihanyi">Kálmán Tihanyi</a> in the beginning of 1924.<sup id="cite_ref-IEC_Tihanyi_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEC_Tihanyi-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
In 1926, Tihanyi designed a television system utilizing fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera") tube.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-US2133123_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US2133123-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-US2158259_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US2158259-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ("photoelectrons") within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> in March 1926 for a television system he dubbed "Radioskop".<sup id="cite_ref-Radioskop_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radioskop-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application,<sup id="cite_ref-IEC_Tihanyi_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEC_Tihanyi-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930,<sup id="cite_ref-abstract1928_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abstract1928-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design of <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a>'s "<a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">iconoscope</a>" in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval.<sup id="cite_ref-US2133123_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US2133123-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-US2158259_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US2158259-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tihanyi's charge storage idea remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-Radioskop_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radioskop-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philo_Farnsworth_1924_yearbook.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Philo_Farnsworth_1924_yearbook.png/220px-Philo_Farnsworth_1924_yearbook.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Philo_Farnsworth_1924_yearbook.png/330px-Philo_Farnsworth_1924_yearbook.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Philo_Farnsworth_1924_yearbook.png/440px-Philo_Farnsworth_1924_yearbook.png 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>Philo Farnsworth in 1924</figcaption></figure>
<p>On December 25, 1926, <a href="/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi" title="Kenjiro Takayanagi">Kenjiro Takayanagi</a> demonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-nhk.or.jp_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nhk.or.jp-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>On September 7, 1927, <a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Image_dissector" title="Image dissector">image dissector</a> camera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Postman_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Postman-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sfmuseum_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfmuseum-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By September 3, 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration.<sup id="cite_ref-sfmuseum_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfmuseum-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, the system was further improved by elimination of a motor generator, so that his television system now had no mechanical parts.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ("Pem") with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zworykin_kinescope_1929.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Zworykin_kinescope_1929.jpg/220px-Zworykin_kinescope_1929.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Zworykin_kinescope_1929.jpg/330px-Zworykin_kinescope_1929.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Zworykin_kinescope_1929.jpg/440px-Zworykin_kinescope_1929.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4733" data-file-height="6133" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir Zworykin</a> demonstrates electronic television (1929).</figcaption></figure>
<p>Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin was also experimenting with the cathode ray tube to create and show images. While working for <a href="/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Westinghouse Electric">Westinghouse Electric</a> in 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. But in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast and poor definition, and was stationary.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. But RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus RCA, on the basis of Zworykin's 1923 patent application, filed a <a href="/wiki/Patent_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Patent interference">patent interference</a> suit against Farnsworth. The <a href="/wiki/U.S._Patent_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Patent Office">U.S. Patent Office</a> examiner disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system would be unable to produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application,<sup id="cite_ref-US1691324_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US1691324-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he also divided his original application in 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-US2022450_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US2022450-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts and determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over a ten-year period, in addition to license payments, to use Farnsworth's patents.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Everson_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everson-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1933 RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle.<sup id="cite_ref-NewYorkTimes_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NewYorkTimes-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a> by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000 lux, and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, Farnsworth had overcome his power problems with his Image Dissector through the invention of a unique <a href="/wiki/Multipactor_effect" title="Multipactor effect">multipactor</a> device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHistoryofTV1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHistoryofTV1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Everson1_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everson1-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better<sup id="cite_ref-Everson2_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everson2-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. A problem with the multipactor, unfortunately, was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.<sup id="cite_ref-Everson3_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everson3-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0917-501,_Prof._Manfred_v._Ardenne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0917-501%2C_Prof._Manfred_v._Ardenne.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0917-501%2C_Prof._Manfred_v._Ardenne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0917-501%2C_Prof._Manfred_v._Ardenne.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0917-501%2C_Prof._Manfred_v._Ardenne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0917-501%2C_Prof._Manfred_v._Ardenne.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-K0917-501%2C_Prof._Manfred_v._Ardenne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="545" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Manfred_von_Ardenne" title="Manfred von Ardenne">Manfred von Ardenne</a> in 1933</figcaption></figure>
<p>At the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Radio_Show" class="mw-redirect" title="Berlin Radio Show">Berlin Radio Show</a> in August 1931 in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manfred_von_Ardenne" title="Manfred von Ardenne">Manfred von Ardenne</a> gave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception, the first completely electronic television transmission.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as a <a href="/wiki/Flying-spot_scanner" title="Flying-spot scanner">flying-spot scanner</a> to scan slides and film.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ardenne achieved his first transmission of television pictures on 24 December 1933, followed by test runs for a public television service in 1934. The world's first electronically scanned television service then started in Berlin in 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Fernsehsender_Paul_Nipkow" title="Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow">Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow</a>, culminating in the live broadcast of the <a href="/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympic_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="1936 Summer Olympic Games">1936 Summer Olympic Games</a> from Berlin to public places all over Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-dw_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dw-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-computer_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computer-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a> of <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> on August 25, 1934, and for ten days afterwards.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burns370_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns370-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In Britain the <a href="/wiki/EMI" title="EMI">EMI</a> engineering team led by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Shoenberg" title="Isaac Shoenberg">Isaac Shoenberg</a> applied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they dubbed "the Emitron",<sup id="cite_ref-GB406353_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GB406353-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-US2077442_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US2077442-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. In November 1936, a <a href="/wiki/405-line_television_system" title="405-line television system">405-line broadcasting</a> service employing the Emitron began at studios in <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Palace" title="Alexandra Palace">Alexandra Palace</a> and transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian building">Victorian building</a>'s towers. It alternated for a short time with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios, but it was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular high-definition television service.<sup id="cite_ref-Burns576_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns576-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The original American iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially when compared to the high definition mechanical scanning systems then becoming available.<sup id="cite_ref-Winstor-media_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winstor-media-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Winstor-history_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winstor-history-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/EMI" title="EMI">EMI</a> team under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Shoenberg" title="Isaac Shoenberg">Isaac Shoenberg</a> analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produces an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burns-Blumlein_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burns-Blumlein-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They solved this problem by developing and patenting in 1934 two new camera tubes dubbed <a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube#Super-Emitron_and_image_iconoscope" title="Video camera tube">super-Emitron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube#Orthicon_and_CPS_Emitron" title="Video camera tube">CPS Emitron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GB442666_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GB442666-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GB446661_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GB446661-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GB446664_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GB446664-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was used for an <a href="/wiki/Outside_broadcasting" title="Outside broadcasting">outside broadcasting</a> by the BBC, for the first time, on Armistice Day 1937, when the general public could watch on a television set how the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander2_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the first time that anyone could broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighbouring buildings, because neither Farnsworth nor RCA could do the same before the <a href="/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1939 New York World's Fair">1939 New York World's Fair</a>.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1939_RCA_Television_Advertisement.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/1939_RCA_Television_Advertisement.jpg/220px-1939_RCA_Television_Advertisement.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/1939_RCA_Television_Advertisement.jpg/330px-1939_RCA_Television_Advertisement.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/1939_RCA_Television_Advertisement.jpg/440px-1939_RCA_Television_Advertisement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2277" data-file-height="3194" /></a><figcaption>Ad for the beginning of experimental television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939</figcaption></figure>
<p>On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken.<sup id="cite_ref-Inglis_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inglis-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "image iconoscope" ("Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by the <a href="/wiki/Patent_war" title="Patent war">patent war</a> between Zworykin and Farnsworth, because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for their <i>Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher</i> (<i>Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television</i>) in Germany in 1925,<sup id="cite_ref-DE450187_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DE450187-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-US1773980_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-US1773980-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by the vidicon and plumbicon tubes. Indeed, it was the representative of the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon.<sup id="cite_ref-Vries_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vries-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Multicon_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Multicon-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games,<sup id="cite_ref-Heimann1_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heimann1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ETM_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ETM-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955,<sup id="cite_ref-Heimann2_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heimann2-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> finally the Dutch company <a href="/wiki/Philips" title="Philips">Philips</a> produced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-Multicon_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Multicon-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Philips_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Philips-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>American television broadcasting at the time consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology, until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-Everson4_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Everson4-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHistoryofTV2_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHistoryofTV2-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents.<sup id="cite_ref-Schatzkin187-8_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schatzkin187-8-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHistoryofTV2_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHistoryofTV2-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944, and became a national standard in 1946.<sup id="cite_ref-60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in 1948 in Moscow.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the European <a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_consultatif_international_pour_la_radio" class="mw-redirect" title="Comité consultatif international pour la radio">CCIR</a> standard.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In 1936, <a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n_Tihanyi" title="Kálmán Tihanyi">Kálmán Tihanyi</a> described the principle of <a href="/wiki/Plasma_display" title="Plasma display">plasma display</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Flat_panel_display" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat panel display">flat panel display</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>
<p>In 1978, James P. Mitchell described, prototyped and demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel <a href="/wiki/LED_display" title="LED display">LED display</a> targeted at replacing the CRT.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Color_television">Color television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Color television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">Color television</a></div>
<p>The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning, although he gave no practical details.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polish inventor <a href="/wiki/Jan_Szczepanik" title="Jan Szczepanik">Jan Szczepanik</a> patented a color television system in 1897, using a <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> photoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end, and could not have worked as he described it.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another inventor, <a href="/wiki/Hovannes_Adamian" title="Hovannes Adamian">Hovannes Adamian</a>, also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him,<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was patented in Germany on March 31, 1908, patent No. 197183, then in <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">Britain</a>, on April 1, 1908, patent No. 7219,<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912).<sup id="cite_ref-tvmuseum.ru_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tvmuseum.ru-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Scottish inventor <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a> demonstrated the world's first color transmission on July 3, 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color; and three light sources at the receiving end, with a <a href="/wiki/Commutator_(electric)" title="Commutator (electric)">commutator</a> to alternate their illumination.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on February 4, 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird's <a href="/wiki/The_Crystal_Palace" title="The Crystal Palace">Crystal Palace</a> studios to a projection screen at London's <a href="/wiki/Dominion_Theatre" title="Dominion Theatre">Dominion Theatre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated by <a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a> in June 1929 using three complete systems of <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoelectric cells">photoelectric cells</a>, amplifiers, glow-tubes and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green and blue images into one full color image.
</p><p>The first practical, hybrid, electro-mechanical, <a href="/wiki/Field-sequential_color_system" title="Field-sequential color system">Field-sequential color system</a> was again pioneered by John Logie Baird, with the initial demonstration made in July 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His system incorporated synchronised, two colour, red and blue-green, rotating filters, placed in front of both the camera, and CRT, to add false colour to the monochromatic television broadcasts. By December 1940 he had publicly demonstrated a 600 line, hybrid, field-sequential, colour television system.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device was very "deep", but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console.<sup id="cite_ref-BairdColor_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BairdColor-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Baird was not happy with the design, and as early as 1944 had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.
</p><p>In 1939, Hungarian engineer <a href="/wiki/Peter_Carl_Goldmark" title="Peter Carl Goldmark">Peter Carl Goldmark</a> introduced an electro-mechanical system while at <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>, which contained an <a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">Iconoscope</a> sensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm, and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode ray tube inside the receiver set.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system was first demonstrated to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) on August 29, 1940, and shown to the press on September 4.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as August 28, 1940, and live cameras by November 12.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> (owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on February 20, 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on June 1, 1941.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-white television sets, and as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. The <a href="/wiki/War_Production_Board" title="War Production Board">War Production Board</a> halted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from April 22, 1942, to August 20, 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Mexican inventor <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Camarena" title="Guillermo González Camarena">Guillermo González Camarena</a> also experimented with hybrid field-sequential colour TV (known as telectroescopía at first). His efforts began in 1931 and led to a Mexican patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system" <a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">color television</a> being filed in August 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>As early as 1940 Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he called the "<a href="/wiki/Telechrome" title="Telechrome">Telechrome</a>". Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic" at the time). A demonstration on August 16, 1944, was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. This used a patterned version of the phosphor plate, with the guns aimed at ridges on one side of the plate. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended development of the Telechrome system.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BairdColor_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BairdColor-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. The <a href="/wiki/Geer_tube" title="Geer tube">Geer tube</a> was similar to Baird's concept, but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces, instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. The <a href="/wiki/Penetron" title="Penetron">penetron</a> used three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. The <a href="/wiki/Chromatron" title="Chromatron">chromatron</a> used a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.
</p><p>One of the great technical challenges of introducing color <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcast television">broadcast television</a> was the desire to conserve <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a>, potentially three times that of the existing <a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a> standards, and not use an excessive amount of <a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum" title="Radio spectrum">radio spectrum</a>. In the United States, after considerable research, the National Television Systems Committee<sup id="cite_ref-name_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-name-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> approved an all-electronic <a href="/wiki/Compatible_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Compatible color">Compatible color</a> system developed by <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a>, which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and greatly reduced the resolution of the color information in order to conserve bandwidth. The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution, while color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher resolution black-and-white and lower resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> standard represented a major technical achievement.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SMPTE_Color_Bars.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/SMPTE_Color_Bars.svg/220px-SMPTE_Color_Bars.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/SMPTE_Color_Bars.svg/330px-SMPTE_Color_Bars.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/SMPTE_Color_Bars.svg/440px-SMPTE_Color_Bars.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="672" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Color bars used in a <a href="/wiki/Test_pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Test pattern">test pattern</a>, sometimes used when no program material is available</figcaption></figure>
<p>Although all-electronic color was introduced in the U.S. in 1953,<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> high prices and the scarcity of color programming greatly slowed its acceptance in the marketplace. The first national color broadcast (the 1954 <a href="/wiki/Tournament_of_Roses_Parade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tournament of Roses Parade">Tournament of Roses Parade</a>) occurred on January 1, 1954, but during the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965 in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.
</p><p>Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place. The introduction of <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">GE's</a> relatively compact and lightweight <a href="/wiki/Porta-Color" title="Porta-Color">Porta-Color</a> set in the spring of 1966 made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition. In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets.
</p><p>Color broadcasting in Europe was also not standardized on the PAL format until the 1960s.
</p><p>By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets, such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color and by the early 1980s, black-and-white sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or use as <a href="/wiki/Video_monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Video monitor">video monitor</a> screens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s, even these areas switched to color sets.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Digital_television">Digital television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Digital television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">Digital television</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Digital_television_transition" title="Digital television transition">Digital television transition</a></div>
<p>Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by <a href="/wiki/Analog_television" title="Analog television">analog television</a>. Digital TV can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is an innovative service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Digital TV's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high-performance computers. It wasn't until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In the mid-1980s Japanese consumer electronics firm <a href="/wiki/Sony_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sony Corporation">Sony Corporation</a> developed HDTV technology and the <a href="/wiki/Sony_HDVS" title="Sony HDVS">equipment to record at such resolution</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sub-Nyquist_sampling_encoding" title="Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding">MUSE</a> analog format proposed by <a href="/wiki/NHK" title="NHK">NHK</a>, a Japanese broadcaster, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies. Sony's system produced images at 1125-line resolution (or in digital terms, 1875x1125, close to the resolution of Full HD video<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration. Then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed.
</p><p>In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was feasible, the FCC made a number of critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal, but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast" on different channels. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.
</p><p>The final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the consumer electronics industry (joined by some broadcasters) and the computer industry (joined by the film industry and some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior. Interlaced scanning, which is used in televisions worldwide, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. Progressive scanning, which is the format used in computers, scans lines in sequences, from top to bottom. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet, and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offers a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumer electronics industry and broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then feasible, that is, 1080 lines per picture and 1920 pixels per line. William F. Schreiber, who was a director of the Advanced Television Research Program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Digital_television_transition" title="Digital television transition">Digital television transition</a> started in the late 2000s. All the governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by the 2010s. Initially the adoption rate was low. But soon, more and more households were converting to digital televisions. The transition was expected to be complete worldwide by the mid to late 2010s.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Smart_television">Smart television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Smart television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Smart_TV" title="Smart TV">Smart TV</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">Streaming television</a> or <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_television" title="Internet Protocol television">Internet Protocol television</a>.</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236091366">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .mbox-text-span{margin-left:23px!important}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2014</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samsung_Smart_TV_2012_(E-Series).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Samsung_Smart_TV_2012_%28E-Series%29.jpg/220px-Samsung_Smart_TV_2012_%28E-Series%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Samsung_Smart_TV_2012_%28E-Series%29.jpg/330px-Samsung_Smart_TV_2012_%28E-Series%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Samsung_Smart_TV_2012_%28E-Series%29.jpg/440px-Samsung_Smart_TV_2012_%28E-Series%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="1976" /></a><figcaption>An early Smart TV from 2012 running the discontinued Orsay platform</figcaption></figure>
<p>Advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart TVs. A smart television, sometimes referred to as <i>connected TV</i> or <i>hybrid television</i>, is a television set with integrated Internet and <a href="/wiki/Web_2.0" title="Web 2.0">Web 2.0</a> features, and is an example of <a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">technological convergence</a> between computers and television sets and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcasting media</a>, these devices can also provide Internet TV, online <a href="/wiki/Interactive_media" title="Interactive media">interactive media</a>, <a href="/wiki/Over-the-top_content" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-the-top content">over-the-top content</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">on-demand</a> <a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming media</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Home_network" title="Home network">home networking</a> access. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system, including <a href="/wiki/Android_OS" class="mw-redirect" title="Android OS">Android</a> or a derivative of it, <a href="/wiki/Tizen" title="Tizen">Tizen</a>, <a href="/wiki/WebOS" title="WebOS">webOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roku_OS" title="Roku OS">Roku OS</a>, and <a href="/wiki/SmartCast" class="mw-redirect" title="SmartCast">SmartCast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-businessinsider1_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-businessinsider1-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Smart TV is not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Internet_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet TV">Internet TV</a>, <a href="/wiki/IPTV" class="mw-redirect" title="IPTV">IPTV</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Web_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Web TV">Web TV</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet television">Internet television</a> refers to the receiving television content over internet instead of traditional systems (terrestrial, cable and satellite) (although internet itself is received by these methods). <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_television" title="Internet Protocol television">Internet Protocol television</a> (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. <a href="/wiki/Web_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Web television">Web television</a> (WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
</p><p>A first patent was filed in 1994<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (and extended the following year)<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, by means of a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a user's demand, and process their needs.
</p><p>Major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="3D_television">3D television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: 3D television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/3D_television" title="3D television">3D television</a></div>
<p>Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on August 10, 1928, by <a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a> in his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electro-mechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D TV was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D TVs.
</p><p>Although 3D TV sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads among the public. Many 3D television channels that started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terrestrial_television">Terrestrial television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Terrestrial television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_television" title="Terrestrial television">Terrestrial television</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_introduction_of_television_in_countries" title="Timeline of the introduction of television in countries">Timeline of the introduction of television in countries</a></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Programming is <a href="/wiki/Broadcast" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcast">broadcast</a> by <a href="/wiki/Television_station" title="Television station">television stations</a>, sometimes called "channels", as stations are <a href="/wiki/Frequency_allocation" title="Frequency allocation">licensed</a> by their governments to broadcast only over assigned <a href="/wiki/Channel_(broadcasting)" title="Channel (broadcasting)">channels</a> in the television <a href="/wiki/Band_(radio)" class="mw-redirect" title="Band (radio)">band</a>. At first, <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_television" title="Terrestrial television">terrestrial broadcasting</a> was the only way television could be widely distributed, and because <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> was limited, i.e., there were only a small number of <a href="/wiki/Television_channel" title="Television channel">channels</a> available, government regulation was the norm.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation</a> (CBC) adopted the American NTSC 525-line B/W 60 field per second system as its broadcast standard. It began television broadcasting in Canada in September 1952. The first broadcast was on September 6, 1952, from its <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> station <a href="/wiki/CBFT" class="mw-redirect" title="CBFT">CBFT</a>. The premiere broadcast was bilingual, spoken in English and French. Two days later, on September 8, 1952, the <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a> station <a href="/wiki/CBLT" class="mw-redirect" title="CBLT">CBLT</a> went on the air. This became the English-speaking flagship station for the country, while CBFT became the French-language flagship after a second English-language station was licensed to CBC in Montreal later in the decade. The CBC's first privately owned affiliate television station, <a href="/wiki/CICI-TV" title="CICI-TV">CKSO</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sudbury,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudbury, Ontario">Sudbury, Ontario</a>, launched in October 1953 (at the time, all private stations were expected to affiliate with the CBC, a condition that was relaxed in 1960–61 when CTV, Canada's second national English-language network, was formed).
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Czechoslovakia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:H%C3%B6ritz_Museum_-_Fernseher_Tesla_40001A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/H%C3%B6ritz_Museum_-_Fernseher_Tesla_40001A.jpg/220px-H%C3%B6ritz_Museum_-_Fernseher_Tesla_40001A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/H%C3%B6ritz_Museum_-_Fernseher_Tesla_40001A.jpg/330px-H%C3%B6ritz_Museum_-_Fernseher_Tesla_40001A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/H%C3%B6ritz_Museum_-_Fernseher_Tesla_40001A.jpg/440px-H%C3%B6ritz_Museum_-_Fernseher_Tesla_40001A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The first mass-produced Czechoslovak TV-set Tesla 4001A (1953–57)</figcaption></figure>
<p>In former <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> (now the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>) the first experimental <a href="/wiki/Television_set" title="Television set">television sets</a> were produced in 1948. In the same year the first test television transmission was performed. Regular television broadcasts in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> area started on May 1, 1953. Television service expanded in the following years as new studios were built in <a href="/wiki/Ostrava" title="Ostrava">Ostrava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bratislava" title="Bratislava">Bratislava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brno" title="Brno">Brno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ko%C5%A1ice" title="Košice">Košice</a>. By 1961 more than a million citizens owned a television set. The second channel of the state-owned <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Television" class="mw-redirect" title="Czechoslovak Television">Czechoslovak Television</a> started broadcasting in 1970.
</p><p>Preparations for color transmissions in the PAL color system started in the second half of the 1960s. However, due to the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a> and the following <a href="/wiki/Normalization_(Czechoslovakia)" title="Normalization (Czechoslovakia)">normalization</a> period, the broadcaster was ultimately forced to adopt the SECAM color system used by the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a>. Regular color transmissions eventually started in 1973, with television studios using PAL equipment and the output signal only being transcoded to SECAM at transmitter sites.
</p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a>, it was decided to switch to the PAL standard. The new <a href="/wiki/OK3_(television)" class="mw-redirect" title="OK3 (television)">OK3</a> channel was launched by Czechoslovak Television in May 1990 and broadcast in the format from the very start. The remaining channels switched to PAL by July 1, 1992. Commercial television didn't start broadcasting until after the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The first experiments in television broadcasting began in France in the 1930s, although the French did not immediately employ the new technology.
</p><p>In November 1929, Bernard Natan established France's first television company, Télévision-<a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">Baird</a>-Natan. On April 14, 1931, there took place the first transmission with a thirty-line standard by <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="René Barthélemy">René Barthélemy</a>. On December 6, 1931, <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_France" title="Henri de France">Henri de France</a> created the Compagnie Générale de Télévision (CGT). In December 1932, Barthélemy carried out an experimental program in black and white (definition: 60 lines) one hour per week, "<i>Paris Télévision</i>", which gradually became daily from early 1933.
</p><p>The first official channel of French television appeared on February 13, 1935, the date of the official inauguration of television in France, which was broadcast in 60 lines from 8:15 to 8:30 pm. The program showed the actress Béatrice Bretty in the studio of Radio-PTT Vision at 103 rue de Grenelle in Paris. The broadcast had a range of 100 km (62 mi). On November 10, <a href="/wiki/George_Mandel" title="George Mandel">George Mandel</a>, Minister of Posts, inaugurated the first broadcast in 180 lines from the transmitter of the <a href="/wiki/Eiffel_Tower" title="Eiffel Tower">Eiffel Tower</a>. On the 18th, Susy Wincker, the first announcer since the previous June, carried out a demonstration for the press from 5:30 to 7:30 pm. Broadcasts became regular from January 4, 1937, from 11:00 to 11:30 am and 8:00 to 8:30 pm during the week, and from 5:30 to 7:30 pm on Sundays. In July 1938, a decree defined for three years a standard of <a href="/wiki/455-line_television_system" title="455-line television system">455 lines</a> VHF (whereas three standards were used for the experiments: 441 lines for Gramont, 450 lines for the Compagnie des Compteurs and 455 for Thomson). In 1939, there were about only 200 to 300 individual television sets, some of which were also available in a few public places.
</p><p>With the entry of France into World War II the same year, broadcasts ceased and the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was sabotaged. On September 3, 1940, French television was seized by the German occupation forces. A technical agreement was signed by the Compagnie des Compteurs and <a href="/wiki/Telefunken" title="Telefunken">Telefunken</a>, and a financing agreement for the resuming of the service is signed by German Ministry of Post and Radiodiffusion Nationale (<a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy</a>'s radio). On May 7, 1943, at 3:00 evening broadcasts. The first broadcast of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fernsehsender_Paris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fernsehsender Paris (page does not exist)">Fernsehsender Paris</a> (Paris Télévision) was transmitted from rue Cognac-Jay. These regular broadcasts (5<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span> hours a day) lasted until August 16, 1944. One thousand 441-line sets, most of which were installed in soldiers' hospitals, picked up the broadcasts. These German-controlled television broadcasts from the Eiffel Tower in Paris were able to be received on the south coast of England by <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> and BBC engineers,<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who photographed the station identification image direct from the screen.
</p><p>In 1944, René Barthélemy developed an <a href="/wiki/819-line" class="mw-redirect" title="819-line">819-line</a> television standard. During the years of occupation, Barthélemy reached 1015 and even 1042 lines. On October 1, 1944, television service resumed after the <a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_Paris" title="Liberation of Paris">liberation of Paris</a>. The broadcasts were transmitted from the Cognacq-Jay studios. In October 1945, after repairs, the transmitter of the Eiffel Tower was back in service. On November 20, 1948, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a> decreed a broadcast standard of 819 lines; broadcasting began at the end of 1949 in this definition. Besides France, this standard was later adopted by Algeria, Monaco, and Morocco. Belgium and Luxembourg used a modified version of this standard with bandwidth narrowed to 7 MHz.<sup id="cite_ref-britbroadcasttrans_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britbroadcasttrans-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Development of color coding standard <a href="/wiki/SECAM" title="SECAM">SECAM</a> began in 1956, by a team led by <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_France" title="Henri de France">Henri de France</a> working at <i>Compagnie Française de Télévision</i>; NTSC was considered undesirable in Europe because of its tint problem, requiring an additional <a href="/wiki/Tint_control" title="Tint control">control</a>, which SECAM, and later PAL, solved. Some have argued that the primary motivation for the development of SECAM in France was to protect French television equipment manufacturers.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, incompatibility had started with the earlier unusual decision to adopt positive <a href="/wiki/Video_modulation" title="Video modulation">video modulation</a> for 819-line French broadcast signals (only the UK's <a href="/wiki/405-line" class="mw-redirect" title="405-line">405-line</a> was similar; widely adopted <a href="/wiki/525_lines" title="525 lines">525-</a> and <a href="/wiki/625-line" class="mw-redirect" title="625-line">625-line</a> systems used negative video). Nonetheless, SECAM was partly developed for reasons of national pride. Henri de France's personal <a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">charisma</a> and ambition may have been a contributing factor; PAL was developed by <a href="/wiki/Telefunken" title="Telefunken">Telefunken</a>, a German company.
</p><p>The first proposed system was called <b>SECAM I</b> and tested in December 1961, followed by other studies to improve compatibility and image quality,<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was too soon for a wide introduction. A version of SECAM for the French 819-line television standard was devised and tested, but never introduced.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germany">Germany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Germany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Electromechanical broadcasts began in Germany in 1929, but were without sound until 1934. Network electronic service started on March 22, 1935, on <a href="/wiki/180_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="180 lines">180 lines</a> using <a href="/wiki/Telecine" title="Telecine">telecine</a> transmission of film, <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_film_system" title="Intermediate film system">intermediate film system</a>, or cameras using the Nipkow Disk. Transmissions using cameras based on the <a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">iconoscope</a> began on January 15, 1936. The Berlin <a href="/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics" title="1936 Summer Olympics">Summer Olympic Games</a> were televised, using both all-electronic iconoscope-based cameras and intermediate film cameras, to Berlin and <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> in August 1936. Twenty-eight public television rooms were opened for anybody who did not own a television set. The Germans had a 441-line system on the air in February 1937, and during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> brought it to France, where they broadcast from the Eiffel Tower.
</p><p>After the end of World War II, the victorious Allies imposed a general ban on all radio and television broadcasting in Germany. Radio broadcasts for information purposes were soon permitted again, but television broadcasting was allowed to resume only in 1948.
</p><p>In East Germany, the head of broadcasting in the Soviet occupation zone, Hans Mahler, predicted in 1948 that in the near future 'a new and important technical step forward in the field of broadcasting in Germany will begin its triumphant march: television.' In 1950, the plans for a nationwide television service got off the ground, and a Television Centre in Berlin was approved. Transmissions began on December 21, 1952, using the 625-line standard developed in the Soviet Union in 1944, although at that time there were probably no more than 75 television receivers capable of receiving the programming.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In West Germany, the British occupation forces as well as <a href="/wiki/NWDR" class="mw-redirect" title="NWDR">NWDR</a> (Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk), which had started work in the British zone straight after the war, agreed to the launch of a television station. Even before this, German television specialists had agreed on 625 lines as the future standard.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This standard had narrower channel bandwidth (7 MHz) compared to the Soviet specification (8 MHz), allowing three television channels to fit into the <a href="/wiki/VHF_I" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF I">VHF I</a> band. In 1963 a second broadcaster (<a href="/wiki/ZDF" title="ZDF">ZDF</a>) started. Commercial stations began programming in the 1980s.
</p><p>When color was introduced, West Germany (1967) chose a variant of the <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> color system, modified by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Bruch" title="Walter Bruch">Walter Bruch</a> and called <a href="/wiki/PAL" title="PAL">PAL</a>. East Germany (1969) accepted the French <a href="/wiki/SECAM" title="SECAM">SECAM</a> system, which was used in Eastern European countries. With the reunification of Germany, it was decided to switch to the PAL color system. The system was changed in December 1990.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italy">Italy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>In Italy, the first experimental tests on television broadcasts were made in <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a> since 1934. The city already hosted the Center for Management of the <a href="/wiki/EIAR" class="mw-redirect" title="EIAR">EIAR</a> (lately renamed as <a href="/wiki/RAI" title="RAI">RAI</a>) at the premises of the Theatre of Turin. Subsequently, the EAIR established offices in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>.
On July 22, 1939, comes into operation in Rome the first television transmitter at the EIAR station, which performed a regular broadcast for about a year using a 441-line system that was developed in Germany. In September of the same year, a second television transmitter was installed in Milan, making experimental broadcasts during major events in the city.
</p><p>The broadcasts were suddenly ended on May 31, 1940, by order of the government, allegedly because of interferences encountered in the first air navigation systems. Also, the imminent participation in the war is believed to have played a role in this decision. EIAR transmitting equipment was relocated to Germany by the German troops. Lately, it was returned to Italy.
</p><p>The first official television broadcast began on January 3, 1954, by the RAI.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TestBroadcast-NHK_STRL-1939.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/TestBroadcast-NHK_STRL-1939.png/220px-TestBroadcast-NHK_STRL-1939.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/TestBroadcast-NHK_STRL-1939.png/330px-TestBroadcast-NHK_STRL-1939.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/TestBroadcast-NHK_STRL-1939.png/440px-TestBroadcast-NHK_STRL-1939.png 2x" data-file-width="1838" data-file-height="1877" /></a><figcaption>First television test broadcast transmitted by the NHK Broadcasting Technology Research Institute in May 1939</figcaption></figure>
<p>Television broadcasting in Japan started on May 13, 1939,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making the country one of the first in the world with an experimental television service. The broadcasts were in <a href="/wiki/441-line_television_system" title="441-line television system">441-lines</a> with 25 frames/second and 4.5 MHz video bandwidth.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first television tests were conducted as early as 1926 using a combined mechanical <a href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">Nipkow disk</a> and electronic <a href="/wiki/Braun_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Braun tube">Braun tube</a> system, later switching to an all-electronic system in 1935 using a domestically developed <a href="/wiki/Iconoscope" title="Iconoscope">iconoscope</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of that, because of the beginning of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II_in_the_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="World War II in the Pacific">World War II in the Pacific</a> region, this first full-fledged TV broadcast experimentation lasted only a few months. Regular television broadcasts would eventually start in 1953.
</p><p>In 1979, NHK first developed a consumer high-definition television with a 5:3 display aspect ratio.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system, known as Hi-Vision or MUSE after its <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sub-Nyquist_sampling_encoding" title="Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding">Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding</a> for encoding the signal, required about twice the bandwidth of the existing NTSC system but provided about four times the resolution (1080i/1125 lines). Satellite test broadcasts started in 1989, with regular testing starting in 1991 and regular broadcasting of <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_Satellite_(Japanese)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcasting Satellite (Japanese)">BS</a>-9ch commenced on November 25, 1994, which featured commercial and NHK <a href="/wiki/Television_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Television program">television programming</a>.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> first demonstrated a wideband <a href="/wiki/Analog_high-definition_television_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog high-definition television system">analog high-definition television system</a> <a href="/wiki/HDTV" class="mw-redirect" title="HDTV">HDTV</a> capable video camera, monitor and <a href="/wiki/Video_tape_recorder" title="Video tape recorder">video tape recorder</a> (VTR) in April 1981 at an international meeting of television engineers in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sony_HDVS" title="Sony HDVS">Sony HDVS</a> range was launched in April 1984, with the HDC-100 camera, HDV-100 video recorder and HDS-100 <a href="/wiki/Video_switcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Video switcher">video switcher</a> all working in the 1125-line <a href="/wiki/Component_video" title="Component video">component video</a> format with <a href="/wiki/Interlaced_video" title="Interlaced video">interlaced video</a> and a 5:3 aspect ratio.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mexico">Mexico</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The first testing television station in Mexico signed on in 1935. When <a href="/wiki/KFMB-TV" title="KFMB-TV">KFMB-TV</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Diego" title="San Diego">San Diego</a> signed on in 1949, <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a> became the first state to receive a commercial television station over the air. Within a year, the Mexican government would adopt the U.S. NTSC 525-line B/W 60-field-per-second system as the country's broadcast standard. In 1950, the first commercial television station within Mexico, <a href="/wiki/XHTV" class="mw-redirect" title="XHTV">XHTV</a> in Mexico City, signed on the air, followed by <a href="/wiki/XEW-TV" class="mw-redirect" title="XEW-TV">XEW-TV</a> in 1951 and <a href="/wiki/XHGC" class="mw-redirect" title="XHGC">XHGC</a> in 1952. Those three were not only the first television stations in the country, but also the flagship stations of <a href="/wiki/Telesistema_Mexicano" title="Telesistema Mexicano">Telesistema Mexicano</a>, which was formed in 1955. That year, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Azc%C3%A1rraga_Vidaurreta" title="Emilio Azcárraga Vidaurreta">Emilio Azcárraga Vidaurreta</a>, who had signed on XEW-TV, entered into a partnership with <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3mulo_O%27Farrill" title="Rómulo O'Farrill">Rómulo O'Farrill</a> who had signed on XHTV, and <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Camarena" title="Guillermo González Camarena">Guillermo González Camarena</a>, who had signed on XHGC. The earliest <a href="/wiki/3D_television" title="3D television">3D television</a> broadcasts in the world were broadcast over XHGC in 1954. Color television was introduced in 1962, also over XHGC-TV. One of Telesistema Mexicano's earliest broadcasts as a network, over XEW-TV, on June 25, 1955, was the first international North American broadcast in the medium's history, and was jointly aired with NBC in the United States, where it aired as the premiere episode of <i><a href="/wiki/Wide_Wide_World" title="Wide Wide World">Wide Wide World</a>,</i> and the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Except for a brief period between 1969 and 1973, nearly every commercial television station in Mexico, with exceptions in the border cities, was expected to affiliate with a subnetwork of Telesistema Mexicano or its successor, <a href="/wiki/Televisa" title="Televisa">Televisa</a> (formed by the 1973 merger of Telesistema Mexicano and <a href="/wiki/Television_Independiente_de_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Television Independiente de Mexico">Television Independiente de Mexico</a>). This condition would not be relaxed for good until 1993, when Imevision was privatized to become <a href="/wiki/TV_Azteca" title="TV Azteca">TV Azteca</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union_(USSR)"><span id="Soviet_Union_.28USSR.29"></span>Soviet Union (USSR)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Soviet Union (USSR)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Television in the Soviet Union">Television in the Soviet Union</a></div>
<p>The Soviet Union began offering 30-line electromechanical test broadcasts in Moscow on October 31, 1931, and a commercially manufactured television set in 1932.
</p><p>First electronic television system on 180 lines at 25 fps was created in the beginning of 1935 in Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In September 1937 the experimental Leningrad TV Center (OLTC) was put in action. OLTC worked with 240 lines at 25 fps progressive scan.<sup id="cite_ref-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In Moscow, experimental transmissions of electronic television took place on March 9, 1937, using equipment manufactured by <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a>. Regular broadcasting began on December 31, 1938. It was quickly realized that 343 lines of resolution offered by this format would have become insufficient in the long run, thus a specification for 441-line format at 25 fps interlaced was developed in 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV_160-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Television broadcasts were suspended during <a href="/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Patriotic War">Great Patriotic War</a>. In 1944, while the war was still raging, a new standard, offering 625 lines of vertical resolution was prepared. This format was ultimately accepted as a national standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV_160-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The transmissions in 625-line format started in Moscow on November 4, 1948. Regular broadcasting began on June 16, 1949. Details for this standard were formalized in 1955 specification called <i>GOST 7845-55, basic parameters for black-and-white television broadcast</i>. In particular, frame size was set to 625 lines, frame rate to 25 frames/s interlaced, and video bandwidth to 6 MHz. These basic parameters were accepted by most countries having 50 Hz mains frequency and became the foundation of television systems presently known as PAL and SECAM.
</p><p>Starting in 1951, broadcasting in the 625-line standard was introduced in other major cities of the Soviet Union.
</p><p>Color television broadcast started in 1967, using SECAM color system.<sup id="cite_ref-60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turkey">Turkey</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Turkey"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The first Turkish <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> channel, <a href="/wiki/ITU_TV" title="ITU TV">ITU TV</a>, was launched in 1952. The first national television is <a href="/wiki/TRT_1" title="TRT 1">TRT 1</a> and was launched in 1964. <a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">Color television</a> was introduced in 1981. Before 1989 there was the only channel, the state broadcasting company TRT, and it broadcast in several times of the dateline. <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>'s first private television channel <a href="/wiki/Star_TV_(Turkey)" class="mw-redirect" title="Star TV (Turkey)">Star</a> started it broadcast on 26 May 1989. Until then there was only one television channel controlled by the state, but with the wave of liberalization, privately owned broadcasting began. Turkey's television market is defined by a handful of big channels, led by <a href="/wiki/Kanal_D" title="Kanal D">Kanal D</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATV_(Turkey)" class="mw-redirect" title="ATV (Turkey)">ATV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Show_TV" title="Show TV">Show</a>, with 14%, 10% and 9.6% market share, respectively. The most important reception platforms are terrestrial and satellite, with almost 50% of homes using satellite (of these 15% were pay services) at the end of 2009. Three services dominate the multi-channel market: the satellite platforms <a href="/wiki/Digit%C3%BCrk" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitürk">Digitürk</a> and <a href="/wiki/D-Smart" title="D-Smart">D-Smart</a> and the cable TV service <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_(company)" title="Türksat (company)">Türksat</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The first British television broadcast was made by Baird Television's electromechanical system over the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> radio transmitter in September 1929. Baird provided a limited amount of programming five days a week by 1930. During this time, Southampton earned the distinction of broadcasting the first-ever live television interview, which featured Peggy O'Neil, an actress and singer from <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 22, 1932, BBC launched its own regular service using Baird's 30-line electromechanical system, continuing until September 11, 1935.
</p><p>On November 2, 1936, <a href="/wiki/First_day_of_television_programmes" class="mw-redirect" title="First day of television programmes">the BBC began transmitting</a> the world's first public regular high-definition service from the Victorian <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Palace" title="Alexandra Palace">Alexandra Palace</a> in north London.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns1998576_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1998576-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It therefore claims to be the birthplace of TV broadcasting as we know it today. It was a dual-system service, alternating between Marconi-EMI's <a href="/wiki/405-line" class="mw-redirect" title="405-line">405-line</a> standard and Baird's improved 240-line standard, from <a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Palace" title="Alexandra Palace">Alexandra Palace</a> in London. The <a href="/wiki/BBC_Television" title="BBC Television">BBC Television</a> Service continues to this day.
</p><p>The government, on advice from a special advisory committee, decided that Marconi-EMI's electronic system gave the superior picture, and the Baird system was dropped in February 1937. TV broadcasts in London were on the air an average of four hours daily from 1936 to 1939. There were 12,000 to 15,000 receivers. Some sets in restaurants or bars might have 100 viewers for sport events (Dunlap, p56). The outbreak of the Second World War caused the BBC service to be abruptly suspended on September 1, 1939, at 12:35 pm, after a Mickey Mouse cartoon and test signals were broadcast,<sup id="cite_ref-MickeyMouse_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MickeyMouse-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so that transmissions could not be used as a beacon to guide enemy aircraft to London.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> It resumed, again from Alexandra Palace on June 7, 1946, after the end of the war, began with a live programme that opened with the line "Good afternoon everybody. How are you? Do you remember me, Jasmine Bligh?" and was followed by the same Mickey Mouse cartoon broadcast on the last day before the war.<sup id="cite_ref-MickeyMouse_165-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MickeyMouse-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the end of 1947 there were 54,000 licensed television receivers, compared with 44,000 television sets in the United States at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-Shagawat_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shagawat-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The first transatlantic television signal was sent in 1928 from London to New York<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television, although this signal was not broadcast to the public. The first live satellite signal to Britain from the United States was broadcast via the <a href="/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar</a> satellite on July 23, 1962.
</p><p>The first live broadcast from the European continent was made on August 27, 1950.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">Television in the United States</a></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WNBT_first_TV_schedule.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/02/WNBT_first_TV_schedule.jpg/220px-WNBT_first_TV_schedule.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/02/WNBT_first_TV_schedule.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="345" /></a><figcaption>WNBT (later <a href="/wiki/WNBC" title="WNBC">WNBC</a>) schedule for first week of commercial TV programming in the United States, July 1941</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/wiki/WRGB" title="WRGB">WRGB</a> claims to be the world's oldest <a href="/wiki/Television_station" title="Television station">television station</a>, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on January 13, 1928, broadcasting from the <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a> factory in <a href="/wiki/Schenectady,_NY" class="mw-redirect" title="Schenectady, NY">Schenectady, NY</a>, under the call letters <b>W2XB</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call letters <a href="/wiki/W2XBS" class="mw-redirect" title="W2XBS">W2XBS</a> and which today is known as <a href="/wiki/WNBC" title="WNBC">WNBC</a>. The two stations were experimental in nature and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of a <a href="/wiki/Felix_the_Cat" title="Felix the Cat">Felix the Cat</a> doll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as new technology was being tested by the engineers.
</p><p>The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States began on July 2, 1928, fifteen months before the United Kingdom. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Radio_Commission" title="Federal Radio Commission">Federal Radio Commission</a> authorized <a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Jenkins" title="Charles Francis Jenkins">C. F. Jenkins</a> to broadcast from experimental station W3XK in Wheaton, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> For at least the first eighteen months, 48-line silhouette images from motion picture film were broadcast, although beginning in the summer of 1929 he occasionally broadcast in halftones.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Gernsback" title="Hugo Gernsback">Hugo Gernsback</a>'s New York City radio station began a regular, if limited, schedule of <a href="/wiki/Live_television" title="Live television">live television</a> broadcasts on August 14, 1928, using 48-line images. Working with only one transmitter, the station alternated radio broadcasts with silent television images of the station's <a href="/wiki/Call_sign" title="Call sign">call sign</a>, faces in motion, and wind-up toys in motion.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Speaking later that month, Gernsback downplayed the broadcasts, intended for amateur experimenters. "In six months we may have television for the public, but so far we have not got it."<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gernsback also published <i>Television</i>, the world's first magazine about the medium.
</p><p><a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>'s experimental station in <a href="/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York" title="Schenectady, New York">Schenectady, New York</a>, on the air sporadically since January 13, 1928, was able to broadcast reflected-light, 48-line images via <a href="/wiki/Shortwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave">shortwave</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a>, and by September was making four television broadcasts weekly. It is considered to be the direct predecessor of current television station <a href="/wiki/WRGB" title="WRGB">WRGB</a>. <i>The Queen's Messenger</i>, a one-act play broadcast on September 11, 1928, was the world's first live drama on television.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Radio giant <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a> began daily experimental television broadcasts in New York City in March 1929 over station <a href="/wiki/W2XBS" class="mw-redirect" title="W2XBS">W2XBS</a>, the predecessor of current television station <a href="/wiki/WNBC" title="WNBC">WNBC</a>. The 60-line transmissions consisted of pictures, signs, and views of persons and objects.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experimental broadcasts continued to 1931.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=General_Broadcasting_System&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="General Broadcasting System (page does not exist)">General Broadcasting System</a>'s <a href="/wiki/WINS_(AM)" title="WINS (AM)">WGBS</a> radio and <a href="/wiki/W2XCR" title="W2XCR">W2XCR</a> television aired their regular broadcasting debut in New York City on April 26, 1931, with a special demonstration set up in Aeolian Hall at Fifth Avenue and Fifty-fourth Street. Thousands waited to catch a glimpse of the Broadway stars who appeared on the six-inch (15 cm) square image, in an evening event to publicize a weekday programming schedule offering films and live entertainers during the four-hour daily broadcasts. Appearing were boxer <a href="/wiki/Primo_Carnera" title="Primo Carnera">Primo Carnera</a>, actors <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_Lawrence" title="Gertrude Lawrence">Gertrude Lawrence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Calhern" title="Louis Calhern">Louis Calhern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frances_Upton" title="Frances Upton">Frances Upton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Atwill" title="Lionel Atwill">Lionel Atwill</a>, WHN announcer <a href="/wiki/Nils_Granlund" title="Nils Granlund">Nils Granlund</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Forman_Sisters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Forman Sisters (page does not exist)">Forman Sisters</a>, and a host of others.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>'s New York City station W2XAB began broadcasting their first regular seven-day-a-week television schedule on July 21, 1931, with a 60-line electromechanical system. The first broadcast included Mayor <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Walker" title="Jimmy Walker">Jimmy Walker</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Boswell_Sisters" class="mw-redirect" title="Boswell Sisters">Boswell Sisters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kate_Smith" title="Kate Smith">Kate Smith</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_Gershwin" title="George Gershwin">George Gershwin</a>. The service ended in February 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Don_Lee_(broadcaster)" title="Don Lee (broadcaster)">Don Lee Broadcasting</a>'s station W6XAO in Los Angeles went on the air in December 1931. Using the <a href="/wiki/UHF" class="mw-redirect" title="UHF">UHF</a> spectrum, it broadcast a regular schedule of filmed images every day except Sundays and holidays for several years.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>By 1935, low-definition electromechanical television broadcasting had ceased in the United States except for a handful of stations run by public universities that continued to 1939. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) saw television in the continual flux of development with no consistent technical standards, hence all such stations in the U.S. were granted only experimental and <a href="/wiki/Non-commercial" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-commercial">non-commercial</a> licenses, hampering television's economic development. Just as importantly, Philo Farnsworth's August 1934 demonstration of an all-electronic system at the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a> in Philadelphia pointed out the direction of television's future.
</p><p>On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a one-month-long demonstration of high definition (240+ line) television in Los Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL, now <a href="/wiki/KCBS-TV" title="KCBS-TV">KCBS-TV</a>) with a 300-line image from motion picture film. By October, W6XAO was making daily television broadcasts of films. By 1934 <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a> increased the definition to 343 interlaced lines and the frame rate to 30 per second.<sup id="cite_ref-Magoun_65_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magoun_65-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On July 7, 1936, RCA and its subsidiary <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> demonstrated in New York City a <a href="/wiki/343-line_television_system" title="343-line television system">343-line</a> electronic television broadcast with live and film segments to its licensees, and made its first public demonstration to the press on November 6. Irregularly scheduled broadcasts continued through 1937 and 1938.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regularly scheduled electronic broadcasts began in April 1938 in New York (to the second week of June, and resuming in August) and Los Angeles.<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NBC officially began regularly scheduled television broadcasts in New York on April 30, 1939, with a broadcast of the opening of the <a href="/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1939 New York World's Fair">1939 New York World's Fair</a>.
</p><p>In 1937 RCA raised the frame definition to 441 lines, and its executives petitioned the FCC for approval of the standard.<sup id="cite_ref-Magoun_65_180-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magoun_65-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By June 1939, regularly scheduled 441-line electronic television broadcasts were available in New York City and Los Angeles, and by November on General Electric's station in Schenectady. From May through December 1939, the New York City NBC station (W2XBS) of RCA broadcast twenty to fifty-eight hours of programming per month, Wednesday through Sunday of each week. The programming was 33% news, 29% drama, and 17% educational programming, with an estimated 2,000 receiving sets by the end of the year, and an estimated audience of five to eight thousand. A remote truck could cover outdoor events from up to 10 miles (16 km) away from the transmitter, which was located atop the <a href="/wiki/Empire_State_Building" title="Empire State Building">Empire State Building</a>. Coaxial cable was used to cover events at <a href="/wiki/Madison_Square_Garden" title="Madison Square Garden">Madison Square Garden</a>. The coverage area for reliable reception was a radius of 40 to 50 miles (80 km) from the Empire State Building, an area populated by more than 10,000,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The FCC adopted <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a> television engineering standards on May 2, 1941, calling for 525 lines of vertical resolution, 30 frames per second with <a href="/wiki/Interlaced_scanning" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlaced scanning">interlaced scanning</a>, 60 fields per second, and sound carried by <a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a>. Sets sold since 1939 that were built for slightly lower resolution could still be adjusted to receive the new standard. (Dunlap, p31). The FCC saw television ready for commercial licensing, and the first such licenses were issued to NBC- and CBS-owned stations in New York on July 1, 1941, followed by <a href="/wiki/Philco" title="Philco">Philco</a>'s station <a href="/wiki/KYW-TV" title="KYW-TV">WPTZ</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>.
</p><p>In the U.S., the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941, but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing a <a href="/wiki/Television_license" class="mw-redirect" title="Television license">television license</a> fee on owners of television reception equipment to fund the <a href="/wiki/British_Broadcasting_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="British Broadcasting Corporation">British Broadcasting Corporation</a> (BBC), which had public service as part of its <a href="/wiki/Royal_charter" title="Royal charter">royal charter</a>.
</p><p>The first official, paid advertising to appear on American commercial television occurred on the afternoon of July 1, 1941, over New York station WNBT (now <a href="/wiki/WNBC" title="WNBC">WNBC</a>) before a baseball game between the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Dodgers" title="Brooklyn Dodgers">Brooklyn Dodgers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Phillies" title="Philadelphia Phillies">Philadelphia Phillies</a>. The announcement for <a href="/wiki/Bulova" title="Bulova">Bulova</a> watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>After the U.S. entry into World War II, the FCC reduced the required minimum air time for commercial television stations from 15 hours per week to 4 hours. Most TV stations suspended broadcasting; of the ten original television stations only six continued through the war.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the few that remained, programs included entertainment such as boxing and plays, events at Madison Square Garden, and illustrated war news as well as training for air raid wardens and first aid providers. In 1942, there were 5,000 sets in operation, but production of new TVs, radios, and other broadcasting equipment for civilian purposes was suspended from April 1942 to August 1945 (Dunlap).
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Philco_Predicta_television.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Philco_Predicta_television.jpg/220px-The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Philco_Predicta_television.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Philco_Predicta_television.jpg/330px-The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Philco_Predicta_television.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Philco_Predicta_television.jpg/440px-The_Childrens_Museum_of_Indianapolis_-_Philco_Predicta_television.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="802" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Philco" title="Philco">Philco</a> <a href="/wiki/Predicta" title="Predicta">Predicta</a>, 1958. In the collection of <a href="/wiki/The_Children%27s_Museum_of_Indianapolis" title="The Children's Museum of Indianapolis">The Children's Museum of Indianapolis</a></figcaption></figure>
<p>By 1947, when there were 40 million radios in the U.S., there were about 44,000 television sets (with probably 30,000 in the New York area).<sup id="cite_ref-Shagawat_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shagawat-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regular <a href="/wiki/Network_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Network television">network television</a> broadcasts began on <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> on a three-station network linking New York with the Capital District and Philadelphia in 1944; on the <a href="/wiki/DuMont_Television_Network" title="DuMont Television Network">DuMont Television Network</a> in 1946, and on <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a> and <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a> in 1948.
</p><p>Following the rapid rise of television after the war, the Federal Communications Commission was flooded with applications for television station licenses. With more applications than available television channels, the FCC ordered a freeze on processing station applications in 1948 that remained in effect until April 14, 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_189-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>By 1949, the networks stretched from New York to the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, and by 1951 to the West Coast. Commercial <a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">color television</a> broadcasts began on CBS in 1951 with a <a href="/wiki/Field-sequential_color_system" title="Field-sequential color system">field-sequential color system</a> that was suspended four months later for technical and economic reasons. The television industry's <a href="/wiki/National_Television_System_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="National Television System Committee">National Television System Committee</a> (NTSC) developed a color television system based on RCA technology that was compatible with existing black and white receivers, and commercial color broadcasts reappeared in 1953.
</p><p>With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 80s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to a switchover to <a href="/wiki/Digital_terrestrial_television" title="Digital terrestrial television">digital terrestrial television</a> broadcasts, which offer pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternate to CATV for <a href="/wiki/Cord_cutters" class="mw-redirect" title="Cord cutters">cord cutters</a>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cable_television">Cable television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cable television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable television</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cable_television_by_region" title="Cable television by region">Cable television by region</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236091366"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2014</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables.
</p><p>The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for "community access television" or "community antenna television", from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924.
</p><p>Early cable television was analog, but since the 2000s all cable operators have switched to, or are in the process of switching to, digital cable television.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Satellite_television">Satellite television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Satellite television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Satellite television</a></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview_2">Overview</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p><b>Satellite television</b> is a system of supplying <a href="/wiki/Television_programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Television programming">television programming</a> using <a href="/wiki/Broadcast" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcast">broadcast</a> signals relayed from <a href="/wiki/Communication_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication satellite">communication satellites</a>. The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna usually referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">satellite dish</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Low-noise_block_downconverter" title="Low-noise block downconverter">low-noise block downconverter</a> (LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired <a href="/wiki/Television_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Television programme">television programme</a> for viewing on a <a href="/wiki/Television_set" title="Television set">television set</a>. Receivers can be external <a href="/wiki/Set-top_box" title="Set-top box">set-top boxes</a>, or a built-in <a href="/wiki/Television_tuner" class="mw-redirect" title="Television tuner">television tuner</a>. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_television" title="Terrestrial television">terrestrial television</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a>.
</p><p>The most common method of reception is <a href="/wiki/Direct-broadcast_satellite_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-broadcast satellite television">direct-broadcast satellite television</a> (DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH).<sup id="cite_ref-tr101198_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tr101198-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from a <a href="/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct broadcast satellite">direct broadcast satellite</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub></a> wavelength and are completely digital.<sup id="cite_ref-m101_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-m101-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known as <a href="/wiki/Television_receive-only" title="Television receive-only">television receive-only</a>. These systems received analog signals transmitted in the <a href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C-band</a> spectrum from <a href="/wiki/Fixed_Service_Satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed Service Satellite">FSS</a> type satellites, and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems, and were more expensive and less popular.<sup id="cite_ref-fcc_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fcc-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Direct-broadcast_satellite_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-broadcast satellite television">direct-broadcast satellite television</a> signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver. <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_(broadcasting)" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital signal (broadcasting)">Digital signals</a> may include <a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">high-definition television</a> (HDTV). Some transmissions and channels are <a href="/wiki/Free-to-air" title="Free-to-air">free-to-air</a> or <a href="/wiki/Free-to-view" title="Free-to-view">free-to-view</a>, while many other channels are <a href="/wiki/Pay_television" title="Pay television">pay television</a> requiring a subscription.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
In 1945 British <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a> proposed a worldwide communications system that would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in earth orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was published in the October 1945 issue of the <a href="/wiki/Wireless_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless World">Wireless World</a> magazine and won him the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Institute" title="Franklin Institute">Franklin Institute</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Ballantine_Medal" title="Stuart Ballantine Medal">Stuart Ballantine Medal</a> in 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The first satellite television signals from <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> to <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> were relayed via the <a href="/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar</a> satellite over the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> ocean on July 23, 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-histchannel_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histchannel-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million.<sup id="cite_ref-histchannel_200-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-histchannel-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Launched in 1962, the <i><a href="/wiki/Relay_program" title="Relay program">Relay 1</a></i> satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-relay1_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-relay1-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first <a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous" class="mw-redirect" title="Geosynchronous">geosynchronous</a> <a href="/wiki/Communication_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication satellite">communication satellite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syncom_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncom 2">Syncom 2</a>, was launched on July 26, 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The world's first commercial communications satellite, called <a href="/wiki/Intelsat_I" title="Intelsat I">Intelsat I</a> and nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on April 6, 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first national <a href="/wiki/Television_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Television network">network</a> of television satellites, called <a href="/wiki/Orbita_(TV_system)" title="Orbita (TV system)">Orbita</a>, was created by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> in October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly elliptical <a href="/wiki/Molniya_(satellite)" title="Molniya (satellite)">Molniya</a> satellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of television <a href="/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signalling (telecommunication)">signals</a> to a network of twenty ground <a href="/wiki/Downlink" class="mw-redirect" title="Downlink">downlink</a> stations each equipped with a parabolic antenna 39 feet (12 m) in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sovsathistory_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sovsathistory-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>'s geostationary <a href="/wiki/Anik_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Anik 1">Anik 1</a>, which was launched on 9 November 1972.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/ATS-6" title="ATS-6">ATS-6</a>, the world's first experimental educational and <a href="/wiki/Direct_Broadcast_Satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct Broadcast Satellite">Direct Broadcast Satellite</a> (DBS), was launched on May 30, 1974.<sup id="cite_ref-ats_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ats-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.<sup id="cite_ref-tvdx_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tvdx-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In the Soviet Union, the Moskva (or <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>) system of broadcasting and delivering of TV signals via satellites was launched in 1979. Stationary and mobile downlink stations with parabolic antennas 13.1 and 8.2 feet (4 and 2.5 m)<sup id="cite_ref-gorizont_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gorizont-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in diameter were receiving signal from <a href="/wiki/Gorizont" title="Gorizont">Gorizont</a> communication satellites deployed to <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">geostationary orbits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sovsathistory_205-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sovsathistory-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carry <a href="/wiki/Direct-To-Home" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-To-Home">Direct-To-Home</a> television, <a href="/wiki/Ekran" title="Ekran">Ekran</a> 1, was launched on October 26, 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existing <a href="/wiki/UHF_television_broadcasting" title="UHF television broadcasting">UHF television technology</a> rather than microwave technology.<sup id="cite_ref-Ekran_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ekran-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beginning_of_the_satellite_TV_industry">Beginning of the satellite TV industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Beginning of the satellite TV industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>In the United States, the satellite television industry developed from the <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a> industry as communication satellites were being used to distribute television programming to remote <a href="/wiki/Cable_television_headend" title="Cable television headend">cable television headends</a>. <a href="/wiki/Home_Box_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="Home Box Office">Home Box Office</a> (HBO), <a href="/wiki/Turner_Broadcasting_System" title="Turner Broadcasting System">Turner Broadcasting System</a> (TBS), and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Broadcasting_Network" title="Christian Broadcasting Network">Christian Broadcasting Network</a> (CBN, later <a href="/wiki/The_Family_Channel_(US_TV_network)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Family Channel (US TV network)">The Family Channel</a>) were among the first to use satellite television to deliver programming. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_Howard" title="Taylor Howard">Taylor Howard</a> of <a href="/wiki/San_Andreas,_California" title="San Andreas, California">San Andreas</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> became the first person to receive C-band satellite signals with his home-built system in 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-tayhoward_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tayhoward-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>, a non-profit public broadcasting service, began to distribute its television programming by satellite in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-pbs78_213-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pbs78-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 18, 1979, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">Federal Communications Commission</a> (FCC) began allowing people to have home satellite earth stations without a federal government license.<sup id="cite_ref-dms_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dms-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The front cover of the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Neiman-Marcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Neiman-Marcus">Neiman-Marcus</a> Christmas catalogue featured the first home satellite TV stations on sale for $36,500.<sup id="cite_ref-uspopcult_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uspopcult-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dishes were nearly 20 feet (6.1 m) in diameter<sup id="cite_ref-lat_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lat-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were remote-controlled.<sup id="cite_ref-denverpost_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-denverpost-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The price went down by half soon after that, but there were only eight more channels.<sup id="cite_ref-Stein_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stein-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Society for Private and Commercial Earth Stations (SPACE), an organisation that represented consumers and satellite TV system owners was established in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Early satellite television systems were not very popular due to their expense and large dish size.<sup id="cite_ref-baltsun_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baltsun-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The satellite television dishes of the systems in the late 1970s and early 1980s were 10 to 16 feet (3.0 to 4.9 m) in diameter,<sup id="cite_ref-deseret_221-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deseret-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made of <a href="/wiki/Fibreglass" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibreglass">fibreglass</a> or solid <a href="/wiki/Aluminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum">aluminum</a> or <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-baylin_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baylin-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the United States cost more than $5,000, sometimes as much as $10,000.<sup id="cite_ref-Stecklow_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stecklow-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Programming sent from ground stations was relayed from eighteen satellites in <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">geostationary orbit</a> located 22,300 miles (35,900 km) above the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Reibstein_224-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reibstein-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Akron_225-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akron-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="TVRO/C-band_satellite_era"><span id="TVRO.2FC-band_satellite_era"></span>TVRO/C-band satellite era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: TVRO/C-band satellite era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Television_receive-only" title="Television receive-only">Television receive-only</a></div>
<p>By 1980, satellite television was well established in the <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television_in_the_United_States" title="Satellite television in the United States">US</a> and Europe. On April 26, 1982, the first satellite channel in the UK, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Satellite_Television_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Satellite Television Ltd (page does not exist)">Satellite Television Ltd</a>. (later <a href="/wiki/Sky1" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky1">Sky1</a>), was launched.<sup id="cite_ref-bbcable_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbcable-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its signals were transmitted from the <a href="/wiki/ESA" class="mw-redirect" title="ESA">ESA</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Orbital_Test_Satellite" title="Orbital Test Satellite">Orbital Test Satellites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bbcable_226-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbcable-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1981 and 1985, TVRO systems' sales rates increased as prices fell. Advances in receiver technology and the use of Gallium Arsenide <a href="/wiki/FET" class="mw-redirect" title="FET">FET</a> technology enabled the use of smaller dishes. 500,000 systems, some costing as little as $2000, were sold in the US in 1984.<sup id="cite_ref-Stecklow_223-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stecklow-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sbca_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sbca-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dishes pointing to one satellite were even cheaper.<sup id="cite_ref-wichita_228-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wichita-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People in areas without local broadcast stations or cable television service could obtain good-quality reception with no monthly fees.<sup id="cite_ref-Stecklow_223-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stecklow-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Akron_225-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akron-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large dishes were a subject of much consternation, as many people considered them <a href="/wiki/Eyesore" title="Eyesore">eyesores</a>, and in the US most condominiums, neighborhoods, and other homeowner associations tightly restricted their use, except in areas where such restrictions were illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-fcc_194-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fcc-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These restrictions were altered in 1986 when the Federal Communications Commission ruled all of them illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-baltsun_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baltsun-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A municipality could require a property owner to relocate the dish if it violated other zoning restrictions, such as a setback requirement, but could not outlaw their use.<sup id="cite_ref-baltsun_220-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baltsun-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The necessity of these restrictions would slowly decline as the dishes got smaller.<sup id="cite_ref-baltsun_220-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baltsun-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Originally, all channels were broadcast in the clear (ITC) because the equipment necessary to receive the programming was too expensive for consumers. With the growing number of TVRO systems, the program providers and broadcasters had to <a href="/wiki/Television_encryption" title="Television encryption">scramble</a> their signal and develop subscription systems.
</p><p>In October 1984, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Congress">U.S. Congress</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Cable_Communications_Policy_Act_of_1984" title="Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984">Cable Communications Policy Act of 1984</a>, which gave those using TVRO systems the right to receive signals for free unless they were scrambled, and required those who did scramble to make their signals available for a reasonable fee.<sup id="cite_ref-Akron_225-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akron-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_229-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since cable channels could prevent reception by big dishes, other companies had an incentive to offer competition.<sup id="cite_ref-Turned_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turned-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In January 1986, <a href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a> began using the now-obsolete <a href="/wiki/VideoCipher" class="mw-redirect" title="VideoCipher">VideoCipher</a> II system to <a href="/wiki/Television_encryption" title="Television encryption">encrypt their channels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-deseret_221-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deseret-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other channels uses less secure <a href="/wiki/Television_encryption" title="Television encryption">television encryption</a> systems. The scrambling of HBO was met with much protest from owners of big-dish systems, most of which had no other option at the time for receiving such channels, claiming that clear signals from cable channels would be difficult to receive.<sup id="cite_ref-philly_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philly-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually HBO allowed dish owners to subscribe directly to their service for $12.95 per month, a price equal to or higher than what cable subscribers were paying, and required a <a href="/wiki/Descrambler" class="mw-redirect" title="Descrambler">descrambler</a> to be purchased for $395.<sup id="cite_ref-philly_231-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philly-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the <a href="/wiki/Broadcast_signal_intrusion" title="Broadcast signal intrusion">attack</a> on HBO's transponder <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_1" title="Galaxy 1">Galaxy 1</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_R._MacDougall" class="mw-redirect" title="John R. MacDougall">John R. MacDougall</a> in April 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-philly_231-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-philly-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One by one, all commercial channels followed HBO's lead and began scrambling their channels.<sup id="cite_ref-prodpiracy_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prodpiracy-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Satellite_Broadcasting_and_Communications_Association" title="Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association">Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association</a> SBCA was founded on December 2, 1986, as the result of a merger between SPACE and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Association (DBSA).<sup id="cite_ref-sbca_227-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sbca-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Videocipher II used analog scrambling on its video signal and <a href="/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard" title="Data Encryption Standard">Data Encryption Standard</a> based encryption on its audio signal. VideoCipher II was defeated, and there was a <a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">black market</a> for descrambler devices, which were initially sold as "test" devices.<sup id="cite_ref-prodpiracy_232-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-prodpiracy-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_1980s_and_1990s_to_present">Late 1980s and 1990s to present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Late 1980s and 1990s to present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dishing_out_the_truth.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Dishing_out_the_truth.JPG/220px-Dishing_out_the_truth.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Dishing_out_the_truth.JPG/330px-Dishing_out_the_truth.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Dishing_out_the_truth.JPG/440px-Dishing_out_the_truth.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>DBS satellite dishes</figcaption></figure>
<p>By 1987, nine channels were scrambled, but 99 others were available free-to-air.<sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_229-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While HBO initially charged a monthly fee of $19.95, soon it became possible to unscramble all channels for $200 a year.<sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_229-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dish sales went down from 600,000 in 1985 to 350,000 in 1986, but pay television services were seeing dishes as something positive since some people would never have cable service, and the industry was starting to recover as a result.<sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_229-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scrambling also led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Pay-per-view" title="Pay-per-view">pay-per-view</a> events.<sup id="cite_ref-Chicago_229-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chicago-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On November 1, 1988, <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a> began scrambling its C-band signal but left its <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub> band</a> signal unencrypted in order for affiliates to not lose viewers who could not see their advertising.<sup id="cite_ref-sfc_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfc-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the two million satellite dish users in the United States still used C-band.<sup id="cite_ref-sfc_233-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfc-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a> and <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a> were considering scrambling, though CBS was reluctant due to the number of people unable to receive local <a href="/wiki/Network_affiliate" title="Network affiliate">network affiliates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sfc_233-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfc-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The piracy on satellite television networks in the US led to the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Cable_Television_Consumer_Protection_and_Competition_Act_of_1992" title="Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992">Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992</a>. This legislation enabled anyone caught engaging in signal theft to be fined up to $50,000 and to be sentenced to a maximum of two years in prison.<sup id="cite_ref-cableact_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cableact-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A repeat offender can be fined up to $100,000 and be imprisoned for up to five years.<sup id="cite_ref-cableact_234-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cableact-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Satellite television had also developed in <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television_by_region#Europe" title="Satellite television by region">Europe</a> but it initially used low power communication satellites and it required dish sizes of over 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in). On December 11, 1988 <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> launched <a href="/wiki/Astra_1A" title="Astra 1A">Astra 1A</a>, the first satellite to provide medium power satellite coverage to Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-n2yo_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-n2yo-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was one of the first medium-powered satellites, transmitting signals in K<sub>u</sub> band and allowing reception with small dishes (90 cm).<sup id="cite_ref-n2yo_235-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-n2yo-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The launch of Astra beat the winner of the UK's state Direct Broadcast Satellite licence holder, <a href="/wiki/British_Satellite_Broadcasting" title="British Satellite Broadcasting">British Satellite Broadcasting</a>, to the market.
</p><p>In the US in the early 1990s, four large cable companies launched <a href="/wiki/PrimeStar" title="PrimeStar">PrimeStar</a>, a direct broadcasting company using medium power satellite. The relatively strong transmissions allowed the use of smaller (90 cm) dishes. Its popularity declined with the 1994 launch of the <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Hughes Communications">Hughes</a> <a href="/wiki/DirecTV" title="DirecTV">DirecTV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dish_Network" title="Dish Network">Dish Network</a> satellite television systems.
</p><p>On March 4, 1996, EchoStar introduced Digital Sky Highway (Dish Network) using the EchoStar 1 satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-ctu10e_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ctu10e-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EchoStar launched a second satellite in September 1996 to increase the number of channels available on Dish Network to 170.<sup id="cite_ref-ctu10e_236-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ctu10e-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These systems provided better pictures and stereo sound on 150-200 video and audio channels, and allowed small dishes to be used. This greatly reduced the popularity of TVRO systems. In the mid-1990s, channels began moving their broadcasts to <a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital television</a> transmission using the <a href="/wiki/DigiCipher" class="mw-redirect" title="DigiCipher">DigiCipher</a> <a href="/wiki/Conditional_access" title="Conditional access">conditional access</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-insead_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-insead-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In addition to encryption, the widespread availability, in the US, of <a href="/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct broadcast satellite">DBS</a> services such as <a href="/wiki/PrimeStar" title="PrimeStar">PrimeStar</a> and <a href="/wiki/DirecTV" title="DirecTV">DirecTV</a> had been reducing the popularity of TVRO systems since the early 1990s. Signals from DBS satellites (operating in the more recent K<sub>u</sub> band) are higher in both frequency and power (due to improvements in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_panel" title="Solar panel">solar panels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_conversion_efficiency" title="Energy conversion efficiency">energy efficiency</a> of modern satellites) and therefore require much smaller dishes than C-band, and the <a href="/wiki/Digital_modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital modulation">digital modulation</a> methods now used require less <a href="/wiki/Signal_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal strength">signal strength</a> at the receiver than analog modulation methods.<sup id="cite_ref-nctfe_238-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nctfe-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each satellite also can carry up to 32 transponders in the K<sub>u</sub> band, but only 24 in the C band, and several <a href="/wiki/Digital_subchannel" title="Digital subchannel">digital subchannels</a> can be <a href="/wiki/Multiplex_(TV)" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiplex (TV)">multiplexed</a> (MCPC) or carried separately (<a href="/wiki/SCPC" class="mw-redirect" title="SCPC">SCPC</a>) on a single transponder.<sup id="cite_ref-artcn_239-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-artcn-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances in <a href="/wiki/Noise_reduction" title="Noise reduction">noise reduction</a> due to improved microwave technology and <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> materials have also had an effect.<sup id="cite_ref-artcn_239-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-artcn-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, one consequence of the higher frequencies used for DBS services is <a href="/wiki/Rain_fade" title="Rain fade">rain fade</a> where viewers lose signal during a heavy downpour. C-band satellite television signals are less prone to rain fade.<sup id="cite_ref-dishcable_240-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dishcable-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internet_television">Internet television</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Internet television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internet_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet television">Internet television</a></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Smart_TV" title="Smart TV">Smart TV</a> or <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_television" title="Internet Protocol television">Internet Protocol television</a>.</div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236091366"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2014</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Internet television (Internet TV), (online television) or IPTV (Internet Protocol Television) is the <a href="/wiki/Digital_distribution" title="Digital distribution">digital distribution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> content via the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable and satellite, although internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television shows and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters.
</p><p>Internet television is not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Smart_TV" title="Smart TV">Smart TV</a>, <a href="/wiki/IPTV" class="mw-redirect" title="IPTV">IPTV</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Web_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Web TV">Web TV</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smart_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart television">Smart television</a> refers to the TV set that has an inbuilt operating system. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Protocol_television" title="Internet Protocol television">Internet Protocol television</a> (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters. <a href="/wiki/Web_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Web television">Web television</a> is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Television_sets">Television sets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Television sets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Television_set" title="Television set">Television set</a></div>
<p>A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or telly, is a device that combines a tuner, display, and speakers for the purpose of viewing <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>. Introduced in the late 1920s in <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_television" title="Mechanical television">mechanical</a> form, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, using <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tubes</a>. The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets in the 1960s, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for the first recorded media in the 1970s, such as <a href="/wiki/VHS" title="VHS">VHS</a> and later <a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a>, as well as for early <a href="/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer">home computers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Videogame_console" class="mw-redirect" title="Videogame console">videogame consoles</a>. At the beginning of the 2010s <a href="/wiki/Flat_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Flat panel">flat panel</a> television incorporating liquid-crystal displays largely replaced <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tubes</a>. Modern flat panel TVs are typically capable of high-definition display (720p, 1080p or 2160p) and can also play content from a <a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a> device.
</p>
<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RCA_630-TS_Television.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RCA_630-TS_Television.jpg/220px-RCA_630-TS_Television.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RCA_630-TS_Television.jpg/330px-RCA_630-TS_Television.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/RCA_630-TS_Television.jpg/440px-RCA_630-TS_Television.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1546" /></a><figcaption>RCA 630-TS, the first mass-produced television set, which sold in 1946–1947</figcaption></figure>
<p><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_television" title="Mechanical television">Mechanical televisions</a> were commercially sold from 1928 to 1934 in the United Kingdom,<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> United States, and Soviet Union.<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest commercially made televisions sold by Baird called Televisors in the UK in 1928 were radios with the addition of a television device consisting of a <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a> tube behind a <a href="/wiki/Nipkow_disk" title="Nipkow disk">mechanically spinning disk</a> (patented by German engineer <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nipkow" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Nipkow">Paul Nipkow</a> in 1884) with a spiral of apertures first mass-produced television set, selling about a thousand units.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The first commercially made electronic televisions with <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode ray tube">cathode ray tubes</a> were manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Telefunken" title="Telefunken">Telefunken</a> in Germany in 1934,<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by other makers in France (1936),<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Britain (1936),<sup id="cite_ref-247" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the United States (1938).<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cheapest model with a 12-inch (30 cm) screen was $445 (equivalent to $9,632 in 2023).<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 19,000 electronic televisions were manufactured in Britain, and about 1,600 in Germany, before World War II. About 7,000–8,000 electronic sets were made in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-251" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before the <a href="/wiki/War_Production_Board" title="War Production Board">War Production Board</a> halted manufacture in April 1942, production resuming in August 1945. Television usage in the western world skyrocketed after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> with the lifting of the manufacturing freeze, war-related technological advances, the drop in television prices caused by mass production, increased leisure time, and additional disposable income. While only 0.5% of U.S. households had a television in 1946, 55.7% had one in 1954, and 90% by 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Britain, there were 15,000 television households in 1947, 1.4 million in 1952, and 15.1 million by 1968.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By the late 1960s and early 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Color_television" title="Color television">color television</a> had come into wide use. In Britain, <a href="/wiki/BBC1" class="mw-redirect" title="BBC1">BBC1</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC2" class="mw-redirect" title="BBC2">BBC2</a> and <a href="/wiki/ITV_(TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="ITV (TV channel)">ITV</a> were regularly broadcasting in color by 1969.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>
</p><p>In The Early 2010s, CRT display technology was largely supplanted worldwide by flat-panel displays such as <a href="/wiki/LCD_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="LCD TV">LCD</a>. Flat-panel television, especially LCD, has become the dominant form of television since the early 2010s.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technological_innovations">Technological innovations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Technological innovations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>The first national <a href="/wiki/Live_television" title="Live television">live television</a> broadcast in the U.S. took place on September 4, 1951, when President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a>'s speech at the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Peace_Treaty_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Peace Treaty Conference">Japanese Peace Treaty Conference</a> in <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a> was transmitted over <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a>'s transcontinental <a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">cable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microwave_radio_relay" class="mw-redirect" title="Microwave radio relay">microwave radio relay</a> system to broadcast stations in local markets.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The first live coast-to-coast commercial television broadcast in the U.S. took place on November 18, 1951, during the premiere of <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/See_It_Now" title="See It Now">See It Now</a></i>, which showed a split-screen view of the <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge" title="Brooklyn Bridge">Brooklyn Bridge</a> in New York City and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Gate_Bridge" title="Golden Gate Bridge">Golden Gate Bridge</a> in San Francisco.
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eurovision_Song_Contest" title="Eurovision Song Contest">Eurovision Song Contest</a> held yearly from 1956 by the <a href="/wiki/European_Broadcasting_Union" title="European Broadcasting Union">European Broadcasting Union</a> was launched, among other goals, with the aim to make technical improvements in the field of simultaneous sharing of TV signals across main national European broadcasters, a technical challenge by that time. It is the longest-running annual international televised music competition.
</p><p>In 1958, the <a href="/wiki/CBC_Television" title="CBC Television">CBC</a> completed the longest television network in the world, from <a href="/wiki/Sydney,_Nova_Scotia" title="Sydney, Nova Scotia">Sydney, Nova Scotia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Victoria,_British_Columbia" title="Victoria, British Columbia">Victoria, British Columbia</a>.
</p><p>Reportedly, the first continuous live broadcast of a "breaking" news story in the world was conducted by the CBC during the <a href="/wiki/Springhill_mining_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Springhill mining disaster">Springhill mining disaster</a>, which began on October 23, 1958.
</p><p>The development of <a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">cable television</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">satellite television</a> in the 1970s allowed for more channels and encouraged companies to target programming toward specific audiences. It also enabled the rise of <a href="/wiki/Subscription_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Subscription television">subscription television</a> channels, such as HBO and <a href="/wiki/Showtime_(TV_network)" title="Showtime (TV network)">Showtime</a> in the U.S., and <a href="/wiki/British_Sky_Broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="British Sky Broadcasting">Sky Television</a> in the U.K like ur mother did in 1948.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Television_pioneers">Television pioneers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Television pioneers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Important people in the development and contributions of TV technology.
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_von_Ardenne" title="Manfred von Ardenne">Manfred von Ardenne</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Blumlein" title="Alan Blumlein">Alan Blumlein</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Bruch" title="Walter Bruch">Walter Bruch</a> (PAL television)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guillermo_Gonz%C3%A1lez_Camarena" title="Guillermo González Camarena">Guillermo González Camarena</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Archibald_Campbell-Swinton" title="Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton">Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Karl Ferdinand Braun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Allen_B._DuMont" title="Allen B. DuMont">Allen B. DuMont</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Grabovsky" title="Boris Grabovsky">Boris Grabovsky</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Jenkins" title="Charles Francis Jenkins">Charles Francis Jenkins</a></li>
<li>Siegmund and David Loewe, founders of <a href="/wiki/Loewe_AG" class="mw-redirect" title="Loewe AG">Loewe AG</a> in 1923</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Muntz" class="mw-redirect" title="Earl Muntz">Earl Muntz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Gottlieb_Nipkow" title="Paul Gottlieb Nipkow">Paul Gottlieb Nipkow</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Perskyi" title="Constantin Perskyi">Constantin Perskyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rosing" title="Boris Rosing">Boris Rosing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ulises_Armand_Sanabria" title="Ulises Armand Sanabria">Ulises Armand Sanabria</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Shoenberg" title="Isaac Shoenberg">Isaac Shoenberg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kenjiro_Takayanagi" title="Kenjiro Takayanagi">Kenjiro Takayanagi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Theremin" title="Leon Theremin">Leon Theremin</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n_Tihanyi" title="Kálmán Tihanyi">Kálmán Tihanyi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Television_museums">Television museums</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Television museums"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<p>Museums focused on or exhibiting television history.
</p>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paley_Center_for_Media" title="Paley Center for Media">Paley Center for Media</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_York_City,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="New York City, New York">New York City, New York</a>, United States)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Central_Illinois%27_On-Line_Broadcast_Museum" title="Central Illinois' On-Line Broadcast Museum">Central Illinois' On-Line Broadcast Museum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Early_Television_Museum" title="Early Television Museum">Early Television Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hilliard,_Ohio" title="Hilliard, Ohio">Hilliard, Ohio</a>, United States)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Broadcast_Communications" title="Museum of Broadcast Communications">Museum of Broadcast Communications</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chicago,_Illinois" class="mw-redirect" title="Chicago, Illinois">Chicago, Illinois</a>, United States)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Science_and_Media_Museum" title="National Science and Media Museum">National Science and Media Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bradford,_West_Yorkshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradford, West Yorkshire">Bradford, West Yorkshire</a>, United Kingdom)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Australia" title="National Museum of Australia">National Museum of Australia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Acton,_Australian_Capital_Territory" title="Acton, Australian Capital Territory">Acton, Australian Capital Territory</a>)</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Interviews:_An_Oral_History_of_Television" title="The Interviews: An Oral History of Television">The Interviews: An Oral History of Television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Archives" title="BBC Archives">BBC Archives</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_usage_of_television" title="Geographical usage of television">Geographical usage of television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Television" title="Golden Age of Television">Golden Age of Television</a>, c. 1949–1960 in the U.S.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Television_(2000s%E2%80%93present)" title="Golden Age of Television (2000s–present)">Golden Age of Television (2000s–present)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">History of broadcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_film" title="History of film">History of film</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_journalism" title="History of journalism">History of journalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">History of radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theatre" title="History of theatre">History of theatre</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">History of videotelephony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_YouTube" title="History of YouTube">History of YouTube</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_experimental_television_stations" title="List of experimental television stations">List of experimental television stations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_television" title="List of years in television">List of years in television</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_American_television" title="List of years in American television">List of years in American television</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Muntzing" title="Muntzing">Muntzing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prewar_television_stations" title="Prewar television stations">Prewar television stations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_Hall_of_Fame" title="Television Hall of Fame">Television Hall of Fame</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_introduction_of_color_television_in_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the introduction of color television in countries">Timeline of the introduction of color television in countries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_introduction_of_television_in_countries" title="Timeline of the introduction of television in countries">Timeline of the introduction of television in countries</a></li></ul>
</div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">CBS considers it to be an ancestor of <a href="/wiki/WCBS-TV" title="WCBS-TV">WCBS-TV</a>, which first went on the air on July 1, 1941 as one of the first two commercially licensed television stations in the country (the other being the National Broadcasting Company's WNBC).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W6XAO later moved to VHF Channel 1 before World War II, and to Channel 2 in the post-war television realignment. It was commercially licensed in 1947 as KTSL and is the direct ancestor of current station <a href="/wiki/KCBS-TV" title="KCBS-TV">KCBS-TV</a>.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStephens2015" class="citation web cs1">Stephens, Mitchell (February 6, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page.htm">"History of Television"</a>. <i>www.nyu.edu</i>. New York University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.nyu.edu&rft.atitle=History+of+Television&rft.date=2015-02-06&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyu.edu%2Fclasses%2Fstephens%2FHistory%2520of%2520Television%2520page.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHuurdeman2003">Huurdeman (2003)</a>, p. 149 <i>The first telefax machine to be used in practical operation was invented by an Italian priest and professor of physics, Giovanni Caselli (1815–1891).</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeyer2003">Beyer (2003)</a>, p. 100 <i>The telegraph was the hot new </i>technology<i> of the moment, and Caselli wondered if it was possible to send pictures over telegraph wires. He went to work in 1855, and over the course of six years perfected what he called the "pantelegraph." It was the world's first practical fax machine.</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160115141648/http://www.telephonecollecting.org/caselli.htm">"Giovanni Caselli"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telephonecollecting.org/caselli.htm">the original</a> on January 15, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Giovanni+Caselli&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.telephonecollecting.org%2Fcaselli.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ShiersandShiers1322-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ShiersandShiers1322_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ShiersandShiers1322_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShiersShiers1997">Shiers & Shiers (1997)</a>, pp. 13, 22</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerskyi1900" class="citation conference cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Perskyi, Constantin (August 18–25, 1900). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.histv.net/perskyi-1900"><i>Télévision au moyen de l'électricité</i></a>. Congrès international d'électricité (in French). Paris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=T%C3%A9l%C3%A9vision+au+moyen+de+l%27%C3%A9lectricit%C3%A9&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1900-08-18%2F1900-08-25&rft.aulast=Perskyi&rft.aufirst=Constantin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.histv.net%2Fperskyi-1900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Sending_Photographs_by_Telegraph-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sending_Photographs_by_Telegraph_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1907/02/24/archives/sending-photographs-by-telegraph-professor-korn-has-triumphantly.html">"Sending Photographs by Telegraph"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180726172315/https://www.nytimes.com/1907/02/24/archives/sending-photographs-by-telegraph-professor-korn-has-triumphantly.html">Archived</a> July 26, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The New York Times</i>, Sunday Magazine, September 20, 1907, p. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Veronica Gelakoska, "Pig 'n Whistle", Arcadia Publishing, 2010, page 24</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it/2012/01/augusto-bissiri-is-credited-as-inventor.html">"Augusto Bissiri 'is credited as the inventor of television'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Augusto+Bissiri+%27is+credited+as+the+inventor+of+television%27&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it%2F2012%2F01%2Faugusto-bissiri-is-credited-as-inventor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://it.paperblog.com/l-antenato-del-tubo-catodico-e-stato-inventato-da-un-sardo-augusto-bissiri-804313/">"L'antenato del tubo catodico è stato inventato da un sardo: Augusto Bissiri"</a> (in Italian).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L%27antenato+del+tubo+catodico+%C3%A8+stato+inventato+da+un+sardo%3A+Augusto+Bissiri&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fit.paperblog.com%2Fl-antenato-del-tubo-catodico-e-stato-inventato-da-un-sardo-augusto-bissiri-804313%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it/2012/01/transmission-of-pictures-author-augusto.html">"Transmission of pictures. Author: Augusto Bissiri. Patented: May 14, 1929"</a>. 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Transmission+of+pictures.+Author%3A+Augusto+Bissiri.+Patented%3A+May+14%2C+1929.&rft.date=2012&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguaggio-macchina.blogspot.it%2F2012%2F01%2Ftransmission-of-pictures-author-augusto.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGelakoska2010" class="citation book cs1">Gelakoska, Veronica (October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ioobrcaDfdAC&q=augusto+bissiri+televisione&pg=PA34"><i>Pig 'N Whistle, Veronica Gelakoska</i></a>. Arcadia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780738581415" title="Special:BookSources/9780738581415"><bdi>9780738581415</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pig+%27N+Whistle%2C+Veronica+Gelakoska&rft.pub=Arcadia&rft.date=2010-10&rft.isbn=9780738581415&rft.aulast=Gelakoska&rft.aufirst=Veronica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DioobrcaDfdAC%26q%3Daugusto%2Bbissiri%2Btelevisione%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Varigny1909" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">de Varigny, Henry (December 11, 1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303231305/http://histv2.free.fr/rignoux/rignoux1909.htm"><i>La vision à distance</i></a> (in French). Paris: L'Illustration. p. 451. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://histv2.free.fr/rignoux/rignoux1909.htm">the original</a> on March 3, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+vision+%C3%A0+distance&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=451&rft.pub=L%27Illustration&rft.date=1909-12-11&rft.aulast=de+Varigny&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistv2.free.fr%2Frignoux%2Frignoux1909.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1998">Burns (1998)</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gZcwhVyiMqsC&pg=PA119">119</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom1958" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Ursula (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0CVrQgAACAAJ"><i>He Lit The Lamp: A Biography Of Professor A. M. Low</i></a>. Burke.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=He+Lit+The+Lamp%3A+A+Biography+Of+Professor+A.+M.+Low&rft.pub=Burke&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Ursula&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0CVrQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaloney2014" class="citation book cs1">Maloney, Alison (2014). <i>The World of Mr Selfridge: The Official Companion to the Hit ITV Series</i>. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4711-3885-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4711-3885-0"><bdi>978-1-4711-3885-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Mr+Selfridge%3A+The+Official+Companion+to+the+Hit+ITV+Series&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4711-3885-0&rft.aulast=Maloney&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMills2019" class="citation book cs1">Mills, Steve (2019). <i>The Dawn of the Drone</i>. Casemate Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dawn+of+the+Drone&rft.pub=Casemate+Publishers&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6VE_AQAAMAAJ"><i>Daily Consular and Trade Reports</i></a>. Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Manufactures. 1914.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Consular+and+Trade+Reports&rft.pub=Department+of+Commerce+and+Labor%2C+Bureau+of+Manufactures&rft.date=1914&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6VE_AQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiltman1927" class="citation book cs1">Tiltman, Ronald Frank (1927). <i>Television for the Home</i>. Hutchinson.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Television+for+the+Home&rft.pub=Hutchinson&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Tiltman&rft.aufirst=Ronald+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F115504a0">"Current Topics and Events"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>115</b> (2, 892): 504–508. 1925. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925Natur.115..504.">1925Natur.115..504.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F115504a0">10.1038/115504a0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Current+Topics+and+Events&rft.volume=115&rft.issue=2%2C+892&rft.pages=504-508&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F115504a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925Natur.115..504.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F115504a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird1933" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">Baird, J. L.</a> (1933). "Television in 1932". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bairdtelevision.com/television-in-1932-bbc-annual-report-1933.html"><i>BBC Annual Report 1933</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Television+in+1932&rft.btitle=BBC+Annual+Report+1933&rft.date=1933&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bairdtelevision.com%2Ftelevision-in-1932-bbc-annual-report-1933.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Radio Shows Far Away Objects in Motion". <i>The New York Times</i>. June 14, 1925. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Radio+Shows+Far+Away+Objects+in+Motion&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1925-06-14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-glinsky-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-glinsky_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-glinsky_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlinsky2000" class="citation book cs1">Glinsky, Albert (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thereminethermus00glin"><i>Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage</i></a></span>. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/thereminethermus00glin/page/41">41</a>–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02582-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-02582-2"><bdi>978-0-252-02582-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theremin%3A+Ether+Music+and+Espionage&rft.place=Urbana%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=41-45&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-252-02582-2&rft.aulast=Glinsky&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fthereminethermus00glin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1544156">U.S. patent 1,544,156</a></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-nhk.or.jp-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nhk.or.jp_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nhk.or.jp_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nhk.or.jp_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160101180643/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/"><i>Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television</i></a>, NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation), 2002, retrieved 2009-05-23.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wQhlFaxDwrsC&pg=PA220"><i>High Above: The untold story of Astra, Europe's leading satellite company</i>, page 220</a>, <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer Science+Business Media</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DJsbJq2_djkC&pg=PA5">"TV's Japanese Dad?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Photography" title="Popular Photography">Popular Photography</a></i>. November 1990. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Photography&rft.atitle=TV%27s+Japanese+Dad%3F&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1990-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDJsbJq2_djkC%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Wireless-World/20s/Wireless-World-1927-06.pdf">"Television Demonstration in America"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Wireless World and Radio Review</i>. Vol. 20, no. 22. London. June 1, 1927. pp. 680–686.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wireless+World+and+Radio+Review&rft.atitle=Television+Demonstration+in+America&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=680-686&rft.date=1927-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldradiohistory.com%2FUK%2FWireless-World%2F20s%2FWireless-World-1927-06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbramson1987">Abramson (1987)</a>, p. 101</span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLean2000" class="citation book cs1">McLean, Donald F. (2000). <i>Restoring Baird's Image</i>. London: IEEE. p. 184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restoring+Baird%27s+Image&rft.place=London&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=IEEE&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=McLean&rft.aufirst=Donald+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/ve9ak.html">"VE9AK"</a>. Earlytelevision.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 2,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=VE9AK&rft.pub=Earlytelevision.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlytelevision.org%2Fve9ak.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/peck.html">"Peck Television Corporation Console Receiver and Camera"</a>. Early Television Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 18,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Peck+Television+Corporation+Console+Receiver+and+Camera&rft.pub=Early+Television+Museum&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlytelevision.org%2Fpeck.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCodelli" class="citation book cs1">Codelli, Anton. <i>Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940</i>. p. 192. article 1,898.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Television%3A+A+Bibliographic+Guide+to+1940&rft.pages=192&rft.aulast=Codelli&rft.aufirst=Anton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912014709/http://www.culture.si/en/Radio-Television_Slovenia_(RTV_Slovenia)">"Radio-Television Slovenia (RTV Slovenia)"</a>. Culture.si. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.culture.si/en/Radio-Television_Slovenia_(RTV_Slovenia)">the original</a> on September 12, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Radio-Television+Slovenia+%28RTV+Slovenia%29&rft.pub=Culture.si&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.culture.si%2Fen%2FRadio-Television_Slovenia_%28RTV_Slovenia%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span> The first known transmitted TV image on the territory of Slovenia</span>
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<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraun1897" class="citation book cs1">Braun, Ferdinand (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20141217172841/http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89048352892;view=1up;seq=568"><i>Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufs variabler Ströme</i></a> [<i>On a process for the display and study of the course in time of variable currents</i>]. Vol. 60. pp. 552–559. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89048352892;view=1up;seq=568">the original</a> on December 17, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ueber+ein+Verfahren+zur+Demonstration+und+zum+Studium+des+zeitlichen+Verlaufs+variabler+Str%C3%B6me&rft.pages=552-559&rft.date=1897&rft.aulast=Braun&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dwu.89048352892%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D568&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.discoveriesinmedicine.com/Bar-Cod/Cathode-Ray-Tube-CRT.html">"Cathode Ray Tube"</a>. <i>Medical Discoveries</i>. Advameg, Inc. 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 27,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medical+Discoveries&rft.atitle=Cathode+Ray+Tube&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.discoveriesinmedicine.com%2FBar-Cod%2FCathode-Ray-Tube-CRT.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLehrer1985" class="citation book cs1">Lehrer, Norman, H. (1985). "The Challenge of the Cathode-Ray Tube". In Tannas, Lawrence E. Jr. (ed.). <i>Flat-Panel Displays and CRTS</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Van_Nostrand_Reinhold" class="mw-redirect" title="Van Nostrand Reinhold">Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.</a> pp. 138–176. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-7062-8_6">10.1007/978-94-011-7062-8_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-011-7062-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-011-7062-8"><bdi>978-94-011-7062-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Challenge+of+the+Cathode-Ray+Tube&rft.btitle=Flat-Panel+Displays+and+CRTS&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=138-176&rft.pub=Van+Nostrand+Reinhold+Company+Inc.&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-011-7062-8_6&rft.isbn=978-94-011-7062-8&rft.aulast=Lehrer&rft.aufirst=Norman%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/karl-ferdinand-braun">"Karl Ferdinand Braun"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Karl+Ferdinand+Braun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lindahall.org%2Fabout%2Fnews%2Fscientist-of-the-day%2Fkarl-ferdinand-braun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Dieckmann-CRT-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dieckmann-CRT_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMax_Dieckmann1909" class="citation journal cs1">Max Dieckmann (July 24, 1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/scientificamerican/journal/v68/n1751supp/pdf/scientificamerican07241909-61supp.pdf">"The problem of television, a partial solution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Scientific American Supplement</i>. <b>68</b>: 61–62. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican07241909-61supp">10.1038/scientificamerican07241909-61supp</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American+Supplement&rft.atitle=The+problem+of+television%2C+a+partial+solution&rft.volume=68&rft.pages=61-62&rft.date=1909-07-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican07241909-61supp&rft.au=Max+Dieckmann&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fscientificamerican%2Fjournal%2Fv68%2Fn1751supp%2Fpdf%2Fscientificamerican07241909-61supp.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Swinton_DEV1-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Swinton_DEV1_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell-Swinton1908" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Archibald_Campbell-Swinton" title="Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton">Campbell-Swinton, A. A.</a> (June 18, 1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1429503">"Distant Electric Vision (first paragraph)"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>78</b> (2016): 151. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1908Natur..78..151S">1908Natur..78..151S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F078151a0">10.1038/078151a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3956737">3956737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Distant+Electric+Vision+%28first+paragraph%29&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=2016&rft.pages=151&rft.date=1908-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3956737%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F078151a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1908Natur..78..151S&rft.aulast=Campbell-Swinton&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1429503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Swinton_DEV2-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Swinton_DEV2_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell-Swinton1908" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Archibald_Campbell-Swinton" title="Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton">Campbell-Swinton, A. A.</a> (June 18, 1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1429503">"Distant Electric Vision"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>78</b> (2016): 151. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1908Natur..78..151S">1908Natur..78..151S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F078151a0">10.1038/078151a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3956737">3956737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Distant+Electric+Vision&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=2016&rft.pages=151&rft.date=1908-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3956737%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F078151a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1908Natur..78..151S&rft.aulast=Campbell-Swinton&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1429503&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Distant Electric Vision", <i>The Times</i> (London), Nov. 15, 1911, p. 24b.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Swinton_Braid-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Swinton_Braid_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBairdtelevision" class="citation web cs1">Bairdtelevision. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bairdtelevision.com/swinton.html">"Alan Archivald Campbell-Swinton (1863–1930)"</a>. <i>Biography</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 10,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biography&rft.atitle=Alan+Archivald+Campbell-Swinton+%281863%E2%80%931930%29&rft.au=Bairdtelevision&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bairdtelevision.com%2Fswinton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Swinton-Rontgen-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Swinton-Rontgen_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShiersShiers1997">Shiers & Shiers (1997)</a>, p. 56</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Swinton_ET1-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Swinton_ET1_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell-Swinton1926" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Archibald_Campbell-Swinton" title="Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton">Campbell-Swinton, A. A.</a> (October 23, 1926). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F118590a0">"Electric Television (abstract)"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>118</b> (2973): 590. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1926Natur.118..590S">1926Natur.118..590S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F118590a0">10.1038/118590a0</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4081053">4081053</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Electric+Television+%28abstract%29&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=2973&rft.pages=590&rft.date=1926-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4081053%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F118590a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1926Natur.118..590S&rft.aulast=Campbell-Swinton&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F118590a0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Burns-Swinton-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burns-Swinton_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1998">Burns (1998)</a>, p. 123</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Minchin-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Minchin_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG1914" class="citation journal cs1">G, R. A. (April 2, 1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1429585">"Prof. G. M. Minchin, F.R.S."</a> <i>Nature</i>. <b>93</b> (2318): 115–116. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1914Natur..93..115R">1914Natur..93..115R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F093115a0">10.1038/093115a0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Prof.+G.+M.+Minchin%2C+F.R.S.&rft.volume=93&rft.issue=2318&rft.pages=115-116&rft.date=1914-04-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F093115a0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1914Natur..93..115R&rft.aulast=G&rft.aufirst=R.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1429585&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Miller-Strange-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miller-Strange_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerStrange1938" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, H.; Strange, J. W. (May 2, 1938). "The electrical reproduction of images by the photoconductive effect". <i>Proceedings of the Physical Society</i>. <b>50</b> (3): 374–384. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1938PPS....50..374M">1938PPS....50..374M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0959-5309%2F50%2F3%2F307">10.1088/0959-5309/50/3/307</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Physical+Society&rft.atitle=The+electrical+reproduction+of+images+by+the+photoconductive+effect&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=374-384&rft.date=1938-05-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0959-5309%2F50%2F3%2F307&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1938PPS....50..374M&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Strange%2C+J.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Iams-Rose-1937-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Iams-Rose-1937_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIamsRose1937" class="citation journal cs1">Iams, H.; Rose, A. (August 1937). "Television Pickup Tubes with Cathode-Ray Beam Scanning". <i>Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers</i>. <b>25</b> (8): 1048–1070. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FJRPROC.1937.228423">10.1109/JRPROC.1937.228423</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51668505">51668505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Institute+of+Radio+Engineers&rft.atitle=Television+Pickup+Tubes+with+Cathode-Ray+Beam+Scanning&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1048-1070&rft.date=1937-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FJRPROC.1937.228423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51668505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Iams&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Rose%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abramson, Albert, <i>Zworykin, Pioneer of Television</i>, p. 16.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.B_Williams2017" class="citation book cs1">J.B Williams (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v4QlDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Electronics Revolution: Inventing the Future</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer Nature</a>. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319490885" title="Special:BookSources/9783319490885"><bdi>9783319490885</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Electronics+Revolution%3A+Inventing+the+Future&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9783319490885&rft.au=J.B+Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv4QlDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-IEC_Tihanyi-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IEC_Tihanyi_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IEC_Tihanyi_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml">Kálmán Tihanyi (1897–1947)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924033236/http://www.iec.ch/about/history/techline/swf/temp.xml">Archived</a> September 24, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>IEC Techline</i>, International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 2009-07-15.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23240&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html">"Hungary – Kálmán Tihanyi's 1926 Patent Application 'Radioskop'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Memory of the World</i>. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Memory+of+the+World&rft.atitle=Hungary+%E2%80%93+K%C3%A1lm%C3%A1n+Tihanyi%27s+1926+Patent+Application+%27Radioskop%27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fci%2Fen%2Fev.php-URL_ID%3D23240%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-US2133123-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-US2133123_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-US2133123_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US2133123">"Patent US2133123 - Television apparatus"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Patent+US2133123+-+Television+apparatus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS2133123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-US2158259-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-US2158259_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-US2158259_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US2158259">"Patent US2158259 - Television apparatus"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Patent+US2158259+-+Television+apparatus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS2158259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bairdtelevision.com/zworykin.html">"Vladimir Kosma Zworykin, 1889–1982"</a>. Bairdtelevision.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 17,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vladimir+Kosma+Zworykin%2C+1889%E2%80%931982&rft.pub=Bairdtelevision.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bairdtelevision.com%2Fzworykin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Radioskop-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Radioskop_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Radioskop_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-4/kalman-tihanyis-1926-patent-application-radioskop/">"Kálmán Tihanyi's 1926 Patent Application 'Radioskop'"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121025055406/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-4/kalman-tihanyis-1926-patent-application-radioskop/">Archived</a> October 25, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Memory of the World</i>, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (<a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>), 2005, retrieved 2009-01-29.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-abstract1928-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-abstract1928_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A">Tihanyi, Koloman, <i>Improvements in television apparatus</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204171044/https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=19301111&CC=GB&NR=313456A&KC=A">Archived</a> December 4, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. European Patent Office, Patent No. GB313456. Convention date UK application: 1928-06-11, declared void and published: 1930-11-11, retrieved: 2013-04-25.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Development_of_Electronic_Television,_1924-1941">"Milestones:Development of Electronic Television, 1924-1941"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Milestones%3ADevelopment+of+Electronic+Television%2C+1924-1941&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieeeghn.org%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FMilestones%3ADevelopment_of_Electronic_Television%2C_1924-1941&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Postman-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Postman_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20000531100005/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/farnsworth.html">Postman, Neil, "Philo Farnsworth"</a>, <i>The TIME 100: Scientists & Thinkers</i>, TIME.com, 1999-03-29, retrieved 2009-07-28.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-sfmuseum-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sfmuseum_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sfmuseum_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html">"Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906–1971)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110622033654/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist10/philo.html">Archived</a> June 22, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco</i>, retrieved 2009-07-15.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abramson, Albert, <i>Zworykin, Pioneer of Television</i>, p. 226.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete">The Philo T. and Elma G. Farnsworth Papers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080422211543/http://db3-sql.staff.library.utah.edu/lucene/Manuscripts/null/Ms0648.xml/complete">Archived</a> April 22, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abramson, Albert, <i>Zworykin, Pioneer of Television</i>, University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 51. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-02104-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-02104-5">0-252-02104-5</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-US1691324-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-US1691324_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ">Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140131053220/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ">Archived</a> January 31, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Patent No. 1691324, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1925-07-13, issued 1928-11-13. Retrieved 2009-07-28</span>
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<li id="cite_note-US2022450-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-US2022450_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ">Zworykin, Vladimir K., Television System</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518183522/http://www.google.com/patents?id=tQt-AAAAEBAJ">Archived</a> May 18, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Patent No. 2022450, U.S. Patent Office. Filed 1923-12-29, issued 1935-11-26. Retrieved 2010-05-10.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stashower, Daniel, <i><a href="//archive.org/details/boygeniusmogulun00stas/page/243/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:boygeniusmogulun00stas/page/243/mode/2up">The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television</a></i>, Broadway Books, 2002, p. 243–244. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7679-0759-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7679-0759-0">978-0-7679-0759-0</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Everson-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Everson_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEverson1949">Everson (1949)</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-NewYorkTimes-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NewYorkTimes_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence,_Williams_L.1933" class="citation news cs1">Lawrence, Williams L. (June 27, 1933). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1933/06/27/archives/humanlike-eye-made-by-engineers-to-televise-images-iconoscope.html">"Human-like eye made by engineers to televise images. 'Iconoscope' converts scenes into electrical energy for radio transmission. Fast as a movie camera. Three million tiny photo cells 'memorize', then pass out pictures. Step to home television. Developed in ten years' work by Dr. V. K. Zworykin, who describes it at Chicago"</a></span>. <i>The New York Times</i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Human-like+eye+made+by+engineers+to+televise+images.+%27Iconoscope%27+converts+scenes+into+electrical+energy+for+radio+transmission.+Fast+as+a+movie+camera.+Three+million+tiny+photo+cells+%27memorize%27%2C+then+pass+out+pictures.+Step+to+home+television.+Developed+in+ten+years%27+work+by+Dr.+V.+K.+Zworykin%2C+who+describes+it+at+Chicago.&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1933-06-27&rft.au=Lawrence%2C+Williams+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1933%2F06%2F27%2Farchives%2Fhumanlike-eye-made-by-engineers-to-televise-images-iconoscope.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShiersShiers1997">Shiers & Shiers (1997)</a>, p. xii</span>
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<li id="cite_note-TheHistoryofTV1-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TheHistoryofTV1_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbramson1987">Abramson (1987)</a>, p. 148</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Everson1-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Everson1_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEverson1949">Everson (1949)</a>, pp. 137–141</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Everson2-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Everson2_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEverson1949">Everson (1949)</a>, p. 139</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Everson3-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Everson3_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEverson1949">Everson (1949)</a>, p. 141</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vonardenne.biz/ja/company/history/manfred-von-ardenne/">"Manfred von Ardenne"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Manfred+von+Ardenne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vonardenne.biz%2Fja%2Fcompany%2Fhistory%2Fmanfred-von-ardenne%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Abramson, <i>Zworykin: Pioneer of Television</i>, University of Illinois Press, 1995, p. 111.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-dw-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dw_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kalenderblatt.de/index.php?what=thmanu&lang=de&manu_id=1737&sdt=20090322&maca=de-podcast_kalenderblatt-1086-xml-mrss">"22.3.1935: Erstes Fernsehprogramm der Welt"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Welle" title="Deutsche Welle">Deutsche Welle</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 27,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=22.3.1935%3A+Erstes+Fernsehprogramm+der+Welt&rft.pub=Deutsche+Welle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kalenderblatt.de%2Findex.php%3Fwhat%3Dthmanu%26lang%3Dde%26manu_id%3D1737%26sdt%3D20090322%26maca%3Dde-podcast_kalenderblatt-1086-xml-mrss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-computer-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computer_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190121012410/https://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html">"Es begann in der Fernsehstube: TV wird 80 Jahre alt"</a>. Computer Bild. March 22, 2015. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerbild.de/artikel/avf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html">the original</a> on January 21, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Es+begann+in+der+Fernsehstube%3A+TV+wird+80+Jahre+alt&rft.pub=Computer+Bild&rft.date=2015-03-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerbild.de%2Fartikel%2Favf-News-Fernseher-Es-begann-in-der-Fernsehstube-TV-wird-80-Jahre-alt-11525963.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA838">New Television System Uses 'Magnetic Lens'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204171031/https://books.google.com/books?id=yt8DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA838">Archived</a> December 4, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i>Popular Mechanics</i>, Dec. 1934, p. 838–839.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Burns370-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burns370_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1998">Burns (1998)</a>, p. 370</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-GB406353-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GB406353_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTedhamMcGee" class="citation web cs1">Tedham, William F.; McGee, James D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19340226&CC=GB&NR=406353A&KC=A">"Improvements in or relating to cathode ray tubes and the like"</a>. <i>Patent No. GB 406,353 (filed May 1932, patented 1934)</i>. United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patent+No.+GB+406%2C353+%28filed+May+1932%2C+patented+1934%29&rft.atitle=Improvements+in+or+relating+to+cathode+ray+tubes+and+the+like&rft.aulast=Tedham&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft.au=McGee%2C+James+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fv3.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2Fbiblio%3FDB%3DEPODOC%26adjacent%3Dtrue%26locale%3Den_V3%26FT%3DD%26date%3D19340226%26CC%3DGB%26NR%3D406353A%26KC%3DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-US2077442-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-US2077442_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTedhamMcGee" class="citation web cs1">Tedham, William F.; McGee, James D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130523212804/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ">"Cathode Ray Tube"</a>. <i>Patent No. 2,077,422 (filed in Great Britain 1932, filed in USA 1933, patented 1937)</i>. United States Patent Office. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=BYNaAAAAEBAJ">the original</a> on May 23, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 10,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patent+No.+2%2C077%2C422+%28filed+in+Great+Britain+1932%2C+filed+in+USA+1933%2C+patented+1937%29&rft.atitle=Cathode+Ray+Tube&rft.aulast=Tedham&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft.au=McGee%2C+James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fpatents%2Fabout%3Fid%3DBYNaAAAAEBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Burns576-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burns576_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1998">Burns (1998)</a>, p. 576</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Winstor-media-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winstor-media_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinston,_Brian1986" class="citation book cs1">Winston, Brian (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K_RpAAAAIAAJ&q=%22american+iconoscope%22+noisy"><i>Misunderstanding media</i></a>. Harvard University Press. pp. 60–61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-57663-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-57663-6"><bdi>978-0-674-57663-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Misunderstanding+media&rft.pages=60-61&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-674-57663-6&rft.au=Winston%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK_RpAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522american%2Biconoscope%2522%2Bnoisy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Winstor-history-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Winstor-history_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinston,_Brian1998" class="citation book cs1">Winston, Brian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TZOF_1GZRmYC&q=american+iconoscope+noisy+"><i>Media technology and society. A history: from the telegraph to the Internet</i></a>. Routledge. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14230-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14230-4"><bdi>978-0-415-14230-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Media+technology+and+society.+A+history%3A+from+the+telegraph+to+the+Internet&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-14230-4&rft.au=Winston%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTZOF_1GZRmYC%26q%3Damerican%2Biconoscope%2Bnoisy%2B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Alexander-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander2000" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, Robert Charles (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=super+emitron"><i>The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein</i></a>. Focal Press. pp. 217–219. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51628-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51628-8"><bdi>978-0-240-51628-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 10,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+inventor+of+stereo%3A+the+life+and+works+of+Alan+Dower+Blumlein&rft.pages=217-219&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-240-51628-8&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Robert+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqRhx3UmYBz0C%26q%3Dsuper%2Bemitron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Burns-Blumlein-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burns-Blumlein_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2000" class="citation book cs1">Burns, R. W. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B2z2ONO7nBQC&q=blumlein+mcgee+cps+emitron+decelerating+zero"><i>The life and times of A D Blumlein</i></a>. IET. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85296-773-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85296-773-7"><bdi>978-0-85296-773-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 5,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+and+times+of+A+D+Blumlein&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=IET&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-85296-773-7&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB2z2ONO7nBQC%26q%3Dblumlein%2Bmcgee%2Bcps%2Bemitron%2Bdecelerating%2Bzero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-GB442666-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GB442666_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLubszynskiRodda" class="citation web cs1">Lubszynski, Hans Gerhard; Rodda, Sydney. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360212&CC=GB&NR=442666A&KC=A">"Improvements in or relating to television"</a>. <i>Patent No. GB 442,666 (filed May 1934, patented 1936)</i>. United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patent+No.+GB+442%2C666+%28filed+May+1934%2C+patented+1936%29&rft.atitle=Improvements+in+or+relating+to+television&rft.aulast=Lubszynski&rft.aufirst=Hans+Gerhard&rft.au=Rodda%2C+Sydney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fv3.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2Fbiblio%3FDB%3DEPODOC%26adjacent%3Dtrue%26locale%3Den_V3%26FT%3DD%26date%3D19360212%26CC%3DGB%26NR%3D442666A%26KC%3DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-GB446661-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GB446661_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumleinMcGee" class="citation web cs1">Blumlein, Alan Dower; McGee, James Dwyer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360504&CC=GB&NR=446661A&KC=A">"Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems"</a>. <i>Patent No. GB 446,661 (filed August 1934, patented 1936)</i>. United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patent+No.+GB+446%2C661+%28filed+August+1934%2C+patented+1936%29&rft.atitle=Improvements+in+or+relating+to+television+transmitting+systems&rft.aulast=Blumlein&rft.aufirst=Alan+Dower&rft.au=McGee%2C+James+Dwyer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fv3.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2Fbiblio%3FDB%3DEPODOC%26adjacent%3Dtrue%26locale%3Den_V3%26FT%3DD%26date%3D19360504%26CC%3DGB%26NR%3D446661A%26KC%3DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-GB446664-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GB446664_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGee" class="citation web cs1">McGee, James Dwyer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&adjacent=true&locale=en_V3&FT=D&date=19360505&CC=GB&NR=446664A&KC=A">"Improvements in or relating to television transmitting systems"</a>. <i>Patent No. GB 446,664 (filed September 1934, patented 1936)</i>. United Kingdom Intellectual Property Office<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 9,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patent+No.+GB+446%2C664+%28filed+September+1934%2C+patented+1936%29&rft.atitle=Improvements+in+or+relating+to+television+transmitting+systems&rft.aulast=McGee&rft.aufirst=James+Dwyer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fv3.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2Fbiblio%3FDB%3DEPODOC%26adjacent%3Dtrue%26locale%3Den_V3%26FT%3DD%26date%3D19360505%26CC%3DGB%26NR%3D446664A%26KC%3DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Alexander2-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Alexander2_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander2000" class="citation book cs1">Alexander, Robert Charles (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qRhx3UmYBz0C&q=emitron+cenotaph+armistice"><i>The inventor of stereo: the life and works of Alan Dower Blumlein</i></a>. Focal Press. p. 216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51628-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-51628-8"><bdi>978-0-240-51628-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 10,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+inventor+of+stereo%3A+the+life+and+works+of+Alan+Dower+Blumlein&rft.pages=216&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-240-51628-8&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Robert+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqRhx3UmYBz0C%26q%3Demitron%2Bcenotaph%2Barmistice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Inglis-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Inglis_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInglis1990" class="citation book cs1">Inglis, Andrew F. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xiu4AAAAIAAJ&q=image-iconoscope+telefunken"><i>Behind the tube: a history of broadcasting technology and business</i></a>. Focal Press. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-80043-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-80043-1"><bdi>978-0-240-80043-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behind+the+tube%3A+a+history+of+broadcasting+technology+and+business&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=Focal+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-240-80043-1&rft.aulast=Inglis&rft.aufirst=Andrew+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxiu4AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dimage-iconoscope%2Btelefunken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-DE450187-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DE450187_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDieckmannHell" class="citation web cs1">Dieckmann, Max; Hell, Rudolf. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://v3.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=DE&NR=450187C&KC=C&FT=D&date=19271003&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_V3">"Lichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröehre für Fernseher"</a>. <i>Patent No. DE 450,187 (filed 1925, patented 1927)</i>. Deutsches Reich Reichspatentamt<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patent+No.+DE+450%2C187+%28filed+1925%2C+patented+1927%29&rft.atitle=Lichtelektrische+Bildzerlegerr%C3%B6ehre+f%C3%BCr+Fernseher&rft.aulast=Dieckmann&rft.aufirst=Max&rft.au=Hell%2C+Rudolf&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fv3.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2ForiginalDocument%3FCC%3DDE%26NR%3D450187C%26KC%3DC%26FT%3DD%26date%3D19271003%26DB%3DEPODOC%26locale%3Den_V3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-US1773980-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-US1773980_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth" class="citation web cs1">Farnsworth, Philo T. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130523192021/http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ">"Television System"</a>. <i>Patent No. 1,773,980 (filed 1927, patented 1930)</i>. United States Patent Office. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/patents/about?id=HRd5AAAAEBAJ">the original</a> on May 23, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 28,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patent+No.+1%2C773%2C980+%28filed+1927%2C+patented+1930%29&rft.atitle=Television+System&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=Philo+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fpatents%2Fabout%3Fid%3DHRd5AAAAEBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Vries-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vries_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Vriesde_VriesCrossGrant1993" class="citation book cs1">de Vries, M. J.; de Vries, Marc; Cross, Nigel; Grant, Donald P. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4T8U_J1h7noC&q=image-iconoscope+image-orthicon+telefunken"><i>Design methodology and relationships with science, Número 71 de NATO ASI series</i></a>. Springer. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2191-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-2191-0"><bdi>978-0-7923-2191-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Design+methodology+and+relationships+with+science%2C+N%C3%BAmero+71+de+NATO+ASI+series&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-2191-0&rft.aulast=de+Vries&rft.aufirst=M.+J.&rft.au=de+Vries%2C+Marc&rft.au=Cross%2C+Nigel&rft.au=Grant%2C+Donald+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4T8U_J1h7noC%26q%3Dimage-iconoscope%2Bimage-orthicon%2Btelefunken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Multicon-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Multicon_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Multicon_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1953" class="citation web cs1">Smith, Harry (July 1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100318011743/http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html">"Multicon – A new TV camera tube"</a>. <i>newspaper article</i>. Early Television Foundation and Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/multicon.html">the original</a> on March 18, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=newspaper+article&rft.atitle=Multicon+%E2%80%93+A+new+TV+camera+tube&rft.date=1953-07&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlytelevision.org%2Fmulticon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Heimann1-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heimann1_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGittel2008" class="citation web cs1">Gittel, Joachim (October 11, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Spezialroehren.htm">"Spezialröhren"</a>. <i>photographic album</i>. Jogis Röhrenbude<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=photographic+album&rft.atitle=Spezialr%C3%B6hren&rft.date=2008-10-11&rft.aulast=Gittel&rft.aufirst=Joachim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jogis-roehrenbude.de%2FRoehren-Geschichtliches%2FSpezialroehren%2FSpezialroehren.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ETM-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ETM_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110617080126/http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html">"TV Camera Tubes, German "Super Iconoscope" (1936)"</a>. <i>photographic album</i>. Early Television Foundation and Museum. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/prewar_camera_tubes.html">the original</a> on June 17, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=photographic+album&rft.atitle=TV+Camera+Tubes%2C+German+%22Super+Iconoscope%22+%281936%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlytelevision.org%2Fprewar_camera_tubes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Heimann2-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Heimann2_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGittel2008" class="citation web cs1">Gittel, Joachim (October 11, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/Heimann.htm">"FAR-Röhren der Firma Heimann"</a>. <i>photographic album</i>. Jogis Röhrenbude<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=photographic+album&rft.atitle=FAR-R%C3%B6hren+der+Firma+Heimann&rft.date=2008-10-11&rft.aulast=Gittel&rft.aufirst=Joachim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jogis-roehrenbude.de%2FRoehren-Geschichtliches%2FSpezialroehren%2FIkonoskop_Heimann%2FHeimann.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Philips-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Philips_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"5854, Image Iconoscope, Philips". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf"><i>electronic tube handbook</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Philips. 1958. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060903223404/http://www.jogis-roehrenbude.de/Roehren-Geschichtliches/Spezialroehren/Ikonoskop_Heimann/5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on September 3, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 15,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5854%2C+Image+Iconoscope%2C+Philips&rft.btitle=electronic+tube+handbook&rft.pub=Philips&rft.date=1958&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jogis-roehrenbude.de%2FRoehren-Geschichtliches%2FSpezialroehren%2FIkonoskop_Heimann%2F5854_Philips_Iconoscop-1958.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Everson4-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Everson4_101-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEverson1949">Everson (1949)</a>, p. 248</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-TheHistoryofTV2-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TheHistoryofTV2_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheHistoryofTV2_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbramson1987">Abramson (1987)</a>, p. 254</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Schatzkin187-8-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schatzkin187-8_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schatzkin, Paul (2002), <i>The Boy Who Invented Television</i>. Silver Spring, Maryland: Teamcom Books, pp. 187–8. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-928791-30-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-928791-30-1">1-928791-30-1</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Go-Ahead Signal Due for Television", <i>The New York Times</i>, April 25, 1941, p. 7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"An Auspicious Beginning", <i>The New York Times</i>, August 3, 1941, p. X10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-60TH_ANNIVERSARY_OF_625_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304131236/http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262">"On the beginning of broadcast in 625 lines 60 years ago"</a>. <i>625 magazine</i> (in Russian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://625.625-net.ru/files/587/511/h_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262">the original</a> on March 4, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=625+magazine&rft.atitle=On+the+beginning+of+broadcast+in+625+lines+60+years+ago&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F625.625-net.ru%2Ffiles%2F587%2F511%2Fh_665921be9883776271895912fb8bb262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041230091501/http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_255-portrait.pdf">"M.I. Krivocheev – an engineer's engineer"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>EBU Technical Review</i>. Spring 1993. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_255-portrait.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on December 30, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EBU+Technical+Review&rft.atitle=M.I.+Krivocheev+%E2%80%93+an+engineer%27s+engineer&rft.ssn=spring&rft.date=1993&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ebu.ch%2Fen%2Ftechnical%2Ftrev%2Ftrev_255-portrait.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070221210300/http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf">"In the Vanguard of Television Broadcasting"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. February 21, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cra.ir/FTD/Static/RRC/RRCFile10.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 21, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=In+the+Vanguard+of+Television+Broadcasting&rft.date=2007-02-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcra.ir%2FFTD%2FStatic%2FRRC%2FRRCFile10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ewh.ieee.org/r2/johnstown/downloads/20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf">"IEEE Johnstown – Analog to Digital Television Transition Trivia Challenge"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605125905/http://ewh.ieee.org/r2/johnstown/downloads/20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on June 5, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IEEE+Johnstown+%E2%80%93+Analog+to+Digital+Television+Transition+Trivia+Challenge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fewh.ieee.org%2Fr2%2Fjohnstown%2Fdownloads%2F20090217_IEEE_JST_Trivia_Answers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070702200523/http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf">"Kalman Tihanyi's plasma television, invented in the 1930s"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scitech.mtesz.hu/52tihanyi/flat-panel_tv_en.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 2, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kalman+Tihanyi%27s+plasma+television%2C+invented+in+the+1930s&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scitech.mtesz.hu%2F52tihanyi%2Fflat-panel_tv_en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Le Blanc, "Etude sur la transmission électrique des impressions lumineuses", <i>La Lumière Electrique</i>, vol. 11, December 1, 1880, pp. 477–481.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1998">Burns (1998)</a>, p. 98</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Western technology and Soviet economic development: 1945 to 1965, by Antony C. Sutton, Business & Economics - 1973, p. 330</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The History of Television, 1880-1941, by Albert Abramson, 1987, p. 27</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-tvmuseum.ru-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tvmuseum.ru_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=1018">A. Rokhlin, Tak rozhdalos' dal'novidenie (in Russian)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130424162531/http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=1018">Archived</a> April 24, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Logie Baird, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/patents?id=JRVAAAAAEBAJ">Television Apparatus and the Like</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518084511/https://www.google.com/patents?id=JRVAAAAAEBAJ">Archived</a> May 18, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, US patent, filed in UK in 1928.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baird Television: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bairdtelevision.com/crystalpalace.html">Crystal Palace Television Studios</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170630084750/http://www.bairdtelevision.com/crystalpalace.html">Archived</a> June 30, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Previous color television demonstrations in the UK and US had been via closed circuit.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns2000" class="citation book cs1">Burns, R. W. (June 30, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5y09hpR0UY0C&dq=baird+colour+television+July+27%2C+1939&pg=PR17"><i>John Logie Baird: Television Pioneer</i></a>. IET. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85296-797-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85296-797-3"><bdi>978-0-85296-797-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=John+Logie+Baird%3A+Television+Pioneer&rft.pub=IET&rft.date=2000-06-30&rft.isbn=978-0-85296-797-3&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5y09hpR0UY0C%26dq%3Dbaird%2Bcolour%2Btelevision%2BJuly%2B27%252C%2B1939%26pg%3DPR17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/history-colour-tv-uk">"The history of colour TV in the UK"</a>. <i>National Science and Media Museum</i>. March 17, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Science+and+Media+Museum&rft.atitle=The+history+of+colour+TV+in+the+UK&rft.date=2022-03-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk%2Fobjects-and-stories%2Fhistory-colour-tv-uk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-BairdColor-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BairdColor_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BairdColor_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Baird Television: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html">The World's First High Definition Colour Television System</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170511162325/http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html">Archived</a> May 11, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter C. Goldmark, assignor to Columbia Broadcasting System, "Color Television", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US2480571">U.S. Patent 2,480,571</a>, filed Sept. 7, 1940.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Current Broadcasting 1940</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Color Television Success in Test", <i>The New York Times</i>, August 30, 1940, p. 21.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Color Television Achieves Realism", <i>The New York Times</i>, Sept. 5, 1940, p. 18.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JScDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA120">New Television System Transmits Images in Full Color</a>", <i>Popular Science</i>, December 1940, p. 120.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Color Television Success in Test," <i>The New York Times</i>, Aug. 30, 1940, p. 21. "CBS Demonstrates Full Color Television," <i>Wall Street Journal</i>, Sept. 5, 1940, p. 1. "Television Hearing Set," <i>The New York Times</i>, Nov. 13, 1940, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ed Reitan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://colortelevision.info/rca-nbc_firsts.html">RCA-NBC Color Firsts in Television (commented)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150204092411/http://colortelevision.info/rca-nbc_firsts.html">Archived</a> February 4, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Making of Radios and Phonographs to End April 22," <i>The New York Times</i>, March 8, 1942, p. 1. "Radio Production Curbs Cover All Combinations," <i>Wall Street Journal</i>, June 3, 1942, p. 4. "WPB Cancels 210 Controls; Radios, Trucks in Full Output," <i>The New York Times</i>, August 21, 1945, p. 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bob Cooper, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/color_tv_cooper.html">Television: The Technology That Changed Our Lives</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141223155937/http://www.earlytelevision.org/color_tv_cooper.html">Archived</a> December 23, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Early Television Foundation.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US2296019">"Patent US2296019 - Chromoscopic adapter for television equipment"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Patent+US2296019+-+Chromoscopic+adapter+for+television+equipment&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS2296019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Albert Abramson, <i>The History of Television, 1942 to 2000</i>, McFarland & Company, 2003, pp. 13–14. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-1220-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-1220-8">0-7864-1220-8</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-name-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-name_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">National Television System Committee (1951–1953), [Report and Reports of Panel No. 11, 11-A, 12–19, with Some supplementary references cited in the Reports, and the Petition for adoption of transmission standards for color television before the Federal Communications Commission, n.p., 1953], 17 v. illus., diagrams., tables. 28 cm. LC Control No.:54021386 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&PAGE=First">Library of Congress Online Catalog</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110318113401/http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&PAGE=First">Archived</a> March 18, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler2006" class="citation book cs1">Butler, Jeremy G. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7rWFRLVyvY0C&q=color+television+December+17+1953&pg=PA290"><i>Television: Critical Methods and Applications</i></a>. Psychology Press. p. 290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781410614742" title="Special:BookSources/9781410614742"><bdi>9781410614742</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Television%3A+Critical+Methods+and+Applications&rft.pages=290&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781410614742&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Jeremy+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7rWFRLVyvY0C%26q%3Dcolor%2Btelevision%2BDecember%2B17%2B1953%26pg%3DPA290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191336/http://www.disabled%2Dworld.com/artman/publish/digital%2Dhdtv.shtml">"HDTV Set Top Boxes and Digital TV Broadcast Information"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.disabled-world.com/artman/publish/digital-hdtv.shtml">the original</a> on May 22, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 28,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=HDTV+Set+Top+Boxes+and+Digital+TV+Broadcast+Information&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.disabled-world.com%2Fartman%2Fpublish%2Fdigital-hdtv.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kruger, L. G. (2001). Digital Television: An Overview. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Publishers.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.benton.org/initiatives/obligations/charting_the_digital_broadcasting_future/sec1">"The Origins and Future Prospects of Digital Television"</a>. December 23, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Origins+and+Future+Prospects+of+Digital+Television&rft.date=2008-12-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.benton.org%2Finitiatives%2Fobligations%2Fcharting_the_digital_broadcasting_future%2Fsec1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1125 divided by 3, and then multiplied by 5, due to the 5:3 aspect ratio, assuming square pixels</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cinemasource.com/articles/hist_politics_dtv.pdf">"The history and politics of DTV"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030322131735/http://www.cinemasource.com/articles/hist_politics_dtv.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 22, 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+history+and+politics+of+DTV&rft.pages=13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cinemasource.com%2Farticles%2Fhist_politics_dtv.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-businessinsider1-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-businessinsider1_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteve_Kovach2010" class="citation web cs1">Steve Kovach (December 8, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/what-is-a-smart-tv-2010-12">"What Is A Smart TV?"</a>. Businessinsider.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+A+Smart+TV%3F&rft.pub=Businessinsider.com&rft.date=2010-12-08&rft.au=Steve+Kovach&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fwhat-is-a-smart-tv-2010-12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarmi_Levy2010" class="citation news cs1">Carmi Levy (October 15, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thestar.com/business/media/article/876278--future-of-television-is-online-and-on-demand">"Future of television is online and on-demand"</a>. <i>Toronto Star</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Toronto+Star&rft.atitle=Future+of+television+is+online+and+on-demand&rft.date=2010-10-15&rft.au=Carmi+Levy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thestar.com%2Fbusiness%2Fmedia%2Farticle%2F876278--future-of-television-is-online-and-on-demand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeremy_Toeman_412010" class="citation web cs1">Jeremy Toeman 41 (October 20, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mashable.com/2010/10/20/connected-tv-content-not-apps/">"Why Connected TVs Will Be About the Content, Not the Apps"</a>. Mashable.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Connected+TVs+Will+Be+About+the+Content%2C+Not+the+Apps&rft.pub=Mashable.com&rft.date=2010-10-20&rft.au=Jeremy+Toeman+41&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmashable.com%2F2010%2F10%2F20%2Fconnected-tv-content-not-apps%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://techcrunch.com/2010/10/24/internet-tv-and-the-death-of-cable-tv-really/">"Internet TV and The Death of Cable TV, really"</a>. Techcrunch.com. October 24, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Internet+TV+and+The+Death+of+Cable+TV%2C+really&rft.pub=Techcrunch.com&rft.date=2010-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechcrunch.com%2F2010%2F10%2F24%2Finternet-tv-and-the-death-of-cable-tv-really%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?FT=D&date=19960510&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_EP&CC=FR&NR=2726670A1&KC=A1&ND=3">"espacenet – Original document"</a>. Worldwide.espacenet.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=espacenet+%E2%80%93+Original+document&rft.pub=Worldwide.espacenet.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldwide.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2ForiginalDocument%3FFT%3DD%26date%3D19960510%26DB%3DEPODOC%26locale%3Den_EP%26CC%3DFR%26NR%3D2726670A1%26KC%3DA1%26ND%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?CC=US&NR=5905521A&KC=A&FT=D&ND=7&date=19990518&DB=EPODOC">"espacenet – Bibliographic data"</a>. Worldwide.espacenet.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 17,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=espacenet+%E2%80%93+Bibliographic+data&rft.pub=Worldwide.espacenet.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldwide.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2Fbiblio%3FCC%3DUS%26NR%3D5905521A%26KC%3DA%26FT%3DD%26ND%3D7%26date%3D19990518%26DB%3DEPODOC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDieter_Bohn2015" class="citation web cs1">Dieter Bohn (January 6, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theverge.com/2015/1/5/7497383/sony-new-smart-tv-run-android-tv-ces-2015">"All of Sony's new smart TVs run on Android TV"</a>. <i>The Verge</i>. Vox Media<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Verge&rft.atitle=All+of+Sony%27s+new+smart+TVs+run+on+Android+TV&rft.date=2015-01-06&rft.au=Dieter+Bohn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theverge.com%2F2015%2F1%2F5%2F7497383%2Fsony-new-smart-tv-run-android-tv-ces-2015&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techtimes.com/articles/24117/20150103/ces-2015-new-samsung-smart-tvs-will-be-powered-by-tizen-os.htm">"CES 2015: New Samsung Smart TVs Will Be Powered by Tizen OS"</a>. <i>Tech Times</i>. January 3, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tech+Times&rft.atitle=CES+2015%3A+New+Samsung+Smart+TVs+Will+Be+Powered+by+Tizen+OS&rft.date=2015-01-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techtimes.com%2Farticles%2F24117%2F20150103%2Fces-2015-new-samsung-smart-tvs-will-be-powered-by-tizen-os.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnet.com/news/lg-to-show-off-webos-2-0-smart-tv-at-ces-2015/">"LG to show off webOS 2.0 smart TV at CES 2015"</a>. <i>CNET</i>. CBS Interactive. December 18, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNET&rft.atitle=LG+to+show+off+webOS+2.0+smart+TV+at+CES+2015&rft.date=2014-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnet.com%2Fnews%2Flg-to-show-off-webos-2-0-smart-tv-at-ces-2015%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bairdtelevision.com/stereo.html">"How Stereoscopic Television is Shown"</a>. Baird Television website<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 18,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=How+Stereoscopic+Television+is+Shown&rft.pub=Baird+Television+website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bairdtelevision.com%2Fstereo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111012204455/http://earlytelevision.org/raf.html">"Early Electronic Television: R.A.F. Reception of German TV from Paris"</a>. <i>earlytelevision.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/raf.html">the original</a> on October 12, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=earlytelevision.org&rft.atitle=Early+Electronic+Television%3A+R.A.F.+Reception+of+German+TV+from+Paris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlytelevision.org%2Fraf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-britbroadcasttrans-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-britbroadcasttrans_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurton_Paulu1961" class="citation book cs1">Burton Paulu (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jKjoU8bokw0C&q=819+lines+television+france+belgium+denmark&pg=PA227"><i>British Broadcasting in Transition</i></a>. U of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781452909554" title="Special:BookSources/9781452909554"><bdi>9781452909554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Broadcasting+in+Transition&rft.pub=U+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=9781452909554&rft.au=Burton+Paulu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjKjoU8bokw0C%26q%3D819%2Blines%2Btelevision%2Bfrance%2Bbelgium%2Bdenmark%26pg%3DPA227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crane, R. J. (1979). The Politics of International Standards: France and the Color TV War, Ablex Publishing Corporation.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-auto4-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-auto4_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/history-of-technology-volume-20-volume-twenty-1998/the-pal-secam-colour-television-controversy?from=search">"Bloomsbury Collections – History of Technology – Volume Twenty, 1998"</a>. <i>bloomsburycollections.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bloomsburycollections.com&rft.atitle=Bloomsbury+Collections+%E2%80%93+History+of+Technology+%E2%80%93+Volume+Twenty%2C+1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomsburycollections.com%2Fbook%2Fhistory-of-technology-volume-20-volume-twenty-1998%2Fthe-pal-secam-colour-television-controversy%3Ffrom%3Dsearch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.redsharknews.com/business/item/471-france-had-a-national-hd-tv-system-in-1949">"France had a national HD TV system as far back as 1949"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=France+had+a+national+HD+TV+system+as+far+back+as+1949&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.redsharknews.com%2Fbusiness%2Fitem%2F471-france-had-a-national-hd-tv-system-in-1949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/socialsciences/screening-socialism/television-histories/tvinthegdr/">"TV in the GDR"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161116014955/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/socialsciences/screening-socialism/television-histories/tvinthegdr/">Archived</a> November 16, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Loughborough University</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dra.de/online/hinweisdienste/kurzinformationen/70jahre-fs.pdf">"Fernsehen aus Adlershof"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060629013619/http://www.dra.de/online/hinweisdienste/kurzinformationen/70jahre-fs.pdf">Archived</a> June 29, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv Babelsberg</i></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/dossiers_1_04_eurovision50_ve_tcm6-13890.pdf">"50 years of Eurovision"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050129162217/https://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/dossiers_1_04_eurovision50_ve_tcm6-13890.pdf">Archived</a> January 29, 2005, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>EBU</i>, January, 2004.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_157-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_157-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130101044401/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p07/column/index1.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Can you see me clearly?" Public TV image reception experiment (1939)"</a>. NHK. May 13, 1939. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p07/column/index1.html">the original</a> on January 1, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 11,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Can+you+see+me+clearly%3F%22+Public+TV+image+reception+experiment+%281939%29&rft.pub=NHK&rft.date=1939-05-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhk.or.jp%2Fstrl%2Faboutstrl%2Fevolution-of-tv-en%2Fp07%2Fcolumn%2Findex1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/index.html">Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020604084708/http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/index.html">Archived</a> June 4, 2002, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2012-11-01.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080430214045/http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,132289-c,hdtv/article.html">"Researchers Craft HDTV's Successor"</a>. May 28, 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,132289-c,hdtv/article.html">the original</a> on April 30, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 31,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Researchers+Craft+HDTV%27s+Successor&rft.date=2007-05-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcworld.com%2Farticle%2Fid%2C132289-c%2Chdtv%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV_160-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV_160-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Raspletin_100years_RussianTV_160-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161103220938/http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=5850">"Participation of A.Raspletin in developing and realization of black-and-white television standards"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvmuseum.ru/attach.asp?a_no=5850">the original</a> on November 3, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Participation+of+A.Raspletin+in+developing+and+realization+of+black-and-white+television+standards&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tvmuseum.ru%2Fattach.asp%3Fa_no%3D5850&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thehydraulics.com/the_hydraulics/2009/01/peggy-oneil-sang-her-way-from-the-hydraulics-to-stardom.html">Hawley, Chris, "Peggy O'Neil sang her way from the Hydraulics to stardom"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090212174623/http://www.thehydraulics.com/the_hydraulics/2009/01/peggy-oneil-sang-her-way-from-the-hydraulics-to-stardom.html">Archived</a> February 12, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>The Hydraulics</i> [blog], January 15, 2009.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurns1998576-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurns1998576_162-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1998">Burns 1998</a>, p. 576.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewcomb2014" class="citation book cs1">Newcomb, Horace (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NUXIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA322"><i>Encyclopedia of Television</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19472-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-19472-7"><bdi>978-1-135-19472-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Television&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-135-19472-7&rft.aulast=Newcomb&rft.aufirst=Horace&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNUXIAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cs.cornell.edu/~pjs54/Teaching/AutomaticLifestyle-S02/Projects/Vlku/history.html">"The History of Television (or, How Did This Get So Big?)"</a>. <i>www.cs.cornell.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 9,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.cs.cornell.edu&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Television+%28or%2C+How+Did+This+Get+So+Big%3F%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.cornell.edu%2F~pjs54%2FTeaching%2FAutomaticLifestyle-S02%2FProjects%2FVlku%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-MickeyMouse-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MickeyMouse_165-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MickeyMouse_165-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060125014953/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/baird/tvoff/index.htm">"The edit that rewrote history – Baird"</a>. Transdiffusion Broadcasting System. October 31, 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/baird/tvoff/index.htm">the original</a> on January 25, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 28,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+edit+that+rewrote+history+%E2%80%93+Baird&rft.pub=Transdiffusion+Broadcasting+System&rft.date=2005-10-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.transdiffusion.org%2Femc%2Fbaird%2Ftvoff%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Shagawat-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shagawat_166-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shagawat_166-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShagawat" class="citation web cs1">Shagawat, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/tv_recordings_the_origins.html">"Television recording – The origins and earliest surviving live TV broadcast recordings"</a>. <i>Early Electronic Television</i>. Early Television Museum<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Early+Electronic+Television&rft.atitle=Television+recording+%E2%80%93+The+origins+and+earliest+surviving+live+TV+broadcast+recordings&rft.aulast=Shagawat&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlytelevision.org%2Ftv_recordings_the_origins.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Ss5PAAAAIBAJ&pg=4703,3386956">"Human Faces Sent By Radio 3000 Miles Across The Sea"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Evening_Independent" title="Evening Independent">Evening Independent</a></i>. Associated Press. February 9, 1928. p. 1<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 15,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evening+Independent&rft.atitle=Human+Faces+Sent+By+Radio+3000+Miles+Across+The+Sea&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1928-02-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DSs5PAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D4703%2C3386956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagazines1930" class="citation web cs1">Magazines, Hearst (August 19, 1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iuIDAAAAMBAJ&q=Popular+Science+1930+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA177">"Popular Mechanics"</a>. Hearst Magazines – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.pub=Hearst+Magazines&rft.date=1930-08-19&rft.aulast=Magazines&rft.aufirst=Hearst&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiuIDAAAAMBAJ%26q%3DPopular%2BScience%2B1930%2Bplane%2B%2522Popular%2BMechanics%2522%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wd4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA820">"What Television Offers You"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Mechanics" title="Popular Mechanics">Popular Mechanics</a></i>: 823. November 1928.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=What+Television+Offers+You&rft.pages=823&rft.date=1928-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dwd4DAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xt4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA472">The Latest in Television</a>", <i>Popular Mechanics</i>, September 1929, p. 472.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"WRNY to Start Daily Television Broadcasts; Radio Audience Will See Studio Artist", <i>The New York Times</i>, August 13, 1928, p. 13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"WRNY Has Extended Television Schedule", <i>The New York Times</i>, September 30, 1928, p. 155.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Television Drama Shown With Music", <i>The New York Times</i>, August 22, 1928, p. 1.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/queens_messenger.html">The Queen's Messenger</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090529072130/http://www.earlytelevision.org/queens_messenger.html">Archived</a> May 29, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Early Television Museum.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Television Placed on Daily Schedule", <i>The New York Times</i>, March 22, 1929, p. 30.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Six Visual Stations on the New York Air", <i>The New York Times</i>, July 19, 1931, p. XX13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Radio Talkies Put On Program Basis", <i>The New York Times</i>, April 27, 1931, p. 26.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Magoun_65-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Magoun_65_180-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magoun_65_180-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexander B. Magoun, <i>Television: The Life Story of a Technology</i>. Greenwood, p. 65. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313331282" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313331282">978-0313331282</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/where_is_television.html">Where Is Television Now?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080913065455/http://www.earlytelevision.org/where_is_television.html">Archived</a> September 13, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i>Popular Mechanics</i>, August 1938, p. 178.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Telecasts Here and Abroad", <i>The New York Times</i>, Drama-Screen-Radio section, April 24, 1938, p.10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070901194251/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,849042,00.html">"Early Birds"</a>, <i>Time</i>, June 13, 1938.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Telecasts to Be Resumed", <i>The New York Times</i>, Drama-Screen-Radio section, Aug. 21, 1938, p. 10.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert L. Pickering, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/donlee.html">"Eight Years of Television in California"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130415215134/http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist5/donlee.html">Archived</a> April 15, 2013, at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a>, <i>California — Magazine of the Pacific</i>, June 1939.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLohr1940">Lohr (1940)</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Imagery For Profit" R. W. Stewart, The New York Times, July 6, 1941.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg">"WNBT/Bulova test pattern"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081009135015/http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on October 9, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 7,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WNBT%2FBulova+test+pattern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlytelevision.org%2Fimages%2Frca_bulova_ad-1.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_189-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_189-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">p.78 <i>Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States</i> Routledge, 1998</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/cea-study-says-seven-percent-of-tv-households-use-antennas-/220585">"CEA Study Says Seven Percent of TV Households Use Antennas"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141217104116/http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/cea-study-says-seven-percent-of-tv-households-use-antennas-/220585">Archived</a> December 17, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>TVTechnology</i>, 30 July 2013</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141218160139/http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/nielsen-broadcast-reliance-grew-in--/217217">"Nielsen: Broadcast Reliance Grew in 2012"</a>. <i>TVTechnology</i>. January 14, 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvtechnology.com/article/nielsen-broadcast-reliance-grew-in--/217217">the original</a> on December 18, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TVTechnology&rft.atitle=Nielsen%3A+Broadcast+Reliance+Grew+in+2012&rft.date=2013-01-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tvtechnology.com%2Farticle%2Fnielsen-broadcast-reliance-grew-in--%2F217217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-tr101198-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tr101198_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntipolis,_Sophia1997" class="citation report cs1">Antipolis, Sophia (September 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/101100_101199/101198/01.01.01_60/tr_101198v010101p.pdf">Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Implementation of Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) modulation in DVB satellite transmission systems</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). <a href="/wiki/European_Telecommunications_Standards_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="European Telecommunications Standards Institute">European Telecommunications Standards Institute</a>. pp. 1–7. TR 101 198. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302190812/http://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/101100_101199/101198/01.01.01_60/tr_101198v010101p.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on March 2, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Digital+Video+Broadcasting+%28DVB%29%3B+Implementation+of+Binary+Phase+Shift+Keying+%28BPSK%29+modulation+in+DVB+satellite+transmission+systems&rft.pages=1-7&rft.pub=European+Telecommunications+Standards+Institute&rft.date=1997-09&rft.au=Antipolis%2C+Sophia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etsi.org%2Fdeliver%2Fetsi_tr%2F101100_101199%2F101198%2F01.01.01_60%2Ftr_101198v010101p.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-m101-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-m101_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714171156/http://www.microwaves101.com/ENCYCLOPEDIA/letterbands.cfm">"Frequency letter bands"</a>. <i>Microwaves101.com</i>. April 25, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/letterbands.cfm">the original</a> on July 14, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 24,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microwaves101.com&rft.atitle=Frequency+letter+bands&rft.date=2008-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.microwaves101.com%2Fencyclopedia%2Fletterbands.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-fcc-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fcc_194-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fcc_194-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/consumerdish.html">"Installing Consumer-Owned Antennas and Satellite Dishes"</a>. FCC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 21,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Installing+Consumer-Owned+Antennas+and+Satellite+Dishes&rft.pub=FCC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fcc.gov%2Fcgb%2Fconsumerfacts%2Fconsumerdish.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellCotter1998" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Dennis; Cotter, Susan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kRJCwqzE3iwC&q=satellite+tv+free+to+air+free+to+view+must+pay&pg=PA161"><i>Copyright Infringement</i></a>. Kluwer Law International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3002-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3002-5"><bdi>978-90-247-3002-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 18,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Copyright+Infringement&rft.pub=Kluwer+Law+International&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-90-247-3002-5&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft.au=Cotter%2C+Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkRJCwqzE3iwC%26q%3Dsatellite%2Btv%2Bfree%2Bto%2Bair%2Bfree%2Bto%2Bview%2Bmust%2Bpay%26pg%3DPA161&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725175706/http://www.clarkefoundation.org/archives/1996.php">"The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation"</a>. Archived from the original on July 25, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Arthur+C.+Clarke+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clarkefoundation.org%2Farchives%2F1996.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lakdiva.org/clarke/1945ww">"The 1945 Proposal by Arthur C. Clarke for Geostationary Satellite Communications"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 11,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+1945+Proposal+by+Arthur+C.+Clarke+for+Geostationary+Satellite+Communications&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flakdiva.org%2Fclarke%2F1945ww&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-histchannel-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-histchannel_200-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-histchannel_200-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2012" class="citation web cs1">Klein, Christopher (July 23, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.com/news/the-birth-of-satellite-tv-50-years-ago">"The Birth of Satellite TV, 50 Years Ago"</a>. <i>History.com</i>. History Channel<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=The+Birth+of+Satellite+TV%2C+50+Years+Ago&rft.date=2012-07-23&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fthe-birth-of-satellite-tv-50-years-ago&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100116224556/http://astronautix.com/craft/intlsat1.htm">"Encyclopedia Astronautica - Intelsat I"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intlsat1.htm">the original</a> on January 16, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 5,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Astronautica+-+Intelsat+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astronautix.com%2Fcraft%2Fintlsat1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-tayhoward-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tayhoward_212-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeder2002" class="citation news cs1">Feder, Barnaby J. (November 15, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/15/business/taylor-howard-70-pioneer-in-satellite-tv-for-the-home.html">"Taylor Howard, 70, Pioneer In Satellite TV for the Home"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 19,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Taylor+Howard%2C+70%2C+Pioneer+In+Satellite+TV+for+the+Home&rft.date=2002-11-15&rft.aulast=Feder&rft.aufirst=Barnaby+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2002%2F11%2F15%2Fbusiness%2Ftaylor-howard-70-pioneer-in-satellite-tv-for-the-home.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-pbs78-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pbs78_213-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Public Service Broadcasting in the Age of Globalization, Editors: Indrajit Banerjee, Kalinga Seneviratne. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789814136013" title="Special:BookSources/9789814136013">9789814136013</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-dms-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dms_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140303133328/http://dmsiusa.com/glory-days.html">"The "Glory Days" of Satellite"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dmsiusa.com/glory-days.html">the original</a> on March 3, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+%22Glory+Days%22+of+Satellite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dmsiusa.com%2Fglory-days.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-uspopcult-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-uspopcult_215-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowne2001" class="citation book cs1">Browne, Ray (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U3rJxPYT32MC&q=neiman+marcus+satellite+dish+1977&pg=PA706"><i>The Guide to United States Popular Culture</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison, Wisconsin</a>: Popular Press. p. 706. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780879728212" title="Special:BookSources/9780879728212"><bdi>9780879728212</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Guide+to+United+States+Popular+Culture&rft.place=Madison%2C+Wisconsin&rft.pages=706&rft.pub=Popular+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780879728212&rft.aulast=Browne&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU3rJxPYT32MC%26q%3Dneiman%2Bmarcus%2Bsatellite%2Bdish%2B1977%26pg%3DPA706&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-lat-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-lat_216-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiarrusso1996" class="citation news cs1">Giarrusso, Michael (July 28, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-07-28-mn-28792-story.html">"Tiny Satellite Dishes Sprout in Rural Areas"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Tiny+Satellite+Dishes+Sprout+in+Rural+Areas&rft.date=1996-07-28&rft.aulast=Giarrusso&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1996-07-28-mn-28792-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-denverpost-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-denverpost_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeating1999" class="citation news cs1">Keating, Stephen (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://extras.denverpost.com/business/cutt1101.htm">"Stealing Free TV, Part 2"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Denver_Post" title="The Denver Post">The Denver Post</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Denver,_CO" class="mw-redirect" title="Denver, CO">Denver, CO</a>: The Denver Post<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Denver+Post&rft.atitle=Stealing+Free+TV%2C+Part+2&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Keating&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fextras.denverpost.com%2Fbusiness%2Fcutt1101.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Stein-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stein_218-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein1989" class="citation news cs1">Stein, Joe (January 24, 1989). "Whatta dish : Home satellite reception a TV turn-on". <i><a href="/wiki/Evening_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="Evening Tribune">Evening Tribune</a></i>. p. C-8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evening+Tribune&rft.atitle=Whatta+dish+%3A+Home+satellite+reception+a+TV+turn-on&rft.pages=C-8&rft.date=1989-01-24&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Joe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1955&dat=19801221&id=v_UhAAAAIBAJ&pg=3196,441027">"Earth Station Is Very Popular Dish"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reading_Eagle" title="Reading Eagle">Reading Eagle</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City,_Missouri" title="Kansas City, Missouri">Kansas City, Missouri</a>. December 21, 1980<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 21,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reading+Eagle&rft.atitle=Earth+Station+Is+Very+Popular+Dish&rft.date=1980-12-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fnid%3D1955%26dat%3D19801221%26id%3Dv_UhAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D3196%2C441027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-baltsun-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-baltsun_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-baltsun_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-baltsun_220-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-baltsun_220-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks1993" class="citation news cs1">Brooks, Andree (October 10, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140714140527/http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-10-10/business/1993283244_1_community-association-satellite-dish-associations-institute">"Old satellite dish restrictions under fire New laws urged for smaller models"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Baltimore_Sun" title="The Baltimore Sun">The Baltimore Sun</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Baltimore,_MD" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltimore, MD">Baltimore, MD</a>: The Baltimore Sun. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1993-10-10/business/1993283244_1_community-association-satellite-dish-associations-institute">the original</a> on July 14, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Baltimore+Sun&rft.atitle=Old+satellite+dish+restrictions+under+fire+New+laws+urged+for+smaller+models&rft.date=1993-10-10&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Andree&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.baltimoresun.com%2F1993-10-10%2Fbusiness%2F1993283244_1_community-association-satellite-dish-associations-institute&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-deseret-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-deseret_221-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-deseret_221-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNye1990" class="citation news cs1">Nye, Doug (January 14, 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deseretnews.com/article/81378/SATELLITE-DISHES-SURVIVE-GREAT-SCRAMBLE-OF-1980S.html?pg=all">"SATELLITE DISHES SURVIVE GREAT SCRAMBLE OF 1980S"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Deseret_News" title="Deseret News">Deseret News</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Salt_Lake_City" title="Salt Lake City">Salt Lake City</a>: Deseret News<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 30,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Deseret+News&rft.atitle=SATELLITE+DISHES+SURVIVE+GREAT+SCRAMBLE+OF+1980S&rft.date=1990-01-14&rft.aulast=Nye&rft.aufirst=Doug&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deseretnews.com%2Farticle%2F81378%2FSATELLITE-DISHES-SURVIVE-GREAT-SCRAMBLE-OF-1980S.html%3Fpg%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-baylin-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-baylin_222-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ku-Band Satellite TV: Theory, Installation and Repair. Frank Baylin et al. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780917893148" title="Special:BookSources/9780917893148">9780917893148</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Stecklow-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stecklow_223-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stecklow_223-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stecklow_223-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStecklow1984" class="citation news cs1">Stecklow, Steve (July 7, 1984). "America's Favorite Dish". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Miami_Herald" class="mw-redirect" title="The Miami Herald">The Miami Herald</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Knight-Ridder_News_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Knight-Ridder News Service">Knight-Ridder News Service</a>. p. 1C.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Miami+Herald&rft.atitle=America%27s+Favorite+Dish&rft.pages=1C&rft.date=1984-07-07&rft.aulast=Stecklow&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Reibstein-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Reibstein_224-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReibstein1981" class="citation news cs1">Reibstein, Larry (September 27, 1981). "Watching TV Via Satellite Is Their Dish". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Inquirer" title="The Philadelphia Inquirer">The Philadelphia Inquirer</a></i>. p. E01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philadelphia+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Watching+TV+Via+Satellite+Is+Their+Dish&rft.pages=E01&rft.date=1981-09-27&rft.aulast=Reibstein&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Akron-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Akron_225-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akron_225-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akron_225-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawidziak1984" class="citation news cs1">Dawidziak, Mark (December 30, 1984). "Satellite TV Dishes Getting Good Reception". <i><a href="/wiki/Akron_Beacon-Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Akron Beacon-Journal">Akron Beacon-Journal</a></i>. p. F-1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Akron+Beacon-Journal&rft.atitle=Satellite+TV+Dishes+Getting+Good+Reception&rft.pages=F-1&rft.date=1984-12-30&rft.aulast=Dawidziak&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-bbcable-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbcable_226-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbcable_226-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tinypic.com/view.php?pic=2eedi1l&s=6">"Broadband Cable 10th Anniversary"</a>. TinyPic<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 5,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Broadband+Cable+10th+Anniversary&rft.pub=TinyPic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftinypic.com%2Fview.php%3Fpic%3D2eedi1l%26s%3D6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-sbca-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sbca_227-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sbca_227-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140219073604/http://www.sbca.com/receiver-network/history-satellite-providers.htm">"Industry History"</a>. <i>sbca.com</i>. Satellite Broadcasting and Communications Association. 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbca.com/receiver-network/history-satellite-providers.htm">the original</a> on February 19, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 5,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sbca.com&rft.atitle=Industry+History&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbca.com%2Freceiver-network%2Fhistory-satellite-providers.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-wichita-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wichita_228-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStecklow1984" class="citation news cs1">Stecklow, Steve (October 25, 1984). "Research Needed in Buying Dish: High Cost Is Important Consideration for Consumer". <i><a href="/wiki/Wichita_Eagle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wichita Eagle">Wichita Eagle</a></i>. Knight-Ridder News Service. p. 6C.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wichita+Eagle&rft.atitle=Research+Needed+in+Buying+Dish%3A+High+Cost+Is+Important+Consideration+for+Consumer&rft.pages=6C&rft.date=1984-10-25&rft.aulast=Stecklow&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Chicago-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_229-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_229-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_229-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_229-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chicago_229-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakiff1987" class="citation news cs1">Takiff, Jonathan (May 22, 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1987-05-22/entertainment/8702080056_1_satellite-dish-satellite-tv-week-dish-owners">"Satellite TV Skies Brighten As War With Programmers Ends"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Tribune" title="Chicago Tribune">Chicago Tribune</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Knight-Ridder_Newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="Knight-Ridder Newspapers">Knight-Ridder Newspapers</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 10,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Satellite+TV+Skies+Brighten+As+War+With+Programmers+Ends&rft.date=1987-05-22&rft.aulast=Takiff&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.chicagotribune.com%2F1987-05-22%2Fentertainment%2F8702080056_1_satellite-dish-satellite-tv-week-dish-owners&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Turned-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Turned_230-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf1985" class="citation news cs1">Wolf, Ron (January 20, 1985). "Direct-Broadcast TV Is Still Not Turned On". <i>The Philadelphia Inquirer</i>. p. C01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Philadelphia+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Direct-Broadcast+TV+Is+Still+Not+Turned+On&rft.pages=C01&rft.date=1985-01-20&rft.aulast=Wolf&rft.aufirst=Ron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-philly-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-philly_231-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-philly_231-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-philly_231-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLymanBorowski1986" class="citation web cs1">Lyman, Rick; Borowski, Neill (April 29, 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://articles.philly.com/1986-04-29/news/26079191_1_satellite-transmissions-captain-midnight-satellite-industry-officials">"On The Trail Of 'Captain Midnight'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Philly<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+The+Trail+Of+%27Captain+Midnight%27&rft.pub=Philly&rft.date=1986-04-29&rft.aulast=Lyman&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft.au=Borowski%2C+Neill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farticles.philly.com%2F1986-04-29%2Fnews%2F26079191_1_satellite-transmissions-captain-midnight-satellite-industry-officials&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-prodpiracy-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-prodpiracy_232-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-prodpiracy_232-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParadise1999" class="citation book cs1">Paradise, Paul R. (January 1, 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ny0vvUpBzCYC&q=black+market+for+illegal+satellite+signal+descramblers&pg=PA147"><i>Trademark Counterfeiting, Product Piracy, and the Billion Dollar Threat to the U.S. Economy</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Westport,_Connecticut" title="Westport, Connecticut">Westport, Connecticut</a>: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p. 147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1567202502" title="Special:BookSources/978-1567202502"><bdi>978-1567202502</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trademark+Counterfeiting%2C+Product+Piracy%2C+and+the+Billion+Dollar+Threat+to+the+U.S.+Economy&rft.place=Westport%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=147&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1999-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1567202502&rft.aulast=Paradise&rft.aufirst=Paul+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dny0vvUpBzCYC%26q%3Dblack%2Bmarket%2Bfor%2Billegal%2Bsatellite%2Bsignal%2Bdescramblers%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-sfc-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sfc_233-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sfc_233-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sfc_233-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"Scrambled NBC Bad News for Satellite Pirates". <i><a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle" title="San Francisco Chronicle">San Francisco Chronicle</a></i>. United Press International. November 3, 1988. p. E3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=San+Francisco+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Scrambled+NBC+Bad+News+for+Satellite+Pirates&rft.pages=E3&rft.date=1988-11-03&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-cableact-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cableact_234-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cableact_234-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-106/pdf/STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf">Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act of 1992</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (1460, STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf). October 8, 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140420094541/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-106/pdf/STATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on April 20, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Cable+Television+Consumer+Protection+and+Competition+Act+of+1992&rft.date=1992-10-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FSTATUTE-106%2Fpdf%2FSTATUTE-106-Pg1460.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-n2yo-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-n2yo_235-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-n2yo_235-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.n2yo.com/satellite/?s=19688">"ASTRA 1A Satellite details 1988-109B NORAD 19688"</a>. N2YO. July 9, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ASTRA+1A+Satellite+details+1988-109B+NORAD+19688&rft.pub=N2YO&rft.date=2014-07-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.n2yo.com%2Fsatellite%2F%3Fs%3D19688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ctu10e-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ctu10e_236-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ctu10e_236-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2010" class="citation book cs1">Grant, August E. (2010). <i>Communication Technology Update</i> (10th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-240-81475-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-240-81475-9"><bdi>978-0-240-81475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communication+Technology+Update&rft.pages=87&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-240-81475-9&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=August+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-insead-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-insead_237-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell-JonesBerbnerChaiFarstad2001" class="citation journal cs1">Bell-Jones, Robin; Berbner, Jochen; Chai, Jianfeng; Farstad, Thomas; Pham, Minh (June 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140724233622/http://faculty.insead.edu/adner/projects/Set%20Top%20Boxes.pdf">"High Technology Strategy and Entrepreneurship"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>INSEAD Journal</i>. <a href="/wiki/Fontainebleau" title="Fontainebleau">Fontainebleau</a>: INSEAD. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.insead.edu/adner/projects/Set%20Top%20Boxes.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on July 24, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=INSEAD+Journal&rft.atitle=High+Technology+Strategy+and+Entrepreneurship&rft.date=2001-06&rft.aulast=Bell-Jones&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft.au=Berbner%2C+Jochen&rft.au=Chai%2C+Jianfeng&rft.au=Farstad%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Pham%2C+Minh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.insead.edu%2Fadner%2Fprojects%2FSet%2520Top%2520Boxes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-nctfe-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nctfe_238-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mirabito, M.,& Morgenstern, B. (2004). Satellites: Operations and Applications. The New Communication Technologies (fifth edition). Burlington: Focal Press.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-artcn-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-artcn_239-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-artcn_239-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhaplilBhalachandra2008" class="citation book cs1">Khaplil, Vidya R.; Bhalachandra, Anjali R. (April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QchLipDixBUC&q=32+transponders+ku+band+24+c+band+multiplexed+satellite&pg=PA119"><i>Advances in Recent Trends in Communication and Networks</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>: Allied Publishers. p. 119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1466651708" title="Special:BookSources/978-1466651708"><bdi>978-1466651708</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 16,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advances+in+Recent+Trends+in+Communication+and+Networks&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=119&rft.pub=Allied+Publishers&rft.date=2008-04&rft.isbn=978-1466651708&rft.aulast=Khaplil&rft.aufirst=Vidya+R.&rft.au=Bhalachandra%2C+Anjali+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQchLipDixBUC%26q%3D32%2Btransponders%2Bku%2Bband%2B24%2Bc%2Bband%2Bmultiplexed%2Bsatellite%26pg%3DPA119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-dishcable-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dishcable_240-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dish-cable.com/rain_fade.htm">"Rain fade: satellite TV signal and adverse weather"</a>. <i>Dish-cable.com</i>. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 16,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dish-cable.com&rft.atitle=Rain+fade%3A+satellite+TV+signal+and+adverse+weather&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdish-cable.com%2Frain_fade.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/Baird%20TV-Early%20Years.htm">Early British Television: Baird</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071221033609/http://www.tvhistory.tv/Baird%20TV-Early%20Years.htm">Archived</a> December 21, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/pre-1935.htm">Pre-1935</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080316063554/http://www.tvhistory.tv/pre-1935.htm">Archived</a> March 16, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years. The French model shown does not appear to have entered production.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/PRE-1935-BAIRD.htm">Pre-1935 Baird Sets: UK</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080403234342/http://www.tvhistory.tv/PRE-1935-BAIRD.htm">Archived</a> April 3, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, that produced a red postage-stamp size image, enlarged to twice that size by a magnifying glass. The Televisor sold in 1930–1933 is considered the Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/telefunken.html">Telefunken</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170101235418/http://earlytelevision.org/telefunken.html">Archived</a> January 1, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Early Electronic TV Gallery, Early Television Foundation.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/1934-35-Telefunken-FEIII.JPG">1934–35 Telefunken</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080529173916/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1934-35-Telefunken-FEIII.JPG">Archived</a> May 29, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-246"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936%20French%20TV.htm">1936 French Television</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080501112437/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936%20French%20TV.htm">Archived</a> May 1, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-247"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936-Baird-T5.JPG">1936 Baird T5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080529173922/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936-Baird-T5.JPG">Archived</a> May 29, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-248"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org/communicating_systems.html">Communicating Systems, Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080413043016/http://www.earlytelevision.org/communicating_systems.html">Archived</a> April 13, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Early Electronic TV Gallery, Early Television Foundation.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-249"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/1939%20Du%20Mont%20Brochure.htm">America's First Electronic Television Set</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080417195650/http://www.tvhistory.tv/1939%20Du%20Mont%20Brochure.htm">Archived</a> April 17, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-250"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/tv-prices.htm">American TV Prices</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161123091422/http://www.tvhistory.tv/tv-prices.htm">Archived</a> November 23, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Sales_39-59.JPG">Annual Television Sales in USA</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160327154908/http://tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Sales_39-59.JPG">Archived</a> March 27, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Households_50-78.JPG">Number of TV Households in America</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807030757/http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Households_50-78.JPG">Archived</a> August 7, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Television History: The First 75 Years.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://economia.ig.com.br/">"iG Economia - Notícias sobre a Bolsa, Finanças e Investimentos"</a>. <i>Brasil Econômico</i> (in Brazilian Portuguese)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 23,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brasil+Econ%C3%B4mico&rft.atitle=iG+Economia+-+Not%C3%ADcias+sobre+a+Bolsa%2C+Finan%C3%A7as+e+Investimentos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feconomia.ig.com.br%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Truman to Be Televised In First National Hook-Up", <i>The New York Times</i>, September 4, 1951, p. 2.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Television Highlights", <i>The Washington Post</i>, September 4, 1951, p. B13.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Coast to Coast Television" (CBS advertisement), <i>The Wall Street Journal</i>, September 4, 1951, p. 9.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbramson1987" class="citation book cs1">Abramson, Albert (1987). <i>The History of Television, 1880 to 1941</i>. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89950-284-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-89950-284-9"><bdi>0-89950-284-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Television%2C+1880+to+1941&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+NC&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Co.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-89950-284-9&rft.aulast=Abramson&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbramson2003" class="citation book cs1">Abramson, Albert (2003). <i>The History of Television, 1942 to 2000</i>. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-1220-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-1220-8"><bdi>0-7864-1220-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Television%2C+1942+to+2000&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+NC&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Co.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7864-1220-8&rft.aulast=Abramson&rft.aufirst=Albert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeyer2003" class="citation book cs1">Beyer, Rick (2003). <i>The Greatest Stories Never Told: 100 tales from history to astonish, bewilder, & stupefy</i>. A&E Television Networks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-001401-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-001401-6"><bdi>0-06-001401-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Greatest+Stories+Never+Told%3A+100+tales+from+history+to+astonish%2C+bewilder%2C+%26+stupefy&rft.pub=A%26E+Television+Networks&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-06-001401-6&rft.aulast=Beyer&rft.aufirst=Rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1998" class="citation book cs1">Burns, R. W. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gZcwhVyiMqsC"><i>Television: An International History of the Formative Years</i></a>. IEE History of Technology Series. Vol. 22. London: <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Electrical_Engineers" title="Institution of Electrical Engineers">Institution of Electrical Engineers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85296-914-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85296-914-7"><bdi>0-85296-914-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Television%3A+An+International+History+of+the+Formative+Years&rft.place=London&rft.series=IEE+History+of+Technology+Series&rft.pub=Institution+of+Electrical+Engineers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-85296-914-7&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgZcwhVyiMqsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Inventors and Inventions</i>. Marshall Cavendish. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7763-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-7763-1"><bdi>978-0-7614-7763-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventors+and+Inventions&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7614-7763-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunlap1942" class="citation book cs1">Dunlap, Orrin E. (1942). <i>The Future of Television. New York and London: Harper Brothers</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Future+of+Television.+New+York+and+London%3A+Harper+Brothers&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Dunlap&rft.aufirst=Orrin+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverson1949" class="citation book cs1">Everson, George (1949). <i>The Story of Television, The Life of Philo T. Farnsworth</i>. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-405-06042-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-405-06042-7"><bdi>978-0-405-06042-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Television%2C+The+Life+of+Philo+T.+Farnsworth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Co.&rft.date=1949&rft.isbn=978-0-405-06042-7&rft.aulast=Everson&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherFisher1996" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, David E.; Fisher, Marshall Jon (1996). <i>Tube: the Invention of Television</i>. Washington: Counterpoint. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-887178-17-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-887178-17-1"><bdi>1-887178-17-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tube%3A+the+Invention+of+Television&rft.place=Washington&rft.pub=Counterpoint&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=1-887178-17-1&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft.au=Fisher%2C+Marshall+Jon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_A._Hart" title="Jeffrey A. Hart">Hart, Jeffrey A.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120515012604/http://inethub.olvi.net.ua/ftp/library/somelibrary/techno/hart%20j.a.%20-%20technology,%20television%20and%20competition%5Bc%5D%20the%20politics%20of%20digital%20tv%20(2004)(en).pdf"><i>Television, technology, and competition: HDTV and digital TV in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82624-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-82624-1"><bdi>0-521-82624-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inethub.olvi.net.ua/ftp/library/somelibrary/techno/hart%20j.a.%20-%20technology,%20television%20and%20competition%5Bc%5D%20the%20politics%20of%20digital%20tv%20(2004)(en).pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on May 15, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Television%2C+technology%2C+and+competition%3A+HDTV+and+digital+TV+in+the+United+States%2C+Western+Europe%2C+and+Japan&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-521-82624-1&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finethub.olvi.net.ua%2Fftp%2Flibrary%2Fsomelibrary%2Ftechno%2Fhart%2520j.a.%2520-%2520technology%2C%2520television%2520and%2520competition%255Bc%255D%2520the%2520politics%2520of%2520digital%2520tv%2520%282004%29%28en%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuurdeman2003" class="citation book cs1">Huurdeman, Anton A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SnjGRDVIUL4C"><i>The Worldwide History of Telecommunications</i></a>. Wiley-IEEE. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-20505-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-20505-0"><bdi>978-0-471-20505-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Worldwide+History+of+Telecommunications&rft.pub=Wiley-IEEE&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-20505-0&rft.aulast=Huurdeman&rft.aufirst=Anton+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSnjGRDVIUL4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Jenkins" title="Charles Francis Jenkins">Jenkins, C. F.</a> (1925). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73845">Vision by radio, radio photographs, radio photograms</a></i>. Washington, D.C.: National Capitol Press.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLohr1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lenox_R._Lohr" title="Lenox R. Lohr">Lohr, Lenox</a> (1940). <i>Television Broadcasting</i>. New York: McGraw Hill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Television+Broadcasting&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Lohr&rft.aufirst=Lenox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyrowitz1985" class="citation book cs1">Meyrowitz, Joshua (1985). <i>No Sense of Place</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Sense+of+Place&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Meyrowitz&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShiersShiers1997" class="citation book cs1">Shiers, George; Shiers, May (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OlXsZdT8HUQC"><i>Early Television: A Bibliographic Guide to 1940</i></a>. Garland Reference Library of Social Science. Garland Publishing Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-7782-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-7782-2"><bdi>978-0-8240-7782-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Television%3A+A+Bibliographic+Guide+to+1940&rft.series=Garland+Reference+Library+of+Social+Science&rft.pub=Garland+Publishing+Inc.&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8240-7782-2&rft.aulast=Shiers&rft.aufirst=George&rft.au=Shiers%2C+May&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOlXsZdT8HUQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+television" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_television&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.broadcastbeat.com/index.php/nab-started/">NAB: How It All Got Started</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140310212557/http://www.broadcastbeat.com/index.php/nab-started/">Archived</a> March 10, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bairdtelevision.com">Bairdtelevision.com</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawestv.com">Mechanical TV and Illusion Generators</a> including a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawestv.com/mtv_exp/mtv_exp.htm">description of what mechanical TV viewing was like</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://euscreen.eu/exhibitions.html?id=history">History of European Television</a> – online exhibition</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journal.euscreen.eu">Journal of European Television History and Culture</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090315202555/http://inventors.about.com/od/tstartinventions/a/Television.htm">Television history — inventors</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.technologyreview.com/Biztech/12186/?a=f">Technology Review – Who Really Invented Television?</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.farnovision.com/chronicles/tfc-who_invented_what.html">Who Invented Television – Reconciling The Historical Origins of Electronic Video</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tvhistory.tv">Photos of early TV receivers</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlytelevision.org">Early television museum</a> (extensive online presence)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071113101332/http://www.novia.net/~ereitan/">Ed Reitan's Color Television History</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vintagetvsets.com/">Erics Vintage Television Sets</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.terramedia.co.uk/media/television/index.htm">Detailed timeline of communications media</a> (including the TV)</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.televisionau.com">The History of Australian Television</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euscreen.eu">EUscreen: Discover Europe's television heritage</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929091705/http://www.researchchannel.org/prog/displayevent.aspx?rID=3431&fID=345">A Visit to Our Studios: a television program exploring the studios at Johns Hopkins University in 1951</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tvinterviewsarchive.blogspot.com">Archive of American Television (information and links to videotaped oral history interviews with TV legends and pioneers)</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.cbc.ca">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archives</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.watvhistory.com">History of West Australian Television</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mztv.com">MZTV Museum of Television & Archive</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.patent-invent.com/tv_patents.html">Television Early Patents and Inventions</a></li>
<li>Littleton, Cynthia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.variety.com/article/VR1118039380">"Happy 70th Birthday, TV Commercial broadcasts bow on July 1, 1941; Variety calls it 'corney'"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Variety_(magazine)" title="Variety (magazine)">Variety</a></i>, July 1, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110704182158/http://www.variety.com/article/VR1118039380">WebCitation archive</a>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/video/?170335-1/boy-genius-mogul"><i>Booknotes</i> interview with Daniel Stashower on <i>The Boy Genius and the Mogul: The Untold Story of Television</i>, July 21, 2002.</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141217032214/http://www.dishtvsignup.com/history-of-tv-infographic.pdf">History of TV Infographic</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Broadcast_video_formats" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Video_formats" title="Template:Video formats"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Video_formats" title="Template talk:Video formats"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Video_formats" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Video formats"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Broadcast_video_formats" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Video" title="Video">Broadcast video formats</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Television" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Television</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analog_television" title="Analog television">Analog</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/405-line_television_system" title="405-line television system">405 lines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_A" title="CCIR System A">System A</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/525_lines" title="525 lines">525 lines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_M" title="CCIR System M">System M</a></li>
<li>Color systems: <a href="/wiki/NTSC" title="NTSC">NTSC</a>, <a href="/wiki/NTSC-J" title="NTSC-J">NTSC-J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clear-Vision" title="Clear-Vision">Clear-Vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/PAL-M" title="PAL-M">PAL-M</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/B-MAC" title="B-MAC">B-MAC</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/625_lines" title="625 lines">625 lines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_B" title="CCIR System B">System B</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_C" title="CCIR System C">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_D" title="CCIR System D">D</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_G" title="CCIR System G">G</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_H" title="CCIR System H">H</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_I" title="CCIR System I">I</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_K" title="CCIR System K">K</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_L" title="CCIR System L">L</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_N" title="CCIR System N">N</a></li>
<li>Color systems: <a href="/wiki/PAL" title="PAL">PAL</a>, <a href="/wiki/PAL#PALN" title="PAL">PAL-N</a>, <a href="/wiki/PALplus" title="PALplus">PALplus</a>, <a href="/wiki/SECAM" title="SECAM">SECAM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multiplexed_Analogue_Components" title="Multiplexed Analogue Components">MAC</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/819_line" title="819 line">819 lines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_E" title="CCIR System E">System E</a>, <a href="/wiki/CCIR_System_E#System_F" title="CCIR System E">F</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">1125 lines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_sub-Nyquist_sampling_encoding" title="Multiple sub-Nyquist sampling encoding">MUSE</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">1250 lines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/HD-MAC" title="HD-MAC">HD-MAC</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Audio_signal" title="Audio signal">Audio</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multichannel_television_sound" class="mw-redirect" title="Multichannel television sound">BTSC (MTS)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/EIAJ_MTS" title="EIAJ MTS">EIAJ</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NICAM" title="NICAM">NICAM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Second_audio_program" title="Second audio program">SAP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sound-in-Syncs" title="Sound-in-Syncs">Sound-in-Syncs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zweikanalton" title="Zweikanalton">Zweikanalton (A2/IGR)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Hidden signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_captioning" title="Closed captioning">Captioning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CGMS-A" title="CGMS-A">CGMS-A</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_program_guide" title="Electronic program guide">EPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ghost-canceling_reference" title="Ghost-canceling reference">GCR</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Programme_Delivery_Control" title="Programme Delivery Control">PDC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teletext" title="Teletext">Teletext</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_blanking_interval" title="Vertical blanking interval">VBI</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Video_Encoded_Invisible_Light" title="Video Encoded Invisible Light">VEIL</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/VIT_signals" title="VIT signals">VIT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_interval_timecode" title="Vertical interval timecode">VITC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Widescreen_signaling" title="Widescreen signaling">WSS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Data_Services" title="Extended Data Services">XDS</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Television_systems_before_1940" title="Television systems before 1940">Pre-1940</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_television" title="Mechanical television">Mechanical television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/180-line_television_system" title="180-line television system">180-line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/343-line_television_system" title="343-line television system">343-line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/375-line_television_system" title="375-line television system">375-line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/441-line_television_system" title="441-line television system">441-line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/455-line_television_system" title="455-line television system">455-line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/567-line_television_system" title="567-line television system">567-line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Field-sequential_color_system" title="Field-sequential color system">Field-sequential color system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Television#OSKM" title="Soviet Central Television">OSKM</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">Digital</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Interlaced_video" title="Interlaced video">Interlaced</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard-definition_television" title="Standard-definition television">SDTV</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/480i" title="480i">480i</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/576i" title="576i">576i</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">HDTV</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/1080i" title="1080i">1080i</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Progressive_scan" title="Progressive scan">Progressive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low-definition_television" title="Low-definition television">LDTV</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/1seg" title="1seg">1seg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Low-definition_television" title="Low-definition television">240p</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Low-definition_television" title="Low-definition television">288p</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enhanced-definition_television" title="Enhanced-definition television">EDTV</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/480p" title="480p">480p</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/576p" title="576p">576p</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/High-definition_television" title="High-definition television">HDTV</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/720p" title="720p">720p</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1080p" title="1080p">1080p</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-high-definition_television" title="Ultra-high-definition television">UHDTV</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/4K_resolution" title="4K resolution">4K</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/8K_resolution" title="8K resolution">8K</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/H.262/MPEG-2_Part_2" title="H.262/MPEG-2 Part 2">MPEG-2 Video</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ATSC_standards" title="ATSC standards">ATSC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DVB" title="DVB">DVB</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/DVB_3D-TV" title="DVB 3D-TV">DVB 3D-TV</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ISDB" title="ISDB">ISDB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Terrestrial_Multimedia_Broadcast" title="Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast">DTMB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ChinaSat_9" title="ChinaSat 9">ABS-S</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Audio_Video_Standard#First_generation" title="Audio Video Standard">AVS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/China_Multimedia_Mobile_Broadcasting" title="China Multimedia Mobile Broadcasting">CMMB</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Audio_Video_Standard#First_generation" title="Audio Video Standard">AVS+</a><sup id="cite_ref-avs_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avs-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Terrestrial_Multimedia_Broadcast" title="Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast">DTMB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ChinaSat_9" title="ChinaSat 9">ABS-S</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/MPEG-4_Part_2" title="MPEG-4 Part 2">MPEG-4 Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/MobaHo!" title="MobaHo!">MobaHo!</a><sup id="cite_ref-mobaho_258-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mobaho-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Video_Coding" title="Advanced Video Coding">MPEG-4 AVC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ATSC_standards#H.264/MPEG-4_AVC" title="ATSC standards">ATSC A/72</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/China_Multimedia_Mobile_Broadcasting" title="China Multimedia Mobile Broadcasting">CMMB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_multimedia_broadcasting" title="Digital multimedia broadcasting">DMB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Terrestrial_Multimedia_Broadcast" title="Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast">DTMB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Video_Broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Video Broadcasting">DVB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ISDB-T_International" title="ISDB-T International">SBTVD</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/1seg" title="1seg">1seg</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MobaHo!" title="MobaHo!">MobaHo!</a><sup id="cite_ref-mobaho_258-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mobaho-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Audio_Video_Standard#Second_generation" title="Audio Video Standard">AVS2</a><sup id="cite_ref-avs_257-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-avs-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ChinaSat_9" title="ChinaSat 9">ABS-S</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/High_Efficiency_Video_Coding" title="High Efficiency Video Coding">MPEG-H HEVC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ATSC_3.0" title="ATSC 3.0">ATSC 3.0</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Video_Broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Video Broadcasting">DVB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_multimedia_broadcasting" title="Digital multimedia broadcasting">HD DMB</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/ISDB#ISDB-S3" title="ISDB">ISDB-S3</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Terrestrial_Multimedia_Broadcast" title="Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast">DTMB</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Surround_sound" title="Surround sound">Audio</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dolby_Digital" title="Dolby Digital">AC-3</a> (<a href="/wiki/Surround_sound" title="Surround sound">5.1</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dolby_AC-4" title="Dolby AC-4">AC-4</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DTS_(sound_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="DTS (sound system)">DTS</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_Resolution_Adaptation" title="Dynamic Resolution Adaptation">DRA</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-1_Audio_Layer_II" title="MPEG-1 Audio Layer II">MPEG-1 Audio Layer II</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MPEG_Multichannel" title="MPEG Multichannel">MPEG Multichannel</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation" title="Pulse-code modulation">PCM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Linear_pulse-code_modulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear pulse-code modulation">LPCM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="Advanced Audio Coding">AAC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/High-Efficiency_Advanced_Audio_Coding" title="High-Efficiency Advanced Audio Coding">HE-AAC</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MPEG-H_3D_Audio" title="MPEG-H 3D Audio">MPEG-H 3D Audio</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Hidden signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_Format_Description" title="Active Format Description">AFD</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_flag" title="Broadcast flag">Broadcast flag</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Closed_captioning" title="Closed captioning">Captioning</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/DVB-CPCM" title="DVB-CPCM">CPCM</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_program_guide" title="Electronic program guide">EPG</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teletext" title="Teletext">Teletext</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: left;"><div><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-avs-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-avs_257-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-avs_257-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Also used in China's DVB-S/S2 network.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mobaho-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mobaho_258-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mobaho_258-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Defunct.</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Technical_issues" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Technical issues</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/14:9" class="mw-redirect" title="14:9">14:9 compromise</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast-safe" title="Broadcast-safe">Broadcast-safe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_cinema" title="Digital cinema">Digital cinema</a> (<a href="/wiki/Digital_Cinema_Initiative" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Cinema Initiative">DCI</a>)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Display_motion_blur" title="Display motion blur">Display motion blur</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moving_image_formats" title="Moving image formats">Moving image formats</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MPEG_transport_stream" title="MPEG transport stream">MPEG transport stream</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_Standards_Conversion" title="Reverse Standards Conversion">Reverse Standards Conversion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_standards_conversion" title="Television standards conversion">Standards conversion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_transmitter" title="Television transmitter">Television transmitter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Test_card" title="Test card">Test card</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Video_on_demand" title="Video on demand">Video on demand</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Video_processing" title="Video processing">Video processing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Widescreen_signaling" title="Widescreen signaling">Widescreen signaling</a></li>
<li>Templates (<a href="/wiki/Template:Analogue_TV_transmitter_topics" title="Template:Analogue TV transmitter topics">Analogue TV Topics</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Television</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(telephone)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Blake (telephone)">Francis Blake (telephone)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li>
<li>Americas
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li>
<li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>
<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/24px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/32px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li>
<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Television_production" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TV_production" title="Template:TV production"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TV_production" title="Template talk:TV production"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TV_production" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TV production"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Television_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Television_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Television production">Television production</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Main / general</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audience" title="Audience">Audience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_network" title="Broadcast network">Broadcast network</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_crew" title="Television crew">Television crew</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_show" title="Television show">Television show</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_studio" title="Television studio">Television studio</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_apparatus_room" title="Central apparatus room">Central apparatus room</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Changing_room" title="Changing room">Changing room</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Master_control" title="Master control">Master control room</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Network_operations_center" title="Network operations center">Network operations center</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Production_control_room" title="Production control room">Production control room</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stage_(theatre)" title="Stage (theatre)">Stage (theatre)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_control_room" title="Transmission control room">Transmission control room</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Profiles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celebrity" title="Celebrity">Celebrity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_network_programming" title="Director of network programming">Director of network programming</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_host" class="mw-redirect" title="Television host">Host</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/News_presenter" title="News presenter">News presenter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sports_commentator" title="Sports commentator">Sports commentator</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/News_director" title="News director">News director</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Showrunner" title="Showrunner">Showrunner</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casting_director" class="mw-redirect" title="Casting director">Casting director</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Costume_designer" title="Costume designer">Costume designer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_director" title="Television director">TV director</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Assistant_director" title="Assistant director">Assistant director</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Location_manager" title="Location manager">Location manager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Make-up_artist" title="Make-up artist">Make-up artist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Production_designer" title="Production designer">Production designer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Researcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Researcher">Researcher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Set_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Set designer">Set designer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_producer" title="Television producer">TV producer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_program_creator" class="mw-redirect" title="Television program creator">Television program creator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Executive_producer" title="Executive producer">Executive producer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Line_producer" title="Line producer">Line producer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unit_production_manager" title="Unit production manager">Production manager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">Writer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Head_writer" title="Head writer">Head writer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Screenwriter" title="Screenwriter">Screenwriter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Script_editor" title="Script editor">Script editor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Story_editor" title="Story editor">Story editor</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio engineer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Boom_operator_(media)" title="Boom operator (media)">Boom operator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Camera_operator" title="Camera operator">Camera operator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cinematographer" title="Cinematographer">Cinematographer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Videographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Videographer">Videographer</a></li>
<li>Character generator (CG) <a href="/wiki/Operator_(profession)" title="Operator (profession)">operator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Studio_floor_manager" title="Studio floor manager">Studio floor manager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_coordinator" title="Graphics coordinator">Graphics coordinator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stage_manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Stage manager">Stage manager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gaffer_(motion_picture_industry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaffer (motion picture industry)">gaffer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Grip_(job)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grip (job)">grip</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Key_grip" title="Key grip">Key grip</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dolly_grip" title="Dolly grip">Dolly grip</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unit_production_manager" title="Unit production manager">Unit production manager</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Production_assistant" title="Production assistant">Production assistant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gofer" title="Gofer">Gofer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stunt_coordinator" title="Stunt coordinator">Stunt coordinator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_director" title="Television director">Television director</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Technical_director#Television" title="Technical director">Technical director</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Post-production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sound_editor_(filmmaking)" title="Sound editor (filmmaking)">Sound editor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Foley_artist" class="mw-redirect" title="Foley artist">Foley artist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Composer" title="Composer">Composer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Color_grading" title="Color grading">Colorist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Film_editing" title="Film editing">Editor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Publicist" title="Publicist">Publicist</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/VFX" class="mw-redirect" title="VFX">Visual effects artist</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Types, formats<br />and genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_pageant" title="Beauty pageant">Beauty pageant</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Broadcasting_of_sports_events" title="Broadcasting of sports events">Broadcasting of sports events</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/TV_commercial" class="mw-redirect" title="TV commercial">TV commercials</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Event_television" title="Event television">Event television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Game_show" title="Game show">Game show</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Live_television" title="Live television">Live television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Variety_show" title="Variety show">Variety show</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Police_crime_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Police crime drama">Police crime drama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reality_television" title="Reality television">Reality television</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_film" title="Television film">Television film</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">Documentary film</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mockumentary" title="Mockumentary">Mockumentary</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_show" title="Television show">Television show</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_special" title="Television special">Television special</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Series" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Series</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animated_series" title="Animated series">Animated series</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Limited-run_series" title="Limited-run series">Limited-run series</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miniseries" title="Miniseries">Miniseries</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_drama" title="Procedural drama">Procedural drama</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Serial_(radio_and_television)" title="Serial (radio and television)">Serial</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sitcom" title="Sitcom">Sitcom</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soap_opera" title="Soap opera">Soap opera</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Talk_show" title="Talk show">Talk show</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late-night_talk_show" title="Late-night talk show">Late-night talk show</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">News</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_news" title="Breaking news">Breaking news</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Debate_show" title="Debate show">Debate show</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/News_broadcasting" title="News broadcasting">News broadcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Political_commentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Political commentary">Political commentary</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_reports" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic reports">Traffic reports</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Weather_forecasts" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather forecasts">Weather forecasts</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Valuation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audience_measurement" title="Audience measurement">Audience measurement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_television_awards" title="List of television awards">List of television awards</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_content_rating_system" title="Television content rating system">Television content rating system</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_criticism" title="Television criticism">Television criticism</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_reference_monitor" title="Broadcast reference monitor">Broadcast reference monitor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Character_generator" title="Character generator">Character generator</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Digital_on-screen_graphic" title="Digital on-screen graphic">Digital on-screen graphic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mixing_console" title="Mixing console">Mixing console</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphones</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-camera_setup" title="Multiple-camera setup">Multiple-camera setup</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Outside_broadcasting" title="Outside broadcasting">Outside broadcasting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Production_truck" title="Production truck">Production truck</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Professional_video_camera" title="Professional video camera">Professional video camera</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stage_lighting" title="Stage lighting">Stage lighting</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighting_control_console" title="Lighting control console">Lighting control console</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vision_mixer" title="Vision mixer">Vision mixer</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenda-setting_theory" title="Agenda-setting theory">Agenda-setting</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Concentration_of_media_ownership" title="Concentration of media ownership">Concentration of media ownership</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Freedom of speech</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Freedom of the press</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_mass_media" title="Influence of mass media">Influence of mass media</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_activism" title="Media activism">Media activism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media bias</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Public_opinion" title="Public opinion">Public opinion</a></li></ul>
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Regulation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Broadcast_law" title="Broadcast law">Broadcast law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bleep_censor" title="Bleep censor">Bleep censor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communications_law" title="Communications law">Communications law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fairness_Doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Fairness Doctrine">Fairness Doctrine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_policy" title="Media policy">Media policy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_reform" title="Media reform">Media reform</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Media regulation">Media regulation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pixelization" title="Pixelization">Pixelization</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Television_studies" title="Television studies">Television studies</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1517344#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Television broadcasting--History"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2010116008">United States</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>' |
